Physics First: Nature and Behavior of Light Units

Optics ("appearance" in ancient Greek) includes the behavior and properties of light and its
interaction with matter. The study of optics includes understanding the behavior of visible,
infrared and ulMolecular Expressions: Light, Prisms, and the Rainbow Connection
This multimedia lesson/activity integrates a hands-on prism lab, a Java simulation on light
refraction, and an historical vignette on Isaac Newton's classic study of prisms. It is appropriate
for middle and high school, and can be adapted for more advanced students by extending the
study to the Refractive Index and the visible light spectrum. Overall, a nicely cohesive
introduction to prepare students for further study of rainbows.
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Item Type: Multimedia Lesson
Level: Grades 6-9
Duration: One Class Period
Explorations in Optics
If your students think studying optics would be boring, wait until they try building their own
spectroscopes and watching light refract through Jello Jigglers. This resource is a set of 16 low-
cost lesson/labs designed as an overview of the behavior of light. For the 9th grade physical
science class, try the explorations on light spectra, reflection, and refraction. For more advanced
students, we suggest the labs on diffraction, polarization, and fluorescence. The lens labs would
be appropriate for both.
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Activities:
Exploratorium: Snacks About Light
San Francisco's Exploratorium Museum has compiled this collection of more than 40 affordable,
simple classroom experiments related to light. The activities cover a wide range of topics
relating to the behavior of light, from reflection/refraction and diffraction to pinhole optics and
polarization. All are miniature versions of some popular exhibits at the museum.
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Molecular Expressions: Investigating Special Properties of Light
Want to do a unit on light, but time is limited? This is a solid, well-designed set of 6 activities
intended to be used as learning centers in the physical science classroom. Students explore
phenomena such as diffraction, transparency and translucency, rainbows, refraction, and
more. Materials are all inexpensive and easy to acquire. Allow two days.
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References and Collections:
Optics Highlights: An Anecdotal History of Optics
This is an easy-to-read time line of milestones in optics, highlighting contributions of key people
in the field. It begins with the investigations of the early Greeks, progresses through early
telescopes and microscopes, and continues the journey from ray optics and wave optics through
the revolutionary advances of the 20th Century.
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Exploring the Science of Light: What is Optics?
Try this great web site for a very broad selection of activities and background information on the
science of light. Your students can look at 12 optical illusions, play around with dozens of
interactive simulations related to light behavior, and find scientific definitions of all the
vocabulary associated with light and optics. There is a full section devoted to teachers, with
lesson plans and background information on color, light reflection and refraction, rainbows,
geometric optics, human vision, and the wave nature of light.
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Content Support For Teachers:
Molecular Expressions: Refraction of Light
When light waves travel from one medium to another, the waves may undergo a phenomenon
known as refraction. It often looks like the light is "bending". This tutorial combines
simulations with illustrated background information to explain how light behaves as it
refracts. An understanding of this process is an important foundation to learning about lenses
and microscopes.
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Powerful Ideas in Physical Science
This standards-based resource offers easy-to-use worksheets and a structured questioning pattern
that guides new and pre-service teachers through a hands-on, inquiry-based course that models
best practice instructional models. This particular volume deals with the behavior of light, color
perception, and the electromagnetic spectrum. Available for purchase from the AAPT online
bookstore.
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Student Tutorials:
What are Those Squiggly Lines? - Using Light to Learn About the Universe
To understand the basics of light, students may need help to see that "light" consists of so much
more than what we see with our eyes. This is an excellent tutorial from Johns Hopkins
University designed especially to make these concepts understandable to middle school and high
school students. We suggest starting with this section: The Basics of Light, then move into
tutorials on the electromagnetic spectrum.
traviolet light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, these events occur in X-rays,
microwaves, radio waves, and other forms of radiation. Optics is also electromagnetism that
can be described by the quantum nature and electromagnetic description of light.


