IEEE ELECTRIFICATION Dec 2013

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THE WORLDS NEWSSTAND
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VOL. 1, NO. 2 DECEMBER 2013 ISSN 2325-5987
WWW.IEEE-PES.ORG/
MAGAZINE
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IEEE Electrification Magazine (ISSN 2325-5987)
(IEMECM) is published quarterly by the Institute of
El ectri cal and El ectroni cs Engi neer s, I nc.
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MISSION STATEMENT: IEEE Electrification
Magazine is dedicated to disseminating infor-
mation on all matters related to microgrids
onboard electric vehicles, ships, trains, planes,
and off-grid applications. Microgrids refer to an
electric network in a car, a ship, a plane or an
electric train, which has a limited number of
sources and multiple loads. Off-grid applica-
tions include small scale electricity supply in
areas away from high voltage power networks.
Feature articles focus on advanced concepts,
technologies, and practices associated with all
aspects of electrification in the transportation
and off-grid sectors from a technical perspec-
tive in synergy with nontechnical areas such as
business, environmental, and social concerns.
Sensible Transportation
Electrification
Get rid of inefficient
powertrain designs.
6
New Horizons in DC
Shipboard Power Systems
New fault protection strategies
are essential to the adoption
of dc power systems.
38
Transportation
Electrification
Conductive charging of
electrified vehicles.
46
2 ABOUT THIS ISSUE
4 TECHNOLOGY LEADERS
74 DATES AHEAD
75 NEWSFEED
80 VIEWPOINT
The Role of Energy
Storage in a Microgrid
Concept
Examining the opportunities
and promise of microgrids.
21
Reducing Fuel
Consumption at a
Remote Military Base
Introducing an energy
management system.
30
Flywheels
Store to Save
Improving
railway efficiency
with energy storage.
13
Lee Stogner. Page 80
Wide-Bandgap
Semiconductor
Technology
Its impact on the
electrification of the
transportation industry.
59
Cryogenic Power
Conversion Systems
The next step in the
evolution of power
electronics technology.
64
Cryogenic power conversion systems.
Page 64
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MELE.2013.2295912
F E AT U R E S
D E PA R T ME N T S & C O L U MN S
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A B O U T T H I S I S S U E
I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / DECEMBER 2013 2
T IS MY PRIVILEGE TO PRESENT TO YOU THE SECOND
issue of IEEE Electrification Magazine. After the successful
launch of the print version of the inaugural issue in the
fall of 2013, we made the digital version open access so that anyone
can read the first issue from anywhere in the world. If you have not
done so already, I hope you will visit http://electricvehicle.ieee.org/
ieee-electrification-magazine/ to take advantage of the free access
to our information-filled first issue.
The first issue had six articles covering
various areas of new electrification topics,
and this second issue has eight articles by
authors from Asia, Europe, and North Ameri-
ca. In the first article, the authors argue where
and how electrification makes sense for effi-
cient transportation. The following two arti-
cles address storage examples for railway
transportation as well as in microgrids. The
next tells us how electrification and energy
management systems can help reduce fuel
consumption in remote military bases.
Another article details the new concept of dc shipboard power
systems. This is followed by an article on the conductive charging
of electric vehicles. As electric vehicles gain popularity, the issue of
different charging methods is attracting a lot of attention. Power
electronics play a major role in the electrification of transporta-
tion. The next article is about how wide-bandgap semiconductor
technologies show their impact on the electrification of the trans-
portation industry. This issue is wrapped up with an article that
reviews cryogenic power conversion systems for the electrification
of transportation. The titles of the articles are:
1) Sensible Transportation Electrification
2) Flywheels Store to Save
3) The Role of Energy Storage in a Microgrid Concept
4) Reducing Fuel Consumption at a Remote Military Base
By Saifur Rahman
A Global View
Date of publication: 26 February 2014
I
EDI TORI AL BOARD
Saifur Rahman
Editor-in-Chief
Virginia Tech
Virginia, USA
srahman@vt.edu
Iqbal Husain
Editor, Electric Vehicles
North Carolina State
University
North Carolina, USA
ihusain2@ncsu.edu
Eduard Muljadi
Coeditor, Electric Vehicles
NREL: Wind Research
Colorado, USA
eduard.muljadi@nrel.gov
Herb Ginn
Editor, Electric Ships
Universitiy of
South Carolina
South Carolina, USA
ginnhl@cec.sc.edu
Robert Cuzner
Coeditor, Electric Ships
DRS Power and Control
Technologies
Wisconsin, USA
RobertMCuzner@drs.
