SDC R 90163 Final Design Manual Coastal Protection

Manual for Design of Coastal
Protection Works

November 2009

Sea Defence Consultants
Aceh and Nias Sea Defence, Flood Protection, Escapes and
Early Warning System Project

Aceh Nias Sea Defence, Flood Protection, Escapes
and Early Warning Project
BRR Concept Note / INFRA 300GI

Manual for Design of Coastal
Protection Works

November 2009

SDC-R-90163

SEA DEFENCE CONSULTANTS
www.seadefenceconsultants.com

Manual for Design of Coastal Protection Works, November 2009

Aceh Nias Sea Defence, Flood Protection, Escapes and Early Warning Project
i
PREFACE
This document is prepared within the Sea Defence, Flood Protection, Escapes and Early Warning System
Project, further referred to as SDC, and is part of a framework of documents. This framework and the function
of the documents within are described in more detail in the Introduction and should lead to a national standard
in coastal protection along the Indonesian coasts.

The Design Manual lying before you offers a detailed elaboration of design rules and calculations for different
types of coastal protection measures. The manual aims at engineers who are responsible for the detailed design
of coastal works in Indonesia, and is accompanied by the Guidelines for Coastal Protection. The Guidelines
provides very useful background information for engineers especially on the functional design considerations of
coastal works. For full understanding, it is recommended to use both the guidelines and the manual.

SDC, November 2009

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface .........................................................................................i
Table of Contents .............................................................................. ii
Definitions of coastal parameters ......................................................... iv
List of Figures................................................................................... v
List of Tables ................................................................................... vi
List of Symbols.................................................................................vii
List of Equations..............................................................................viii
1 Introduction ............................................................................. 1
1.1 Coastal protection in Indonesia ..................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose and use of guidelines and design manual................................................................ 2
1.3 Lay-out of the Manual................................................................................................. 3
2 Data acquisition ........................................................................ 4
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Bathymetry ............................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Hydraulic conditions .................................................................................................. 4
2.3.1 Wind data .................................................................................................... 4
2.3.2 Wave data.................................................................................................... 4
2.3.3 Tidal data .................................................................................................... 5
2.3.4 Currents ...................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Results................................................................................................................... 5
3 soft measures ........................................................................... 7
3.1 Beach and dune rehabilitation ...................................................................................... 7
3.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 7
3.1.2 Beach and dune vegetation ............................................................................... 7
3.1.3 Sand fencing/trapping ..................................................................................... 9
3.2 Mangroves..............................................................................................................10
3.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................10
3.2.2 Storm wave reduction.....................................................................................10
3.2.3 Tsunami impact reduction ...............................................................................10
3.3 Beach and foreshore nourishment .................................................................................10
3.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................10
3.3.2 Nourishment ................................................................................................10
4 hard measures (onshore) ........................................................... 10
4.1 Tidal wall ..............................................................................................................10
4.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................10
4.1.2 Design considerations and process ......................................................................10
4.1.3 Concrete tidal wall, without bed protection..........................................................10
4.1.4 Concrete tidal wall, with rubble mound bed protection ............................................10
4.2 Sea dike ................................................................................................................10
4.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................10
4.2.3 Sea dike, with armour layer wave protection.........................................................10
4.2.4 Sea dike, with armour layer wave protection and special toe .....................................10

iii
4.2.5 Sea dike, without wave protection .....................................................................10
4.3 Sea wall ................................................................................................................10
4.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................10
4.3.3 Rubble mound seawall ....................................................................................10
4.3.4 Rubble mound seawall, with special toe...............................................................10
5 Hard measures (offshore) .......................................................... 10
5.1 Groynes.................................................................................................................10
5.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................10
5.1.3 Rubble mound groynes ....................................................................................10
5.2 Detached offshore breakwaters ....................................................................................10
5.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................10
5.2.2 Design considerations .....................................................................................10
5.2.3 Rubble mound detached breakwaters ..................................................................10
List of References............................................................................ 10
Appendix A Coastal conditions ........................................................... 10

iv
DEFINITIONS OF COASTAL PARAMETERS

COASTAL AREA: The land and sea areas bordering the shoreline.
COAST: The strip of land that extends from the coastline inland to the first major change in the
terrain features. The main types of coast features are the following: Dune areas, Cliff areas and Low
lying areas, possibly protected by dikes or seawalls etc.
COASTAL HINTERLAND: The land that extends landward of the coast and which is not influenced by
coastal processes.
COASTLINE: Technically the line that forms the boundary between the COAST and the SHORE, i.e. the
foot of the cliff or the foot of the dunes. Commonly, the line that forms the boundary between the
land and the water.
SHORE or BEACH: The zone of unconsolidated material that extends from the low water-line to the
line of permanent vegetation (the effective limit of storm waves). The shore can be divided into the
foreshore and the backshore. The foreshore, also called the beach face, is the area between mean
low water spring and mean high water spring plus the up rush zone.
SHORELINE: The intersection between the mean high water-line and the shore.
SHOREFACE or LITTORAL ZONE: The zone extending seaward from the low water-line to some distance
beyond the breaker-zone. The littoral zone is the zone in which the littoral processes take place;
these are mainly the long-shore transport, also referred to as the littoral drift, and the cross-shore
transport. The width of the instantaneous littoral zone of course depends on the wave conditions.
BREAKER-ZONE or SURF-ZONE: There is no clear definition of the breaker-zone, but it can be defined
as the zone extending seaward from the shoreline that is exposed to depth-limited breaking waves.
The outer limit of the breaker-zone is called the BREAKER-LINE. The instantaneous width of the surf-
zone varies of course with the instantaneous wave conditions.
NEARSHORE ZONE: The zone extending seaward from the low water-line well beyond the breaker-
zone; it defines the area influenced by the nearshore currents. The nearshore zone extends somewhat
further seawards than the littoral zone.
CLOSURE DEPTH: The depth beyond which no significant longshore and cross-shore transports take
place due to littoral transport processes. The closure depth can thus be defined as the depth at the
seaward boundary of the littoral zone.


v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Islands and provinces Indonesia................................................................................... 1
Figure 1-2: General set-up of the Design Manual and its broader context ............................................... 3
Figure 3-1: Illustrations of Ipomoea pes-carpae.............................................................................. 8
Figure 3-2: Illustrations of beach grass ........................................................................................ 8
Figure 3-3: Example of sand fencing with wooden slats (Indonesia) or sticks (Tunisia)................................ 9
Figure 3-4: Mangrove planting along the coast and a mangrove root system...........................................10
Figure 3-5: Wind wave transmission through 100 m mangroves (Schiereck and Booij, 1995) ........................10
Figure 3-6: Main design elements nourishment ..............................................................................10
Figure 3-7: Illustration of active profile height and beach width grow after nourishment ...........................10
Figure 3-8: Illustration options of placement in cross-profile (note: other options also possible) ..................10
Figure 3-9: Distribution of placed nourishment in longshore direction ..................................................10
Figure 4-1: The sheltered position of a tidal wall in the cross-profile...................................................10
Figure 4-2: An example of a concrete tidal wall (Singkil, Sumatra)......................................................10
Figure 4-3: Typical cross-profile concrete tidal wall .......................................................................10
Figure 4-4: Main design elements concrete tidal wall ......................................................................10
Figure 4-5: Wind set-up increasing the water level .........................................................................10
Figure 4-6: Crest height concrete tidal wall .................................................................................10
Figure 4-7: Vertical equilibrium behind the structure......................................................................10
Figure 4-8: Piping length of a tidal wall ......................................................................................10
Figure 4-9: Forces on a concrete tidal wall ..................................................................................10
Figure 4-10: Failure mechanisms for an earth retaining tidal wall .......................................................10
Figure 4-11: Forces during HAT and LAT conditions ........................................................................10
Figure 4-12: Bed protection with geo-textile, gravel- and armour layer ................................................10
Figure 4-13: The position of a robust sea dike in the cross-profile.......................................................10
Figure 4-14: A clay dike with rubble mound wave protection along the Dutch coast .................................10
Figure 4-15: Typical cross-profile sea dike (with armour layer wave protection)......................................10
Figure 4-16: Main design elements sea dike..................................................................................10
Figure 4-17: Design wave height at the structure depends on breaker plunge distance..............................10
Figure 4-18: breaker index at the toe of the structure (from SPM,1984)................................................10
Figure 4-19: Definition of stone d
n50
and layer thickness t ................................................................10
Figure 4-20: Different cross-sectional designs and their permeability parameters ....................................10
Figure 4-21: Geo-textile, gravel and filter layers ...........................................................................10
Figure 4-22: Scour development in short-term erosion.....................................................................10
Figure 4-23: Definition of L
t
and d
s
............................................................................................10
Figure 4-24: Scour development with long-term erosion...................................................................10
Figure 4-25: The position of a sea wall in the cross-profile ...............................................................10
Figure 4-26: An example of a rubble mound seawall (Pasi lhok, Sumatra)..............................................10
Figure 4-27: Typical cross-profile rubble mound seawall ..................................................................10
Figure 4-28: Main design elements rubble mound seawall .................................................................10
Figure 4-29: Definition of design water level h and freeboard R
c
at a seawall .........................................10

vi
Figure 4-30: Illustration of threat wave overtopping a sea wall ..........................................................10
Figure 5-1: Lay-out scheme of a groyne field................................................................................10
Figure 5-2: An example of a groyne system..................................................................................10
Figure 5-3: Main design elements rubble mound groynes ..................................................................10
Figure 5-4: The trunk and head of the groyne ...............................................................................10
Figure 5-5: Layout scheme of a detached breakwater field ...............................................................10
Figure 5-6: An example of a detached breakwater system (Lakkopetra, Greece) .....................................10
Figure 5-7: Main design elements rubble mound detached breakwaters ................................................10
Figure 5-8: Trunk and head at a breakwater.................................................................................10

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1: Piping parameters for different soil materials .................................................................10
Table 4-2: Values for S for different damage levels and outer slopes ...................................................10

vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS

All water levels and water depths used in this manual are relative to local MSL. If
the local benchmark Bakosurtanal is preferred, it should therefore be
translated to MSL per location according to the available data.

B : width of the structure
[m]
B
prot
: width of the bed protection
[m]
C
creep
: piping coefficient
[-]
d : water depth
[m]
d
n50
: nominal stone diameter
[m]

The stone diameter d
n
is the diameter of a fictitious equivalent stone cube
(note: not a sphere, which would results in d
s
). The nominal stone diameter d
n50

is exceeded by 50% of the stones in its grading.

d
s
: scouring depth
[m]
g : gravitational acceleration
[m/s
2
]
h : design water level
[m +MSL]
H
1/1
: wave height with frequency of occurrence 1/1 year
[m]
H
1/25
: wave height with frequency of occurrence 1/25 years
[m]
HAT : Highest Astronomical tight
[m]
h
c
: height of clay embankment
[m]
h
set-up
: Wind set-up
[m]
H
d
: driving horizontal force
[kN]
H
r
: resisting horizontal force
[kN]
H
s
: local significant wave height
[m]
L
0
: deep water wave length
[m]
LAT : Lowest Astronomical Tide (relative to MSL)
[m]
L
p
: piping length
[m]
LS : Land Subsidence
[m]
L
t
: width of the toe construction
[m]
Md : driving resisting moment
[kNm]
M
r
: resisting turning moment
[kNm]
MSL : Mean Sea Level:

N : number of waves
[-]
P : permeability coefficient
[-]
P
c
vert
: vertical clay pressure
[N/m
2
]
P
w
vert
: vertical water pressure
[N/m
2
]
R
c
: freeboard
[m]
R
u2%
: wave run-up height
[m]
S : damage number
[-]
SLR : Sea Level Rise
[m]
t : layer thickness
[m]
T
p
: wave peak period
[s]
V
d
: driving vertical force
[kN]
V
r
: resisting vertical force
[kN]
W
50
: nominal stone weight exceeded by 50% of stones in its grading
[kg]
z : crest height
[m]
: slope angle
[]
: relative density
[-]
H : water head difference
[m]
cr
: critical surf similarity parameter
[-]

viii
p
: surf similarity parameter
[-]
q
: overtopping surf similarity
[-]
c
: volumetric density of clay
[kg/m
3
]
s
: armour stone density
[kg/m
3
]
w
: volumetric density of (sea)water
[kg/m
3
]
LIST OF EQUATIONS
{parameter} based on {source} Modified?
[Eq. 1] : design water level SDC, Baseline Volume IV, 2009 N
[Eq. 2] : Wind set-up Rock Manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 3] : crest height SDC, Baseline Volume IV, 2009 N
[Eq. 4] : water pressure Verruijt, 2004 N
[Eq. 5] : soil pressure Verruijt, 2004 N
[Eq. 6] : safety to heave Van Baars, 2006 N
[Eq. 7] : piping length Schiereck, 2001 N
[Eq. 8] : piping length Schiereck, 2001 Y
[Eq. 9] : safety to uplifting Van Baars, 2006 N
[Eq. 10] : safety to sliding Van Baars, 2006 N
[Eq. 11] : safety to overturning Van Baars, 2006 N
[Eq. 12] : safety to soil foundation failure Van Baars, 2006 Y
[Eq. 13] : layer thickness Schiereck, 2001 N
[Eq. 14] : bed protection Best practice -
[Eq. 15] : crest height SDC, Baseline Volume IV, 2009 N
[Eq. 16] : surf similarity parameter Rock manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 17] : deep water wave length Schiereck, 2001 N
[Eq. 18] : local significant wave height Expert judgement -
[Eq. 19] : wave run-up Rock manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 20] : wave run-up Rock manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 21] : maximal wave run-up Rock manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 22] : overtopping discharge Rock manual, 2007 Y
[Eq. 23] : maximal overtopping discharge Rock manual, 2007 Y
[Eq. 24] : stone stability, plunging (d<3H) Rock manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 25] : stone stability, surging (d<3H) Rock manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 26] : critical surf similarity Rock manual, 2007 N
[Eq. 27] : nominal stone weight Schiereck, 2001 N
[Eq. 28] : layer thickness Schiereck, 2001 N
[Eq. 29] : filter dimensions Rock manual, 1994 N
[Eq. 30] : filter dimensions Rock manual, 1994 N
[Eq. 31] : stone size reduction toe Schiereck, 2001 N
[Eq. 32] : erosion depth Schiereck, 2001 N
[Eq. 33] : toe width Best practice -
[Eq. 34] : Closure depth Coastal Engineering Volume 4, 1981 Y
[Eq. 35] : hanging apron width best practice -
[Eq. 36] : 90% transport depth-line SDC, Baseline Volume IV, 2009 N
[Eq. 37] : groyne height Best practice -
[Eq. 38] : breakwater distance CEM, 2002 Y
[Eq. 39] : 90% transport depth-line SDC, Baseline Volume IV, 2009 N
[Eq. 40] : breakwater length CEM, 2002 Y
[Eq. 41] : gap between breakwaters CEM, 2002 Y
[Eq. 42] : wave transmission freeboard Rock manual, 1994 N

1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 COASTAL PROTECTION IN INDONESIA

Indonesia is an archipelagic country, with more than 17,000 islands and over 80,000 km of coastline (see Figure
1-1). Along this extremely long coastline, coastal erosion and coastal flooding are significant and frequently
occurring natural threats. These threats are expected to increase further in the future due to climate change
and ongoing land subsidence. To manage the coastal threats, either by prevention or adaptation, coastal
protection programs are required in many places in Indonesia. A short description of coastal erosion issues and
coastal flooding issues in Indonesia is given in Box 1-1.

Figure 1-1: Islands and provinces Indonesia

Coastal protection measures may provide insufficient protection or can even have adverse effects if
inappropriately planned or improperly designed, built and maintained. Knowledge of coastal processes and the
functioning of different types of coastal protection measures are therefore of key importance in planning and
designing viable and sustainable coastal protection programs.

Once implemented in a coastal protection program, the measures should be properly designed to fulfil the
adopted functional- and structural requirements. This Manual aims to provide guidance to coastal engineers
responsible for the design and addresses subjects as data acquisition, design considerations (e.g. materials,
allocation, etc.), calculation formulae and the pre-set order of design steps.

It should be noted that appropriate coastal zone management and functional design considerations should
always precede the design process from this manual. Therefore, accompanying this national Design Manual, a
Guideline for coastal protection was drafted. Concluding, the following documents have been prepared:

Guidelines for Coastal Protection
Manual for Design of Coastal Protection (document in front of you)


2
Box 1-1: Erosion and flooding issues in Indonesia

1.2 PURPOSE AND USE OF GUIDELINES AND DESIGN MANUAL

Where the guidelines provide specific guidance to managers of local RR authorities (e.g. SDA, Bappeda etc.)
and e.g. NGOs or private development companies, this manual aims at engineers who are responsible for the
detailed design of coastal works in RR.

It should be noted however, that engineers will find useful background information in the Guidelines for
Coastal Protection: especially the functional design considerations of coastal works. For full understanding, it
is recommended to use both the guidelines and this manual.

Set-up of Manual for Design of Coastal Protection
The set-up of this design manual is straightforward: the four basic approaches determine the overall grouping
of every coastal protection measure. Protection measures from three of these approaches are discussed in this
manual: soft measures, hard measures (onshore) and hard measures (offshore). Adaptation measures are
discussed in the Guidelines (see Figure 1-2).

The set-up of design is very uniform: the main elements of each measure are designed in a pre-set order,
clearly presented in well structured steps. Every step towards a proper structural design is being described,
including detailed design rules and formulae for each step. Throughout each chapter one calculation example
is shown, each design step goes accompanied by an example calculation in a greenly coloured box. Where
necessary the assumptions are being treated with optimisation options (other use of material, variation in
location, variations in dimensions or considerations relating to costs, maintenance or construction) in side
steps and yellowish coloured variation boxes.