Reflection
Reflection is the abrupt change in the
direction of propagation of a wave that
strikes the boundary between two
different media. At least some part of
the incoming wave remains in the
same medium. Assume the incoming
light ray makes an angle
i
with the
normal of a plane tangent to the
boundary. Then the reflected ray
makes an angle
r
with this normal
and lies in the same plane as the
incident ray and the normal.
Law of reflection:
i
=
r


Specular reflection occurs at smooth,
plane boundaries. Then the plane tangent
to the boundary is the boundary itself.
Reflection at rough, irregular boundaries
is diffuse reflection. The smooth
surface of a mirror reflects light
specularly, while the rough surface of a
wall reflects light diffusely. The
reflectivity or reflectance of a surface
material is the fraction of energy of the
oncoming wave that is reflected by it.
The reflectivity of a mirror is close to 1.


Refraction
Refraction is the change in direction of
propagation of a wave when the wave
passes from one medium into another,
and changes its speed. Light waves
are refracted when crossing the
boundary from one transparent
medium into another because the
speed of light is different in different
media. Assume that light waves
encounter the plane surface of a piece
of glass after traveling initially through
air as shown in the figure to the right.
What happens to the waves as they
pass into the glass and continue to
travel through the glass? The speed
of light in glass or water is less than
the speed of light in a vacuum or air.
The speed of light in a given
substance is v = c/n, where n is the
index of refraction of the substance.
Typical values for the index of
refraction of glass are between 1.5
and 1.6, so the speed of light in glass
is approximately two-thirds the speed
of light in air. The distance between
wave fronts will therefore be shorter in
the glass than in air, since the waves
travel a smaller distance per period T.
If f is the frequency of the wave and T
= 1/f is the period, i.e. the time
interval between successive crests
passing a fixed point in space, then
1
= v
1
T = cT/n
1
and
2
= v
2
T = cT/n
2
, or

1
/
2
= n
2
/n
1
.

Now consider wave fronts and their
corresponding light rays approaching the
surface at an angle.
We can see that the rays will bend as
the wave passes from air to glass.
The bending occurs because the wave
fronts do not travel as far in one cycle
in the glass as they do in air. As the
diagram shows, the wave front
halfway into the glass travels a
smaller distance in glass than it does
in air, causing it to bend in the
middle. Thus, the ray, which is
perpendicular to the wave front, also
bends. The situation is like a
marching band marching onto a
muddy field at an angle to the edge of
the field. The rows bend as the speed
of the marchers is reduced by the
mud. The amount of bending depends
on the angle of incidence and on the
indices of refraction of glass and air,
which determine the change in speed.
From the figure we can see that
1
/
2

= sin
1
/sin
2
. But
1
/
2
= n
2
/n
1
.
Therefore n
2
/n
1
= sin
1
/sin
2
, or
n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2
.

This is
Snell's
law, or
the law
of
refracti
on.
n
i
sin
i
=
n
t
sin
t
.


When light passes from one transparent
medium to another, the rays are bent
toward the surface normal if the speed of
light is smaller in the second medium
than in the first. The rays are bent away
from this normal if the speed of light in
the second medium is greater than in the
first. The picture on the right shows a
light wave incident on a slab of glass.
One part of the wave is reflected, and
another part is refracted as it passes
into the glass. The rays are bent
towards the normal. At the second
interface from glass into air the light
passing into the air is refracted again.
The rays are now bent away from the
normal.

Reflectance and transmittance
At a boundary between two transparent media, light is partially reflected and
partially refracted. The ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident
intensity is called the reflectance R and the ratio of the transmitted intensity
to the incident intensity is called the transmittance T. Energy conservation
requires that R + T = 1 (if there is no absorption).
R and T depend on the indices of
refraction of the two media n
1
and n
2
,
the angle of incidence
1
, and the
polarization of the incident light. We
distinguish between p-polarization and
s-polarization. Let the plane of
incidence contain the normal to the
boundary and the incident wave vector
k
1
. The electric field vector E
1
is
perpendicular to k
1
. If we choose our
coordinate system as shown on the
right, then plane of incidence is the
xz-plane and E
1
may be written as
E
1
= E
p
+ E
s
. E
p
lies in the xz-plane
and E
s
is perpendicular to the xz-
plane, i.e. it points in the y-
direction. The electric field of the
incident light is a linear superposition
of p- and s-polarized fields.
For p-polarized light we have R =
|r
12p
|
2
, where r
12p
is the Fresnel
reflection coefficient for p-
polarization. We have
r
12p
= tan(
1
-
2
)/tan(
1
+
2
).
For s-polarized light we have R =
|r
12s
|
2
, where r
12s
is the Fresnel
reflection coefficient for s-
polarization. We have
r
12s
= sin(
1
-
2
)/sin(
1
+
2
).
For a graph of the reflectance R for s-
and p-polarized light as a function of
n
1
, n
2
, and
1
, download this Excel
spreadsheet.
If
1
+
2
= /2,then tan(
1
+
2
) =
infinite and r
12p
= 0. If light
is reflected, it will have s-polarization.
The incident angle at which this
happens is called the Brewster angle