com
Eduardo Pilo de la
Fuente
Editor, Electric Trains
EPRail Research
and Consulting
Spain
eduardo.pilo@eprail.com
Jose Conrado Martine
Coeditor, Electric Trains
Directcion de Estrategia
y Desarrollo
Spain
jcmartinez@adif.es
Bulent Sarlioglu
Editor, Electric Planes
University of
Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, USA
bulent@engr.wisc.edu
Christine Ross
Coeditor, Electric Planes
Rolls-Royce Corp
Indiana, USA
Christine.AH.Ross@
rolls-royce.com
Mohammad
Shahidehpour
Editor, Off-Grid
Illinois Institute
of Technology
Chicago, USA
ms@iit.edu
Steve Pullins
Coeditor, Off-Grid
Horizon Energy Group
Tennessee, USA
spullins@horizonenergy
group.com
I EEE PERI ODI CALS
MAGAZI NES
DEPARTMENT
445 Hoes Lane,
Piscataway, NJ 08854
USA
Craig Causer
Managing Editor
Janet Dudar
Senior Art Director
Gail A. Schnitzer
Assistant Art Director
Theresa L. Smith
Production Coordinator
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Manager
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(continued on page 5)
Saifur Rahman.
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ABOUT THE MAGAZINE
IEEE Electrication Magazine is a quarterly magazine dedicated
to disseminating information on all matters related to microgrids
onboard electric vehicles, ships, trains, planes, and off-grid
applications. Microgrids refer to an electric network in a car, a ship,
a plane or an electric train, which has a limited number of sources
and multiple loads. Off-grid applications include small scale
electricity supply in areas away from high voltage power networks.
The launch of IEEE Electrication Magazine has created
an opportunity for professionals within the industry and
academic community to submit articles for publication.
We welcome your expertise in the areas of:
Electric Vehicles
Electric Trains
Electric Planes
Electric Ships
Off-Grid Electricity
Feature articles focus on advanced concepts,
technologies, and practices associated with all
aspects of electrication in the transportation
and off-grid sectors from a technical perspective
in synergy with nontechnical areas such as
business, environmental, and social concerns.
There is no IEEE magazine which has a global view
of electrication in both transportation and off-grid
electrication applications. The IEEE Electrication
Magazine will ll the need felt by engineers in
industry as well as policy makers who require
information on the technology, use cases and eld
experience of electrication.
Articles should be between 6 & 8 pages (approximately
5,000 words with graphics) and may be submitted
via e-mail to electrication@ieee.org with a copy to
s.rahman@ieee.org. The submittal should include
the authors name, complete mailing address, phone,
fax and e-mail.
CALL FOR AUTHORS!
Articles wanted for the new IEEE Electrication Magazine
For more info, please visit
ieee-pes.org/publications/
electrication-magazine
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T E C H N O L O G Y L E A D E R S
By Blake Lloyd
S PRESIDENT OF THE IEEE
Industry Applications Soci-
ety, one of the three IEEE
sponsoring Societies of this magazine,
it is my great pleasure to welcome
you to this second issue of IEEE Elec-
trification Magazine. This magazine is
aimed at bringing together informa-
tion related to the electrification of all
means of transportation, from bicy-
cles and cars to trains, ships, and air-
planes, and, by extension, the electrifi-
cation of small stationary systems
and microgrids. Many professionals
are living in a technically multidisci-
plinary world, with technical and
business challenges specific to indus-
tries. We hope this publication will
provide a sufficient focus to be rele-
vant to you, yet be broad enough to
bring you new or different perspec-
tives on your daily challenges.
This magazine is brought to you by
three IEEE Societies: the Power & Ener-
gy Society, the Industry Applications
Society, and the Power Electronics
Society. This collaboration is no acci-
dent; it is made necessary by advanc-
es in technology that blur the lines
between the various scopes of each
Society. At the same time, we look for-
ward to such cooperation because it
can only provide more breadth and
depth to the presentation of the vari-
ous subjects at hand.
Electrification has been a trendy
topic popularized by the publicity
around hybrid and electric vehicles
(EVs) and current debates about the
necessary action against global warm-
ing. Of course, as professionals in this
field, we know that
electrification has a
much longer history,
from the automotive
starter motor in 1911
to electric trains in
the 1930s.
