Characterization of Fly Ash

CHARACTERIZATION OF FLY ASH
PREPARED BY:
SAURABH P. KARMARKAR
JAYRAJ A. PANCHAL
AMOL S. DANGE
GUIDED BY:
DR. Vandana J Rao.
MR. D.R.Lodhari

Department of Metallurgical Engineering
Faculty of Technology and Engineering,
M. S. University of Baroda
Vadodara.
YEAR 2008-2009


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express my sincere gratitude to my respected guides Dr.
Vandana J Rao and Mr. Dharmesh R. Lodhari in our final year project.
Their Knowledge, guidance, kindness, enthusiasm, patience, motivation
and supporting enabling us to desired task have made all the difference in
our academic career.
We are grateful to Dr. K. B. Pai, Head of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering Department, for general support in our project and making
available facilities in various laboratories of the department.
We are also thankful to the technical staff of our department for providing
technical assistance throughout the course of this work.
We are thankful to AICTE/RPS to provide financial support to our project.
Last, but not the least, we would like to express our sincere thanks to all
others who have directly or indirectly contributed to successful completion
of our project.

AMOL S. DANGE (903) (Exam No.387)
JAYRAJ A. PANCHAL (934) (Exam No 372)
SAURABH P. KARMARKAR (908) (Exam No 392)


ABSTRACT

Fly ash (one of several coal combustion products, or CCPs) is the finely
divided mineral residue resulting from the combustion of coal in electric
generating plants. Fly ash consists of inorganic, incombustible matter
present in the coal that has been fused during combustion into a glassy,
amorphous structure.

The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years
due to increasing landfill costs and current interest in sustainable
development. Other environmental benefits to recycling fly ash includes
reducing the demand for virgin materials that would need quarrying and
substituting for materials that may be energy-intensive to create, such as
Portland cement, Fly ash bricks, Road embankments etc.

In this Project, an attempt was made to characterize the different types of
fly ash by performing sieve size analysis, Density measurements, pH
measurement, Compositional study, Hydraulic Pressing, Angle of Repose.

Almost all fly ash has >45 size from size analysis, which do not participate
in pozzolanic reactions even after one year, so it can work as a sand and
behave like sand in concrete mixture. From compositional study, fly ash
taken from Naroli power plant is different from others since it has 50% CaO

which represents higher reactivity. Angle of Repose of fly ash ukai has
least value, so better flow ability, whereas that from Gandhinagar power
plant has highest value, so poor flow ability. Fly ash from Gandhinagar
power plant has high amount of compaction while fly ash from ukai power
plant has least value. By SEM analysis, fly ash from Gandhinagar power
plant has ultrafine and spherical nature while others have irregular
morphology.


CHAPTER

TITLE PAGE NO.
1

INTRODUCTION 1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1) FLY ASH FROM POWER PLANT
2.2 ) FLY ASH COMPOSITION
2.3 ) PRELUDE: THE NATIONAL SCENARIO
2.4 ) INDIAN SCENARIO OF FLY ASH
2.5 ) FLY ASH UTILIZATION
2.6 ) CLASSIFICATION OF FLY ASH BY
ASTM C 618
2.7) ENGINEERING AND
MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH

3
5
7
9
10
10

19

21

3

EXPERIMENTAL PART
3.1) RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR SOURCES
3.2) EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS
28
29
30
4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1) SIZE ANALYSIS
4.2)DENSITY MEASUREMENT
4.3 )pH MEASUREMENT
4.4 )ANGLE OF REPOSE
4.5 )MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS BY SEM
4.6 )ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS BY EDS
4.7 )CHEMICAL ANALYSIS BY EDXRF
41
41
49
53
54
56
58
63
5

CONCLUSIONS 68
6

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE
WORK
71
7 REFERENCES

72


1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Fly ash is the finely divided mineral residue resulting from the combustion
of ground or powdered coal in electric generating plant (ASTM C 618)
[1][2]
.
Fly ash consists of inorganic matter present in the coal that has been fused
during coal combustion. This material is solidified while suspended in the
exhaust gases and is collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic
precipitators.
If nearly 42 million tons of unused fly ash had been recycled, it would have
reduced the need for approximately 27,500 acre-feet of landfill space.
[3][4]

As we have seen, there are many practical reasons to add some (if not a
lot of) fly ash to concretenot just in addition to portland cement, but in
replacement of it. It Is increasingly finding use in the synthesis of
geopolymers and zeolites
[5]
.
We looked at the performance-enhancing effects of fly ash on workability,
flow ability, strength, shrinkage, and permeability. The effects are so many,
and so positive, that senior figure in the world of concrete have recently
stated that concrete without fly ash belongs in a museum. So
characterization of fly ash is important.
In our project, in sieve analysis the % weight retained for each sample was
determined to know the average size distribution, Apparent Density was
calculated in grams/cc by dividing the weight of the ash sample by the
volume of the container which is 25 cc. pH was measured to determine the
Acidic / Basic / Neutral nature of the ash . Angle of Repose is used to

2

measure the flow properties. In Press density, 10% cement (binder) +
moisture + Fly ash (from different locations) were taken for hydraulic
pressing which shows us the maximum amount of ash that can be packed
for a given volume. EDS gives us an excellent graphical representation of
the composition of the Fly Ash. SEM analysis was done to find out the
Morphology and structures of the samples. XRF Analysis was also done to
get the compositional details.

Fly ash consists of fine, powdery particles that are predominantly spherical
in shape, either solid or hollow, and mostly glassy (amorphous) in nature.
The particle size distribution of most bituminous coal fly ashes is generally
similar to that of a slit. Although sub bituminous coal fly ashes are also silt-
sized, they are generally slightly coarser than bituminous coal fly ashes.
The specific gravity of fly ash usually ranges from 2.1 to 3.0.

[6] [7]

The chemical properties of fly ash are influenced to a great extent by those
of the coal burned and the techniques used for handling and storage. There
are basically four types, or ranks, of coal, each of which varies in terms of
its heating value, its chemical composition, ash content, and geological
origin. The four types, or ranks, of coal are anthracite, bituminous, sub
bituminous, and lignite.
[8]


3

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Fly ash closely resembles volcanic ashes used in production of the earliest
known hydraulic cements about 2,300 years ago. Those cements were
made near the small Italian town of Pozzuoli - which later gave its name to
the term "pozzolan."
[9]

A pozzolan is a siliceous or siliceous / aluminous material that, when
mixed with lime and water, forms a cementitious compound. Fly ash is the
best known, and one of the most commonly used, pozzolans in the world.
Instead of volcanoes, today's fly ash comes primarily from coal-fired
electricity generating power plants. These power plants grind coal to a
powder fineness before it is burned. Fly ash - the mineral residue produced
by burning coal - is captured from the power plant's exhaust gases and
collected for use.
Fly ash is a fine, glass powder recovered from the gases of burning
coal during the production of electricity. These micron-sized earth elements
consist primarily of silica, alumina and iron.
The difference between fly ash and Portland cement becomes
apparent under a microscope. Fly ash particles are almost totally spherical
in shape, allowing them to flow and blend freely in mixtures. That capability
is one of the properties making fly ash a desirable admixture for concrete.

4

Fly ash available from the modern super thermal power plants typically
contain around 1% carbon, as the boilers are far more efficient (the Indian
IS: 3812 code still has the upper limit of carbon as 12%, while the ASTM (
C-618 6%).

The high velocity of the flue gases in the burning zone produce fly ash of
much greater fineness than were achieved earlier. Also this modern day fly
ash plays a far more active role in concreting than was thought earlier.

Fly ash is a powdery substance obtained from the dust collectors in the
electrical power plants that use coal as fuel.

From the cement point of view the mineralogy of fly ash is important. 80-
90% of it is glass.
[10]
It starts out as impurities in coal- mostly clays, shales,
limestone & dolomite.