B
. We then have
n
1
sin
B
= n
2
sin((/2) -
B
) = n
2
cos
B
.
tan
B
= n
2
/n
1
.
Polarized light can thus be obtained
via reflection.






Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction
Boundary Behavior
Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction
Interference of Waves
The Doppler Effect
Previously in Lesson 3, the behavior of waves traveling along a rope from a more dense medium
to a less dense medium (and vice versa) was discussed. The wave doesn't just stop when it
reaches the end of the medium. Rather, a wave will undergo certain behaviors when it encounters
the end of the medium. Specifically, there will be some reflection off the boundary and some
transmission into the new medium. But what if the wave is traveling in a two-dimensional
medium such as a water wave traveling through ocean water? Or what if the wave is traveling in
a three-dimensional medium such as a sound wave or a light wave traveling through air? What
types of behaviors can be expected of such two- and three-dimensional waves?
The study of waves in two dimensions is often done using a ripple
tank. A ripple tank is a large glass-bottomed tank of water that is
used to study the behavior of water waves. A light typically shines
upon the water from above and illuminates a white sheet of paper
placed directly below the tank. A portion of light is absorbed by the
water as it passes through the tank. A crest of water will absorb
more light than a trough. So the bright spots represent wave troughs
and the dark spots represent wave crests. As the water waves move
through the ripple tank, the dark and bright spots move as well. As
the waves encounter obstacles in their path, their behavior can be
observed by watching the movement of the dark and bright spots on
the sheet of paper. Ripple tank demonstrations are commonly done in a Physics class in order to
discuss the principles underlying the reflection, refraction, and diffraction of waves.


Reflection of Waves
If a linear object attached to an oscillator bobs back and forth within the water, it becomes a
source of straight waves. These straight waves have alternating crests and troughs. As viewed on
the sheet of paper below the tank, the crests are the dark lines stretching
across the paper and the troughs are the bright lines. These waves will travel
through the water until they encounter an obstacle - such as the wall of the
tank or an object placed within the water. The diagram at the right depicts a
series of straight waves approaching a long barrier extending at an angle
across the tank of water. The direction that these wavefronts (straight-line
crests) are traveling through the water is represented by the blue arrow. The
blue arrow is called a ray and is drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts.
Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water, these waves bounce off the water and head in
a different direction. The diagram below shows the reflected wavefronts and the reflected ray.
Regardless of the angle at which the wavefronts approach the barrier, one general law of
reflection holds true: the waves will always reflect in such a way that the angle at which they
approach the barrier equals the angle at which they reflect off the barrier. This is known as the
law of reflection. This law will be discussed in more detail in Unit 13 of The Physics
Classroom.


The discussion above pertains to the reflection of waves off of straight
surfaces. But what if the surface is curved, perhaps in the shape of a parabola?
What generalizations can be made for the reflection of water waves off
parabolic surfaces? Suppose that a rubber tube having the shape of a parabola
is placed within the water. The diagram at the right depicts such a parabolic
barrier in the ripple tank. Several wavefronts are approaching the barrier; the
ray is drawn for these wavefronts. Upon reflection off the parabolic barrier,
the water waves will change direction and head towards a point. This is depicted in the diagram
below. It is as though all the energy being carried by the water waves is converged at a single
point - the point is known as the focal point. After passing through the focal point, the waves
spread out through the water. Reflection of waves off of curved surfaces will be discussed in
more detail in Unit 13 of The Physics Classroom.