Many other needs
also underlie this
progression, beyond
energy savings and
the environment,
including mechanical
simplicity in trains,
ships, and mining equipment; reli-
ability and diagnostics in aircraft sys-
tems; and better performance (driv-
ing a fast EV looks kind of cool!). Just
the same, it is good for engineers to
be associated with a problem and an
industry of which the general nonen-
gineering public is aware and may
even have strong feelings about. I
hope this magazine will someday
find its place in dentists waiting
rooms, but in the near future, it can
help decision makers, or those inter-
ested in helping decision makers, get
the broader and deeper technical out-
look that is sometimes missing from
the public debates.
IEEE Electrification Magazine is
meant to be a complement to existing
offerings: within IEEE, many magazines
and journals are available from a num-
ber of Societies, but they are more dis-
cipline based or focused on a specific
industry rather than across the board
on the subject of
electrification. Various
conferences, some
focused on electrifica-
tion, others on electric
machines, power elec-
tronics, grids, and
system issues, are
available from IEEE
Societies across the
globe. Of course, out-
side of the IEEE, a
number of trade and
other journals are also
A
The Electrification Progression
Blake Lloyd
Electrification has
been a trendy topic
popularized by the
publicity around hybrid
and electric vehicles
and current debates
about the necessary
action against global
warming.
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available. However, since IEEE Electrifica-
tion Magazine has the backing of the
IEEE and is produced by IEEE volunteers
and staff, you know you can count on
the finest technical quality to help
you in your professional development.
For more information, the new IEEE
Electrification Web portal (http://
electricvehicle.ieee.org/) is a great
one-stop information window to any
IEEE offering in this field.
I extend the warmest thanks to
the editorial staff, the volunteers
from the industry, and the IEEE staff
for the long hours spent developing
and launching this new product. Sin-
cere thanks to the authors who are
sharing their deep subject matter
expertise with the community. How-
ever, as a reader, you are the most
important stakeholder of this maga-
zine: your feedback is critical to the
success and the direction of this
young product. Please share the
magazine with your colleagues and
send us your opinion, suggest topics
of interest, or even offer to author an
article on a subject of interest. Please
feel free to contact electrification@
ieee.org with any questions or ideas.
About This Issue (continued from page 2)
5) New Horizons in DC Shipboard
Power Systems
6) Transportation Electrification
7) Wide-bandgap Semiconductor
Technology
8) Cryogenic Power Conversion
Systems.
While the September 2013 and
this issue of the magazine covered
multiple topics addressing various
transportation and off-grid concerns,
beginning in 2014, each issue will
focus on a particular topic. For exam-
ple, the March 2014 issue will focus
on microgrids. The June 2014 issue
will cover electric vehicles, followed
by electric trains in the September
issue. The fourth and final issue of
2014 will be on electric planes. For
issues in 2015 and beyond, we
welcome guest editors to propose
articles on particular themes covering
our topics of interest. Please contact
me or any of the editors/coeditors if
you are interested in proposing a
topic for an issue of this magazine.
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2325-5987/13/$31.002013IEEE I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / DECEMBER 2013 66
Get rid of inefficient powertrain designs.
By Randy Reisinger and Ali Emadi
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HE AVERAGE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (ICE)-PROPELLED AUTOMO-
bile is roughly 1020% efficient on average at converting the energy in gaso-
line into forward motion. The remainder of the energy is dissipated into heat
or ejected and not fully burned. This means that 8090% of the fuel is wasted.
If you consider an analogy where a person filling the gas tank pumped 12 gal
into the tank, then pumped 89 gal onto the ground, you begin to understand just how much
fuel your automobile can waste. This may startle those who might think of their vehicle as
clean burning and energy efficient; but, as we will see, the numbers actually get much worse.
If the vehicles mission is to transport a payload from point to point, then the mission effi-
ciency depends on the ratio of the weight of the pay-
load to the weight of the vehicle. Frequently, the
driver is the only payload in the vehicle. The typical
drivers weight is roughly 5% of the combined
weight, yielding a mission efficiency of less than 1%
(1020% combined thermodynamic and system effi-
ciency multiplied by 5% payload efficiency = 0.51%
mission efficiency). So based on our earlier analogy,
now consider the example that 12 gal are in the
tank and 89 gal on the ground but realize that 95%
of the energy from the 12 gal that made it into the
tank will be required to move the weight of the vehi-
cle, while only 5% of the energy will actually move
the person to their destination. Often, when people
hear these numbers for the first time, they are
astonished that automobiles could be so inefficient.