They cannot be burned so they turn up as ash, & at high temperatures fuse
to become glass. Due to the high speed of the flue gasses the molten glass
turns into tiny beads of glass, 40% being less than 10 micron in size (1000
microns is 1mm, cement is approx. 25micron), & these are the principal
contributors of the 7 & 28 days strength.

Sizes between 10 to 45 microns react slowly to give the concrete strength
from 28 days to a year & sizes over 50 micron behave like sand particles &
do not matter excepting as a filler.


5

i] FLY ASH FROM POWER PLANT
Fly ash is the finely divided mineral residue resulting from the combustion
of coal in electric generating plants. Fly ash consists of inorganic,
incombustible matter present in the coal that has been fused during
combustion into a glassy, amorphous structure.
Ash Content in Indian Coal:

The quality of coal depends upon its rank and grade. The coal rank
arranged in
An ascending order of carbon contents is:
Lignite --> sub-bituminous coal --> bituminous coal --> anthracite
Indian coal is of mostly sub-bituminous rank, followed by bituminous and
Lignite (brown coal). The ash content in Indian coal ranges from 35% to
50%.
The coal properties including calorific values differ depending upon the
Colliery. The calorific value of the Indian coal (~15 MJ/kg) is less than the
Normal range of 21 to 33 MJ/Kg (gross).According to National Thermal
Power
Corporation (NTPC)
[11]
.coal is used for approximately 62.3% of electric
power
generation in India, oil and gas accounts for 10.2%, hydro's share is 24.1%,

6

Nuclear, wind, and other contribute remaining 3.4%.
When pulverized coal is combusted in a dry-ash, dry-bottom boiler, about
80 percent of all the ash leaves the furnace as fly ash, entrained in the flue
gas.

Fig 1: Electric Generating Power Plant using Coal
[12]

When pulverized coal is combusted in a wet-bottom (or slag-tap) furnace,
as much as 50 percent of the ash is retained in the furnace, with the other
50 percent being entrained in the flue gas. In a cyclone furnace, where
crushed coal is used as a fuel, 70 to 80 percent of the ash is retained as
boiler slag and only 20 to 30 percent leaves the furnace as dry ash in the
flue gas.

7

As shown in the figure, is the electric generating power plant using coal as
a source of fuel. The lump of coal is taken to the power plant using
conveyor belts to the coal pulverizer from where it drops down to the flamer
where actual combustion of coal takes place. During combustion there is
emission of flue gases and after combustion there is bottom ash remaining
at the bottom. This bottom ash is then sent for disposal or reuse. The flue
gases are sent to the electrostatic precipitator where settling of fine
particles takes place and the gases are allowed to pass through the
chimney. Then the fly ash is obtained through the air hoppers where
settling of the particles has taken place.
ii] STANDARD SPECIFICATION AND QUALITY OF FLY ASH
Standard specification lay down the minimum quality requirements for
specific application, the fly ash should conform to the chemical and
physical requirements as per IS: 3812:1981
Chemical requirements as per IS: 3812 1981
[13]


8

Table 1: Typical Chemical Requirements of Fly Ash
The chemical properties of fly ash are influenced to a great extent by those
of the coal burned and the techniques used for handling and storage.The
principal components of bituminous coal fly ash are silica, alumina, iron
oxide, and calcium, with varying amounts of carbon, as measured by the
loss on ignition (LOI)
[20]
.Out of this silica and alumina are the primary
constituents and Ca, Mg, Fe, V, Na, K, S etc are the secondary
constituents. It is believed that fly ash consists of nearly 128 elements of
the periodic table. The sulfur content in the Fly ash should be as minimum
as possible.
Physical requirements as per IS: 3812 1981
[13]

Sr no Physical properties Requirement
1 Fineness (min.) 3200 cm2/gm
2 Lime reactivity (min) 40.00Kg/cm2
3 Drying shrinkage (max.) 0.15 %
4 Soundness(max) 0.80%
Table 2: Typical Physical Requirements of Fly Ash
Fly ash consists of fine, powdery particles that are predominantly spherical
in shape, either solid or hollow, and mostly glassy (amorphous) in nature.
The carbonaceous material in fly ash is composed of angular particles. The
particle size distribution of most bituminous coal fly ashes is generally
similar to that of a slit (less than a 0.075 mm or No. 200 sieve). Although
sub bituminous coal fly ashes are also silt-sized, they are generally slightly

9

coarser than bituminous coal fly ashes.
[14]
The specific gravity of fly ash
usually ranges from 2.1 to 3.0, while its specific surface area (measured by
the Blaine air permeability method)
[17]
may range from 170 to 1000 m
2
/kg.
The color of fly ash can vary from tan to gray to black, depending on the
amount of unburned carbon in the ash. The lighter the color, the lower the
carbon content. Lignite or sub bituminous fly ashes are usually light tan to
buff in color, indicating relatively low amounts of carbon as well as the
presence of some lime or calcium. Bituminous fly ashes are usually some
shade of gray, with the lighter shades of gray generally indicating a higher
quality of ash.
iii] PRELUDE: THE NATIONAL SCENARIO
[11]

In India 65% of the total installed power generation is coal- based.
We use 250 Million Tonne coal every year for power generation.
India has a huge coal reserves. Current non coking coal reserve is 76
billion Tonne.
Indian coal has high ash content (30% 50%) and thus it contributes to
large volumes of ash after combustion.
Around 100 Million Tonne of ash is generated every year.
This figure will likely go up to 170 Million Tonne by 2010.
The World Bank has cautioned India that by 2015, disposal of coal ash
would require one square meter of land per capita.
Fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply taken up by flue gases
and dispersed into the atmosphere.

10

Fly ash emissions were reduced to less than 1% of ash produced.
In India alone, fly ash landfill covers an area of 40,000 acres
The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years
due to increasing landfill costs and current interest in sustainable
development.
iv] INDIAN SCENARIO OF FLY ASH
[11]

In 1994 Fly ash generation was nearly 40 Million Tonne and the utilization
of fly ash was nearly 3% of it i.e1.2 Million Tonne.
In 2005 Fly ash generation was around 112 Million Tonne and the
utilization of fly ash was nearly 38% of it i.e. 42 Million Tonne.
In 2012 Projections are made that Fly ash generation is going to be 170
Million Tonne and Fly ash utilization should be 100% possible.
v] FLY ASH UTILIZATION
Based on the commercial value of Fly Ash Utilization toward value added
Product, we have categorized the Utilization into 4 categories:-
Category # 1:-Fly Ash Bricks / Blocks / Tiles / Light weight aggregate.
Category # 2:- Structural Filling / Cement
Category # 3:- Road and Embankment
Category # 4:- Soil stabilization
Category # 5:- Flowable fill
Category # 6:- Agriculture Applications

11

We will explain each category in detail as below:-

Category # 1
Ash bricks have been used in house construction in Windhoek, Namibia
since the 1970's. There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they
tend to fail or produce unsightly pop-outs. This happens when the bricks
come into contact with moisture and a chemical reaction occurs causing
the bricks to expand.
Brick composed of fly ash and water, Compressed at 4,000 psi and cured
for 24 hours in a 150F (66C) steam bath, then toughened with an air
entrainment agent, the bricks last for more than 100 freeze-thaw cycles.
[15]
[16]

During this the following reactions takes place:
Dissociation of limestone = Ca (OH)
2
Ca
+2
+ 2(OH
-
)
The calcium ion combines with hydroxyl ions along with SiO
2
and Al
2
O
3
to
form calcium silicate hydroxyl (CSH) and calcium aluminate hydroxyl
(CAH).
Ca
+2
+ 2(OH
-
) + SiO
2
calcium silicate hydroxyl (CSH)
Ca
+2
+ 2(OH
-
) + Al
2
O
3
calcium aluminate hydroxyl (CAH)
Owing to the high concentration of calcium oxide in fly ash, the brick can be
described as "self-cementing". The manufacturing method is said to save

12

energy, reduce mercury pollution, and costs 20% less than traditional clay
brick manufacturing.
Another type of brick can be made by mixing soil, plaster of Paris and fly
ash in a definite proportion with water and allowing the mixture to dry.
Because it does not need to be heated in a furnace, this technique reduces
air pollution.