Refraction of Waves
Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier. Refraction of
waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another.
Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a change in speed and
wavelength of the waves. In Lesson 2, it was mentioned that the speed of a wave is dependent
upon the properties of the medium through which the waves travel. So if the medium (and its
properties) is changed, the speed of the waves is changed. The most significant property of water
that would affect the speed of waves traveling on its surface is the depth of the water. Water
waves travel fastest when the medium is the deepest. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep
water into shallow water, they will slow down. And as mentioned in the previous section of
Lesson 3, this decrease in speed will also be accompanied by a decrease in wavelength. So as
water waves are transmitted from deep water into shallow water, the speed
decreases, the wavelength decreases, and the direction changes.
This boundary behavior of water waves can be observed in a ripple tank if the
tank is partitioned into a deep and a shallow section. If a pane of glass is
placed in the bottom of the tank, one part of the tank will be deep and the other
part of the tank will be shallow. Waves traveling from the deep end to the
shallow end can be seen to refract (i.e., bend), decrease wavelength (the wavefronts get closer
together), and slow down (they take a longer time to travel the same distance). When traveling
from deep water to shallow water, the waves are seen to bend in such a manner that they seem to
be traveling more perpendicular to the surface. If traveling from shallow water to deep water, the
waves bend in the opposite direction. The refraction of light waves will be discussed in more
detail in a later unit of The Physics Classroom.


Diffraction of Waves
Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier; refraction of
waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one
medium to another; and diffraction involves a change in direction of waves
as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path. Water waves
have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through
openings. This ability is most obvious for water waves with longer
wavelengths. Diffraction can be demonstrated by placing small barriers and
obstacles in a ripple tank and observing the path of the water waves as they
encounter the obstacles. The waves are seen to pass around the barrier into the regions behind it;
subsequently the water behind the barrier is disturbed. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness
of the bending) increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength.
In fact, when the wavelength of the waves is smaller than the obstacle, no noticeable diffraction
occurs.
Diffraction of water waves is observed in a harbor as waves bend around small boats and are
found to disturb the water behind them. The same waves however are unable to diffract around
larger boats since their wavelength is smaller than the boat. Diffraction of sound waves is
commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around corners, allowing us to hear others who
are speaking to us from adjacent rooms. Many forest-dwelling birds take advantage of the
diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound waves. Owls for instance are able to communicate
across long distances due to the fact that their long-wavelength hoots are able to diffract around
forest trees and carry farther than the short-wavelength tweets of songbirds. Diffraction is
observed of light waves but only when the waves encounter obstacles with extremely small
wavelengths (such as particles suspended in our atmosphere). Diffraction of sound waves and of
light waves will be discussed in a later unit of The Physics Classroom Tutorial.

Reflection, refraction and diffraction are all boundary behaviors of waves associated with the
bending of the path of a wave. The bending of the path is an observable behavior when the
medium is a two- or three-dimensional medium. Reflection occurs when there is a bouncing off
of a barrier. Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection. Reflection of
waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of the waves at a focal point. Refraction
is the change in direction of waves that occurs when waves travel from one medium to another.
Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change. Diffraction is the bending
of waves around obstacles and openings. The amount of diffraction increases with increasing
wavelength.





What Is Reflection and Refraction?
Reflection is the returning, or bouncing' of a wave off of a surface which resists that kind of wave, while
refraction is the change in direction of a wave when it passes into a new substance. Both involve a
change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another. The amount of diffraction
increases with increasing wavelength.


Waves are a means by which energy travels. Many different particles move in waves.
The waves on an ocean are physical waves caused mainly by wind. Light is an
electromagnetic wave caused by excited electrons. The movement of a wave is
complicated, but both electromagnetic and physical waves use similar ways to describe
the motion.
Both electromagnetic and physical waves reflect, refract and diffract energy. These
properties of wave motion are important because they explain how waves move. Waves
(both physical and electromagnetic) if controlled, can produce products we use in our
society. The phone, television, radio, microwaves, CD players, lasers, video players and
many other items are products produced by understanding these waves. The details in
these lessons emphasize the importance of understanding waves.
Diffraction is when a wave goes through a small hole and has a flared out geometric
shadow of the slit. Diffraction is a characteristic of waves of all types. We can hear
around a corner because of the diffraction of sound waves. For instance, if a wall is next
to you when you yell, the sound will parallel the wall. The wall may stop, but the voice
doesn't; sound will almost turn the corner of the wall. This is diffraction.
Reflection is when waves, whether physical or electromagnetic, bounce from a surface
back toward the source. A mirror reflects the image of the observer.
Refraction is when waves, whether physical or electromagnetic, are deflected when the
waves go through a substance. The wave generally changes the angle of its general
direction
Answer:
Ang tao ay nilikha ng Dios na Makapangyarihan sa lahat at ang ating Panginoong HesuKristo
gaya ng nakasulat sa Bibliya sa Genesis 1:26 na ang sabi Lalangin natin...
Ang tao ay ang likha ng diyos na taga pag alaga sa ating kapaligiran ito ay inatasan ng
Diyos na alagaan ang mga hayop halaman at ang iba pang bagay sa ating mundo ...