Yet, engineers who understand the laws of thermo-
dynamics will readily verify them. The next time you fill your gas tank, look at the total cost of
the fuel and realize that less than 1% of the fuel will move you from place to placethe rest is
essentially wasted in terms of your mobility.
So the next time you hop in your car and buckle up to drive a short distance, for example, to
the grocery store to get a few items, you may want to think about the fact that you just strapped
on 4,000 lb or so of steel to move your far-lighter body a mile or two to get a small bag of groceries.
The energy you consume is probably around 200500 Wh/mi instead of about 1015 Wh/mi on a
bicycle. Driving a typical conventional car consumes about 2050 times more energy than riding
a bicycle (which has additional health benefits).
Energy Wasted in Transportation on a Global Scale
Now, let us consider how our single-car example measures up on a global scale. There are
roughly 1 billion vehicles globally, consuming about 70% of oil production, or about 60 million
barrels of oil per day, for transportation. Personal transportation, i.e., cars, sport-utility vehicles,
minivans, and light trucks, consume about 36 million barrels of petroleum per day at less than
1% mission efficiency on average. They emit nearly 17 billion t of carbon and roughly 114 trillion
BTUs of heat every day. The vehicle base is projected to double in 1520 years. At current effi-
ciency levels, those 2 billion vehicles would consume roughly 120 million barrels of petroleum
per day, a rate that raises concerns about oil production capabilities to supply fuel. The refining
process yields about 33 gal of transportation fuel in the form of gasoline, diesel, and jet A fuels
for aircraft (along with other products). So roughly 4 billion gal of transportation fuel are pro-
jected to be burned, daily, in 1520 years. These numbers have significant air quality, health,
and economic consequences.
At roughly 20 lb of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) per gallon of fuel consumed, the daily quantity of
CO
2
generated by transportation would be about 80 billion lb/day or 29 trillion lb/year of CO
2
. In
such quantities, CO
2
, plus the other emissions generated in the process of burning fuel each
day, raises serious concerns about global climate change and the breathability of air, especially
in high-density urban and suburban areas where more than 50% of people globally will live.
Transportation is the second-highest contributor to carbon emissions, behind coal-fired
power plants. The above data suggest that increasing transportation efficiency can
Superlightweight
designs improve
energy consumption,
battery size or range,
cost of the vehicle,
and acceleration
performance.
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dramatically reduce CO
2
emissions without reducing
transportation benefits. Simply eliminating much of the
wasted energy can be very beneficial in improving both
pressure on global climate change and air quality. As we
will discuss later, this can be accomplished by improving
ICE efficiency by increased electrification of the vehicles
powertrain and by reducing the weight of the vehicle.
Air quality issues are not new to the auto industry.
Severe smog was reported in Los Angeles (LA) in 1943, but
the cause was not discovered until five years later. In 1947,
the Air Pollution Control District was set up in LACounty by
then-Governor Earl Warren. In 1948, Arie Haagen-Smit, a
scientist from the California Institute of Technology, linked
the smog to ozone caused by the automobiles. LA residents
own autos and factories were causing the smog that would
plague them with stinging eyes and
respiratory problems for decades.
To the auto companies, this was
of little concern and largely ignored.
It was not recognized as an indica-
tion of things to come in other areas.
In the 1950s, the notion that auto
and factory emissions could cause
respiratory problems was a novel
idea. To Californians living in LA, first
smog from their automobiles and
then traffic jams on the freeways
during ever-lengthening rush hours
began to define their lives. Many
people planned trips to the desert or
mountains on weekends to get some
fresh air. Usually, they drove. Ulti-
mately, that smog would spark the
process of regulating emissions, but
no one at the time foresaw the
potential magnitude of the problem or the possibility that
air quality would one day become a global problem and
the subject of global treaties and initiatives to solve.
Perhaps less noticed is the amount of heat generated
by transportation. Roughly 8 gal of transportation fuel
equal 1 million BTUs of heat. The heat generated from
burning 4 billion gal/day is roughly 500 trillion BTUs/day.
For many people, these numbers are beyond compre-
hension. For now, let us say that if our current fuel con-
sumption levels have scientists and politicians worried
about the effects on our planet, then the anticipated growth
in auto usage to two times our current rates without
improving fuel efficiency would be much more threatening.