Category # 2
Many reasons for using fly ash are global, environmental, or societal in
nature. The production of Portland cement puts about a ton of carbon
dioxide (CO2, a primary greenhouse gas) into the atmosphere for every ton
of cement producedroughly half a ton from the fuel used to cook the raw
limestone, and half a ton from the calcination of the limestone. Worldwide,
the production of Portland cement alone accounts for 6-8% of human-
generated CO2 (depending on whom you ask). So here, in a single
industry, lies the opportunity to slow the very alarming trend toward global
warming. According to one authority:
For every ton of fly ash used to replace Portland cement
[18]
:

Enough energy can be saved to provide electricity to an average
Indian home for 24 days.
The landfill space conserved equals 455 days of solid waste
produced by the average Indian.

13

The reduction in CO2 emissions equals 2 months of emissions from
an automobile.
The cement industry deserves great credit for recognizing this, and for
taking many effective steps to reduce its local and global environmental
impacts. But the fact remains that we have a readily available industrial
waste productfly ashthat happens to be a perfect replacement for half or
more of the cement in almost any mix, and yields equal or better-quality
concrete. This is why high Usage of fly ash in concrete is now a component
for global trading of so-called carbon credits, based on the Kyoto Accords
and the Chicago Climate Exchange. Use of fly ash is also a means of
making points in the increasingly important LEED (Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Building) system of evaluating and rating buildings,
developed by the US Green Building Council (USGBC).
Most of the fly ash produced today is currently being either land filled,
or simply flying freely out the smokestack of the coal-fired power plant from
which it comes, as in China and India. Fly ash in the ground can pollute
groundwater with heavy metals, while fly ash in the air constitutes
particulate pollutionthe bulk of the famous smog blanketing Beijing and
many other cities that is a health hazard to everyone nearby. Fly ash trace
metals and particulates cast into concrete, by contrast, are bound forever in
a way that cannot hurt anyone.

Some in the green building movement question whether increasing the use
of fly ash in concrete will effectively encourage coal-fired power
productionitself a primary source of environmental degradation, pollution,

14

and greenhouse gases. However, in light of the huge percentage of
worldwide electricity generation already derived from coal, and the fact that
so little of the ash currently being produced is stored safely in concrete, and
the fact that both coal-fired power and concrete production are rapidly
increasing along with the population, this seems like a weak argument at
best.

Fig 2:- Bricks using Fly Ash

Fig 3:- Cement & Mortar using Fly Ash

15

Fig4:-Fly Ash used in Roads and Embankments
Current annual world production of cementitious and pozzolanic by-
products of thermal power plants and metallurgical industries is about 650
million metric tons, of which only about 7% is being used by the cement
and concrete industries. We can go on letting the existing output of fly ash
be a landfill, pollution, and health problem, or we can use it to make better
concrete.
Radically increasing the use of fly ash in concretewhether blended
at the ready-mix plant, or premixed and bagged at cement plantsis but
one component of the broader effort to make concrete a more
environmentally friendly building material without sacrificing quality or
affordability.

Category # 3
[19]

Fly ash utilization in the country rose from 3 per cent (of 40 million tonnes)
of fly ash produced annually in 1990s to about 32 per cent (of 110 million
tonnes) of fly ash generated annually now. Out of this total utilization, about

16

22 percent, amounting to 7.75 million tonnes, was used in the area of roads
and embankments last year.
a) Advantages of using fly ash for road construction
Fly ash is a lightweight material, as compared to commonly used fill
material (local soils), therefore, causes lesser settlements. It is especially
attractive for embankment construction over weak sub grade such as
alluvial clay or silt where excessive weight could cause failure.
Fly ash embankments can be compacted over a wide range of moisture
content, and therefore, results in less variation in density with changes in
moisture content. Easy to handle and compact because the material is light
and there are no large lumps to be broken down. Can be compacted using
either vibratory or static rollers.
High permeability ensures free and efficient drainage. After rainfall, water
gets drained out freely ensuring better workability than soil. Work on fly ash
fills/ embankments can be restarted within a few hours after rainfall, while
in case of soil it requires much longer period.
Considerable low compressibility results in negligible subsequent
settlement within the fill.
Conserves good earth, which is precious top soil, thereby protecting the
environment.
Higher value of California Bearing Ratio as compared to soil provides for
a more efficient design of road pavement.

17

Pozzolanic hardening property imparts additional strength to the road
pavements/ embankments and decreases the post construction horizontal
pressure on retaining walls.
Amenable to stabilization with lime and cement.
Can replace a part of cement and sand in concrete pavements thus
making them more economical than roads constructed using conventional
materials.
Fly ash admixed concrete can be prepared with zero slump making it
amenable for use as roller compacted concrete.
Considering all these advantages, it is extremely essential to promote use
of fly ash for construction of roads and embankments.
b) Economy in use of fly ash
Use of fly ash in road works results in reduction in construction cost by
about 10 to 20 per cent. Typically cost of borrow soil varies from
aboutRs.100 to 200 per cubic meter. Fly ash is available free of cost at the
power plant and hence only transportation cost, laying and rolling cost are
there in case of fly ash. Hence, when fly ash is used as a fill material, the
economy achieved is directly related to transportation cost of fly ash.
c) Environmental Impact of Fly ash Use
Utilization of fly ash will not only minimize the disposal problem but will also
help in utilizing precious land in a better way. Construction of road
embankments using fly ash, involves encapsulation of fly ash in earthen
core or with RCC facing panels. Since there is no seepage of rain water

18

into the fly ash core, leaching of heavy metals is also prevented. Hence
chances of pollution due to use of fly ash in road works are negligible.

Category # 4
Soil stabilization involves the addition of fly ash to improve the engineering
performance of a soil. This is typically used for a soft, clay sub grade
beneath a road that will experience many repeated loadings. Improvement
can be done with both Class C and Class F fly ashes. If using a Class F sly
ash, an additive (such as lime or cement) is needed whereas the self-
cementing nature of Class C fly ash allows it to be used alone.

Category # 5
Fly ash is also used as a component in the production of flowable fill (also
called controlled low strength material, or CLSM), which is used as self-
leveling, self-compacting backfill material in lieu of compacted earth or
granular fill. The strength of flowable fill mixes can range from 200 to 1,200
lbf/in (1.4 to 8.3 MPa), depending on the design requirements of the
project in question. Flowable fill includes mixtures of Portland cement and
filler material, and can contain mineral admixtures. Fly ash can replace fine
aggregate (in most cases, river sand) as a filler material. High fly ash
content mixes contain nearly all fly ash, with a small percentage of Portland
cement and enough water to make the mix flowable. Low fly ash content
mixes contain a high percentage of filler material, and a low percentage of
fly ash, Portland cement, and water. Class F fly ash is best suited for high

19

fly ash content mixes, whereas Class C fly ash is almost always used in
low fly ash content mixes.

Category # 6
Fly Ash used in agricultural application Improves Soil texture, Reduces
bulk density of soil, Improves water holding capacity, Optimizes pH value,
Improves soil aeration, Reduces crust formation, Provides micro nutrients
like Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, B etc., Provides macro nutrients like K, P, Ca, etc.

vi) CLASSIFICATION OF FLY ASH BY ASTM C 618
[21]
Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618:-
Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash.
The chief difference between Class F and Class C fly ash is in the amount
of calcium and the silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash.
[17]
In Class F
fly ash, total calcium typically ranges from 1 to 12 percent, mostly in the
form of calcium hydroxide, calcium sulfate, and glassy components in
combination with silica and alumina. In contrast, Class C fly ash may have
reported calcium oxide contents as high as 30 to 40 percent.
[21]
Another
difference between Class F and Class C is that the amount of alkalis
(combined sodium and potassium) and sulfates (SO
4
) are generally higher
in the Class C fly ashes than in the Class F fly ashes.
Class F fly ash:-

20

The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically
produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains
less than 10% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy
silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as
Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of water in
order to react and produce cementitious compounds.
Class C fly ash:-
Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub bituminous
coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-
cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash will harden
and gain strength over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than
20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not
require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO
4
) contents are generally higher
in Class C fly ashes.