IBAT-IBANG KAHULUGAN NG EKONOMIKS SA
MGA EKONOMISTA
Ayon kay Paul Samuelson
Ang ekonomiks ay isang pag-aaral kung paano gagamitin ang mga limitadong
pinagkukunang yaman upang makagawa at maipamahagi ang ibat-ibang produkto at serbisyo sa
mga tao at ibat-ibang pangkat ng lipunan para sa kasalukuyan at hinaharap.
Ayon kay Paul Wonnacott
Ang ekonomiks ay isang pag-aaral kung paano ang tao naghahanap-buhay, naghahanap ng
pagkain at iba pa ng pangangailangang materyal. Binibigyang pansin ang mga suliraning
pangkabuhayan sa pamamagitan ng pamamaraan kung paano malulunasan o mababawasan ang
mga ito.
Ayon kay Roger Le Roy Miller
Ang mga kalagayan na nangangailangan ng kapasayahan kung paano, kailan, at saan gagamit
ang sapat na pinagkukunang yaman.
Ayon kay Lloyd Reynolds
Ito ay ang pag-aaral na may kinalaman sa produksyon, pamamahagi at paggamit ng
pinagkukunang yaman.
Ayon kay Gerardo Sicat
Ayon sa kanya ang ekonomiks ay isang makaagham na pag-aaral na tumutukoy kung paano
gumagawa ng pasya ang isang tao o lipunan. Maraming pangangailangan ang mga tao at pangkat
ng lipunan at upang matugunan ito, may pinagkukunang yaman na dapat gamitin subalit hindi ito
makasasapat sa pangangailangan at ang paggamit ay maaaring sa ngayon at bukas. Kaya naman
ang tamang pagpapasya o pagpili ay isinasaalang- alang ang ngayon at bukas. Bukod dito ang
paggamit ng likas na yaman ay may kakulangan ngunit may kaukulan na halaga at pakinabang
na nangangailangan ng wastong kapasyahan.
Transcript of Ang Pagsilang ng Pag-aaral ng Ekonomiks
Ang Pagsilang ng Pag-aaral ng Ekonomiks
Ang Pagsilang ng Pag-aaral ng Ekonomiks
Ang Mga Unang Kaisipan sa Ekonomiks
Kauna-unahang kaisipan sa ekonomiks ang masinop na pagdedesisyon ng isang pinuno.
Layunin sa kaisipan na tumugon ang pinuno sa mga pangangailangan ng nasasakupan nang higit sa
inaasahan.
Rebolusyong Industriyal
Ika-18 siglo
- Panahon ng Rebolusyong Industriyal, partikular sa England kung saan ito unang naganap
- sa panahong ito, nabuo at lumawak ang industriyang pampabrika (manufacturing industry).



Intelektwal na Krisis sa Political Economy

- pag-aaral ng pamahalaan at mga institusyon nito
- nabuo sapagkat iminungkahi ng ilang dalubhasa ang aktibong panghihimasok ng pamahalaan sa
ekonomiya




Adam Smith
- isinulong niya ang sistema ng pamilihan batay sa doktrina ng kapitalismo bilang kanyang sagot sa
suilranin
- ayon sa kanya, pamilihan ang magsasaayos ng mga desisyon sa pagbebenta at pamimili ng mga
produkto

Bago ang ika-18 siglo
-panahon kung saan wala pang pormal na pag-aaral ng ekonomiks
-mayroon lang mga kaisipan ang ekonomiks na ginagamit sa pag-aaral ng batas at pamahalaan
Robert B. Ekelund Jr.
Robert F. Herbert
Aristotle at Thomas Aquinas
Physiocrat