Coastal erosion issues
Coastal erosion has increased in Indonesia since the 1970s, due to the convertion of mangrove forests into shrimp ponds
and other aquaculture activities. Other causes for increased erosion have been unmanaged coastal development,
diversion of upland freshwater and damming of rivers. According to different sources, coastal erosion has been reported
throughout many provinces in Indonesia, including amongst others Lampung, Northeast Sumatra, Kalimantan, West
Sumatra (Padang), Nusa Tenggara, Papua, South Sulawesi, northern Java and Bali.

In Bali, several coastal protection schemes were planned and implemented to protect the valuable coastal tourism asset.
The implemented schemes included breakwaters, jetties and revetments but also nourishments. These structures were
effective in stopping coastal erosion to some extent; however the structures were considered a major sight disturbance
on the beautiful and touristic beaches of Bali.

Coastal flooding issues
Two types of coastal flooding can be identified; tidal flooding and tsunami flooding. Regular tidal flooding usually occurs
on a relatively small scale in specific low-lying certain areas (below normal high tide levels). Tidal flooding on a larger
scale can occur during extreme events and is expected to increase in the future due to land subsidence. For example in
Jakarta and Semarang, significant land subsidence is ongoing due to groundwater extraction. Large-scaled tidal flooding
has already occurred during extreme spring tide in 2007 and 2008, however due to ongoing land subsidence in a few
decades a normal springtide may cause large-scaled flooding as well. Land subsidence and increased tidal flooding can
also be caused by earthquakes, which occur frequently in Indonesia.

Tsunami flooding usually has a low frequency of occurrence but a major impact. The tsunami hazard therefore requires
a different approach. It was concluded from several studies that structural protection against large tsunamis is
technically difficult and very expensive. Moreover, the chance of occurrence for a certain tsunami wave height is very
difficult to predict and will always be surrounded by uncertainties. If a larger tsunami wave occurs than the design event
taken into account, a protective wall or breakwater may only increase the impact (damage and mainly loss of life)
because of a false sense of security behind the protective wall or breakwater. Concluding, for tsunami flooding,
implementation of adaption measures are recommended to minimize the loss of life. Large tsunami protection structures
are not considered to be economically feasible nor are they considered recommendable from a safety point of view.

3
Figure 1-2: General set-up of the Design Manual and its broader context

Decision for intervention
Coastal protection
Regional strategy
Design Manual
Rehabilitation,
Nourishment, etc.
Tidal wall, Sea dike,
Sea wall, etc.
Detached breakwater,
Groyne system, etc.
Hard measures
(onshore)
Hard measures
(offshore)
Soft measures
Warning System, Raising
houses, Relocation, etc.
Adaptation.
Data collection for
specific measure
Guidelines
Database
Databooks

Framework of the Design Manual
The national Design Manual for Coastal Protection is set up as a part of a framework of documents. Based on
the regional strategy and the guidelines for coastal protection a decision is made for intervention in the
coastal system. Data collection is required to acquire sufficiently accurate data about the local physical
properties (tides, waves, water levels etc.), depending on the measure opted for. A database in combination
with the Databooks can provide such information. If not available, local data acquisition is discussed in this
Manual. Depending on the approach following from the regional strategy, the protection measure is either
discussed in the guidelines (Adaptation) or in this manual.

Guidelines for Coastal Protection
The Design Manual is accompanied by the Guidelines for Coastal Protection. While the Manual offers a more
detailed elaboration of design rules and calculations for different types of coastal protection measures, the
Guidelines provides very useful background information for engineers especially on the functional design
considerations of coastal works. For full understanding, it is recommended to use both the guidelines and the
manual.
1.3 LAY-OUT OF THE MANUAL

Local coastal conditions are indispensable for the design of protection measures. Data acquisition (if no- or
insufficient data is available from the Databooks) is therefore the first subject to be addressed.
Chapter 2: Data Acquisition

From that point forward, the chapters are organized based on the three basic approaches discussed in this
manual:
Chapter 3: Soft measures
Chapter 4: Hard measures (onshore)
Chapter 5: Hard measures (offshore)


4
2 DATA ACQUISITION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of coastal protection works is based on site-specific data of the coastal conditions. The availability
and quality of data for the project location can be evaluated with an online geo-based database, wherein 10
km stretches of Indonesian coastline are specified. If no data (or database) is available one can obtain the
necessary data as indicated below.
2.2 BATHYMETRY
The local bathymetry influences hydraulic conditions such as wave parameters, tidal propagation, sediment
transports and water level set-up. These hydraulic conditions subsequently determine the design conditions
such as wave attack and design water levels used for coastal protection works. Reliable bathymetric data is
therefore of key importance for designing coastal protection works.

The bathymetry can be obtained either by digitizing nautical charts (available at the Tentara Nasional
Indonesia Angkatan Laut or Dinas Hidro-Oseanografi) or by conducting detailed bathymetric surveys.
Offshore bathymetry based on satellite data can be obtained from international institutions such as NOAA.

Because the coastal zone is a dynamic system, the bathymetry might change considerably during different
seasons and/or after (extreme) events with morphological consequences (storms, tsunamis etc.). Note that
nautical charts are based on historical observations and might therefore differ from the current bathymetry
and/or the results from bathymetric surveys, which are based on instantaneous observations.

Interpolation software provides tools to transform the depth samples from surveys or nautical charts into a
covering map of the sea bottom. Cross-profiles perpendicular to the coast normal are either deducted from
this sea map, or are surveyed separately.
2.3 HYDRAULIC CONDITIONS
2.3.1 Wind data
Wind data is important in coastal engineering for its influence on local generated waves and the calculation of
water level set-up. Because Indonesia is located around the equator, the influence from the earth rotation
(Coriolis-effect) on the atmospheric wind systems is negligibly small. Strong winds are therefore quite
uncommon and their influence is relatively small.

Offshore wind time series at 10 m above the water surface - are available from international institutes such
as the ECMWF (European Centre for the Medium-range Weather Forecast) or based on satellite observations
(e.g. from Argoss). With a statistical analysis of the wind data (i.e. Extreme Value Analysis), extreme wind
speeds and directions for certain return periods can be determined. Winds blowing in the direction away from
the project location will not induce water level set-up (it might actually induce water level set-down) and
should not be taken into account.

The maximum wind speed U
10
for a chosen return period is used in this manual to calculate the wind set-up.

2.3.2 Wave data
Local wave conditions depend heavily on the offshore bathymetric features such as land boundaries, offshore
islands and water depth. These waves can be generated by local winds (sea-state) or by distant storms (swell)
and change their characteristics as they propagate into shallower water. The wave climate in the nearshore
area (see Definitions of Coastal Parameters) is thus determined by the offshore wave climate.

5

The most reliable nearshore wave climate is determined from measurements over a longer period of time
(~several years) that includes the seasonal variety during monsoons etc. With the help of statistical analysis of
the wave data (i.e. Extreme Value Analysis), extreme wave heights and wave periods can be determined for
different wave directions. The maximum wave conditions should be used for the extreme nearshore wave
conditions.

If no wave measurements in the nearshore area are available, 2D wave modelling should be applied to transfer
offshore wave parameters to nearshore wave parameters. Offshore time series based on hindcast models are
available from international institutes such as the ECMWF (European Centre for the Medium-range Weather
Forecast) or based on satellite observations (e.g. from Argoss). As for the measured wave data, statistical
analysis is used to determine the offshore extreme wave parameters for different wave directions. These
parameters are transferred to the nearshore location with the 2D model. The maximum wave conditions at the
nearshore location are used as extreme nearshore wave conditions.

In this manual, use is made of the wave height H
s
and wave period T
p
with a 1/year return period, as well as H
s

and T
p
with a return period of the chosen design safety level.

2.3.3 Tidal data
Long term tidal observations (~30 years) provide the most reliable and accurate data on water level
fluctuations including monthly-, seasonal- and yearly variations. Less accurate tidal data might be available in
the form of collected sets of tidal constituents from e.g. Indonesian Tide Tables (ITT), IHO database or the
Admiralty Tide Tables (ATT). However, these sets of tidal constituents contain only the major constituents
that contribute to the tidal signal and are only available for specific locations such as major harbours and
larger cities along the coast. In general, seasonal and yearly fluctuations of the tidal signal can not be derived
from these constituents alone. For certain locations, monthly- and daily variations of the water level might
also be available from the nautical charts. This data will not include seasonal and yearly variations and will
only contain the maximum and minimum water levels from which no time series or tidal constituents can be
derived.

If no reliable data is available (either because no constituents for the specific location can be obtained or no
observations have been carried out), the best way to obtain reliable tidal data is setting up a measuring
program, preferably over a longer period (~several years). Tidal constituents can be derived from the
measured water levels with harmonic analysis software such as Delft3D-TIDE.

Because in most coastal protection works the available time is limited, setting up long term observation
programs is in general unviable. Tidal modelling is in these cases the best option to determine the tidal data.
These models provide data with the minimum accuracy level that is required. Boundary conditions for such
tidal models should be offshore tidal constituents (based on global satellite observations, e.g. from the
Tpxo6.2 model) and/or tidal constituents at locations nearby. Measured tidal constituents and water levels can
be used to validate the model results.

To include the yearly cyclic effects, in this manual use is made of the HAT (= Highest Astronomical Tide) and
LAT (= Lowest Astronomical Tide). These values represent the highest and lowest water levels respectively
that occur during a full year.

2.3.4 Currents
Currents in the coastal zone can be induced by monsoon winds, wave action, tidal action and large scale ocean
currents. Especially in areas where large water level gradients are present, related to the tide as well as large-
scale water level variations, relatively strong currents can be induced. This is often the case along islands or
such which act as a barrier for the propagation of the tidal wave. Information on the ocean currents can be
obtained from tidal stream atlases or determined with a 2D tidal model.
2.4 RESULTS
The results from the data acquisition should be properly organised to be readily implemented in the design
process. As an example the results are shown here for the fictitious location X2. The coastal conditions used in
the examples are appended in Appendix A.


6
Bathymetry
The coastal profile (in [m +MSL]) is drawn from the sea map. Below, only the part up to 100 m from the
structure toe is shown. In practice, the profile with a distance up to the nearshore area (where the wave
parameters are determined) has to be established.

-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
MSL
Coastal profile: location X2

Hydraulic conditions
The hydraulic conditions determined from the measurement program or model results are tabulated as below.
In this case, a return period of 25 years is adopted as safety level.

Wind Wave Tide Current
U
10
[m] H
1/1
[m] T
1/1
[s] H
1/25
[m] T
1/25
[m] LAT [m +MSL] HAT [m +MSL] v
max
[m/s]
15 1.95 15.3 3.2 16.9 -0.57 +0.58 0.07

7
3 SOFT MEASURES
3.1 BEACH AND DUNE REHABILITATION
3.1.1 Introduction
Coastal beaches and dunes have a value well beyond that of habitat, serving as coastal protection and
preservation in several ways. Continuous barrier dunes serve as flexible barriers to storm surges and waves and
are of particular value in affording protection to low-lying backshore areas and in helping to preserve the
integrity of low barrier islands. Beaches and dunes provide protection more effectively and at a lower cost
than a seawall. For example, the most densely populated areas of the Netherlands, which are largely situated
below sea level, are protected against coastal flooding only by sand dunes.

Dunes depend on beach sand for their formation and beaches need the reservoir of dune sand during storms.
Consequently, the beach and dune should be managed as a single unit in terms of sand balance. There should
be a large area of dry-sand beach over which the wind can blow and pick up the sand grains to build up the
dunes. Unless a dry-sand beach is present, dune formation is unlikely to take place.

Vegetation can play an important role in holding sediment together and thereby decreasing beach and dune
erosion rates. Dune restoration refers to the process that aims to return the shoreline system to a dune system
that existed before (whether or not this was pristine). The goal of this process is to emulate the structure,
functioning, diversity and dynamics of the dune ecosystem using reference dune systems as models. Dunes can
provide protection against flooding and erosion in storm events and tidal inundation of the hinterland. Re-
greening of the coastal area consists of artificially planting vegetation on sandy dunes and higher beaches,
with the objective to trap the sand and to make it available for the dynamic process of the beach and for
coastal protection. Dune vegetation promotes large-scale trapping of sand.

3.1.2 Beach and dune vegetation
Vegetation on beach and dunes has the following functions in coastal protection:

The vegetation reduces wind speed in the contact area between wind and sand. The sand cannot be
picked up by the reduced wind and will remain in placed (sand trap).
The roots of plants form a kind of natural geo-textile in the top layer of the sand. This increases the
strength and erosion resistance.
Vegetation will prevent sand transport further inland, decreasing potential hinder to roads or urban
areas in the hinterland.

Suitable species for regreening in saline conditions in Indonesia are (for example): Ipomoea pes-carpae and
beach grass. The main considerations to take into account are described below for both types.

Ipomoea pes-carpae
Ipomoea pes-carpae (beach morning glory) is a fast growing creeper on sand in saline conditions that
is abundant in the Indonesian coastal zone. Wide areas can be covered in Ipomea.
Cuttings can be harvested in areas where Ipomea grows abundantly; there is no need for preparing
seedlings in nurseries.
Cuttings must be planted in the wet sand under the top layer of dry sand. The top of the cutting
should be higher than the dry sand top surface of the beach, to prevent it from being covered by the
dry sand before rooting properly.


8
Figure 3-1: Illustrations of Ipomoea pes-carpae
Ipomoea pes-caprae Creeping forward, covering large areas
Uprooted branches Cutting of Ipomea

Beach grass
Beach grass is a grass that follows behind the Ipomea in the race of covering up the sand. Its a grass
with fine stems that from its roots form new branches, growing out of the surface of the sand. It
multiplies by growing forward by roots, thus forming a perfect network of roots in the sand,
preventing erosion.
Beach grass can be found abundantly along the Indonesian coast, allowing uprooting of plants in
sufficient quantity. There is no need for preparing seedlings in nurseries.

Figure 3-2: Illustrations of beach grass
Beach grass front, following the Ipomea Uprooted beach grass stems

9

3.1.3 Sand fencing/trapping
Sand fencing on beach and dunes has the following functions in coastal protection:

Sand fences reduce the wind speed, and in this way stop the sand from being transported by the
wind. The sand is trapped at the very place of the screens of sticks etc. In this way, sand fences
speed up the process of sand dune build-up.

Sand fencing can be executed on a community level. Generally locally available materials that can be acquired
at low costs are used. Sand fences can consist of sticks, leaves, branches, reed or other natural available
materials.

Figure 3-3: Example of sand fencing with wooden slats (Indonesia) or sticks (Tunisia)

According to (GTZ, 2007) the following design considerations apply:

Fences should be placed near the natural vegetation line or dune line
Sand fences usually consist of vertical wooden slats joined by wire and supported at 1 m intervals by
fence posts which are hammered deep into the sand.
The space between the slats should be about the same width as the slats themselves so the fence has
a porosity of 50%
A 1 m high fence with 50% porosity will usually fill to capacity within 1-2 years. The dune that builds
up against the fences will be about as high as the fence itself.
Deposition of sand at screens will result in the screens being covered up. To sustain the development
of the dunes beginning to develop, new screens have to be installed


10
3.2 MANGROVES
3.2.1 Introduction
Mangrove (re)forestation increases the safety of the hinterland. The aerial roots and tree trunks play an
important role in wave damping and their flow resistance dissipates the energy of floodwaters and tsunamis.
This causes much of the sediment load which was transported by the water to settle. The erosion protection is
further increased by the mangrove root system which serves as a sand trap and increases soil strength and
erosion resistance.

Important criteria for mangrove planting are:
The hydrological conditions should be satisfied: no strong wave attack and the area should be under
some influence of tidal fluctuations.
Type of mangroves selected should be the same as the one which originally existed on the project
location.
State of soil; the soil conditions such as soil salinity, pH balance, and other soil parameters should be
fulfilled. Usually sandy beaches are not suitable for mangrove planting, muddy coasts and river
mouths provide much more fertile soils for mangrove planting.
The density of the plantation in relation of the effectiveness of wave attenuation.
The width of the mangrove greenbelt to be planted
The caring of the re-planting process.

Figure 3-4: Mangrove planting along the coast and a mangrove root system

3.2.2 Storm wave reduction
Mazda, et al. (1997) stated that the provided protection by mangroves is strongly dependent on the tree height
and the vegetation density of the trees (submerged trunks, branches and leaves). The typical forest density of
a mature mangrove is about 1,000 trees per hectare (1 tree per 10 m
2
), and a sparser density will result in a
lower wave damping capacity and lower resistance to water movement.

The wave damping capacity of a mangrove forest for storm waves could be expressed in terms of the wave
transmission coefficient K
T
, which is the transmitted wave height divided by the incoming wave height.
Schiereck and Booij (1995) found a relationship between K
T
, the density and the waterdepth as shown in
Figure 3-5. These values of K
T
are likely to decrease by increasing the width of the greenbelt, the
designated strip of land for the mangrove forest.


11
Figure 3-5: Wind wave transmission through 100 m mangroves (Schiereck and Booij, 1995)
waterdepth [m]
0.2
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
K
T
[-]
sparse
average
dense

3.2.3 Tsunami impact reduction
According to Tri, et al. (1998), a mangrove is efficiently implemented if the width of the greenbelt is
proportional to the wavelength of the incoming waves. This indicates that the greenbelt should be as wide as
the wavelength of the 1/year wave to significantly reduce the yearly maximum incoming wave. If the
greenbelt is designed reduce the impact of tsunamis however, the width of the greenbelt should be in the
order of kilometres. Calculation of the wave length used to determine the width of the greenbelt is further
treated in section 4.2.3.