ADVANTAGES ON ADDITION OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE

Increased (later) Compressive Strength
Increased Workability
Reduced heat of hydration (CANMET, Canada found that 10 ft cubes
had a temperature rise of only 35 deg Celsius vs. 65 deg using
Portland cement)

21

No leaching of Calcium Hydroxide crystals on to the surface (those
white patches)
Increased Durability -(low Chloride Ion penetration, i.e. very low
coulomb rating that further decreases with time).
Decreased Permeability
Reduced Sulfate Attack
Decreased Bleeding & Segregation
Reduced Drying Shrinkage

ENGINEERING AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH
[23]

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

Some of the engineering properties of fly ash that are of particular interest
when fly ash is used as an admixture or a cement addition to PCC mixes
include fineness, LOI, chemical composition, moisture content, and
pozzolanic activity. Most specifying agencies refer to ASTM C618.

Fineness: Fineness is the primary physical characteristic of fly ash
that relates to pozzolanic activity. As the fineness increases, the
Pozzolanic activity can be expected to increase.


22

Pozzolanic Activity (Chemical Composition and Mineralogy):
Pozzolanic activity refers to the ability of the silica and alumina
Components of fly ash to react with available calcium and/or
magnesium from the hydration products of Portland cement. ASTM
C618 requires that the pozzolanic activity index with Portland cement,
as determined in accordance with ASTM C311, be a minimum of 75
percent of the average 28-day compressive strength of control mixes
made with Portland cement.

Loss on Ignition: LOI value should not exceed 3 or 4 percent, even
though the ASTM criterion is a maximum LOI content of 6 percent.
This is because carbon contents (reflected by LOI) higher than 3 to 4
percent have an adverse effect on air entrainment. Fly ashes must
have a low enough LOI (usually less than 3.0 percent) to satisfy
ready-mix concrete producers, who are concerned about product
quality and the control of air-entraining admixtures. Furthermore,
consistent LOI values are almost as important as low LOI values to
ready-mix producers, who are most concerned with consistent and
predictable quality.

Moisture Content: ASTM C618 specifies a maximum allowable
moisture content of 3.0 percent. Some of the properties of fly ash
concrete mixes that are of particular interest include mix workability,
time of setting, bleeding, pumpability, strength development, heat of
hydration, permeability, resistance to freeze-thaw, sulfate resistance,
and alkali-silica reactivity.


23

Workability: At a given water-cement ratio, the spherical shape of
most fly ash particles permits greater workability than with
conventional concrete mixes. When fly ash is used, the absolute
volume of cement plus fly ash usually exceeds that of cement in
conventional concrete mixes. The increased ratio of solids volume to
water volume produces a paste with improved plasticity and more
cohesiveness.

Time of Setting: When replacing up to 25 percent of the Portland
cement in concrete, all Class F fly ashes and most Class C fly ashes
increase the time of setting. However, some Class C fly ashes may
have little effect on, or possibly even decrease, the time of setting.
Delays in setting time will probably be more pronounced, compared
with conventional concrete mixes, during the cooler or colder months.

Bleeding: Bleeding in concrete is usually lower because of the
greater volume of fines and lower required water content for a given
degree of workability.

Pumpability: Pumpability is increased by the same characteristics
affecting workability, specifically, the lubricating effect of the spherical
fly ash particles and the increased ratio of solids to liquid that makes
the concrete less prone to segregation.


24

Strength Development: Previous studies of fly ash concrete mixes
have generally confirmed that most mixes that contain Class F fly ash
that replaces Portland cement at a 1:1 (equal weight) ratio gain
compressive strength, as well as tensile strength, more slowly than
conventional concrete mixes for up to as long as 60 to 90 days.
Beyond 60 to 90 days, Class F fly ash concrete mixes will ultimately
exceed the strength of conventional PCC mixes. For mixes with
replacement ratios from 1.1 to 1.5:1 by weight of Class F fly ash to
the Portland cement that is being replaced, 28-day strength
development is approximately equal to that of conventional concrete.
Class C fly ashes often exhibit a higher rate of reaction at early ages
than Class F fly ashes. Some Class C fly ashes are as effective as
Portland cement in developing 28-day strength. Both Class F and
Class C fly ashes are beneficial in the production of high-strength
concrete. However, the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
recommends that Class F fly ash replace from 15 to 25 percent of the
Portland cement and Class C fly ash replace from 20 to 35 percent.

Heat of Hydration: The initial impetus for using fly ash in concrete is
stemmed from the fact that the more slowly reacting fly ash generates
less heat per unit of time than the hydration of the faster reacting
Portland cement. Thus, the temperature rise in large masses of
concrete (such as dams) can be significantly reduced if fly ash is
substituted for cement, since more of the heat can be dissipated as it
develops. Not only is the risk of thermal cracking reduced, but greater
ultimate strength is attained in concrete with fly ash because of the

25

pozzolanic reaction. Class F fly ashes are generally more effective
than Class C fly ashes in reducing the heat of hydration.

Permeability: Fly ash reacting with available lime and alkalis
generates additional cementitious compounds that act to block bleed
channels, filling pore space and reducing the permeability of the
hardened concrete. The pozzolanic reaction consumes calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), which is leachable, replacing it with insoluble
calcium silicate hydrates (CSH). The increased volume of fines and
reduced water content also play a role.

Resistance to Freeze-Thaw: As with all concretes, the resistance of
fly ash concrete to damage from freezing and thawing depends on
the adequacy of the air void system, as well as other factors, such as
strength development, climate, and the use of deicer salts. Special
attention must be given to attaining the proper amount of entrained
air and air void distribution. Once fly ash concrete has developed
adequate strength, no significant differences in concrete durability
have usually been observed. There should be no more tendency for
fly ash concrete to scale in freezing and thawing exposures than
conventional concrete, provided the fly ash concrete has achieved its
design strength and has the proper air void system.

Sulfate Resistance: Class F fly ash will generally improve the sulfate
resistance of any concrete mixture in which it is included. Some Class
C fly ashes may improve sulfate resistance, while others may actually
reduce sulfate resistance and accelerate deterioration. Class C fly

26

ashes should be individually tested before use in a sulfate
environment. The relative resistance of fly ash to sulfate deterioration
is reportedly a function of the ratio of calcium oxide to iron oxide.

Alkali-Silica Reactivity: Class F fly ash has been effective in
inhibiting or reducing expansive reactions resulting from the alkali
silica reaction. In theory, the reaction between the very small particles
of amorphous silica glass in the fly ash and the alkalis in the Portland
cement, as well as the fly ash, ties up the alkalis in a non-expansive
calcium-alkali-silica gel, preventing them from reacting with silica in
aggregates, which can result in expansive reactions. However,
because some fly ashes (including some Class C fly ashes) may
have appreciable amounts of soluble alkalis, it is necessary to test
materials to be used in the field to ensure that expansion due to
alkali-silica reactivity will be reduced to safe levels. Fly ash, especially
Class F fly ash, is effective in three ways in substantially reducing
alkali-silica expansion:

I. It produces a denser, less permeable concrete

II. When used as a cement replacement it reduces total alkali content
by reducing the Portland cement; and
III. Alkalis react with fly ash instead of reactive silica aggregates.