- sa kanilang panahon nagsimula ang interes sa pag-aaral ng ekonomiks


- sila ang mga itinuturing noon na mga ekonomista
Division of Labor
- pagpapaubaya ng pinuno sa mga taong may kakayahang tapusin ang iba't ibang aspekto ng
paglilingkod
- napabibilis at napapaganda nito ang paglikha ng isang paglilingkod


Oeconomicus
- aklat na isinulat ng pilosopong si Xenophon (circa 430 B.C.E.) kung saan natalakay ang division of labor
Oikonomia
- isang salitang Greek kung saan halaw ang salitang ekonomiks


Ekonomiya
Sumibol din ang mga kaisipan sa ekonomiks sa ibat-ibang panig ng daigdig:
Rome
Germany
Spain


England

Ireland

France


- unang naitala sa mga babasahin noong 1520-1530 lamang
- unti-unting nabuo ang disiplina ng ekonomiks nang lumitaw na ang tuon (focus) nito ang pagtugon sa
suliranin ng kakapusan

Industriyang Pampabrika

- pangunahing layunin nito ang mapabilis at mapalago ang produksiyon

- sumigla rin ang pagnenegosyo at naging daan sa pagyaman ng dating mahihirap

- tumaas ang pangangailangan sa mga manggagawang may kasanayan (skilled workers)
- tumaas din ang pangangailangan sa mga makabagong pamamaraang pamproduksiyon
- dumami rin ang mga produktong iniluluwas sa kalakalang panlabas

Pangunahing produkto (basic goods)

Sa pagsubok ng nga tagapayo ng pamahalaan ng England na unawain ang nagaganap sa lipunan, nakita
nila ang kawalang-hanggan ng pangangailangan at kagustuhan ng mga tao.
Tumaas din ang pangangailangan sa makabagong kaalaman. Maraming naghangad ng maginhawang
pamumuhay.
Pinangambahan ng mga tagapayo ang suliranin ng kakapusan na makakapagdulot ng kaguluhan,
kahirapan, at kamatayan.
Mahalagang salik ang division of labor sa paglago ng ekonomiya.
- kauna-unahang komprehensibong pag-aaral sa ekonomiya sa pagpapakilala ni Smith
- dating katawagan sa ekonomiks
- tumukoy sa paggamit ng limitadong pinagkukunang-yaman at kaugnayan nito sa umiiral na batas
- kinilala bilang unang mukha ng pag-aaral ng ekonomiks.




Political Economy
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations
Gerard Sicat

- hindi pa nakilala bilang isang larangan ng pag-aaral noong ika-17 siglo

- noong 1785-1795, ito ay nagamit sa pakahulugang pagtitipid

Ekonomiks

Political Science
laissez faire
Impluwensiya ng Agham at Matematika
Nagpakilala ang agham at matematika ng mga sistematikong pamamaraan sa paglalahad ng mga
kaisipan sa ekonomiks.
Nagawang masukat at maitakda ang ugnayan ng mga hinihinalang salik sa pagdedesisyon ng bawat
tao.

Nagpasimula ng matematikal na pag-aaral ng ekonomiya
Augustine Cornot
Jules Dupuit
JH Von Thunen
Henry Gossen
Nassau Senior
- Inilunsad niya noong 1850 ang kampanya sa pagsasaagham ng ekonomiks.
Ekonomiks Bilang Ganap na Disiplina
Alfred Marshall
- naipakilala noong 1870 ang ekonomiks bilang isang ganap na disiplina

Ekonomiks

- nakatuon sa pinakamahusay na paggamit ng pinagkukunang-yaman sa kabila ng walang katapusang
kagustuhan at pangangailangan ng tao

Oxford University
- patuloy na itinuro ang political economy sa pamantasang ito
1890
- nailimbag ang aklat ni Marshall na Principles of Economics

-mga manunulat ng A History of Economic Theory and Method na nailathala noong 1997
-ayon sa ginawa nilang pag-aaral, ang mga kaisipan ng ekonomiks ay unang sumikat sa sinaunang Greece