12
3.3 BEACH AND FORESHORE NOURISHMENT
3.3.1 Introduction
Beach or dune replenishment, also known by the term nourishment, is the artificial addition of sand or gravel
to the coast to improve beach or dune conditions. Within the context of the Indonesian coastal defence
strategy, the condition refers to the capacity of a beach or dune to act as a buffer against storm erosion,
coastal retreat or tidal inundation to protect the land behind.

The main design elements are shown in the flow diagram in Figure 3-6.

Figure 3-6: Main design elements nourishment

Nourishment
1. Required nourishment volume
Net long-shore transport
Availability of sediment 2. Borrow area
3. Placement and shape Local conditions
Required cross-profile
Function of nourishment

The included box in the design is a variation wherein the nourishment is combined with hard structures which
are discussed further in this Manual:
Box 1. Nourishment combined with hard structures

13
3.3.2 Nourishment
Required nourishment volume
The required nourishment volume depends on the function that the nourishment should fulfil. The required
nourishment volume is described for different functions below.

1. Flood protection
The required nourishment volume can be determined by assessing the required beach and dune profile. The
beach or dune should be higher than the beach run-up level and provide sufficient buffer to allow for erosion
during an extreme storm event. Cross-sediment transport modelling should be executed to obtain the required
storm profile.

2. Create a new beach
If a certain beach width is required, the required volume of beach fill can be calculated by multiplying the
required beach width with the total active profile height (high water level- closure depth). The active profile
in seaward direction is limited by the closure depth, which is defined as the depth beyond which no significant
sediment transport due to waves or currents occurs (see Figure 3-7 and Section 4.2.4). In this method, it is
assumed that the new equilibrium profile slope (after redistribution of the nourishment in the cross-profile) is
equal to the existing beach slope. This assumption is only true when the nourishment sediment is similar to the
original sediment. It is always recommended to use similar or coarser sediment for the nourishment.

Figure 3-7: Illustration of active profile height and beach width grow after nourishment

3. Mitigate long-term coastal erosion
The required nourishment volume to mitigate the effects of long-term coastal erosion can be determined by
computing the erosion rates per year with detailed sediment transport models. The erosion volume over the
planned lifetime of the nourishment should be replaced by nourishment material. The growth in beach width
due to a certain nourishment volume can be calculated by dividing the total volume by the total active profile
height (high water level- closure depth). Note that added to the calculated required nourishment volumes, 10
to 20 percent losses during realization should be taken into account when determining the actual nourishment
volume.

Borrow area
The following design considerations are applicable for determining the optimal borrow area:

The availability of nourishment material is a very important factor for the feasibility of a nourishment
scheme. If sediment is abundant anywhere close to the nourishment area, the costs can be reduced
significantly. Furthermore, the abundance of sediment might also be a problem in some areas, thus
solving both problems with one solution. An example of this is a silted up river mouth, which might be

14
closed off or too shallow for boats to enter. This is an often seen problem after a tsunami or extreme
flood event where the morphological activity and cross-shore transports are high. Another option is
sedimentation at a structure upstream; if long-term erosion is caused by the presence of this
structure, by-passing of sediment past the structure might be a solution.
If nourishment material is not abundantly available at river mouths or accreting coastlines nearby, the
material should be taken from offshore locations. The location should be chosen well outside of the
active coastal zone (beyond the breaker zone in extreme conditions) to prevent negative effects on
the coastline and adjacent coastline.
Another important consideration for the borrow area are the environmental aspects. An assessment of
(negative) environmental effects due to taking sand at the proposed borrow area should be executed.

Placement and shape
The placement in the cross-profile as well as the placement alongshore should be considered. The main design
considerations for both are described below.

A. Placement in the cross-profile
There are different options for the placement in the cross-profile. The options are indicated in Figure 3-8 and
described shortly below.

Figure 3-8: Illustration options of placement in cross-profile (note: other options also possible)

1. Placement in the dunes
In the dunes the fill sand is not attacked by waves unless a large part of the dunes is eroded during a storm
surges. This type of beach fill may be applied for strengthening the dunes system against a breakthrough in
extreme conditions. Placement in the dunes however is the most expensive type because transport by trucks is
required and the sand has to be placed exactly in the required shape.

2. Placement on the beach
With this type of nourishment a widening of the beach is obtained. This method is cheaper than placement in
the dunes because the sediment can be placed by rainbowing it straight from a boat or by pipelines ending on
the beach. After placement, the sand will be reshaped by waves and currents and thus redistributed over the
active cross-profile. Part of the sediment placed on the beach will be transported in offshore direction
because the entire active profile up to the closure depth will move seaward, see Figure 3-7. The redistribution
after placement might lead to the misunderstanding amongst involved parties that the nourishment is not
effective.

3. Placement in the offshore zone
The sand is continuously subject to the forces of waves and currents. After placement, the sand will be
reshaped by waves and currents and thus redistributed over the active cross-profile. Part of the sediment
placed offshore will be transported towards the beach, see Figure 3-7. This method is the cheapest because
the sediment can be dumped directly from the boat. Applicability however depends on whether boats can

15
reach the active zone where it is reasonably sure that dumped sand will benefit to the active cross-profile.
The risk of this method is loss of the sand to deeper offshore locations before it can be picked up and
redistributed onshore.

B. Placement alongshore
Depending on the placement in the cross-profile, there are also different options for the longshore placement.
If the sediment is placed in the active beach profile (on the beach or offshore, not in the dunes), the sediment
will be redistributed by natural forces after placement. This provides different options for placement
alongshore:

1. Direct placement where needed
The sediment is placed exactly where it is needed. Usually a coast has to be protected over some distance and
therefore the beach fill will have an elongated form.

2. Placement of a stockpile
A stockpile is placed in a certain location, from the stockpile the sand is transported and distributed along the
coast by the natural hydraulic forces. The distribution of a stockpile is shown in the figure below, where the
coloured lines show the longshore coastline position after 1 and 5 years. The expected redistribution
alongshore can clearly be seen in this figure.

3. Continuous nourishment
At one or two points continuous nourishment is executed. From these points, the sand is distributed along the
coast, as in the preceding case.

Figure 3-9: Distribution of placed nourishment in longshore direction


16

Nourishment
Box 1: Nourishment combined with hard structures

As discussed in Section 3.3.2 and shown in Figure 3-9, the nourished sediment will be redistributed in the
cross- and longshore direction. After several years, most of the nourished sediment is redistributed to
adjacent stretches of coast and the shoreline will tend to reposition itself towards its original equilibrium
profile again. In order to maintain a certain position of the shoreline, maintenance nourishment programs
should be carried out.

To reduce the necessity and required volume of a maintenance nourishment program, it is possible to
combine the (initial) nourishment with a groyne system or with offshore breakwaters (treated in Section
5.1 and 5.2). The groynes will trap the nourished sediment, thereby preventing it from being
redistributed in the longshore direction. Breakwaters will provide shelter from wave action at the
shoreline which decreases the transport capacity (hence redistribution) in longshore direction. Another
option might be to construct a submerged breakwater as a sill to reduce the transport in crossshore
direction from the shore towards deeper water.

These combined solutions will not be designed in further detail in this manual, but an example of the
combination of nourishment and a groyne system / detached breakwaters is Bali, Indonesia. Groynes and
offshore breakwaters were constructed prior to a nourishment program. Below a picture is shown from the
groyne before the nourishment was carried out on the left side, while on the right side a picture is shown
fter the nourishment. The groynes will help to keep the sand within the groyne bays and reduce the
maintenance volume required.


17
4 HARD MEASURES (ONSHORE)
4.1 TIDAL WALL
4.1.1 Introduction
Concrete tidal walls aim to reduce/stop flooding. The tidal wall should be placed at least landward of the
beach and preferably in wave sheltered areas (see Figure 4-1). Because of this placement, significant wave
attack leading to wave overtopping is not expected in front of tidal walls. Minor wave attack might occur,
possibly leading to a requirement to add some bed protection in front of the wall. In locations exposed to
significant wave attack, other solutions should be chosen (e.g. a dike or seawall).
Figure 4-1: The sheltered position of a tidal wall in the cross-profile

Figure 4-2 shows an example of a concrete tidal wall in Singkil.
Figure 4-2: An example of a concrete tidal wall (Singkil, Sumatra)


18
Standard design
The tidal wall dimensions in this manual are standardized, only the crest height is calculated based on local
hydraulic conditions. The basic design for the concrete tidal wall used is shown in Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3: Typical cross-profile concrete tidal wall

clay embankment
concrete
wooden piles
1.80 m
1.50 m
1
.
5
0

m

1:1.5
0
.
3

m

Whether a pile foundation is required, depends on the soil parameters such as shear and bearing capacity. This
has to be determined by a geotechnical specialist because it cannot be expressed in standardized design rules.
The same applies for their spacing and length. If constructed, note that the pile foundation should at least be
located below LAT, to prevent deterioration due to the presence of oxygen (rotting processes).


19
4.1.2 Design considerations and process
Design example and variations
The main design elements are shown in the flow diagram in Figure 4-4. These elements are worked out
consecutively in this chapter. One calculation example is given in this chapter, shown in green boxes
throughout the text. In addition, some possible variations (based on other conditions or other requirements) to
the example are shown in yellow boxes.

Figure 4-4: Main design elements concrete tidal wall

Concrete tidal wall
Erosion inspection 4. Bed protection
1. Crest height
Freeboard
vertical equilibrium 2. Clay embankment
piping length
3. Geotechnical stability Failure mechanisms
design water level


20

Following the considerations above, depending on the expected wave attack, two types of concrete tidal walls
are discussed in this chapter:
Concrete tidal wall, without bed protection (no wave attack expected), see Section 4.1.3;
Concrete tidal wall, with rubble mound bed protection (some wave attack expected), see Section
4.1.4.

The included boxes in this chapter for the supporting design example concrete tidal wall are:

Concrete tidal wall
Design considerations

The design elements shown in Figure 4-4 are influenced by design considerations and boundary conditions
based on e.g. the location of the structure, material availability and/or maintenance possibilities. Because
all these design considerations influence one another, they are an integrated part of the design. Some
important considerations are discussed below.

Location and use of material
The location of the structure determines specific variables like soil characteristics, the water head over
the structure and the amount of wave action. In this way it influences the dimensions (and necessity) of
the clay embankment, the geotechnical stability and the necessity of a bed protection. The choice of the
location therefore partly determines the ultimate dimensions of the design. In general, the location for
the tidal wall should be chosen as high as possible, with as less wave action as possible and on (sandy) soil
with sufficient bearing capacity.

Also the construction space depends on the location, which influences the use of material and the
construction method (e.g. no space for the embankment so a cutoff-wall is required, use of concrete
instead of a large clay body and/or the necessity of a pile foundation). For the use of concrete in a
concrete tidal wall the saline conditions are very important, because it requires specific concrete quality.

Construction costs, life time and maintenance
Without maintenance, the strength decreases and the failure probability of the structure will increase.
Proper maintenance programs for the structure will thus increase the life time and safety provided. This is
shown in the figure below where the vertical increase in strength in the graph represents maintenance and
repairs. The strength of the properly maintained structure is sufficient during extreme loading (design
conditions) at all times, while the strength of the structure without maintenance will decrease until it
ultimately fails, possibly not even during severe conditions.

Normal load
Extreme load
Strength with maintenance
Strength without maintenance
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
/
s
a
f
e
t
y

Time

If quick and sufficient repair facilities are available, some damage during extreme events can be allowed
as long as it will not induce direct failure. The strength of the structure will then be restored by
maintenance and repair works afterwards. This reduces the strength requirements and construction costs.
Note that to determine the overall costs, the costs for (regular) maintenance and repair works should also
be taken into account.

A regular inspected and repaired structure thus allows for a different construction and design than one
which is required to last its life time without maintenance (see figure above). All these considerations
should be taken into account in the design to reduce costs and optimize the durability and performance of
the structure.


21
Box 1: Design assumptions for example calculation (see next page)
Box 2. Example calculation crest height
Box 3. Example calculation clay embankment, vertical equilibrium
Box 4. Example calculation clay embankment, piping length
Box 5: Variation with construction cutoff-wall
Box 6: Example calculation bed protection

* Whether this is required for a certain location, should be determined by a geotechnical specialist.
Concrete tidal wall
Box 1. Design assumptions for example calculation

The example of calculation illustrating the design rules is based on the following assumptions:

The following cross-shore profile with depth relative to MSL is representative for the location:

-1,6
-1,2
-0,8
-0,4
0,0
0,4
0,8
-20 30 80 130 180

The fictitious location is called Location X1. Hydraulic conditions can be found in Appendix A.
The structure is founded on a sand layer with sufficient bearing capacity. Therefore, no pile
foundation is needed in this example*.
The structure foundation level is at LAT.
The standardized concrete wall dimensions are shown below. Only the crest height is calculated
based on the local conditions.

MSL +0.4 m
MSL +0.3 m
MSL
1.50 m
1.80 m
1
.
5
0

m

1:1.5
0
.
3

m

crest height
clay embankment height


22
4.1.3 Concrete tidal wall, without bed protection
Crest height
The design water level and freeboard R
c
determine the crest height of the concrete structure.

The design water level (with a safety level of 25 years) is:

with h Design water level, relative to MSL [m]
HAT Highest astronomical tide, relative to MSL [m]
SLR Sea level rise estimate for 25 years [m]
LS Land subsidence estimate for 25 years [m]
h
set-up
Wind set-up [m]

The estimate for SLR and LS are in this manual both assumed uniform in Indonesia as 0.1 m in the coming 25
years. For further information on this subject one is referred to the Guidelines of Coastal Protection.

Wind set-up
The wind set-up is an additional rise of the water level due to the shear stresses exerted on the water surface
by wind forces. In some locations along the Indonesian coast the wind set-up might be negligible small due to
the absence of high wind speeds and/or the presence of a steep foreshore. However, this is not necessarily the
case and wind set-up therefore has to be taken into account.

The total wind set-up h
set-up
is shown in Figure 4-5, with the fetch as the distance between the land
boundaries.
Figure 4-5: Wind set-up increasing the water level

The wind set-up is:
with friction value between air and (sea) water [-] (=3.10
-6
)
u Average wind speed during storm conditions [m/s]
g gravitational acceleration [m/s
2
] = 9.8 m/s
2

F Fetch length [m
Wave direction related to the coastline [](perpendicular = 0)
h

Water depth [m]
up set
h LS SLR HAT h

+ + + = [Eq. 1]
k cos
2
1
2
F
gh
u
h
up set
=
[Eq. 2]

23

Freeboard
Note that wave attack is always expected to be relatively limited for concrete tidal walls (because of their
placement in wave sheltered areas). If required, the rubble mound bed protection aims only at reducing the
scour in front of the structure. Wave overtopping and run-up is not expected to be significant. For the
freeboard R
c
the minimum value of 0.5 m is therefore adopted (see Figure 4-6):

where R
c
freeboard of 0.50 m
z Crest height above MSL [m]

Figure 4-6: Crest height concrete tidal wall

Rc
z
h
MSL

c
R h z + = [Eq. 3]

24

Clay embankment
The clay embankment has the purpose to make the structure watertight. Its dimensions are determined by the
criteria of:
Uplifting;
Piping.

Uplifting
The clay embankment behind the concrete structure must have a minimal height to prevent heave. Heave is a
process in which the water under the clay body lifts the body upwards. The downward pressure exerted by
the weight of the clay should be greater than the upward pressure from the water caused by the water head
over the structure. This is shown in Figure 4-7.
Concrete tidal wall

The following parameters are assumed for Location X1:

F = 20 km
h = 40 m
= 0

Using the hydraulic conditions from Appendix A, the wind set-up is calculated with [Eq. 2]:
( )
( )( )
( ) 05 . 0 10 . 20
40 8 . 9
25
10 . 3
2
1
cos
2
1
3
2
6
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

k F
gh
u
h
up set
m

With SLR = LS = 0.1, the design water level is calculated with [Eq. 1]:

25 . 1 05 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 0 . 1 = + + + = + + + =
up set
h LS SLR HAT h m +MSL

Adding a freeboard of 0.50 m, the design crest height z is:

75 . 1 5 . 0 25 . 1 = + = + =
c
R h z m +MSL

MSL
z = MSL+ 1.75 m
h = MSL+ 1.25 m


25
Figure 4-7: Vertical equilibrium behind the structure
H
clay pressure
water pressure

The (upward) vertical water pressure is determined by the difference in water level over the structure:

with P
w
(vert)
Vertical water pressure [N/m
2
]
w
volumetric density of water [kg/m
3
] (=1025 kg/m
3
)
g Gravitational acceleration [m/s
2
] (=9.8 m/s
2
)
H water head [m]

The (downward) vertical pressure of the clay is determined by its weight:

with P
c
(vert)
Vertical clay pressure [N/m
2
]
c
volumetric density of clay [kg/m
3
] (= approx. 1600 kg/m
3
)
h
c
the height of the clay body [m]

Combining [Eq. 4] and [Eq. 5] and adding a safety factor of 1.5, the minimal height of the clay embankment to
prevent heave is given by:

H g P
w
vert
w
A =
) (
[Eq. 4]
c c
vert
c
gh P =
) (
[Eq. 5]
g
H g
h
c
w
c
A
= 5 . 1 [Eq. 6]

26

Piping
The length of the clay body behind the structure is determined by the piping requirement: the length of the
flow path below the structure should be sufficiently large to prevent the formation of micro-channels (pipes).
These pipes can undermine the structure. Furthermore, if the length is too short, seepage water will still be
able to induce flooding of the hinterland.

Bligh developed the following formula for the piping length:
with C
creep
Creep coefficient [-]
L
p
required piping length [m]

Table 4-1 shows the value of C
creep
for different soil materials.