27

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
[23]

Physical Properties

Fly ash consists of fine, powdery particles that are predominantly
spherical in shape, either solid or hollow, and mostly glassy
(amorphous) in nature.
The carbonaceous material in fly ash is composed of angular
particles. The particle size distribution of most bituminous coal fly
ashes is generally similar to that of silt (less than a 0.075 mm or No.
200 sieve). Although sub bituminous coal fly ashes are also silt-sized,
they are generally slightly coarser than bituminous coal fly ashes.
The specific gravity of fly ash usually ranges from 2.1 to 3.0, while its
specific surface area (measured by the Blaine air permeability
method)) may range from 170 to 1000 m2/kg.
The color of fly ash can vary from tan to gray to black, depending on
the amount of unburned carbon in the ash.
The lighter the color, the lower the carbon content. Lignite or sub
bituminous fly ashes are usually light tan to buff in color, indicating
relatively low amounts of carbon as well as the presence of some
lime or calcium.
Bituminous fly ashes are usually some shade of gray, with the lighter
shades of gray generally indicating a higher quality of ash.


28

CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL PART

Topics covered in this part:-

3.1) RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR SOURCES

3.2) EXPERIMENTAL WORK & CHARACTERIZATION


29

3.1 Raw Materials and Their Sources:

Fly Ash from different parts of Gujarat.

Samples of Fly ash were obtained from the Geo technology Lab in
our Faculty.

The Geo technology Laboratory obtained these samples from the
following locations:

1) Naroli Power Plant
Address: P.O. Nani Naroli, Tal: Mangrol, Dist: Surat,
Gujarat: 394110

2) Songadh Paper Mill
Address: P.O. Central Pulp Mills, Fort Songadh, Dist: Surat,
Gujarat: 394660

3) Ukai Power Plant
Address: GEB, Ukai Thermal Power Station, Ukai Dam,
Gujarat: 394680

4) Wanakbori Power Plant
Address: GEB, Wanakbori Thermal Power Station, Wanakbori
Gujarat: 388239

5) Gandhinagar Plant
Address: GEB, Gandhinagar Thermal Power Station,
Gandhinagar
Gujarat: 382041


30

3.2 Experimental Setup:

3.2a) Sieve Analysis.

3.2b) Apparent Density

3.2c) True Density.

3.2d) pH Measurement.

3.2e) Angle of Repose.

3.2f) Press Density.

3.2g) Energy Dispersive Spectrometer
Analysis

3.2h) Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis.

3.2i) Energy Dispersive X ray
Fluorescence Spectroscopy.

31

(EDXRF)
3.2a) Sieve Analysis

In Sieve Analysis we took 100 grams of ash per sample and shook it
in the sieve shaker for 15 minutes and weighed the material which is
retained on each sieve. Setup is as shown in fig no.5

The BSS 410 mesh size no. Such as 120, 150, 200, 300 and 350
were used for sieve analysis.

We calculated the % weight retained for each sample to determine
the average size distribution.

3.2b) Apparent Density
Apparent Density: Mass per unit Volume of Loose or unpacked
powder also known as Packing Density or loading weight.

The Apparent Density was measured using a 25 cc container.

The empty container was weighed and then it was filled with the ash
sample then the total weight of the ash + container was measured.


32

Apparent Density was calculated in grams/cc by dividing the weight of
the ash sample by the volume of the container which is 25 cc.

Apparent Density is majorly governed by factors such as chemical
composition, particle shape, size & size distribution , as well as
shape and surface conditions which can vary from 20 to 50 % of
theoretical density.
3.2c) True Density
True Density gives a more accurate view about the density of the Fly
ash sample.
True Density is also measured by the formula :-

True density = Weight/Volume

We weighed an empty beaker of fixed volume and filled it with
distilled water and weighed again.

We filled 1/3
rd
of the beaker with ash and again weighed it then
distilled water was filled in the rest of the beaker.
Again the weight was measured.
Weight of ( fly ash + beaker ) Weight of empty beaker gives us the
weight of fly ash

33

Weight of ( fly ash + water ) weight of container filled completely
with water gives volume of the fly ash
This weight and volume ratios are used to measure the True Density.

3.2d) pH Measurement

pH was measured to determine the Acidic / Basic / Neutral nature of
the ash.

3 standardized buffer solutions were prepared by dissolving 1
capsule per 100 ml distilled water.

The pH meter was calibrated to 7.0 by dipping in the buffer solution
also done for pH 4 and 9.2.

The ash was mixed with distilled water in a proportion of 30 grams in
75 ml water and was kept for 24 hrs then stirred and filtered.

This was done for the ash to get properly mixed in the water.

The pH was measured the next day.


34

pH was measured at room temperature and then heated to a
temperature of 60 C then cooled and then pH was measured.

3.2e) Angle of Repose
Angle of Repose is used to measure the flow properties.
Lower the angle of repose means that the flow properties of the
sample are good.
The ash was made to free fall from a funnel from a fixed height of 15
cms on the floor till the maximum height or saturated height was
attained as shown in fig 6.
After that the height and the base were measured.
Angle of Repose was measured by the formula.
Tan = height / 0.5 ( base )


35

Fig 5:- Experimental Setup of Sieve Analysis

Fig 6:- Experimental Setup of Angle of Repose

36

3.2f) Press Density
Press Density is measure the amount of ash packed in a pallet.

This shows us the maximum amount of ash that can be packed for a
given volume.

Press density comes into picture while making briquettes and pellets
for structural use.

Fixed diameter of the pallets i.e. 15mm, fixed weight of the sample
i.e. 1.5 grams + 10% cement was done.

We also the measured the height of the pallets that were formed.

The volume was found by the formula
Volume = r
2
h
r = radius of pressed pellets, h = height of pressed pellets
Press Density = Weight/Volume.

Fig 6:- Pellets formed after Pressing
Compaction was done on a Hydraulic Pressing Machine in the
Department.

37

This is done to find the Compactibility of the ash.

1.5 grams of ash was mixed with 0.15 gm cement (binder)i.e. the
binder was 10% of the total weight of the ash and Acetone was
added.

Load applied was 2.5 tons.

Compaction Ratio is basically the ratio of Press Density to Apparent
Density.

With the compaction test we can know the amount of compaction that
can be done to a given sample.

Depends majorly on factors such particle size, particle shape, and
Distribution and also Internal Friction and applied load and Binder
used.

Fig 7:- Experimental Setup of Hydraulic Pressing Machine.

38

3.2g) Energy Dispersive Spectrometer
Analysis

This was done to analyze the Elemental Composition of the Fly Ash
samples that were taken.

EDS gives us an excellent graphical representation of the
composition of the Fly Ash.

An Example of the Results shown by EDS.

Fig 8:- Elemental analysis by EDS

39

3.2h) Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis
Jeol Scanning Electron Microscope with Oxford EDS System, Model
No: 5610 LV was used to conduct the analysis.

While EDS gives us an explanation of the elemental composition of
the Fly Ash samples SEM analysis was done to find out the
Morphology and structures of the samples.

The knowledge of Morphology helps us in knowing certain properties
of material like its Flowability.

An example of the morphology shown by the SEM of Fly Ash.

Fig 9:- Morphology shown by SEM


40

3.2i) Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence
Spectroscopic (EDXRF) Analysis
X Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer, Shimatzu, EDX 800 was used to
conduct the analysis.
XRF Analysis was also done to get the compositional details.
While EDS gives the Elemental Analysis.
XRF gives us the analysis of various Compounds present in oxide
form in the ash.


41

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS

a) NAROLI FLY ASH SAMPLE
Sr no mesh no. size
microns
()
wt%
retained
cum.
Wt%
retained
cum.
Wt%
passed
1 85 177 2.332 2.32 98.1
2 120 125 10.2 12.47 87.9
3 150 105 14.62 27.02 73.3
4 200 76 39.3 66.12 34
5 300 53 21.81 87.82 12.2
6 400 0 11.72 99.48 0

The size distribution is non uniform and over a wide range as seen in the
graph below. The average size of the fly ash particles is around 75 microns
(greater than 45 microns) and hence they do not participate in pozzolanic
reactions even after one year.