Ang Pagsilang ng Pag-aaral ng Ekonomiks

Robert B. Ekelund Jr. at Robert F. Herbert



- ayon sa kanya, ito ay dahil maraming katanungan sa ekonomiya ang may implikasyon sa pampulitika at
pampublikong patakaran (political and public policy)
- ito ay ang prinsipyong kumikilala sa kalayaan ng pribadong indibidwal na magdesisyon sa ekonomiya
- itinaguyod nito ang kalayaan ng mga tao sa pagdedesisyon
-sistema ng pamilihan ang ipinaiiral nito sa ekonomiya

ekonomiks bilang agham panlipunan
ang ekonomiks ay AGHAM:
-dahil ito ay isang asignatura na sumasaklaw sa pag-aaral ng siyentipikong pamamaraan sa kung
papaano maipaunlad ang isang bansa (which i believe is also used in science (the scientific
method))

ang ekonomiks ay PANLIPUNAN:
-dahil sa asignaturang ekonomiks napag-aaralan kung papaano mapapabuti ang mga bagay
(maging ang tao) sa isang bansa (lyamang likas, yamang tao at yamang pisikal).
Agham panlipunan
Mula sa Wikipediang Tagalog, ang malayang ensiklopedya
Ang mga agham panlipunan (Ingles: Social Science) ay isang pangkat ng mga displinang
akademiko na pinag-aaralan ang mga aspeto ng tao sa mundo. Lumalayo ang mga ito mula sa
mga sining at humanidades at sa halip nagbibigay diin sa paggamit ng kaparaanang agham at
mahigpit na mga pamantayan ng ebidensiya sa pag-aaral ng sangkatauhan, kabilang ang mga
kaparaanang nabibilang (quantitative) at pangkatangian (qualitative).
Tinutukoy minsan bilang mga malalambot na agham (soft sciences) ang mga agham panlipunan,
sa pag-aaral ng parehong inter-subhektibo at obhektibo o aspetong kayarian ng lipunan. Salungat
ito sa mga matitigas na agham (hard sciences) na maaaring eksklusibong nakatuon sa
obhektibong aspeto ng kalikasan.
Sumasangkot ang mga dalubhasa sa agham panlipunan sa pagsasaliksik at pag-teoriya tungkol sa
parehong pinagsama at indibidwal na mga asal.
Kabilang sa pangunahing mga agham panlipunan ang sumusunod:
Antropolohiya
Komunikasyon
Kultural na mga pag-aaral
Ekonomiks
Edukasyon
Heograpiya
Kasaysayan
Linggwistika
Batas
Agham pampolitika
Sikolohiya
Panuntunang panlipunan
Sosyolohiya
KASAYSAYAN NG EKONOMIKS BILANG ISANG
AGHAM PANLIPUNAN
Ang agham panlipunan ay tumutukoy sa pag-aaral kung paano ang tao ay nakikisalamuha sa
kanyang kapwa tao at pangkat ng mga tao sa lipunan. Hindi ito makaaalis sa maraming isyu na
nauukol sa tao at sa lipunan. Ngunit kakaiba sa mga experimental sciences tulad ng Physics,
Chemistry at Biology ang agham panlipunan ay hindi makapag-experimento sa tao o sa isang
laboratoryo. Ang magagawa ng ekonomiks bilang paggamit ng ekonomik model o teorya. Ito ay
isang simpleng kinatawan o representasyon ng tunay na pangyayari sa daigdig na makakatulong
upang maunawaan, maipaliwanag at mahulaan ang economic phenomenon sa tunay na
pangyayari.