Table 4-1: Piping parameters for different soil materials
Soil material C
creep
[-]
Silt 18
Fine Sand (150 200 m) 15
Coarse Sand (300 1000 m) 12
Fine gravel (2-6 mm) 9
Coarse gravel (> 16 mm) 4

The piping length is determined by

with a,b,c,d piping lengths as indicated in Figure 4-8 [m]

creep p
HC L A > 5 . 1 [Eq. 7]
d c b a L
piping
+ + + = [Eq. 8]
Concrete tidal wall
Box 3. Example calculation clay embankment, vertical equilibrium

The water head H is the difference between the design water level h on the sea-side and the land level
on the land-side h
sand
(in this example: MSL +0.4 m, see Box 1) on the land-side:

85 . 0 4 . 0 25 . 1 = = = A
sand
h h H m

With
w
=1025 kg/m
3
and
c
=1600 kg/m
3
, the minimal clay height h
c
is determined by:

( )( )( )
( )( )
8 . 0
8 . 9 1600
85 . 0 8 . 9 1025
5 . 1 5 . 1 = =
A
=
g
H g
h
c
w
c
m

MSL
h = 1.25 m +MSL
H
0.8 m
0.4 m
MSL +0.4 m


27
Figure 4-8: Piping length of a tidal wall
H
a
b
c
d

Concrete tidal wall
Box 4. Example calculation clay embankment, piping length

It is assumed that in this example the soil material is coarse sand (C
creep
= 12).

According to [Eq. 8], the piping length is:

( )( )( ) 15 12 85 . 0 5 . 1 5 . 1 = = A >
creep p
HC L m

The foundation level of the concrete structure is at LAT = -0.9 m, this leads to:
a = 0.3 + 0.9 = 1.2 m
b = 1.80 m
c = 0.4 + 0.9 = 1.3 m

7 . 10 3 . 1 8 . 1 2 . 1 15 = = = c b a L d
p
m

The length of the clay embankment should at least be 10.7 + 0.3 (width of the heel) = 11 m.

c = 1.3 m
MSL +0.3 m
MSL
1.80 m
11 m
b =1.8 m
a= 1.2 m
d = 10.7 m
0.3 m
MSL +0.4 m


28

Geotechnical stability
Geotechnical stability is determined by the horizontal and vertical forces of both soil and water. The
calculation of these forces is beyond the scope of this manual. Reference is made to a theoretical description
of soil mechanics for these calculations (e.g. Verruijt, 2004). Note that these types of calculations should be
executed by a geotechnical specialist. In this manual only a qualitative description of the geotechnical aspects
is given. This is described first for the situation without pile foundation; a short description of the situation
with piles is also added. A pile foundation is applied if the underground does not provide sufficient bearing
capacity and/or if other geotechnical stability requirements are not met without the pile foundation.

The main forces induced by both water and soil are illustrated in Figure 4-9. These forces can induce multiple
failure mechanisms, which are described below.

Concrete tidal wall
Box 5: Variation with construction cutoff-wall

If the required length of the clay embankment takes up too much space in the hinterland, an option to
reduce this is to construct a cutoff-wall under the concrete structure. This will increase the flow path with
twice the construction depth of the cutoff-wall (see the figure below). A cutoff-wall is a simple screen
that can easily be placed.

11 m - 2L
L L

If we for example assume a screen with a length of 2 m, the clay embankment dimensions change:

7 . 6 3 . 3 8 . 1 2 . 3 15 = = = c b a L d
piping
m

The required length of the clay body becomes 6.7 + 0.3 = 7 m

Another approach is to replace the entire clay embankment by a cutoff-wall. In that case, the required
screen length can be calculated as:

L= 11 m (required length clay embankment without cutoff-wall) / 2= 5.5 m

29
Figure 4-9: Forces on a concrete tidal wall

Failure mechanisms
With geotechnical calculations it should be tested whether the structure meets the stability requirements.
This is determined by its resistance against the following failure mechanisms (see also Figure 4-10):
1. uplifting
2. sliding
3. overturning
4. eccentricity

Figure 4-10: Failure mechanisms for an earth retaining tidal wall

4.
3.
1. 2.

In case of a structure with pile foundation, additional terms such as pile resistance and additional bearing
capacity should be taken into account in the calculation of the forces. It is noted that the driving- and
resisting forces can change with different conditions. This is illustrated below during LAT (left) and during HAT
(right). Another aspect is the sediment density, which is different in both dry and wet conditions.


30
Figure 4-11: Forces during HAT and LAT conditions
1600 kg/m
3
1800 kg/m
3
2000 kg/m
3
1600 kg/m
3
1025 kg/m
3

During LAT, the driving force is from right to left. The overturning point is therefore the toe of the structure.
During HAT, the situation is the other way around due to the water pressure. The turning point is now the heel
of the structure and the driving force from left to right.

The resistance to the mentioned failure mechanisms is determined as follows:

1. Uplifting:
The water pressure below the structure induces an upward pressure. This upward pressure is the driving force
in lifting the structure upwards. Without pile foundation, the resisting force is only the weight of the structure
itself:

with V
r
resisting vertical force [kN]
V
d
driving vertical force [kN]

2. Sliding:
During LAT conditions the higher ground on one side is pushing the structure to the other side. This soil
pressure is thereby the driving force for sliding along the base. The soil pressure on the other side and the
shear between the structure and the soil are the resisting force. The presence of a pile foundation enhances
the resistance against sliding:
with H
r
resisting horizontal force [kN]
H
d
driving horizontal force [kN]

3. Overturning:
The pressures on the sides cause the structure to have a tendency to rotate around the toe of the structure.
The driving turning moment is caused by the soil pressure on one side, while the vertical pressures on the
structure and soil pressures on the other side induce a resisting moment.
with M
r
resisting turning moment around the structure toe [kNm]
M
d
driving turning moment around the structure toe [kNm]

4. Eccentricity:
The soil below the structure can fail due to eccentricity of the residual force, as the bearing capacity can
become lower than zero at the toe. In this case it has become an upward pressure, lifting one side of the
5 . 1 > =
d
r
uplifting
V
V
F [Eq. 9]
5 . 1 > =
d
r
sliding
H
H
F [Eq. 10]
0 . 2 > =
d
r
overturn
M
M
F [Eq. 11]

31
structure. As a first estimate for the safety against this failure, the residual force should have its point of
action within the centre of the structure:
with B width of the structure [m]

As indicated these mechanisms should be calculated by a geotechnical specialist. If it turns out that the
structure does not meet the stability requirements, additional measures should be considered:
Add a pile foundation (to increase the bearing capacity of the underground, or to increase the
resisting forces);
Increase the dimensions of the concrete wall (to increase the resisting forces).

In case of a pile foundation, the structure is founded on a deeper sand layer. The different types of resisting
forces increase by the presence of the poles, which increases the overall geotechnical stability.
4.1.4 Concrete tidal wall, with rubble mound bed protection
If the structure is subject to moderate waves, a bed protection in front of the structure might be necessary.
Whether this is necessary can be predicted based on wave calculations, however inspection at regular intervals
can also indicate the necessity. Note that significant wave attack is not expected at tidal walls, considering
their preferred wave-sheltered location inland.

The design of a concrete tidal wall with rubble mound wave protection is similar to the normal concrete tidal
wall as described in Section 4.1.3. Additional a rubble mound bed protection should be placed in front of the
structure. The design rules for this protection are based on the following assumptions:

The structure does not need the bed protection for geotechnical stability. Failure of the protection
therefore doesnt lead to direct failure of the complete structure;
The structure is not placed on the waterline and is only designed to prevent flooding (not erosion).
Possible waves in front of the structure are therefore expected to be moderate. If wave attack is
significant, a different type of protection measure must be considered.
The bed protection is inspected on a regular basis and extra stones can always be added if this turns
out to be necessary later.
The bed protection consists of a geo-textile, a gravel layer and an armour layer (see Figure 4-12).

Figure 4-12: Bed protection with geo-textile, gravel- and armour layer

To prevent scouring in front of the structure, a geo-textile is used to protect the sandy bottom from eroding. A
gravel layer of minimum 0.10 m thick is placed on top of the geo-textile to protect the geo-textile against
rupture or damage during construction. The geo-textile is protected by an armour stone layer with grading
100-250 kg. The layer thickness t is twice the stone diameter d
n50
:
with t upper layer thickness [m]
d
n50
nominal diameter [m]

( )
6 2
B
V
M M
B
F
d r
ty eccentrici
<
|
.
|
\
|
=

[Eq. 12]
50
2
n
d t = [Eq. 13]

Armour layer 100-250 kg/unit stones

10 cm thick gravel layer
geo-textile

32
Typical diameter d
n50
of this 100-250 kg stone grading is d
n50
= 0.4 m. The width of the protection should be
around at least 1.5 m from the structure toe.
where B
prot
width of the protection [m]

5 . 1 >
prot
B [Eq. 14]
Concrete tidal wall
Box 7: Example calculation bed protection

The concrete tidal wall in this example is the same as the final design in section 4.1.3, only with an
additional bed protection. Following the rules given above, the required bed protection layer thickness is:

( )( ) 8 . 0 4 . 0 2 2
50
= = =
n
d t m

The width is chosen as B
prot
= 1.5 m.

gravel layer
geo-textile
B
prot
= 1.5 m
t = 0.8 m

Scouring in front of the wall should always be monitored. If the bed protection turns out to be
insufficient to protect the stability of the concrete wall, additional stones should be placed.


33
4.2 SEA DIKE
4.2.1 Introduction
The sea dike can function as flood protection or also provide erosion protection. This leads to a range of
possible types. It can be a small and simple clay dike inland, which only aims to provide protection against
flooding due to wave overtopping and extreme tidal water levels. However it can also be a robust sea dike
located at the shoreline, which aims to provide protection against flooding in daily conditions and protects
against short-term and/or long-term erosion. The robust sea dike has to withstand much stronger wave action
and most likely also higher water level differences over the dike. Figure 4-13 shows the position of such a
robust sea dike.
Figure 4-13: The position of a robust sea dike in the cross-profile

Figure 4-14 shows an example of a sea dike with rubble mound wave protection at the Dutch coast.
Figure 4-14: A clay dike with rubble mound wave protection along the Dutch coast

Standard design
The basic design for a sea dike is shown in Figure 4-15. Note that this type of dike can also be an earthen
dike/embankment, however with a clay layer added on top to provide a watertight dike (for flood protection).
The earthen dike/embankment variation is shown in Box 10. When flood protection is not required, a rubble
mound seawall can be applied.


34
Figure 4-15: Typical cross-profile sea dike (with armour layer wave protection)

clay core
rubble mound wave protection
toe construction

throughout the text. Additional, some possible variations (based on other conditions or other requirements) to

The main functional design considerations that should be taken into account in the structural design of the sea
dike is the toe structure of the dike. Especially for more robust dikes located in the wave attack zone, a
proper toe structure is of vital importance for the stability of the dike. The type of toe structure required
depends on the type and rate of erosion estimated for the project location.


35
Figure 4-16: Main design elements sea dike

6. Crest width
design water level
Sea dike
2. Armour layer stone dimensions
layer thickness
3. Geo-textile and filter filter stone dimensions
filter layer thickness
5. Core material
7. Inner slope
impermeability
piping length
1. Crest height
freeboard
4. Toe structure Toe depth
Toe width
crest width
Overtopping protection
Structural stability


36

As indicated, the location and function of the sea dike lead to very different dimensions and types of design.
In this chapter, a distinction is made in:
4.2.3: Sea dike, with armour layer wave protection
4.2.4: Sea dike, with armour layer wave protection and special toe
4.2.5: Sea dike, without wave protection

The included boxes in this chapter for the supporting design example sea dike are:

Box 1. Design assumptions for example calculation (see next page)
Box 2. Example calculation design water level
Box 3. Example calculation freeboard
Box 4. Variation with allowing wave overtopping
Box 6. Example calculation armour layer
Box 7. Variation with more gentle outer slope
Box 8. Example calculation filter layers
Box 9. Example calculation toe structure
Box 10. Variation with earthen core material
Box 11. Example calculation inner slope
Box 12. Variation with allowing wave overtopping- inner slope stability
Box 13. Example calculation special toe (hanging apron)

Sea dike

based on e.g. the location of the structure, the chosen safety level and/or material availability. Because

The location of the sea dike influences the amount of wave attack, the water head over the dike and the
necessity of a special toe construction. The location of the dike might also influences the availability of
materials such as quarry-run, armour rocks and clay. In the example of this chapter, the sea dike is
constructed with a rubble mound wave protection and solid clay body. Variations with an armour layer
made up of other materials such as concrete elements can be found in 4.3, while the use of an earthen
core is discussed in Box 10.

further discussed in Section 4.1.2.

as long as it will not induce direct failure. In the case of a sea dike this is particularly applicable for the
rubble mound wave protection. Some armour stones are allowed to be displaced during extreme wave
attack, on the condition that it is repaired afterwards and it doesnt lead to direct failure. This will result
in lower stability requirements for the armour stones, which reduces the required weight and construction
costs. The same holds for the crest- and inner slope criteria: proper maintenance might allow more
overtopping during extreme events, as long as it is regular inspected and repaired.

All these considerations should be taken into account in the design to reduce costs and optimize the
durability and performance of the structure.


37

4.2.3 Sea dike, with armour layer wave protection
Crest height
The crest height z is determined by:
the design water level h
the required freeboard R
c
(depending on wave overtopping, minimum 0.5 m)
The required freeboard depends on the amount of overtopping that is allowed over the structure. The allowed
amount of overtopping relates to the crest and inner slope strength as well as the storage capacity for the
overtopping water in the hinterland.

The design water level is calculated with [Eq. 1]. However, the sea dike and underground will be subject to
settlements after realization depending on the soil parameters at the location. The calculation of the
settlements should be carried out by a geotechnical specialist and is beyond the scope of this manual. The
expected settlement should still be added to the calculated design height to obtain the initial construction
height.

c
R h z + = [Eq. 15]
Sea dike

The following assumptions are made for the example of calculation:

The following cross-shore profile relative to MSL is representative for the location:

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
-20 30 80 130 180
MSL



38

Freeboard
The required freeboard depends on the allowed wave overtopping. The options are to:
allow only negligible overtopping;
allow some overtopping to occur.

In many locations some overtopping can be allowed. The amount of allowed wave overtopping depends on the
stability of the inner slope and the storage capacity of the hinterland. Allowing some wave overtopping can
significantly reduce the required crest height.

Wave break parameter
p

The parameter
p
is important for wave action on a slope, because it represents the ratio between the slope
steepness and the wave steepness. This parameter is:

with
p
surf similarity parameter [-]
slope angle []
H
s
local significant wave height [m]
L
0
deep water wave length [m]

The deep water wave length L
0
in [Eq. 16] is:

with T
p
peak period [s]

Local wave height H
s

Wave conditions must be translated to the local wave conditions in front of the structure. For a non-sheltered
location (straight coast), the following steps are required:
0
tan
L H
s
p
o
= [Eq. 16]
t 2
2
0
p
gT
L = [Eq. 17]
Sea dike

The water level set-up is assumed to be:

h
set-up
= +0.41 m

According to the coastal conditions in Appendix A:

HAT = +0.59 m
LAT = -0.57 m

With SLR = LS = 0.1 m (see Section 4.1.3), the design water level is calculated according to [Eq. 1]:

2 . 1 41 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 59 . 0 = + + + = + + + =
up set

h = 1.2 m +MSL


39

Calculate the depth-limited maximum local wave height in front of the structure;
Compare the depth-limited maximum local wave height with the available wave height at deeper
water.

If the depth-limited maximum wave height is smaller than the deep water wave height, the depth-limited
wave should be adopted as local wave height.

The depth-limited wave height is:
with d local water depth [m]

For a sheltered area (such as bays, headlands), an additional translation of the wave height towards the
shoreline is required. The sheltered position will result in smaller wave heights that can reach the shoreline. In
these locations the local design wave height is probably not depth-limited, but limited by the maximum wave
height that can reach the shoreline. 2D Wave modelling is required to compute the wave conditions at these
locations.

Design wave height H
s
at the structure
The breaking process from the point of initiation (first stages of instability) up to complete breaking takes
time, hence distance. Because the greatest loading on the structure will be caused by a plunging wave that
hits the structure midway trough the breaking process, the breaker height at some distance seaward of the
structure has to be determined. This distance is related to the breaker plunge distance (see Figure 4-17).
Figure 4-17: Design wave height at the structure depends on breaker plunge distance

In the Shore Protection Manual (SPM, 1984), the breaker plunge distance and the slope of the coastal profile
are used to determine the breaker height at the structure. This relationship is shown in Figure 4-18 with:

m Slope of the coastal profile (tan ) [-]
H
b
Breaker height [m]
d
s
Depth at the structure toe [m]

d H
s
6 . 0 = [Eq. 18]

40
Figure 4-18: breaker index at the toe of the structure (from SPM,1984)

s
b
d
H

2
p
s
gT
d

The local design wave height H
s
at the toe of the structure is determined as follows:

1. Determine the water depth d
s
at the toe of the structure and the slope m from the coastal profile
2. Determine
2
p
s
gT
d

3. From the graph in Figure 4-18, determine the breaker index
s
b
d
H
= at the toe of the structure
4. The design wave height H
s
at the toe of the structure is the breaker index times the water depth d
s


41

Wave run-up R
u2%

If only limited wave overtopping is allowed, the wave run-up R
u2%
is adopted as freeboard. R
u2%
is the height
that is exceeded by only 2% of the irregular wave field. Wave overtopping is negligible when R
u2%
is used to
determine the crest height.

The wave run-up R
u2%
on rough rubble mound slopes depends on the surf similarity parameter
p
(from [Eq. 16])
and the local design wave height H
s
. It is calculated with the following formulae:
Sea dike
Box 3. Example calculation local design wave height

The following wave conditions are taken from Appendix A:

H
s
= 3.2 m and T
p
= 16.9 s

No 2D wave effects are expected; therefore the depth-limited maximum local wave height and the local
design wave height can be determined.