Changing an Industry and Electrification
The above-mentioned concerns have influenced lawmak-
ers to institute higher fuel-efficiency standards for auto-
makers54.5 mi/gal by 2025 Corporate Average Fuel
Economy (CAFE) Standards in the United States, for
instance. As a result, many newer automotive propulsion
systems use some degree of electrification, increase
efficiency, and/or substitute some of the petroleum fuel
with electricity to offer consumers a more efficient choice
for personal transportation.
As mentioned previously, massive amounts of petro-
leum fuel are being burned in very inefficient convention-
al vehicles, so most of the fuel burned for transportation is
wasted because of the current inefficient powertrain
designs used to propel excessively heavy vehicles. The
CAFE standards increase is intended to require improve-
ments in transportation efficiency so transportation can
continue to grow without burning astronomical amounts
of fossil fuels unnecessarily. Several strategies are being
pursued by automakers to achieve greater efficiency,
including more efficient ICEs, various designs for electri-
fied propulsioneither as the only propulsion mecha-
nism, as in a fully electric vehicle (EV),
or blended to some degree with an
ICE, as in a hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV)or other methods of generat-
ing the electricity to power electric
propulsion motors. These approaches
are intended to improve powertrain
efficiency. Another approach, reducing
the weight of the vehicle, reduces the
power required to accelerate the vehi-
cle and, therefore, the amount of fuel
required to move the vehicle and its
payload down the road.
As engine makers strive to meet
the new CAFE standards, new com-
bustion techniques are being used to
extract more of the energy available in
fuel to gain engine efficiency and
reduce unburned fuel for lower emis-
sions. One approach, reducing the
compression ratio in diesel engines, has the added bene-
fit of enabling lighter aluminum engine blocks to replace
heavier steel, reducing the vehicles weight. In addition,
advanced engines increasingly benefit from more sophis-
ticated electronic control units. Improvements in ICEs can
be amplified significantly when used in conjunction with
electric motors in the powertrain. Examples include dif-
ferent electrification levels from the engine startstop
technology and the integration of the battery starter-gen-
erators to various hybrid electric powertrain configura-
tions with different hybridization factors.
Electrically Propelled Vehicles
Electrically propelled vehicles can be on the order of 8090%
efficient at converting electrical energy into forward
motion, but storing enough electricity for long-distance
travel is expensive. Consumers not yet familiar with EVs
might believe recharging times should be no longer than
refueling a petroleum-powered vehicle with fuel. However,
a survey of EV owners/drivers indicates most charging
takes place at home overnight, and drivers quickly adopt
Plug-in hybrid and
range-extended EV
designs that draw
much of their energy
from the grid are a
great way to use
energy from the grid,
particularly if their
battery packs are
charged overnight.
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new behavior patterns consistent with the characteristics
of the new technologies.
Traditional autos meet the needs of both short com-
mutes and longer-distance travel with one vehicle and have
thus set that expectation for most of the 1 billion auto
owners around the world. While an electrically powered
vehicle is far more efficient than an ICE-powered vehicle,
storing enough electricity for long-distance travel demands
several new strategies for future transportation vehicles.
An HEV, such as the popular Toyota Prius, uses an ICE in
combination with two more-efficient electric motors to
propel the vehicle. This strategy demonstrates an effective
way to increase fuel efficiency without compromising long-
distance travel. This blending of efficient electric motors
with a smaller ICE that can operate at a more efficient
engine speed uses the advantages of both technologies and
overcomes the obstacle of the very large battery packs
required of electric-only vehicles for long-range travel.
When the Prius was released in North America, its average
fuel economy was about 44 mi/gal,
roughly double that of the fleet aver-
age (22 mi/gal) at the time. Its rise in
popularity placed a renewed emphasis
on fuel economy in North America
and, along with emboldened policy
makers and consumer demands,
spurred other automakers to improve
their fuel economy in response.
All-Purpose Vehicles Versus
Specialty Vehicles
The current ICE vehicles are designed
to accommodate local commutes and
distant travel with one vehicle. If con-
sumers require one vehicle to meet all of their driving
needs, then a vehicle designed to travel locally on electric-
ity and use petroleum fuel in a range-extended EV pow-
ertrain for longer trips is a logical solution. A current
effective example of this type of vehicle is the Chevy Volt.