ANG EKONOMIKS
Posted December 4, 2011 by nash in HISTORY. 1 Comment
Ang sumusunod ay ilan sa mga kahulugang ibinagay ng ilang mga libro para sa asignaturang
ekonomiks. Bagamat tama ang lahat, iba-iba ang pananaw ng bawat isa ukol sa asignatura. Maari
nating kunin ang mahahalagang puntos ng bawat isa sa pagbuo ng sarili nating kahuluguhan.
Heto ang ilan sa mga kahulugan ng ekonomiks:
Ang ekonomiks ay isang agham-panlipunan na tumatalakay sa limitadong yaman, mga
pangangailangan at walang katapusang luho ng tao, at sa lubusang paggamit ng mga
yaman ng mundo.
Ang ekonomiks ay agham na tumatalakay sa produksyon at distribusyon ng yaman ng
bansa.
Ang ekonomiks ay agham-panlipunang tumatalakay sa kung paano maaaring
maimpluwensyiyahan ang isang tao dahil sa sistema ng ekonomiya.
Ang ekonomiks ay agham-panlipunang tumatalakay sa pagpili ng likas na yaman kung
saaan sagana ang isang pamahalaan.
Ang ekonomiks ay isang agham na nag-aaral sa gawi ng taong may kinalaman sa
ugnayan ng pangangailangan at kakapusang may alternatibong gamit.
Ang ekonomiks ay pag-aaral ng sangkatauhan sa pangkakaraniwang pang-araw-araw na
buhay. Sinusuri nito ang bahagi ng kilos ng tao at pangkahalatang iniuugnay sa
pagkakamit at paggamit ng pangunahing pangangailangang materyal ng tao.
Ang ekonomiks ay ang pag-aaral kung paano tinustustusan ng tao o lipunan ang walang
hanggang pangangailangan at kagustuhan sa pamamagitan ng mahusay na alokasyon o
pagbabaha-bahagi ng pinagkukunang-yaman.
Ang isang makabuluhang kahulugan ng ekonomiks ay maaring hatiin sa apat na
mahahalagang bahagi:
1. Isang agham-panlipunan
2. Limitadong yaman
3. Mga pangangailangan at walang katapusang hilig at luho ng tao
4. Lubusang paggamit.
Ang ekonomiks ay isang agham dahil ginagamitan ito ng mga tsart, grap, at matematika
sa mga pagsusuring ukol dito. Higit pa rito ay sinusunod nito ang mga pamamaraan ng
paglulutas sa mga suliraning iginawad sa sangkatauhan ni Sir Francis Bacon, ang
scientific method. Gaya ng ibang mga agham, naniniwala ang ekonomiks sa kalipunan ng
mga hakbang na dapat isagawa upang malutas ang mga suliranin sa asignaturang ito.
Kinakailangan muna tukuyin ang problema, gumawa ng hypotheses, mag-obserba at
kumalap ng mga datos, bago guamawa ng konklusyon. Sa tulong ng pamamaraang ito
lamang, ayon kay Bacon, maari nating masiguro ang mga konklusyong ating binubuo
bilang kalutasan sa mga suliranin.
Ayon kay Paul Wonnacott Ang ekonomiks ay isang pag-aaral kung paano ang tao naghahanap-
buhay, naghahanap ng pagkain at iba pa ng pangangailangang materyal. Binibigyang pansin ang
mga suliraning pangkabuhayan sa pamamagitan ng pamamaraan kung paano malulunasan o
mababawasan ang mga ito.
Ayon kay Roger Le Roy Miller Ang mga kalagayan na nangangailangan ng kapasayahan kung
paano, kailan, at saan gagamit ang sapat na pinagkukunang yaman.
Ayon kay Lloyd Reynolds Ito ay ang pag-aaral na may kinalaman sa produksyon, pamamahagi at
paggamit ng pinagkukunang yaman.
Ayon kay Gerardo Sicat Ayon sa kanya ang ekonomiks ay isang makaagham na pag-aaral na
tumutukoy kung paano gumagawa ng pasya ang isang tao o lipunan. Maraming pangangailangan
ang mga tao at pangkat ng lipunan at upang matugunan ito, may pinagkukunang yaman na dapat
gamitin subalit hindi ito makasasapat sa pangangailangan at ang paggamit ay maaaring sa
ngayon at bukas. Kaya naman ang tamang pagpapasya o pagpili ay isinasaalang- alang ang
ngayon at bukas. Bukod dito ang paggamit ng likas na yaman ay may kakulangan ngunit may
kaukulan na halaga at pakinabang na nangangailangan ng wastong kapasyahan.
Ayon kay Clifford J ames Kabuuan ng nalalaman, bunga ng pakikipag-ugnayan ng tao sa
pagnanais na magkakita sa kabuhayan.
Bakit itinuturing na reyna ng agham panlipunan ang ekonomiks
dahil ang ekonomiks ay isang agham panlipunan. ito ay nakatuon sa pag aaral kung paano
pinipili ng isang indibidwal o lipunan ang paggamit ng limitadong pinagkukunang yamn upang
matugunan ang kanyang walang hanggang pangangailangan at kagustuhan.....