1. De water depth relative to MSL is 0.7 m (taken from the cross-profile). The water depth at the
toe of the structure (during design conditions) is:

9 . 1 2 . 1 7 . 0 7 . 0 = + = + = h d
s
m

Based on the profile, m is determined as 1:20 (=0.05)

2.
( )( )
001 . 0
9 . 16 8 . 9
9 . 1
2 2
= =
p
s
gT
d

3.

1.4

4 . 1 = =
s
b
d
H

4. The local design wave height is ( )( ) 2 . 2 9 . 1 4 . 1 = =
s
H m


42
With a maximum of:

Note that these formulae are applicable for rubble mound slopes (permeable). Although the core is possibly
impermeable, a rough slope justifies the use of these formulae.

Wave overtopping q
If some overtopping is allowed, the freeboard R
c
depends on the allowable discharge q over the crest of the
structure. With wave attack perpendicular to the coast, the simplified formula for wave overtopping on
permeable rock structures is:

With a maximum for non-breaking waves at
q
> 2:

With q average overtopping discharge [m
3
/m/s]
H
s
local design wave height [m]
R
c
freeboard [m]
q
overtopping surf similarity [-] = ( )
p
9 . 0
Correction factor = 0.55 [-]

It is assumed that no correction is needed to cope with relatively gentle wave steepness. The wave
overtopping rates might therefore be slightly underestimated.

( )
p s u
H R 96 . 0
% 2
= if
p
s 1.5 and [Eq. 19]
( )
46 . 0
% 2
1 . 1
p s u
H R = if
p
> 1.5. [Eq. 20]
s u
H R 97 . 1
% 2
= [Eq. 21]
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
q s
c
q s
H
R
gH q
o
5 . 0
1
3 . 4 exp
tan
067 . 0
3
[Eq. 22]
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
s
c
s
H
R
gH q 3 . 2 exp 2 . 0
3
[Eq. 23]

43

Sea dike

For the basic design no wave overtopping is allowed, and the wave run-up is calculated. The deep water
wave length L
0
is computed as:

( )( )
446
2
9 . 16 81 . 9
2
2 2
0
~ = =
t t
p
gT
L m

For a 1:2 slope angle, the surf similarity parameter is:

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
7.2
446 2 . 2
2
1
tan
0
= = =
L H
s
p
o

p
> 1.5

p
> 1.5: The wave run-up R
u2%
is calculated with [Eq. 20]:
( ) ( )( )( ) 9 . 5 2 . 7 2 . 2 1 . 1 1 . 1
46 . 0 46 . 0
% 2
= = =
p s u
H R m

However the maximum run-up according to [Eq. 21] is:

R
c
= 3 . 4 97 . 1
max
% 2
= =
s u
H R m (< 5.9 m)

44

Sea dike

The design crest height z according to [Eq. 15] is:

-No wave overtopping: 5 . 5 3 . 4 2 . 1 = + = + =
c
R h z m +MSL (basic design- Box 3).
-Wave overtopping 2 l/s/m: 5 . 4 3 . 3 2 . 1 = + = + =
c
R h z m +MSL (variation- Box 4), note that additional
inner slope protection and sufficient storage capacity is required (see Box 12).
z= 5.5 m +MSL (no overtopping)
1
2
h= 1.2 m +MSL

Sea dike

In many locations more wave overtopping can be allowed. As an example the effect of an allowed
discharge of q = 2 l/m/s = 0.002 m
3
/m/s is calculated. As a first step [Eq. 22] is used:

( ) ( )( ) 5 . 6 2 . 7 9 . 0 9 . 0 = = =
p q

q
> 2

q
> 2: [Eq. 23] for non-breaking waves should be used to calculate q:

( )
( )( )
( )( )
002 . 0
2 . 2 55 . 0
3 . 2 exp 2 . 0 2 . 2 8 . 9
55 . 0
3 . 2 exp 2 . 0
3 3
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
s
c
s
R
H
R
gH q

Rewriting of [Eq. 23] gives:

( ) ( )( )
( )
( )( )
3 . 3
2 . 2 8 . 9 2 . 0
002 . 0
ln
3 . 2
55 . 0 2 . 2
2 . 0
ln
3 . 2
55 . 0
3 3
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
s
s
c
gH
q H
R m

The relation between the allowed overtopping and the required freeboard R
c
is shown in the graph below.

q [l/m/s]
R
c

[
m
]

0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The graph shows that with allowing overtopping, the required freeboard can be reduced.

45
Armour layer
The armour layer is in general composed of natural rock. When armour stone of sufficient size, quality and
quantity is not available at the project location, artificial armour units (prefabricated concrete elements) are
an alternative option. This is treated in Section 4.3.3.

The parameters for the armour layer are:
Stone dimensions
Layer thickness

Both parameters can be expressed in terms of the nominal stone diameter d
n50

Figure 4-19: Definition of stone d
n50
and layer thickness t
d
n50
t

Stone dimensions
For the determination of the required stone diameter to withstand wave attack, different formulae are
available. The most reliable results are usually obtained with the Van der Meer-formula. Because of shallow
water conditions ( )
s
H d 3 < the shallow water corrections to the Van der Meer formula are applied. Some
parameters have to be estimated in advance:
permeability P
damage number S
number of waves N

Permeability P
The parameter P is a measure of the permeability of the structure. It is illustrated in Figure 4-20.

For an impermeable sea dike: P = 0.1.


46
Figure 4-20: Different cross-sectional designs and their permeability parameters

armour layer
geotextile
filter layer
core material
P = 0.1
P = 0.5 P = 0.6
P = 0.4 Armour, filterlayer and geo-textile
Armour and filter layer
Armour layer directly on core only armour stones

Damage number S
The parameter S represents the acceptable damage level of the structure. A low damage level result in a more
heavy structure, but maintenance and repair are less frequently required. See Table 4-2.

Recommendation for Indonesia: use S=2 (no damage, minimized maintenance).

Table 4-2: Values for S for different damage levels and outer slopes
Damage level
Outer slope
Start of damage Intermediate damage Failure
1:1.5 2 3-5 8
1:2 2 4-6 8
1:3 2 6-9 12
1:4 3 8-12 17
1:6 3 8-12 17

Number of waves N
The duration of a storm, and thus the number of waves, influences the stability of the armour stones.

Recommendation for Indonesia: use N=3000 (storm duration approx. 8 hours).

The van der Meer formula with shallow water corrections is:

with d
n50
required nominal stone diameter [m]
relative density of the armour stones [-]= (
s

w
)/
w
= (2650 -1025)/1025 = 1.65
5 . 0 2 . 0 18 . 0
50
) ( 7 . 8

=
A

N
S
P
d
H
n
s
for plunging breakers (
p
<
cr
) [Eq. 24]
o cot ) ( 4 . 1
2 . 0 13 . 0
50
P
n
s
N
S
P
d
H

=
A
for surging breakers (
p
>
cr
) [Eq. 25]
| |
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
tan 2 . 6
P
cr
P o [Eq. 26]

47
H
s
P permeability parameter [-]
S damage number [-]
N number of waves [-]
surf similarity parameter [-]
cr
critical surf similarity parameter [-]
outer slope angle [-]

With the d
n50
, a nominal stone weight for the armour layer can be calculated:

with W
50
nominal stone weight [kg]

s
armour stone density [kg/m
3
] (normally around 2650 kg/m
3
)

A minimal layer thickness t of twice the nominal diameter should be used:

3
50 50 n s
d W = [Eq. 27]
50
2
n
d t = [Eq. 28]

48

Sea dike

As determined above, the following parameters should be used for impermeable structures along the
Indonesian coast:

P = 0.1
S = 2
N = 3000
2
1
tan = o
With
p
= 7.2 (see Box 3), the critical surf similarity parameter can be calculated [Eq. 26]:
| | ( )( ) 6 . 3
2
1
1 . 0 2 . 6 tan 2 . 6
5 . 0 1 . 0
1
31 . 0
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
=
(
= =
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ P
cr
P o

Because
p
>
cr
[Eq. 25] for surging breakers should be used. Filling in H
s
= 2.2 m,
o
o
tan
1
cot = = 2 and
the parameters
p
, , S, N and P in [Eq. 25] gives:

( )( )
( )( ) ( ) 7 . 1 2 2 . 7
3000
2
1 . 0 4 . 1
65 . 1
2 . 2
cot ) ( 4 . 1
1 . 0
2 . 0
13 , 0
50
2 . 0 13 . 0
50
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
A

n
P
n
s
d
N
S
P
d
H
o

This leads to:

( )( )
8 . 0
7 . 1 65 . 1
2 . 2
50
~ =
n
d m

[Eq. 27] gives a required nominal stone weight of:

( )( ) 1350 8 . 0 2650
3 3
50 50
~ = =
n s
d W kg

A grading in the order of 1000-3000 kg is recommended (depending on availability).

According to [Eq. 28] the thickness of the armour layer should be in the order of:

( )( ) 6 . 1 8 . 0 2 2
*
50
~ = =
n
d t m

*Note: The layer thickness should actually be based on the d
n50
for the applied stone grading instead of the
d
n50
as calculated (as is done here). However it is unknown exactly which gradings are available, therefore
it is assumed that a grading with exactly the same d
n50
as the calculated d
n50
is used.


49

Geo-textile and filter
Proper filter layers prevent material from washing out through the pores of the larger armour stones during
wave attack. A geo-textile is used to reduce the number of filter layers and requirements. A geo-textile is
more reliable in meeting the filter requirements than the varying quarry stone seizes.

The slope is build up as in Figure 4-21 with:
1. layer of 10 cm of sand on top of the core material
2. geo-textile
Sea dike

If it is decided that the stone size should be reduced (e.g. due to availability problems or expected
problems during construction), the slope can be adjusted. To give an example, the calculation is repeated
for a 1:3 slope.

[Eq. 16] determines the new value for the surf similarity parameter:

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
4.8
446 2 . 2
3
1
tan
0
= = =
L H
s
p
o

In this case the critical parameter also changes, according to [Eq. 26]:

| | ( )( ) 9 . 2
3
1
1 . 0 2 . 6 tan 2 . 6
5 . 0 1 . 0
1
31 . 0
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
=
(
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
|
.
|
\
|
+ P
cr
P o

Because
p
>
c
again [Eq. 25] should be used:

( )( )
( )( ) ( ) 0 . 2 3 8 . 4
3000
2
1 . 0 4 . 1
65 . 1
9 . 0
cot ) ( 4 . 1
1 . 0
2 . 0
13 . 0
50
2 . 0 13 . 0
50
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
A

n
P
n
s
d
N
S
P
d
H
o

The required stone diameter d
n50
is:

( )( )
65 . 0
0 . 2 65 . 1
2 . 2
50
~ =
n
d m


( )( ) 730 65 . 0 2650
3 3
50 50
~ = =
n s
d W kg

The graph shows the relation between a gentler slope angle and the stone size d
n50
/ W
50
.

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
d
n
5
0
[
m
]
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1
1,1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
cot [-]
W
n
5
0

[
m
]

cot [-]


50
3. gravel layer (d
n50
of 10-60 mm)
4. layer 100- 250 kg (or a similar grading, depending on availability)
5. filter layers/ armour layer

The sand layer is placed first because a geo-textile cannot be placed directly on a clay layer. The gravel layer
protects the geo-textile against rupture or damage by big and sharp stones during construction. The next 100-
250 kg layer is placed to protect the geo-textile during the lifetime of the structure. The transition from the
100-250 kg layer to the armour layer is subject to the filter rules, the layer cannot be washed out because of
its permanent function in protection of the geo-textile.

For the layer thickness the same considerations apply as for the armour layer.
Figure 4-21: Geo-textile, gravel and filter layers

Depending on the size of the armour stones, subsequent layers might be needed between the 100-250 kg
stones and the armour layer. The following rules should be used to determine the need and size of filter
layers:

With W
50
u
Nominal stone weight of the underlying layer [kg]
W
50
a
Nominal stone weight of the armour layer [kg]

d
n50
u
Nominal stone diameter of the underlying layer [m]

d
n50
a
Nominal stone diameter of the armour layer [m]

10
1
15
1
50 50
=
a u
W W [Eq. 29]
or
3 . 2 2 . 2
50 50
=
u
n
a
n
d d [Eq. 30]

4. layer 100-250 kg

3. gravel layer

2. geo-textile

1. sand layer
0.6 m
0.1 m

51

Toe structure
If the erosion only occurs during extreme wave attack (short term erosion), the scour hole will recover and fill
up during calmer conditions. The scour in front of the structure will be temporary. Figure 4-22 gives an
illustration of the development of the scour hole after the storm event.

Figure 4-22: Scour development in short-term erosion
Toe structure Dutch Toe

t
1
= after storm event

scour hole at time t=
t
4
t
3
t
2

t
1

Sea dike

The slope is built up as prescribed:
1. layer of 10 cm of sand on top of clay
2. geo-textile
3. gravel layer (d
n50
of 10-60 mm)
4. layer 100- 250 kg (or a similar grading, depending on availability)

According to [Eq. 29] the ratio between the weight of the armour layer stones and the underlying 100-250
kg layer should not exceed 1/15. Again, it is assumed that the calculated 1350
50
=
a
W kg is applied exactly.
The weight of the stones in the subsequent layer should be:
90
15
1350
15
50
50
~ = =
a
u W
W kg

With an approximated W
50
of 175 kg (100-250 kg grading), the layer on top of the gravel is sufficient in
size to prevent it from washing out. Concluding, the dike protection is designed with 3 layers on top of the
geo-textile:

3
rd
layer
(1000-3000 kg)

2
nd
layer
(100- 250 kg)

1
st
layer
(gravel: 10/60 mm)


52
At a short-term erosion coastline, a Dutch toe type can be applied. In case of long-term erosion, a different
toe structure is needed. This is worked out in Section 4.2.4 (sea dike, with special toe).

For the toe stone size, the following should be considered:
For shallow water conditions at the toe (toe level is in the wave run-down zone), the stone size in the
toe should be similar to the required armour layer stone of the outer slope.
For deeper water conditions at the toe (toe level is under the wave run-down zone), a reduction can
be applied for the stone size in the toe.

Based on experiments, the toe stone size reduction can be described with (Schiereck, 2001):
Which is valid only for relatively deep toes: h
t
/h
m
>0.4

Furthermore, the following dimensions have to be calculated:
erosion depth d
t

width of the toe L
t

Figure 4-23 shows the indicated dimensions. Also two different toe types (depending on the construction
method) are shown. The left shows a toe that is constructed in a trench. The right shows a toe that is
constructed after a excavation of the bed in front of the structure. The bed level in front of the structure is
filled again after construction of the toe.

Figure 4-23: Definition of L
t
and d
s

Lt
dt
MSL

L
t
d
t
MSL

Toe depth
The minimal depth of the toe construction is equal to the expected erosion depth. This depth is:
with H
s
d
t
minimum toe depth, relative to MSL [m]

Toe width
The minimal width of the toe is derived from [Eq. 33]:
with L
t
width of the toe [m]
H
s
4 . 1
50
7 . 8
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
m
t
n
s
h
h
d
H
[Eq. 31]
s t
H d = (relative to MSL) [Eq. 32]
s t
H L 2 = [Eq. 33]

53

Core material
The core of a flood protection structure should be watertight, therefore preferably a clay core is applied. The
clay core is covered by a geo-textile (with a sand layer in between). Possible variations are to apply a smaller
clay core, filled with other quarry run material, or to apply a sand core with a clay layer on top. These
variations are shown in Box 10.

Sea dike

In this example, it is assumed that only short-term erosion will occur at the project location. The local
design wave height has already been determined in Box 3: H
s
= 2.2 m. The minimal depth of the toe is:

2 . 2 = =
s t
H MSL d m -MSL
z = 5.5 m +MSL
1
2
dt = 2.2 m - MSL

With H
s
= 2.2 m the minimal width of the toe is:

( )( ) 4 . 4 2 . 2 2 2 = = =
s t
H L m


54

Crest width
For construction purposes, the minimal crest width should be at least 3 m or 3 armour stones, whichever is
greater.

Inner slope
The inner slope is determined by:
Structural stability; to ensure structural stability, a minimal inner slope angle of 1:2 should be
adopted.
Piping; the requirement for piping is described in Section 4.1.3
Overtopping; if overtopping is allowed, close attention should be paid to the inner slope and storage
capacity behind the dike. In case of significant overtopping rates, it is recommended to use the same
armour layers on the inner slope as on the outer slope. The hinterland storage capacity should be
checked for every location.
Sea dike
Box 10. Variation with earthen core material

Smaller clay core
A dike can also be compiled of a smaller clay core with quarry-run fill. A geo-textile protects the clay from
washing out, while the clay body itself ensures the watertightness of the dike. The advantage is the
smaller amount of clay to be used. The clay core should at least be higher than the design water level h.

Sand core with clay layer
Also sand can be used as core material. A clay layer should be added on top of the sand to ensure
watertightness. The clay layer is extended to the inner slope, to prevent scouring and instability/ failure
of the inner slope.


55

4.2.4 Sea dike, with armour layer wave protection and special toe
The design of the sea dike armour layer and core is the same as for the sea dike designed in the previous
section. Only the toe structure should be designed differently, as described below.

Sea dike
Box 12. Variation with allowing wave overtopping- inner slope stability

The variation allowing a wave overtopping of 2 l/s/m
1
is worked out further here (see Box 4+5). The crest
height is lower than for the situation without wave overtopping, but the width of the dike is still sufficient
to meet the piping requirements.

The crest and inner slope require additional protection to deal with the wave overtopping without
instability. The crest and inner slope should be protected with the same armour layers as the outer slope.