42

b) SONGADH FLY ASH SAMPLE
Sr no mesh no. Size
microns
()
wt%
retained
cum.%wt
retained
cum.wt
%
passed
1 120 125 9.14 9.17 91.22
2 150 105 8.38 17.49 82.83
3 200 76 20.17 38.26 79.69
4 300 53 32.57 70.83 67.6
5 350 44 16.33 81.16 83.99
6 400 20 12.45 99.61 87.9

graph below. The average size of the fly ash particles is around 65 microns

0
10
20
30
40
50
0 50 100 150 200
w
t
%

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

size ()
wt% retained v/s size
wt% retained

43

C) UKAI FLY ASH SAMPLE

Sr No Mesh no
.
Size
microns
()
wt%
retained
cum. Wt%
retained
cum.
Wt%
passed
1

120 125 63.65 63.65 36.42
2

150 105 5.56 69.2 30.86
3

200 76 7.73 76.92 23.1
4

300 53 7.11 84.02 0.16
5

350 44 6.51 90.52 0.094
6

400 20 9.28 99.79 0

graph below. The average size of the fly ash particles is around 125
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
w
t
%

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

size ()
wt% retained
wt% retained

44

microns (greater than 45 microns) and hence they do not participate in
pozzolanic reactions even after one year.

d) WANAKBORI FLY ASH SAMPLE
Sr no

Mesh no. size
microns
()
wt%
retained
cum. wt%
retained
cum. Wt%
passed
1

120 125 23.3 23.22 77
2

150 105 21.08 44.18 79.2
3

200 76 27.63 71.71 72.66
4

300 53 18.19 89.84 82.13
5

350 44 8.05 97.87 92.29
6

400 0 1.766 99.63 99.6
graph below. The average size of the fly ash particles is 80 microns
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
w
t
%

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

size ()
wt% retained
wt% retained

45


e) GANDHINAGAR FLY ASH SAMPLE
Sr no mesh no size
microns
()
wt%
retained
cum. Wt%
retained
cum. Wt%
passed
1

120 125 96.09 95.74 4.27
2

150 105 2.71 98.44 97.65
3

200 76 1.104 99.54 99.25
4

300 53 0.1003 99.64 100.25
5

350 44 0 99.64 100.36
6

400 20 0 99.64 100.36
graph below. The average size of the fly ash particles is around 125
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
w
t
%

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

size ()
wt%retained
wt%retained

46

microns (greater than 45 microns) and hence they do not participate in
pozzolanic reactions even after one year.

COMBINED GRAPHS

1.

Sr. no Size in
Microns
()
Naroli Gandhinagar Ukai Wanakbori Songadh
1 177 2.332 96.09 63.65 23.3 9.14
2 125 10.2 2.71 5.56 21.08 8.38
3 105 14.62 1.104 7.73 27.63 20.17
4 76 39.3 0.1003 7.11 18.19 32.57
5 53 21.81 0 6.51 8.05 16.33
6 0 11.72 0 9.28 1.766 12.45

-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
w
t
%

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

size ()
wt% retained

47

The graph shows the wt % retained v/s size () of all the fly ash samples
combined for better understanding. The size distribution is non uniform and
over a large size range.

-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 50 100 150 200
w
t
%

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

size ()
naroli
gandhinagar
ukai
wanakbori
songadh

48

2. cumulative wt % retained v/s size

Sr. no

Size in
Microns

1

177 2.32 95.74 63.65 23.22 9.17
2

125 12.47 98.44 69.2 44.18 17.49
3

105 27.02 99.54 76.92 71.71 38.26
4

76 66.12 99.64 84.02 89.84 70.83
5

53 87.82 99.64 90.52 97.87 81.16
6

0 99.48 99.64 99.79 99.63 99.61

.
3. cumulative wt % passed v/s size

Sr. no Size in
Microns

1 177

98.1 4.27 36.42 77 91.22
2 125

87.9 97.65 30.86 79.2 82.83
3 105

73.3 99.25 23.1 72.66 79.69
4 76

34 100.25 0.16 82.13 67.6
5 53

12.2 100.36 0.094 92.29 83.99
6 0

0 100.36 0 99.6 87.9

49

4.2 DENSITY MEASUREMENT

a) APARANT DENSITY.
Sr. No. FLY ASH SAMPLE APPARENT DENSITY
(GM/CC)
1 GANDHINAGAR 0.5501
2 SONGADH 0.6732
3 NAROLI 0.6987
4 WANAKBORI 0.7720
5 UKAI 0.8679

As seen from the result table all the apparent density values are less than
unity this is due to the fine and porous nature of the particles. All the
samples have almost the same apparent density with minor variations.

0,5501
0,6732
0,6987
0,772
0,8679
GANDHINAGAR SONGADH NAROLI WANAKBORI UKAI
APPARENT DENSITY (GM/CC)
APPARENT DENSITY (GM/CC)

50

b) TRUE DENSITY

Sr.
No.

FLY ASH SAMPLE TRUE
DENSITY(GM/CC)
1

GANDHINAGAR 1.7270
2

SONGADH 1.8074
3

NAROLI 1.7581
4

WANAKBORI 1.7001
5

UKAI 1.8014

The table shows the true density values of fly ash samples as seen from
the table all the values are in the range of 1.701.80. Generally the true
density of fly ash is 2.0 2.5 gm/cm
3
the lower density as obtained may be
due to higher inherent porosity and presence of light metals like Al Mg etc.

1,727
1,8074
1,7581
1,7001
1,8014
GANDHINAGAR SONGADH NAROLI WANAKBORI UKAI
TRUE DENSITY
TRUE DENSITY

51

c) PRESS DENSITY

Sr. No.

FLY ASH SAMPLE PRESS DENSITY
1

NAROLI 1.7735
2

SONGADH 1.5059
3

UKAI 1.6791
4

WANAKBORI 1.8762
5

GANDINAGAR 1.7598

The table shows the press density values of fly ash samples as seen from
the table all the values are in the range of 1.51.9.

1,7735
1,5059
1,6791
1,8762
1,7598
NAROLI SONGADH UKAI WANAKBORI GANDINAGAR
PRESS DENSITY
PRESS DENSITY

52

d) COMPACTION RATIO

Sr. No.

FLY ASH SAMPLE COMPACTION RATIO
1

NAROLI 2.5382
2

SONGADH 2.2369
3

UKAI 1.9346
4

WANAKBORI 2.4303
5

GANDINAGAR 3.1990

Compaction ratio = press density / Apparent density

Compaction ratio gives us an idea of the pressing properties of the fly ash
samples. Higher the compaction ratio better are the pressing properties of
the fly ash samples. Hence as seen from the table naroli fly ash sample
shows the highest compaction ratio hence we can conclude that it posses
the best pressing or compaction properties amongst all the fly ash samples
while ukai has the lowest compaction ratio and hence the worst pressing or
compaction properties amongst all the fly ash samples tested.

53

4.3 pH MEASUREMENT

Sr. No. FLY ASH SAMPLE pH AT ROOM
TEMP.
pH AFTER
HEATING
TO 50-60C
1

NAROLI 11.2 11.2
2

SONGADH 7.8 7.4
3

UKAI 7.1 7.1
4

WANAKBORI 6.6 6.4
5

GANDINAGAR 8.7 7.6

pH measurement gives us the chemical nature of the fly ash samples. i.e.,
it tells us weather the samples are acidic (pH<7), neutral (pH=7), or
basic(pH>7).
As seen from the table Naroli fly ash sample is highly basic with pH value
of 11.2 while Wanakbori is mildly acidic with pH value of 6.6. Gandhinagar
and Songadh samples are mildly basic or alkaline with pH values of 8.7
2,5382
2,2369
1,9346
2,4303
3,199
COMPACTION RATIO
COMPACTION RATIO

54

and 7.8 respectively. Ukai fly ash sample is considered neutral with pH
value of 7.1.