1
2 2
1 water storage
z = 4.5 m +MSL
0.7 m -MSL
5.2 m

Furthermore, it should be checked whether the hinterland has sufficient water storage capacity. The
allowed overtopping of q = 0.002 m
3
/s/m will result in:

( )( ) 6 . 3 3600 002 . 0 = = = qLT V m
3
per m
1
per hour (=3.6 m
3
/m
1
/h)

For a 6 hour storm event 21.6 m
3
/m
1
must be stored. This for example equals a 0.4 m water layer over a
55 m wide storage zone behind the dike.
Sea dike
Box 11. Example calculation inner slope

The low-lying land behind the dike is assumed to be at MSL. The water difference during design conditions
between the land- and seaside is equal to the design water level, H = 1.2 m. The minimal piping length L
p

then becomes with [Eq. 8]:

6 . 21 5 . 1 = A >
creep p
HC L m

With an outer slope of 1:2 and a dike height of 6.2 m (bed level in front of dike 0.7 m MSL to crest height
5.5 m +MSL), the width of the structure is more than 22 m. The requirement for piping is thereby fulfilled.
No additional measures are required.

The crest height for this design was based on allowing no significant wave overtopping. No additional
protection is required for the inner slope, the minimum slope to ensure structural stability is 1:2.
1
2 2
1
z= 5.5m +MSL
0.7m -MSL
6.2 m


56
Toe structure
If there is long-term erosion, the beach will not recover during calmer conditions. The scour in front of the
structure will continue and eventually undermine the structure (see Figure 4-24). A Dutch toe is no longer
applicable.
Figure 4-24: Scour development with long-term erosion

Toe construction
Scour hole at
time t=

t
4
t
3
t
2

t
1
possible collapse

When dealing with long-term erosion, a flexible protection is needed. This protection should be able to follow
the lowering of the seabed due to scouring, without losing its stability. Therefore a Hanging apron
(sometimes also named Falling apron) should be constructed.

A Hanging Apron toe is constructed with fascines on a mattress (a strengthened geo-textile) to prevent the
stones from rolling of the mattress. It is therefore able to adjust its slope to the scour hole without collapse.
The following parameters have to be calculated:
erosion depth d
s

width of the toe L
t

Erosion depth
The maximal scour depth d
s
with long-term erosion is given by the closure depth. The closure depth is the
depth beyond which no significant longshore and cross-shore transports take place due to littoral transport
processes. The closure depth can thus be defined as the depth below which no sediment transports take place
by waves and currents.

The closure depth is determined by the wave conditions. The 1/1 year wave conditions are applied here to
estimate the closure depth:
with H
1/1
Wave height with return period 1/1 year [m]

T
1/1
Wave period with return period 1/1 year [s]

Width of the toe
The slope of the protection should never be steeper than the outer slope of the structure. The width of the
toe L
t
is therefore determined by the maximal scour depth d
s
and the slope angle :

with d
s
local water depth relative to MSL [m]

It is advised to use the same stone dimensions as the outer slope of the structure.

( )
2
1 / 1
2
1 / 1
1 / 1
5 . 68 28 . 2
gT
H
H d
c
= [Eq. 34]
( )
o sin
s c
t
d d
L

= [Eq. 35]

57

4.2.5 Sea dike, without wave protection
The simple sea dike without wave protection is usually situated further inland, where direct wave attack is
minimal. The function of this type of clay dike is to stop/reduce flooding due to extreme spring tidal water
levels and wave overtopping during high water.

The main differences with the more robust sea dike as described in Section 5.2 are:
- To determine the crest height, a minimum freeboard of 0.5 m is adopted (because wave action- thus
wave run-up and overtopping- is expected to be relatively small);
- No armour layer is required;
- The dike is relatively low, the crest width can also be smaller (width is not required for construction
purposes);
- Considering that the dike is located further inland, and aims to protect from flooding only during
extreme water levels/wave run-up, no large water level differences are expected to occur over the
small dike. Therefore the piping requirements are not taken into account, the risk is limited and some
damage due to piping in extreme conditions is accepted. The simple clay dikes are easy to monitor
and repair when required.

Sea dike

In this example, it is assumed that short-term as well as long-term erosion will occur at the project
location. The geo-textile in the toe is woven and strengthened to function as a mattress. Fascines are
placed upon the mattress to prevent the stones from falling and sliding along the slope.

The wave conditions with return period 1/1 year are:

H
1/1
= 1.95 m
T
1/1
= 15.3 s

The closure depth is determined as:

( )
3 . 4 5 . 68 28 . 2
2
1 / 1
2
1 / 1
1 / 1
= =
gT
H
H d
c
m

The required width of the Hanging Apron toe construction is estimated as:

( )
8
45 . 0
7 . 0 3 . 4
sin
=
=
o
s c
t
d d
L m

z = 5.5 m +MSL
1
2
Lt = 8 m

58
4.3 SEA WALL
4.3.1 Introduction
A sea wall protects the hinterland from erosion and wave attack and is therefore placed in the wave attack
zone on the beach, i.e. in the beach profile. It is generally placed on a (partly) existing soil body or
embankment which protects the hinterland from flooding, while the sea wall protects the soil body against
erosion and overtopping.
Figure 4-25: The position of a sea wall in the cross-profile

A seawall at Pasi Lohk, Sumatra is shown in Figure 4-26. Note that during extreme conditions the water level
will be higher and the waves can reach the sea wall.
Figure 4-26: An example of a rubble mound seawall (Pasi lhok, Sumatra)

Standard design
The basic design for a rubble mound seawall is shown in Figure 4-27. Note that in this illustration a protection
on an existing soil body is shown, as well as a protection with quarry-run backfill on a gentle sloping soil body.
Both constructions are defined as a sea wall. The design considerations and functions are the same.

59

Figure 4-27: Typical cross-profile rubble mound seawall
toe construction

toe construction
quarry run


60

The main functional design considerations that should be taken into account in the structural design of the
rubble mound seawall are:

The rubble mound seawall aims to protect against erosion (short-term or long-term erosion) and wave
attack. It does not have a function has flood protection, since a rubble mound structure is not
watertight.
Another important functional design consideration is the toe structure of the seawall. These
structures are usually placed in the wave attack zone (in the beach profile), therefore a proper toe
structure is of vital importance for the stability of the structure. The type of toe structure required
depends on the type and rate of erosion estimated for the project location.


Figure 4-28: Main design elements rubble mound seawall
Seawall
layer thickness
1. Crest height design water level
freeboard
5. Inner slope
4. Toe structure Toe depth
Toe width
Wave overtopping


61

The following types are discussed in this chapter:
4.3.3: Rubble mound seawall
4.3.4: Rubble mound seawall, with special toe

The included boxes in this chapter for the supporting design example rubble mound seawall:

Box 1. Design assumptions for example calculation (see next page)
Box 8. Variation with concrete elements as armour layer units
Box 10. Variation different build up seawall with quarry run core

Sea wall


The location of the sea wall influences the amount of wave attack, the core material and the necessity of
a special toe construction. The location of the sea wall might also influences the availability of materials
such as quarry-run and armour rocks. In the example of this chapter, the sea wall is constructed with a
rubble mound wave protection. Variations with an armour layer made up of other materials such as
concrete elements are discussed in Box 8.

further discussed in Section 4.1.2.

as long as it will not induce direct failure. In the case of a sea wall this is particularly applicable for the
rubble mound wave protection. Some armour stones are allowed to be displaced during extreme wave
costs.

All these considerations should be taken into account in the design to reduce costs and optimize the
durability and performance of the structure.


62

Rubble mound seawall

-7,0
-6,0
-5,0
-4,0
-3,0
-2,0
-1,0
0,0
1,0
2,0
-20 30 80 130 180



63
4.3.3 Rubble mound seawall
Crest height
The crest height is determined with [Eq. 3]. The required freeboard is determined based on the allowed wave
overtopping, see Section 4.2 for further description and formulae. The main parameters are illustrated in
Figure 4-29. In the basic example calculation, no significant wave overtopping is allowed. After that, a
variation with allowing overtopping is shown in Box 4.

Figure 4-29: Definition of design water level h and freeboard R
c
at a seawall

h
Rc
z
MSL


The wind set-up should be calculated with [Eq. 2], and is here assumed to be:

h
set-up
= 0 m

The design water level is calculated with SLR = LS = 0.1 m and [Eq. 1]:

45 . 1 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 25 . 1 = + + + = + + + =
up set


64


For the basic design no wave overtopping is allowed and the wave run-up is calculated. The design wave
conditions taken from Appendix A are:

H
s
= 3.0 m and T
p
= 8.5 s

No 2D wave effects are expected in this example, the depth-limited design wave height can thus be
determined with the method from Section 4.2.3:

1. From the profile it is determined that d
s
= 1.3 m (i.e. during design water level) and because of
the shallow foreshore m proves to be 1:50 (=0.02)
2.
( )( )
002 . 0
5 . 8 8 . 9
3 . 1
2 2
~ =
p
s
gT
d

3. From the graph in Figure 4-18 it is determined that 85 . 0 ~ =
s
b
d
H

4. The design wave height H
s
at the toe of the structure is ( )( ) 1 . 1 3 . 1 85 . 0 = m

The local design wave conditions are therefore H
s
= 1.1 m, T
p
= 8.5 s.

The deep water wave length L
0
is computed as:

( )( )
113
2
5 . 8 8 . 9
2
2 2
0
~ = =
t t
p
gT
L m

For a 1:2 slope angle, the surf similarity parameter is:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
5.2
113 1 . 1
2
1
tan
0
= = =
L H
s
p
o

p
> 1.5

p
> 1.5: The wave run-up R
u2%
is calculated with [Eq. 20] :
( ) ( )( )( ) 5 . 2 2 . 5 1 . 1 1 . 1 1 . 1
46 . 0 46 . 0
% 2
= = =
p s u
H R m

However the maximum run-up according to [Eq. 21] is:

R
c
= 1 . 2 97 . 1
max
% 2
= =
s u
H R m (<2.5 m)


65


In many locations more wave overtopping can be allowed. As an example the effect of an allowed
discharge of q = 2 l/m/s = 0.002 m
3
/m/s is calculated. As a first step [Eq. 22] is used:

( ) ( )( ) 6 . 4 2 . 5 9 . 0 9 . 0 = = =
p q

q
> 2

q
> 2: [Eq. 23] for non-breaking waves should be used to calculate q:

( )( )
( )
002 . 0
1 . 1
6 . 4 exp 2 . 0 1 . 1 8 . 9 6 . 4 exp 2 . 0
3 3
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Q
s
Q
s
R
H
R
gH q

Rewriting of [Eq. 23] gives:

( )
( )( )
4 . 1
1 . 1 8 . 9 2 . 0
002 . 0
ln
6 . 4
1 . 1
2 . 0
ln
6 . 4 3 3
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
s
s
c
gH
q H
R m

The relation between the allowed overtopping and the freeboard is shown in the graph.

0
0,25
0,5
0,75
1
1,25
1,5
1,75
2
2,25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
q [l/m/s]
R
c

[
m
]


The design crest height z according to [Eq. 14] is:

-No wave overtopping: 6 . 3 1 . 2 5 . 1 = + = + =
c
R h z m +MSL (basic design- Box 3)
-Wave overtopping 2 l/s/m: 9 . 2 4 . 1 5 . 1 = + = + =
c
R h z m +MSL(variation- Box 4), note that additional
inner slope protection and sufficient storage capacity is required (see Section 4.2.3).
z= 3.6 m +MSL (no overtopping)
h= 2.1 m +MSL
1
2
MSL

For construction purposes, the crest width should be 3 m or at least 3 armour layer stones.

66
Armour layer
The parameters for the armour layer are the stone dimensions and the layer thickness. Further explanation
and formulae are given in Section 4.2.3. An estimate of the main parameters is repeated below.

For the determination of the required stone diameter to withstand wave attack, different formulae are
available. The most reliable results are usually obtained with the Van der Meer-formula. Because of shallow
water conditions ( )
s
H d 3 < the shallow water corrections to the Van der Meer formula are applied. Some
parameters have to be estimated in advance:

Permeability P: estimate for Indonesia P=0.1, based on Figure 4-20;
Damage number S: estimate for Indonesia S=2, based on Table 4-2;
Number of waves N: estimate for Indonesia N=3000 (storm duration 8 hours).

With the parameters P, S and N available, use [Eq. 26] to determine which equation should be used for the
stone diameter d
n50
; [Eq. 24] or [Eq. 25].


As determined above, the following parameters should be used for rubble mound structures along the
Indonesian coast:

P = 0.1
S = 2
N = 3000
2
1
tan = o
With
p
= 5.2 (see Box 3), the critical surf similarity parameter can be calculated [Eq. 26]:
| | ( )( ) 6 . 3
2
1
1 . 0 2 . 6 tan 2 . 6
5 . 0 1 . 0
1
31 . 0
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
=
(
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
|
.
|
\
|
+ P
cr
P o

Because
p
>
cr
[Eq. 25] for surging breakers should be used. Filling in H
s
= 1.1 m,
o
o
tan
1
cot = = 2 and
the parameters
p
, , S, N and P in [Eq. 25] gives:
( )( )
( )( ) ( ) 6 . 1 2 2 . 5
3000
2
1 . 0 4 . 1
65 . 1
9 . 0
cot ) ( 4 . 1
1 . 0
2 . 0
13 . 0
50
2 . 0 13 . 0
50
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
A

n
P
n
s
d
N
S
P
d
H
o

Which leads to:

( )( )
4 . 0
6 . 1 65 . 1
1 . 1
50
~ =
n
d m

[Eq. 27] gives a nominal stone weight of:

( )( ) 170 4 . 0 2650
3 3
50 50
~ = =
n s
d W kg

A grading in the order of 100-250 kg is recommended (depending on local availability).

According to [Eq. 28], the thickness of the armour layer should be:

( )( ) 8 . 0 40 . 0 2 2
50
~ = =
n
d t m


67


If it is decided that the stone size should be reduced (e.g. due to availability problems or expected
problems during construction), the slope can be adjusted. To give an example, the calculation is repeated
for a 1:3 slope.

[Eq. 16] determines the new value for the surf similarity parameter:

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3.3
115 1 . 1
3
1
tan
0
= = =
L H
s
p
o

In this case the critical parameter also changes, according to [Eq. 26] into:

| | ( )( ) 9 . 2
3
1
1 . 0 2 . 6 tan 2 . 6
5 . 0 1 . 0
1
31 . 0
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
=
(
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
|
.
|
\
|
+ P
cr
P o

Because
p
>
c
again [Eq. 25] should be used:

( )( )
( )( ) ( ) 9 . 1 3 3 . 3
3000
2
1 . 0 4 . 1
65 . 1
1 . 1
cot ) ( 4 . 1
1 . 0
2 . 0
13 . 0
50
2 . 0 13 . 0
50
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
A

n
P
n
s
d
N
S
P
d
H
o

The required stone diameter d
n50
is:

( )( )
35 . 0
9 . 1 65 . 1
1 . 1
50
~ =
n
d m


( )( ) 115 35 . 0 2650
3 3
50 50
~ = =
n s
d W kg

The graph shows the relation between a gentler slope angle and the stone size d
n50
.

0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
cot [-]
d
n
5
0

[
m
]


68

Sea wall
Box 8. Variation with concrete elements as armour layer units

Introduction
When armour stone of sufficient size, quality and quantity is not available at the project location,
artificial armour units (prefabricated concrete elements) are an alternative option. Note that these
concrete elements should only substitute the natural rock armour layer. They always require an
underlayer of specific size and grading to ensure a proper transfer of loads, obtain sufficient permeability
and to resist outwards movement of fines. Detailed guidance on the underlayers should be provided by the
developers of the armour units and its licensees.

As stability can vary under many influences, physical model tests are recommended for all complex
concrete armour units. It should be noted that such model tests are more complex than tests on
conventional rock armour layers and require therefore experience in the field of physical modelling.

Concrete elements
Several types of unit are available worldwide, and their applicability along the Indonesian coast mainly
depends on the availability of an experienced contractor and supplier at the project location. Besides
availability, key considerations for selecting a certain type of unit are the range of application, stability,
strength and practicality in economic construction. The stability of the different elements depends on (a
combination of) the following principles: weight, interlocking and friction.

Weight
The main contribution to the stability of these concrete elements arises from their own mass, similar to
the stability of natural stones. Examples of such elements are the Cubic Block and the Antifer Cube.

Interlocking
The concrete armour shapes increase their stability by interlocking with adjacent units and are
characterized by a relatively light body and long members. Examples of such elements are the Tetrapod
and the X-bloc.

Friction
Uniformly placed armour units obtain a large part of the resistance by friction between the individual
units. Placed rock- and pitched stone revetments are good examples of this type of protection. Because
specialized equipment and training is required for placing such armour, it is not further elaborated in this
manual.

Design
The design of concrete armour units generally follows the overall approach for rock armouring, but design
formulae and/or coefficients are different. For preliminary sizing, use is made of Hudsons equation with
specific values of KD derived from previous or generic model tests. For a more detailed design, specific
formulae are derived for each unit which can be found in e.g. the Rock Manual (2007) or CEM (2002).

The Hudson formula for concrete units:
( )
3 1
cot o
D
n
s
K
D
H
=
A

with D
n
Nominal diameter of the concrete unit [m]
K
D
Hudson stability coefficient [-]
Relative density of the concrete unit [-]
Outer slope angle []

The K
D
values are further specified in the next box.

69

Geo-textile and filter layers
The design rules and considerations for geo-textile and filter layers for a rubble mound structure are as
described in Section 4.2.3 for the sea dike. The layers are built up similarly (except for the layer of sand
required under the geo-textile on top of a clay dike)
1. geo-textile
2. gravel layer
3. layer with stone size 100- 250 kg (or a similar grading, depending on availability)

Sea wall
Box 8: (continued)

As a first estimate for the Hudson stability coefficient K
D
, the values from the table below can be used for
the mentioned elements above. These values are only applicable for outer slopes of 1:2.

K
D
coefficient [-]
concrete element
Breaking waves Non-breaking
Cubes (double layer)

6.5 7.5
Antifer Cubes

7 8
Tetrapods

7 8
X-blocs

16 16

Note that the mentioned concrete elements are arbitrarily chosen examples. There are many more
possibilities, and for further information one is referred to additional literature on this subject (e.g. the
Rock Manual (2007), CEM (2002), etc.).


70

Toe structure
If the erosion only occurs during extreme wave attack (short term erosion), the scour hole will recover and fill
up during calmer conditions. The scour in front of the structure will be temporary. Figure 4-22 gives an
illustration of the development of the scour hole after the storm event. At a short-term erosion coastline, a
Dutch toe type can be applied. The design rules and formulae are as described in Section 4.2.3 (toe structure
for sea dike). In case of long-term erosion, a different toe structure is needed. This is worked out in Section
4.3.4 (rubble mound seawall, with special toe).

The geotextile is placed on the underground soil to protect the natural slope. If additional fill is required
(quarry run), creating more of a seawall type as indicated in the Introduction, the build up is different
(see variation described in Box 9).

A 10 cm gravel layer is placed on the geo-textile and a 40 cm layer of 100-250 kg stones on top of the
gravel. From the calculations in Box 6 it turns out that the required armour layer size is also 100-250 kg.

Because of the limited wave action, the sea wall turns out to be sufficiently stable with only 2 layers on
top of the geo-textile:

2
nd
layer/ armour layer
(100-250 kg)

1
st
layer
(gravel)

geotextile

Box 10. Variation different build up seawall with quarry run core

If a quarry run fill is placed under the filter layers the build up of the structure is different. In that case
the geotextile is placed under the quarry run fill. The transition to the armour layer should be executed
according to the filter rules.

According to [Eq. 29] the ratio between the weight of the armour layer stones and the underlying layer
should not exceed 1/15. For the armour layer 100-250 kg was recommended, with a W
50
of 175 kg this
leads to:
12
15
175
15
50
50
~ = =
a
u W
W kg

Quarry run has a grading of 0-40 kg. This grading meets the requirement for W
50
u
= 12 kg. Concluding, the
100-250 kg armour layer can be placed directly on the quarry run core.

71

Inner slope
For the inner slope, a distinction is made between the seawall type that actually has an inner slope and the
type on a soil body that does not really have an inner slope. Note that piping is not an issue for rubble mound
structures, because the structure is permeable. Piping can only occur if an impermeable dike/ structure is
placed on a permeable underground.

Sea wall with inner slope
For the seawall with inner slope, the following has to be taken into account in the design:
Structural stability; to ensure structural stability, a minimal inner slope angle of 1:2 should be
adopted.
Overtopping; if overtopping is allowed the inner slope should be able to handle the overtopping
without instability of the inner slope. This requires additional attention, it should be checked whether
the inner slope stone size is sufficient for the expected overtopping rates. Furthermore, if
overtopping is allowed, the hinterland storage capacity should be checked for every location (see
example calculation in Section 4.2.3, Box 12).

Sea wall without inner slope
The crest connects to the unprotected hinterland and the following has to be taken into account in the design:
Overtopping; if overtopping is allowed, the stability of the sea wall is seriously threatened from the
rear-side. This threat is illustrated in Figure 4-30. It is therefore first of all recommended not to allow
wave overtopping at a sea wall without inner slope.
To ensure stability from the rear-side with wave overtopping, the crest should be lengthened. The
crest should be constructed with similar stone size as the armour layer. The required length of the
crest depends on wave overtopping rates and the sediment properties of the soil in the hinterland.
The threat is caused by scouring behind the structure; an expert opinion is required to determine the
expected scouring and the required crest length.
Furthermore, if overtopping is allowed, the hinterland storage capacity should be checked for every
location (see example calculation in Section 4.2.3, Box 12).


In this example, it is assumed that only short-term erosion will occur at the project location. The local
design wave height has already been determined in Box 3: H
s
= 1.1 m. The minimal depth of the toe is [Eq.
32]:

1 . 1 = =
s t
H MSL d m -MSL

The width of the toe should be calculated with [Eq. 33]:

( )( ) 2 . 2 1 . 1 2 2 = = =
s t
H L m

1
2
2.2 m
z= 3.6 m+MSL
MSL
d
t
= 1.1 m -MSL


72
Figure 4-30: Illustration of threat wave overtopping a sea wall

4.3.4 Rubble mound seawall, with special toe
The design of the rubble mound seawall armour layer and core is the same as for the sea wall designed in the
previous section. Only the toe structure should be designed differently, as described below.

If there is long-term erosion, the beach will not recover during calmer conditions. The scour in front of the
structure will continue and eventually undermine the structure (see Figure 4-24). A Dutch toe is no longer
applicable.

When dealing with long-term erosion, a flexible protection is needed. This protection should be able to follow
the lowering of the seabed due to scouring, without losing its stability. Therefore a Hanging apron
(sometimes also named Falling apron) should be constructed.

A Hanging Apron toe is constructed with fascines on a mattress (a strengthened geo-textile) to prevent the
stones from rolling of the mattress. It is therefore able to adjust its slope to the scour hole without collapse.
The following parameters have to be calculated:
erosion depth d
s

width of the toe L
t

The design rules and formulae are as described in Section 4.2.4 (special toe for a sea dike). An example
calculation is given below.


73


In this example, it is assumed that short-term as well as long-term erosion will occur at the project
location. The recommended geo-textile is woven and strengthened to function as a mattress. Fascines are
placed upon the mattress to prevent the stones from falling and sliding along the slope of the scour hole.

The wave conditions with return period 1/1 year are:

H
1/1
= 0.95 m
T
1/1
= 8.1 s

The closure depth is determined as:

( )
0 . 2 5 . 68 28 . 2
2
1 / 1
2
1 / 1
1 / 1
= =
gT
H
H d
c
m
The required width of the hanging apron toe structure is:

( )
75 . 4
45 . 0
15 . 0 0 . 2
sin
=
+
=
=
o
d d
L
c
t
m

1,0 m
1
2
z= 3.6m +MSL
4.75 m


74
5 HARD MEASURES (OFFSHORE)
5.1 GROYNES
5.1.1 Introduction
The basic layout for a groyne system an its position at the shoreline is shown in Figure 5-1. Note that the
functioning of groynes is difficult to predict. Morphological experts should always be involved in the design
process of a groyne system. This manual aims to give some initial design rules and formulae. However, in the
actual design phase a thorough morphological assessment is required to properly translate these rules to the
local situation.

Figure 5-1: Lay-out scheme of a groyne field

An example of such a groyne system is shown in Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-2: An example of a groyne system


75

The main functional design considerations that should be taken into account in the structural design of the
rubble mound groynes are:
The function of the groyne is to (partly) block the sediment transport induced by wave breaking. In
addition, it reduces the downdrift erosion by reducing the wave load in the shelter zone of the
groyne. A groyne is therefore by definition exposed to wave attack.
Groynes do not reduce cross-shore sediment transports, seasonal beach erosion and flooding due to
storm waves approaching (almost) perpendicular to the coast will not directly be reduced by groynes.

In the design phase for groynes, two main steps are identified:
The groyne lay-out design;
The groyne structural design.

This manual aims to provide (initial) design rules for both the groyne lay-out design and the structural design.


76
Figure 5-3: Main design elements rubble mound groynes
Rubble mound groynes
layer thickness
1. Lay-out scheme Groyne length
Groyne spacing
5. Toe construction Structural stability
design water level 2. Crest height
6. bottom protection local scour conditions


77

The included boxes in this chapter for the supporting design example rubble mound groynes are:

Box 2. Example calculation groyne layout-scheme
Box 3. Possible variations and considerations for the groyne layout scheme
Box 6. Variation stone size at the groyne head

Rubble mound groyne


The location of a groyne influences the amount of wave attack, its effectiveness and its dimensions. This
is further discussed in Box 3. The project location itself might also influence the availability of materials
such as quarry-run and armour rocks. In the example of this chapter, the groynes are constructed with a
rubble mound wave protection. Variations with an armour layer made up of other materials such as
concrete elements are discussed in Section 4.3.3.

Proper maintenance programs for the structure will thus increase the life time and thereby protect its
function as sediment trap on the long term. This is further discussed in Section 4.1.2.

as long as it will not induce direct failure. In the case of a groyne system this is particularly applicable for
the rubble mound wave protection. Some armour stones are allowed to be displaced during extreme wave
costs.


The following assumptions are made for this example:

-7,0
-6,0
-5,0
-4,0
-3,0
-2,0
-1,0
0,0
1,0
2,0
-20 30 80 130 180



78
5.1.3 Rubble mound groynes
Layout-scheme
Groynes stop (part of) the longshore transport and thus locally reduce coastline erosion caused by longshore
transport. By stopping the net longshore transport, accretion takes place upstream of the groyne and erosion
takes place downstream of the groyne. For a groyne system this leads to a coastline saw-tooth pattern in
between the groynes (see Figure 5-1), as the coastline will find the equilibrium position perpendicular to the
dominant wave direction.

There are no simple and absolute rules for the groyne lay-out design (length and spacing) as these critically
depend on local conditions and considerations. It is essential for experienced specialist engineers (hydraulics,
morphology) to be consulted for the execution of detailed design. Below, some initial rules of thumb are given
for an initial assessment of the required groyne length and spacing.

Groyne length
The length of the groyne should preferably extend through the breaker zone. The breaker zone is defined up
to the depth at which the waves start breaking. The width of the breaker zone depends on the wave
conditions. During calm conditions the breaker zone is much narrower than during storm conditions (higher
waves start breaking at greater depths).

As an initial estimate, the breaker zone for wave conditions with a return period of 1 year is adopted for
determining the required groyne length. Within this zone, it is estimated that about 90% of the yearly
sediment transport is trapped in the first years. In time, the trapped sediment percentage will drop gradually
because the bathymetry will adjust and more sediment will pass the groynes after adjustment. The rate of this
adjustment depends on the local conditions.

The depth until which the groyne should be extended based on the assumptions as described above is:

with d depth [m]
H
1/1
wave height with return period 1/1 year [m]

The starting point of the groyne should at least be up to the HAT-level on the beach to avoid outflanking
behind the structure. If shoreline constructions are present, the groyne should be connected to them.
Furthermore, as a first estimate, apply a spacing to length ratio of 2:1. This ratio has shown a reasonable
erosion/ accretion rate in practical examples.

1 / 1
0 . 2 H d = [Eq. 36]

79

Box 2. Example calculation layout-scheme

The design wave conditions with a return period of 1 year at location X4 are found in the appendix:

H
1/1
= 2.4 m and T
1/1
= 7.7 s

The waterdepth to which the groyne should be extended to trap approximately 90% of the sediment is:

( )( ) 8 . 4 4 . 2 2 0 . 2
1 / 1
= = =
yr
H d m

The water depth relative to MSL is adopted. From the cross-shore profile it is determined that the length
of the groyne from the HAT-waterline to d = 4.8 m - MSL is 125 m.

-7,0
-6,0
-5,0
-4,0
-3,0
-2,0
-1,0
0,0
1,0
2,0
-20 30 80 130 180

The groyne length was determined as L=125 m. With spacing to length ratio of 2:1, the spacing between
the groynes becomes x = 250 m. The lay-out is shown below.

L = 125 m
x = 250 m

4.8 m -MSL

HAT waterline


80

Crest height
The crest height should be around HAT level up to the groyne head to reduce the wave action in the shelter
zone.

For construction purposes the minimum crest width is 3 m.

HAT z
g
= [Eq. 37]
Box 3. Possible variations and considerations for the layout scheme

Below the effect of different variations and considerations are briefly discussed.

Amount of initially trapped sediment
In some locations, it might be preferred to trap less sediment to reduce the downstream erosion effects.
In these locations, shorter groyne lengths should be chosen. This will also reduce the construction costs.
However, it will also reduce beach accretion, thereby reducing the protection of the hinterland.

The time scale of effectiveness (long-term or short-term)
As the beach accretes, the underwater bathymetry will also adjust. This means that the 90%-transport
depth isoline will shift seaward. If the groyne should still function equally effective in sand trapping on the
long term, the groyne should initially be longer. This will increase the costs and groyne length. However,
on the long term it will increase the effectiveness and beach accretion as long as the spacing is sufficient.

Wave conditions in which groyne is still effective as sand-catcher
If the groyne should also be effective during more extreme conditions, a wave height with lower return
frequency should be used (higher wave). The depth of the groyne will increase, and thereby also its
length. This will increase construction costs, but also the effectiveness in severe conditions (with a
corresponding high transport rate).

Uniform length of the groynes
If the terminal groyne (the last groyne) is chosen longer than the others, a sediment reservoir is created.
This sediment can be used on other coastal stretches. However, this will increase the erosion on the down-
stream side of the groyne system. A shorter terminal groyne will decrease this erosion. However, it will
also decrease shoreline accretion and protection in the last groyne bay.


81

Armour layer
The design of the armour layer is the same as described for the sea dike, since shallow water conditions (d<
3H
s
) still apply along the groyne. The rules and formulae to determine the armour stone dimensions are
discussed in Section 4.2.3. Although the wave height decreases towards the shoreline, it is advised to use the
same stone sizes throughout the groyne.

Local currents and reflected waves increase the hydraulic conditions at the groyne head. No exact rules are
available, however the Shore Protection Manual recommends applying stones which are twice as heavy as in
the trunk, or alternatively, a head with a slope which is twice as gentle as the trunks slope.

Figure 5-4: The trunk and head of the groyne


The water levels are found in Appendix A;

Following [Eq. 37]:

20 . 1 = = HAT z
g
m +MSL

crest width= 3m
z
g
= 1.2 m +MSL


82
In correspondence with [Eq. 28] the layer thickness is twice the diameter d
n50
.


The design wave conditions with a return period of 25 years at location X4 are found in Appendix A:

H
s
= 2.9 m and T
p
= 8.5 s

At the head of the groyne, the waterdepth during design conditions (with SLR = LS = 0.1) is (4.8)+(1.4) =
6.2 m. The depth-limited wave height according to [Eq. 18] is larger than the maximum wave height in the
nearshore zone (i.e. H
s
= 2.9 m). Therefore, [Eq. 18] is no longer applicable and the wave height H
s
= 2.9
m should be used as design wave height H
s
.

With H
s
= 2.9 m,

tan = , P = 0.1, S = 2 and N = 3000 the armour layer is calculated with [Eq. 17], [Eq.
16], [Eq. 26] and [Eq. 25]:

( )( )
t t 2
5 . 8 8 . 9
2
2 2
0
= =
p
gT
L = 113 m

( )
113 9 . 2
2
1
tan
0
= =
L H
s
p
o
= 3.1

| |
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
tan 2 . 6
P
tr
P o = 3.6 m

5 . 0 2 . 0 18 . 0
50
) ( 7 . 8

=
A

N
S
P
d
H
n
s
= 1.7

This leads to d
n50
= 1.1 m, or with [Eq. 27] W
50
= 3000 kg for the trunk.

The layer thickness in the trunk is:

( )( ) 1 . 2 05 . 1 2 2
50
~ = =
n
d t m

The armour layer stones at the groyne head should consist of a grading with W
50
= 6000 kg (twice the
weight of the trunk armour layer stone). Because this is rather heavy, maybe a more gentle slope should
be considered to decrease the stone weight (see Box 6).

t = 2.1 m


83

The core should be constructed of quarry run (grading 0-40 kg), sufficiently small material to ensure
sandtightness of the groyne. On top of the quarry run core a geo-textile is placed to protect the core from
washing out.

A large difference with sea dikes and sea walls is the applied type of geo-textile. Because of the construction
under water, fascine mattresses have to be used. The geo-textile should be a woven geo-textile (with e.g.
bamboo) to form a mattress. This mattress is protected against rupture and puncture, and can be used below
the water level. A conventional geo-textile should not be used in a groyne design.

The fascine mattresses are sunk on top of the quarry run with stones of grading 100-250 kg. Because of the
larger strength of the mattresses (compared to conventional geo-textile), the larger stones can be placed
directly on top of the fascine mattresses. For the transition from the 100-250 kg grading to the armour layer,
the filter rules should be applied. The filter rules are discussed in Section 4.2.3.
Box 6. Variation armour layer with more gentle slope at groyne head

A gentler slope along the entire groyne is probably not cost-effective due to the large increase of required
material. However, at the groyne head the stone weight becomes extremely high. The use of different
stone sizes for the trunk and head is likely to cause problems during construction. Therefore a gentler
slope only at the head could be opted for, to be able to use the same armour stone sizes for the trunk and
head.

In this example case, this results in a tan = 1/3

0
tan
L H
s
p
o
= =2.1
| |
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
tan 2 . 6
P
tr
P o =2.5

5 . 0 2 . 0 18 . 0
50
) ( 7 , 8

=
A

N
S
P
d
H
n
s
=2.1

This results in a d
n50
of 0.85 m at the trunk. At the head, a d
n50
of (1.25)(0.85)= 1.05 m is calculated. This
is the same stone as in the trunk with slope 1:2.

The resulting recommendation in this example would be to apply a 1:2 slope for the trunk, and a 1:3
slope for the groyne head. In this way the same stone grading with W
50
= 3000 kg can be used as armour
layer for both the trunk and the groyne head.

84

Toe structure
In general, scouring by wave action is not a problem for groynes (because of greater depths and beach
accretion). The main function of the toe structure is to provide stability for the armour layer stones. As a rule
of thumb the toe width should be 4 armour stones.