4.4 ANGLE OF REPOSE
Sr. No.

FLY ASH SAMPLE ANGLE OF
REPOSE
CONCLUSION
1

NAROLI 45.80 PASSABLE
MAY HANG UP
2

SONGADH 37.99 MODERATE
NO AID
NEEDED
3

UKAI 29.74 EXCELLENT
4

WANAKBORI 40.60 PASSABLE
MAY HANG UP
5 GANDINAGAR 48.80 POOR MUST
AGITATE OR
VIBRATE
11,2
7,8
7,1
6,6
8,7
11,2
7,4
7,1
6,4
7,6
pH MEASUREMENT
pH AT ROOM TEMP. pH AFTER HEATING TO50-60C

55

Angle of repose () = tan
-1
(height /2 x base)
Angle of repose gives us an direct indication of the flow properties of the
powder particles. Lower the angle of repose better are the flow properties
of the fly ash particles.
Hence as seen in the table ukai fly ash sample shows the least angle of
repose and hence we conclude that it has the best flow properties while
gandhinagar fly ash sample has the higest angle of repose and hence must
be agitated or vibrated in order to achieve better flow. Rest of the samples
show intermediate angle of repose and hence posses sufficient flow
properties.

45,8
37,99
29,74
40,6
48,8
ANGLE OF REPOSE
ANGLE OF REPOSE

56

4.5 MORPHOLOGY OF FLY ASH PARTICLES BY
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

1. NAROLI 2. SONGADH

3. UKAI 4. WANAKBORI

5. GANDHINAGAR

57

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS:
Following conclusions were obtained from the SEM analysis done of the fly
ash samples. Instrument used was
1. NAROLI: it has large no. of coarse particles with stony appearance.
Jagged edges can be seen clearly in the photograph.
2. SONGADH: the photograph shows that it has mixed type of morphology
consisting of majority of particles having stony appearance mixed with a
small amount of particles having spherical nature.
3. UKAI: the particles here are spongy in nature large no. of pores and
jagged edges are seen in the photograph.
4. WANAKBORI: the particles are spherical and most of the particles have
been fused together to form globules as evident from the photograph.
5. GANDHINAGAR: the particles are totally spherical and ultrafine in
nature as seen in the photograph.


58

4.6 ENERGY DISPERSIVE SPECTROMETER (EDS)
ANALYSIS RESULS.

1. NAROLI FLY ASH SAMPLE
2/20/2009 1:43:48 PM
Spectrum processing :
No peaks omitted
Processing option : All elements analyzed
(Normalised)
Number of iterations = 4
Standard :
O SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Mg MgO 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Al Al2O3 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Si SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
S FeS2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Ca Wollastonite 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Fe Fe 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Eleme
nt
Weight
%
Atomic
%

O K 46.55 66.76
Mg K 1.45 1.37
Al K 5.00 4.25
Si K 8.95 7.31
S K 3.78 2.71
Ca K 21.80 12.48
Fe K 12.46 5.12

Totals 100.00

Comment: oxygen has combined with elements like Mg,
Al, Si, S etc to form respective oxides and so
2
and so
3


59

2.SONGADH FLY ASH SAMPLE
2/20/2009 2:21:54 PM
No peaks omitted
Processing option : All elements analyzed
(Normalised)
Standard :
O SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Al Al2O3 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Si SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
K MAD-10 Feldspar 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Ti Ti 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Fe Fe 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Element Weight% Atomic%

O K 55.11 69.91
Al K 12.24 9.20
Si K 23.70 17.13
K K 0.83 0.43
Ca K 1.94 0.98
Ti K 1.62 0.69
Fe K 4.55 1.65

Totals 100.00

Comment: oxygen has combined with elements like Mg, Al, Si, S etc to
form respective oxides and so
2
and so
3

Comment: oxygen has combined with elements like Mg, Al, Si, S
etc to form respective oxides and so
2
and so
3


60

3. UKAI FLY ASH SAMPLE.
2/20/2009 1:56:23 PM
Spectrum processing:
No peaks omitted

Processing option: All elements analyzed (Normalised)

Standard:
O SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Al Al2O3 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Si SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Fe Fe 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM


O K 53.28 68.25
Al K 12.74 9.68
Si K 25.47 18.59
Ca K 2.52 1.29
Fe K 5.99 2.20

Totals 100.00

2
and so
3


61

4. WANAKBORI FLY ASH SAMPLE
2/20/2009 2:09:25 PM
No peaks omitted

Processing option: All elements analyzed (Normalised)

Standard :
O SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Al Al2O3 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Si SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Ti Ti 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Fe Fe 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM


O K 53.02 67.61
Al K 13.90 10.51
Si K 26.11 18.97
K K 1.71 0.89
Ti K 1.73 0.73
Fe K 3.53 1.29

Totals 100.00

2
and so
3


62

5. GANDHINAGAR FLY ASH SAMPLE.
2/20/2009 2:47:18 PM
No peaks omitted

Processing option : All elements analyzed (Normalised)

Standard :
O SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Al Al2O3 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Si SiO2 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM
Fe Fe 1-Jun-1999 12:00 AM


O K 53.90 68.14
Al K 16.23 12.17
Si K 24.20 17.43
K K 1.41 0.73
Fe K 4.25 1.54

Totals 100.00

2
and so
3


63

4.7 EDXRF RESULTS

a) NAROLI FLY ASH
SR NO ANALYTE RESULT
1 CaO 49.582%
2 Fe
2
O
3
20.688%
3 SiO
2
11.873%
4 SO
3
9.084%
5 Al
2
O
3
5.377%
6 TiO
2
2.617%
7 MnO 0.314%
8 V
2
O
5
0.180%
9 SrO
2
0.136%
10 CuO 0.101%
11 ZrO
2
0.040%

DISCUSSION
As seen from the table Naroli fly ash sample has 49.582% of free lime
(CaO) which is very good to acquire high compressive strength when fly
ash is used as composite bricks. Large varieties of compounds are present
in the Naroli fly ash sample. From standard fly ash analysis Naroli fly ash
could have been generated by using Lignite coal.


64

b) SONGADH FLY ASH

DISCUSSION
As seen from the table major compounds are SiO
2
and Al
2
O
3
variety of
compounds are also present in trace amounts as seen in table. From
standard fly ash analysis Songadh fly ash could have been generated by
using bituminous coal.
1 SiO
2
50.002%
2 Al
2
O
3
23.111%
3 Fe
2
O
3
13.228%
4 CaO 4.228%
5 TiO2 3.614%
6 SO
3
2.821%
7 K
2
0 1.926%
8 MnO 0.191%
9 V
2
O
5
0.156%
10 ZrO
2
0.154%
11 SrO 0.076%
12 CuO 0.066%
13 NiO 0.058%
14 Y
2
O
3
0.036%

65

c).UKAI FLY ASH

1 SiO
2
48.079%
2 Al
2
O
3
22.378%
3 Fe
2
O
3
14.910%
4 CaO 5.717%
5 TiO
2
3.966%
6 SO
3
2.872%
7 K
2
0 1.426%
8 MnO 0.226%
9 ZrO
2
0.182%
10 V
2
O
5
0.163%
11 SrO 0.082%

DISCUSSION
2
and Al
2
O
3
variety of
standard fly ash analysis Ukai fly ash could have been generated by using
bituminous coal.


66

d) WANAKBORI FLY ASH

DISCUSSION
2
and Al
2
O
3
variety of
standard fly ash analysis Wanakbori fly ash could have been generated by
using bituminous coal.

1 SiO
2
53.509%
2 Al
2
O
3
26.662%
3 Fe
2
O
3
8.329%
4 TiO
2
3.908%
5 K
2
0 3.618%
6 SO
3
1.877%
7 CaO 1.600%
8 V
2
O
5
0.165%
9 ZrO
2
0.158%
10 SrO 0.080%
11 ZnO 0.060%
12 Y2O3 0.033%

67

e) GANDHINAGAR FLY ASH

1 SiO
2
48.005%
2 Al
2
O
3
28.638%
3 Fe
2
O
3
11.086%
4 TiO
2
4.132%
5 K
2
0 3.078%
6 CaO 2.565%
7 SO
3
1.616%
8 V
2
O
5
0.137%
9 ZnO 0.134%
10 MnO 0.133%
11 Ir
2
O
3
0.113%
12 ZrO
2
0.110%
13 SrO 0.088%
14 CuO 0.074%
15 Y
2
O
3
0.044%

DISCUSSION
Major compounds are SiO
2
and Al
2
O
3
variety of compounds are also
present in trace amounts as seen in table. From standard fly ash analysis
Gandhinagar fly ash could have been generated by using bituminous coal.

68

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS
The final conclusion based on all of the results is that Naroli fly ash has the
best properties overall and hence it can be used for any of the following
major applications:
1. Used for making composite bricks
2. Used for making pozolana cement with proper size reduction.
3. Used for substituting a part of cement
4. Used as backing material for roads embankments etc.
5. Flowable fill.
6. Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete.
7. Other applications include cellular concrete, geopolymers, roofing
tiles, paints, metal castings, and filler in wood and plastic
products
[27][28]

SONGADH, UKAI, WANAKBORI and GANDHINAGAR fly ash
samples are of CLASS F type of fly ash while NAROLI fly ash sample
is of CLASS C.
[21]

SIZE ANALYSIS: all the fly ash samples have average particle size
in the range of 75 - 125 (and hence greater than 45 ) and hence
cannot be used in cement without proper size reduction. As the
coarse particles cannot take part in the pozzolanic reactions readily
and hence sufficient strength cannot be achieved even after curing
for one year.

69

DENSITY MEASUREMENT: all the fly ash samples have adequate
density and compatibility and hence all the five fly ash can be used in
making composite bricks.
pH MEASUREMENT: As seen from the table Naroli fly ash sample is
highly basic with pH value of 11.2 while Wanakbori is mildly acidic
with pH value of 6.6. Gandhinagar and Songadh samples are mildly
basic or alkaline with pH values of 8.7 and 7.8 respectively. Ukai fly
ash sample is considered neutral with pH value of 7.1
Generally neutral and basic nature is preferred in almost all the above
mentioned applications.
ANGLE OF REPOSE MEASUREMENT: Angle of repose gives us an
direct indication of the flow properties of the powder particles. Lower
the angle of repose better are the flow properties of the fly ash
particles.
Hence as seen in the table ukai fly ash sample shows the least angle
of repose and hence we conclude that it has the best flow properties
while Gandhinagar fly ash sample has the highest angle of repose
and hence must be agitated or vibrated in order to achieve better
flow. Rest of the samples show intermediate angle of repose and
hence posses sufficient flow properties.
DETERMINATION OF MORPHOLOGY BY SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE (SEM):
1. NAROLI: it has large no. of coarse particles with stony
appearance. Jagged edges can be clearly seen.

70

2. SONGADH: it has mixed type of morphology consisting of majority
of particles having stony appearance mixed with a small amount of
particles having spherical nature.
3. UKAI: the particles here are spongy in nature large no. of pores
and jagged edges are seen.
4. WANAKBORI: the particles are spherical and most of the particles
have been fused together to form globules.
5. GANDHINAGAR: the particles are totally spherical and ultrafine in
nature.
EDS AND XRF ANALYSIS: Naroli fly ash sample has around 50%
free lime (CaO) which is helpful in achieving higher strength in bricks
and cement.
all samples contain around 2% SO
3
(except Naroli which has 9%)

which is a very harmful green house gas and hence must be removed
or entrapped in the ash by using different methods(ref)
all fly ash contains
fly ash may contain pyrosulphide (Na
2
S
2
O
7
) if present in excess then
it is problematic as it causes fouling tendency. (Ref)
Fly ash samples also contain rare earth metal oxides such as
vanadium pentaoxide (V
2
O
5
) iridium oxide (Ir
2
O
3
)yitrium oxide
(Y
2
O
3
)zirconium oxide (ZrO
2
) strontium oxide(SrO) titanium
oxide(TiO
2
) etc in trace amounts.


71

CHAPTER 6

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

Various methods of brick preparation suitable for the production of fly
ash bricks
Study of the effect of variation of composition, amount of binder
added, etc while making composite fly ash bricks to find out the
optimum composition to achieve optimum properties in such
composite bricks.
To study the mechanical and chemical properties of fly ash composite
bricks.


72

CHAPTER 7

REFERENCES

1) Managing Coal Combustion Residues in Mines, Committee on Mine
Placement of Coal Combustion Wastes, National Research Council
of the National Academies, 2006
2) Human and Ecological Risk Assessment of Coal Combustion
Wastes, RTI, Research Triangle Park, August 6, 2007, prepared for
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
3) American Coal Ash Association. "CCP Production and Use Survey"
http://www.acaausa.org
4) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Using Coal Ash in Highway
Construction - A Guide to Benefits and Impacts" http://www.epa.gov.
5) American Coal Ash Association www.acaa-usa.org.
6) Lamarre, L. (1994), Building from Ash, EPRI Journal, Vol. 19,
April/May, pp. 22-28.
7) Nelson, K (1997) Aggregate, Geotimes, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 42-43.
8) "ASTM C618 - 08 Standard Specifications for Coal Fly Ash and Raw
or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete". ASTM
International. http://www.astm.org, Retrieved on 2008-09-18.

73

9) Federal Highway Administration and American Coal Ash Association.
Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers. Report No. FHWA-SA-94-081,
Washington, DC, December, 1995.
10) Babcock and Wilcox Company. Steam. Its Generation and Use.
New York, NY, 1978.
11) National Thermal power corporation (www.ntpc.co.in)
12) Electric Power Research Institute 3412 Hillview Road Palo Alto,
California 94304
13) "Standard Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolan for Use as Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement
Concrete," American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book
of ASTM Standards
14) DiGioia, Anthony M., Jr. and William L. Nuzzo. "Fly Ash as
Structural Fill," Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Journal of the Power Division, New York, NY, June 1972.
15) Popular Science Magazine, INVENTION AWARDS : A Green Brick,
May 2007.
16) National Science Foundation, Press Release 07-058, "Follow the
'Green' Brick Road", May 22, 2007.
17) ASTM C204. "Test Method for Fineness of Portland Cement by Air
Permeability Apparatus," American Society for Testing and Materials,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.02, West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, 1994.

74

18) OIKOS green building source Why use Fly ash by Howard ruff
19) Shri Sudhir Mathur, Head of Geotechnical Engineering Division
20) Central Road Research Institute, P.O CRRI, Delhi Mathura Road,
NEW DELHI
21) McKerall, W.C., W.B. Ledbetter, and D. J. Teague. Analysis of Fly
Ashes Produced in Texas. Texas Transportation Institute, Research
Report No. 240-1, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas,
1982.
22) Meyers, James F., Raman Pichumani and Bernadette S. Kapples.
Fly Ash. A Highway Construction Material. Federal Highway
Administration, Report No. FHWA-IP-76-16, Washington, DC, 1976.
23) Engineering properties from www.wikipedia.com
24) www.pharmacopeia.cn/v29240/usp29nf24s0_c1174.html
25) Lecture of Ash Reaction by Mr. D J Wadiwala, Altret Pvt. Ltd.
26) www.altret.co.in
27) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
"Using Coal Ash in Highway Construction - A Guide to Benefits
and Impacts" (PDF).
28) U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Fly Ash".

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