As indicated, the build up of groynes consists of:
Quarry run core
Fascine mattresses (geotextile)
Layer to sink mattress, 100-250 kg grading
Filter layers/ Armour layer

The filter layers (if required) have to be determined through the filter rules.

According to [Eq. 29] the ratio between the weight of the armour stones and the underlying layer should
not exceed 1/15. With 3000
50
=
a
W kg the weight of the stones in the subsequent layer should at least be:

200
15
3000
15
50
50
~ = =
a
u W
W kg

The 100-250 kg layer is estimated at W
50
= 175 kg. This is insufficient but only just. Considering the
uncertainties in the filter rules, it is judged that the armour layer with 3000
50
=
a
W kg can be placed on
top of the 100-250 kg layer. However, strong requirements to the quality of the 100-250 kg grading should
be applied. For a wider grading, leading to a W
50
smaller than 175 kg, an additional layer is required in
between the two layers.

The proposed groyne is designed with 2 layers on top of the woven geo-textile:
1. Layer 100-250 kg grading (with sufficiently narrow grading, minimum W
50
= 175 kg)
2. Armour layer with W
50
= 3000 kg


85

Bed protection
Local currents caused by tides and current patterns around the groyne heads may induce scour. If scouring is
expected, the geo-textile with rock bed-protection should be extended further. Whether or not bottom
protection is required, and the required length of the bottom protection strongly depends on local conditions.
This cannot be expressed in straightforward design rules, a thorough assessment of the local hydraulic and
morphological conditions is required. Such a study should be executed by an experienced specialist.

With 4 stones, the width is (4)(d
n50
)= 4.2 m

4.2 m


86
5.2 DETACHED OFFSHORE BREAKWATERS
5.2.1 Introduction
The basic layout for a detached breakwater system is shown in Figure 5-5. Note that the functioning of
detached breakwaters is very difficult to predict. Morphological experts should always be involved in the
design process of an detached breakwater system. This manual aims to give some initial design rules and
formulae. However, in the actual design phase a thorough morphological assessment is required to properly
translate these rules to the local situation.
Figure 5-5: Layout scheme of a detached breakwater field

An example of a system of detached breakwaters is shown in Figure 5-6
Figure 5-6: An example of a detached breakwater system (Lakkopetra, Greece)


87

5.2.2 Design considerations

The main functional design considerations that should be taken into account in the structural design of
detached breakwaters are:
Detached breakwaters parallel to the shoreline aim to reduce the wave action in the area behind. A
detached breakwater is therefore by definition exposed to wave attack.

In the design phase for detached breakwaters, two main steps are identified:
The detached breakwater lay-out design;
The detached breakwater structural design.
This manual aims to provide (initial) design rules for both the lay-out design and the structural design.



88
Figure 5-7: Main design elements rubble mound detached breakwaters

Detached breakwater
layer thickness
1. Lay-out scheme Distance from the shore
Breakwater length
5. Toe construction Structural stability
2. Crest height
6. bed protection local scour conditions
Gap between breakwaters
design water level


89

The included boxes in this chapter for the supporting design example rubble mound detached breakwaters are:

Box 2. Example calculation layout-scheme
Box 5. Variation with a submerged breakwater
Box 7. Variation stone size at the detached breakwater head
Box 8. Variation with a core consisting of a Geotube or GSC

Detached breakwaters


The location of a detached breakwater influences the amount of wave attack, its effectiveness and its
dimensions. This is further discussed in Box 3. The project location of the project itself might also
influence the availability of materials such as quarry-run and armour rocks. In the example of this chapter,
the breakwaters are constructed with a rubble mound wave protection. Artificial armour units like
concrete elements are discussed in Section 4.3.3. Variations with a core consisting of Geotubes or
Geotextile Sand Containers (GSC) are discussed in Box 8.

Proper maintenance programs for the structure will thus increase the life time and thereby protect its
function to provide shelter and decrease transport capacity on the long term. This is further discussed in
Section 4.1.2.

as long as it will not induce direct failure. In the case of a breakwater this is particularly applicable for
the rubble mound wave protection. Some armour stones are allowed to be displaced during extreme wave
costs.


90

Rubble mound detached breakwaters

The following assumptions are made for this example:


-7,0
-6,0
-5,0
-4,0
-3,0
-2,0
-1,0
0,0
1,0
2,0
-20 30 80 130 180


91
5.2.3 Rubble mound detached breakwaters
Layout scheme
Detached breakwaters parallel to the shoreline reduce the wave action in the area behind. This will cause a
reduction of sediment transport and sedimentation of the coastline behind the breakwaters. Depending on the
layout plan (distance from shoreline and gaps in between the breakwaters) in relation to the local wave and
sediment transport conditions, the sedimentation may connect the detached breakwaters to the coastline.
This process is called the formation of tombolos. When tombolos have formed, the longshore sediment
transport is completely blocked (comparable to the situation for groynes).

As for groynes, there are no simple and absolute rules for detached breakwater systems. These critically
depend on local conditions and functional requirements. It is essential for experienced specialist engineers
(hydraulics, morphology) to be consulted for the execution of detailed design. If poorly located, breakwaters
can even cause an increase of wave action and sediment transports at neighbouring sites, thereby worsening
the existing situation. Careful planning with the aid of mathematical- and hydraulic models is therefore
essential.

Below some rules of thumb are given for an initial assessment of possible layout dimensions. The formation of
tombolos which completely block the sediment transport should preferably be avoided to reduce the down-
drift erosion.

The design of the lay-out of a system of detached breakwaters consists of:
Distance from the shore
Length of the breakwater
Gap between adjacent breakwaters

Distance from the shoreline
The distance X
brw
from the shore to the breakwater can be estimated with:

with X
brw
distance from the original shoreline to the breakwater [m]
x
brz
width of the breaker zone [m]
The width of the breaker zone (see 0 for a definition and further explanation) can be approximated by the
distance from the shore up to a depth of:

with d depth [m]
H
1/1
wave with return period 1/1 year [m]

Length breakwater
The length of the breakwater can be estimated by:

with L
brw
length of the breakwater [m]

Gap between adjacent breakwaters
The gap between adjacent breakwaters is approximated by:

with L
gap
length of the gap between two adjacent breakwaters [m]

300 < <
brw brz
X x m [Eq. 38]
( )
1 / 1
0 . 2 H d = [Eq. 39]
brw brw
X L 65 , 0 ~ [Eq. 40]
brw gap
L L 5 . 0 = [Eq. 41]

92

Box 2. Example calculation layout scheme

The design wave conditions with a return period of 1 year at location X5 are found in Appendix A:

H
1/1
= 2.4 m and T
1/1
= 7.7 s

The width of the breaker zone is calculated with [Eq. 39]:

( )( ) 8 . 4 4 . 2 2 0 . 2
/ 1
= = =
yr
H d m

-7,0
-6,0
-5,0
-4,0
-3,0
-2,0
-1,0
0,0
1,0
2,0
-20 30 80 130 180

From the cross-shore profile it is determined that x
brz
= 125 m.

According to [Eq. 38]:

300 < <
brw brz
X x m

The distance from the shoreline X
brw
is chosen as 160 m. In this example the choice cannot be argumented
clearly. In reality, an expert judgement is required to make this choice based on local conditions are
preferences.

With the distance from the shore at 160 m, the breakwater length according to [Eq. 40]:

( )( ) 100 160 65 . 0 65 . 0 ~ = =
brw brw
X L m

With [Eq. 41] the length of the gap becomes:

50 5 . 0 = =
brw gap
L L m

The resulting breakwater system lay-out is illustrated below:
xbrz = 125 m
d = -4,8 m
300 m
100 m 50 m
160 m


93

Crest height
A good starting point for the design crest height is a value of R
c
/H
i
= 1.2, with R
c
is height of the breakwater
above mean water level and H
i
is the height of the incoming wave. This leads to a transmission of 10%, which
leads to:

where R
c
height of the structure, compared to MSL [m]
H
1/1
wave height with return period 1/1 year [m]

For construction purposes the minimum crest width is 3 m.

1 / 1
2 . 1 H R
c
= [Eq. 42]

Below the effect of different variations and considerations are briefly discussed.

Breakwater closer to the shore
If the breakwater is situated closer to the shore, sediment can possibly pass along the sea-side. The
breakwater is then less effective, but also easier accessible and possibly less attacked by high waves.
However, the risk of tombolo-formation increases. These tombolos can ultimately induce more erosion
down-drift.

Longer breakwaters
A longer breakwater will induce more beach accretion, thereby increasing the risk of tombolos. However,
they can be located further offshore which provide more freely access to the beach from the sea.

Increase the gap between breakwaters
If the gap is enlarged, more wave action is allowed behind the structure. This induces lesser beach
accretion. However, less construction material is needed and the down-drift erosion will decrease.


[Eq. 42] gives:

( )( ) 9 . 2 4 . 2 2 . 1 2 . 1
1 / 1
= = = H R
c
m (relative to MSL)
b
brw
= 3 m
z
brw
= 2.9 m +MSL


94

Armour layer
The design of the armour layer is the same as described for the clay dike, since shallow water conditions (d<
3H
s
) still apply at the breakwater. The rules and formulae to determine the armour stone dimensions are
discussed in Section 4.2.3.

Local currents and reflected waves increase the hydraulic conditions at the groyne head. No exact rules are
available, however the Shore Protection Manual recommends applying stones which are twice as heavy as in
the trunk, or alternatively, a head with a slope which is twice as gentle as the trunks slope.
Figure 5-8: Trunk and head at a breakwater

In correspondence with [Eq. 28] the layer thickness is twice the diameter d
n50
.

Rubble mound detached breakwater
Box 5. Variation with a submerged breakwater

A submerged breakwater would theoretically function as a shallow barrier reef, which provides shelter
from wave action in the area directly behind. However, the influence of submerged breakwaters is very
difficult to determine, and so far no reliable methods are available to accurately predict the effect on the
coastline. There are examples around the world where submerged breakwaters failed to resolve (or even
increased) the erosion problem and additional measures had to be undertaken. For this reason, it is not
recommended to construct submerged breakwaters along the Indonesian coastline.

95


The design wave conditions with a return period of 25 years at location X5 are found in Appendix A:

H
s
= 2.9 m and T
p
= 8.5 s

The water depth at 160 m is 6.2 m during design conditions (HAT= 1.2 m, LS = SLR = 0.1). The depth-
limited wave height according to [Eq. 18] is larger than the maximum wave height at d = -8 m. Therefore,
[Eq. 18] is no longer applicable and the wave height at -8 m should be used as design wave height H
s
.

With H
s
= 2.9 m,

tan = , P = 0.1, S = 2 and N = 3000 the armour layer is calculated with [Eq. 17], [Eq.
16], [Eq. 26] and [Eq. 25]:

( )( )
t t 2
5 . 8 8 . 9
2
2 2
0
= =
p
gT
L =113 m

( )
113 9 . 2
2
1
tan
0
= =
L H
s
p
o
=3.1

| |
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
tan 2 . 6
P
tr
P o =3.6

5 . 0 2 . 0 18 . 0
50
) ( 7 . 8

=
A

N
S
P
d
H
n
s
=1.7

This leads to d
n50
= 1.1 m, or with [Eq. 27] W
50
= 3000 kg for the trunk.

The layer thickness in the trunk is:

( )( ) 1 . 2 05 . 1 2 2
50
~ = =
n
d t m

At the head this is (1.25)(2.1)= 2.6 m

The armour layer stones at the groyne head should consist of a grading with W
50
= 6000 kg (twice the
weight of the trunk armour layer stone). Because this is rather heavy, maybe a more gentle slope should
be considered to decrease the stone weight (see Box 6).

t = 2.1 m


96

For the detached breakwater, similar considerations apply as for groynes. The core should be constructed of
quarry run (grading 0-40 kg), sufficiently small material to ensure proper wave reduction. On top of the quarry
run core a geo-textile is placed to protect the core from washing out. A variation is described in Box 8 with a
geotube as core material.

A large difference with sea dikes and sea walls is the applied type of geo-textile. Because of the construction
under water, fascine mattresses have to be used. The geo-textile should be a woven geo-textile (with e.g.
bamboo) to form a mattress. This mattress is protected against rupture and puncture, and can be used below
the water level. A conventional geo-textile should not be used in a detached breakwater design.

The fascine mattresses are sunk on top of the quarry run with stones of grading 100-250 kg. Because of the
larger strength of the mattresses (compared to conventional geo-textile), the larger stones can be placed
directly on top of the fascine mattresses. For the transition from the 100-250 kg grading to the armour layer,
the filter rules should be applied. The filter rules are discussed in Section 4.2.3.

Box 7. Variation armour layer with more gentle slope at groyne head

A gentler slope along the entire breakwater is probably not cost-effective due to the large increase of
required material. However, at the heads the stone weight becomes extremely high. The use of different
stone sizes for the trunk and head is likely to cause problems during construction. Therefore a gentler
slope only at the head could be opted for, to be able to use the same armour stone sizes for the trunk and
head.

In this example case, this results in a tan = 1/3

0
tan
L H
s
p
o
= =2.1
| |
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
5 . 0
1
31 . 0
tan 2 . 6
P
tr
P o =2.5

5 . 0 2 . 0 18 . 0
50
) ( 7 , 8

=
A

N
S
P
d
H
n
s
=2.1

This results in a d
n50
of 0.85 m at the trunk. At the head, a d
n50
of (1.25)(0.85)= 1.05 m is calculated. This
is the same stone as in the trunk with slope 1:2.

The resulting recommendation in this example would be to apply a 1:2 slope for the trunk, and a 1:3
slope for the breakwater head. In this way the same stone grading with W
50
= 3000 kg can be used as
armour layer for both the trunk and the groyne head.


97

Toe structure
In general, scouring by wave action is not a problem for detached breakwaters (because of greater depths).
The main function of the toe structure is to provide stability for the armour layer stones. As a rule of thumb
the toe width should be 4 armour stones.

Box 8. Variation with a core consisting of a Geotube or GSC

The use of geotubes or GSC (Geotextile Sand Containers) is a method which is still under development and
is implemented in several breakwaters around the world. The Geotube or GSCs can replace the quarry-run
fill and might be an attractive option based on cost considerations or because no quarry-run is available.
The core is covered by a stone layer of small sized stones which follow the filter rules discussed in Section
4.2.3. On top of this underlayer, the filter layers and armour layer are placed with the dimensions as
calculated in Box 6.


98

Bed protection
Local currents caused by tides and current patterns around the breakwater heads may induce scour. If scouring
is expected, the geo-textile with rock bed-protection should be extended further. Whether or not bottom
protection is required, and the required length of the bottom protection strongly depends on local conditions.
This cannot be expressed in straightforward design rules, a thorough assessment of the local hydraulic and
morphological conditions is required. Such a study should be executed by an experienced specialist.


With 4 stones, the width is (4)(d
n50
)= 4.2 m


99
LIST OF REFERENCES

[1] SDC, Coastal Baseline Studies Aceh and Nias, main report: Strategy and Guidelines, SDC-R-70026A,
January 2009

[2] SDC, Coastal Baseline Studies Aceh and Nias, Volume I: Morphology and Coastal system, SDC-R-
70039A, January 2009

[3] SDC, Coastal Baseline Studies Aceh and Nias, Volume II: Hydraulic Conditions, SDC-R-70040A,
January 2009

[4] SDC, Coastal Baseline Studies Aceh and Nias, Volume III: Tsunami Modeling and Risk Assessment,
SDC-R-70041, May 2007

[5] SDC, Coastal Baseline Studies Aceh and Nias, Volume IV: Guidelines Coastal Protection Measures,
SDC-R-70042A, January 2009

[6] SDC, Guidelines for Coastal Protection, SDC-R-90025, January 2009

[7] CIRIA, CUR, CETMEF (2007). The Rock Manual, CIRIA, Londen 2007

[8] CIRIA, CUR, CETMEF (1994). The Rock Manual, CIRIA, Londen 1994

[9] Schiereck, G.J. Introduction Bed bank and shore protection, Delft University Press 2001

[10] US Army Corps of Engineers. Coastal Engineering Manual, Washington 2002

[11] Verruijt, A. Soil mechanics, Delft 2004

[12] Baars van S. et al., Manual for structural hydraulic engineering, Delft 2006

[13] US Army Engineer Waterways Experience Station, Shore Protection Manual, Washington 1984

[14] SLGSR, Building Sand Dune Fences, GTZ, Aceh 2007

All SDC reports can be downloaded from:
www.seadefenceconsultants.com


100

Colophon

Name of organisation Sea Defence Consultants
Name of project
Aceh Nias Sea Defence, Flood Protection, Escapes and Early Warning
Project, (BRR Concept Note / INFRA 300GI)
Title of document
Manual for Design of Coastal Protection Works, Manual for Coastal
Engineering on the Coast of Indonesia
Registration number SDC-R-90163
Document version Final, November 2009
Author Sander Zweers
Contributors Odelinde Nieuwenhuis, Fauziah
Team leader Bram van der Boon


101
Appendix A COASTAL CONDITIONS

Wind Wave Tide Current
U
10
[m] H
1/1
[m] T
1/1
[s] H
1/25
[m] T
1/25
[m] LAT [m +MSL] HAT [m +MSL] v
max
[m/s]
Location ..

Location X1
25 1.2 6.9 1.9 8.3 -0.90 +1.00 0.13
Location X2
15 1.9 15.3 3.2 16.9 -0.57 +0.58 0.07
Location X3
3.0 8.5 -1.10 +1.25 0.18
Location X4
2.4 7.7 2.9 8.5 -1.05 +1.20 0.16
Location X5
2.4 7.7 2.9 8.5 -1.05 +1.20 0.16
Location ..

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