Another strategy for meeting different driving needs
might be to commute locally with an all-EV but fly or rent a
hybrid electric car or range-extended EV suitable for longer
trips when long-distance travel is required. This notion arises
because EVs are more suited to local use, where they can
easily return to a place for charging, which is likely to require
some time to complete. That said, the question is whether to
choose different vehicles for different missions or a single
vehicle designed to meet most drive cycles or missions. Both
vehicle designers and consumers will likely face this ques-
tion for another decade or so.
Similarly, a strategy for a family with varying needs
might be to own a vehicle for the daily local commute, such
as an all-EV, as well as a second car suitable for longer trips.
Some forward-thinking companies are offering transporta-
tion services that combine the availability of several types
of vehicles for use by customers, depending on their
current needs, often priced as a monthly service fee. This
concept offers driving flexibility without the cost of owner-
ship of multiple vehicles. One example is the Smart2go pro-
gram, a car-sharing program in Europe from Daimler AG.
Vehicle Weight and Energy Consumption
Energy consumption is determined by a combination of
the efficiency of the powertrain and the weight of the
vehicle. While powertrain design and optimization are
topics beyond the scope of this article, a typical electric
powertrain might be on the order of 7590% efficient. The
vehicle mass or weight also has a significant impact on
the overall energy consumption. A reasonable (perhaps
overly simplified) rule of thumb is that every 10 lb (4.5 kg)
of vehicle weight adds 1 Wh/mi of energy consumption;
so a 3,000-lb vehicle is likely to have an energy consump-
tion on the order of 300 Wh/mi, while a 1,000-lb vehicle is
likely to consume around 100 Wh/mi. The actual con-
sumption will depend on the driving conditions, speed,
aerodynamics, rolling resistance, etc.,
but assuming constant values for
those variables, the vehicle weight is
clearly the most important variable in
determining the energy consumption
of the vehicle at lower speeds. At
highway speeds, aerodynamic drag
also becomes important. A vehicle
that consumes less energy can
achieve a given range with a smaller
battery, reducing the battery cost and
the overall cost of the vehicle. There-
fore, reducing the vehicle weight
reduces energy consumption and,
thus, the battery capacity require-
ment for a given range and, in turn, the cost of the vehicle.
If lower costs and fuel savings are not enough of an
incentive, this lighter is better relationship also extends
to performance. The lighter the vehicle, the better the
acceleration with a given power. The conventional
approaches toward lightweighting, as a means of improv-
ing fuel economy, target a reduction in the vehicle weight
of 100300 lb. In the example above, we considered a
weight reduction of 2,000 lb, with spectacular results.
Therefore, to eliminate any confusion between minor
reductions in the weight (a few hundred pounds) of a
3,0004,000-lb vehicle and vehicles designed to perform at
a weight of 1,0001,200 lb, perhaps we should refer to our
1,000-lb vehicle concept as a superlight vehicle. Based on
acceleration models, with all other variables being equal, a
3,000-lb vehicle with the power to accelerate from 0 to 60
mi /h in 9 s would accomplish the same 060-mi/h accel-
eration in roughly 3 s if the vehicle weighed 1,000 lb. Con-
versely, if such high performance is not necessary, one
could achieve the same 9-s acceleration as the 3,000-lb
vehicle with one-third the power applied to the 1,000-lb
vehicle. To summarize, superlightweight designs improve
Energy consumption
is determined by
a combination of
the efficiency of
the powertrain
and the weight
of the vehicle.
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the energy consumption, battery size or range, cost of the
vehicle, and acceleration performance. With so many
dimensions of improvement, it is difficult to argue against
making vehicles lighter, but perceptions can be obstacles.
At the time of this writing, reports of the Volkswagen XL1
research vehicle point to the possibilities for efficient vehi-
cles. The XL1 has reported 261 mi/gal (0.8 L/100 km) from a
lightweight vehicle made largely of carbon fibers. It uses a
diesel-electric plug-in hybrid powertrain and demonstrates
efficiencies thought to be impossible only a decade or so ago.
Perception and Buyer Behavior
Consumers purchase cars based pri-
marily on emotional attachments
and perception. Choices are often
made based on the image the pur-
chaser desires to project or an image
that appeals to him/her. The math in
the above examples clearly indicates
that lighter vehicles are better in
many ways, for both the driver and
others. However, consumers often
associate the social status conferred
by a car with its size, plush interior,
or styling, for instance, just as a vehi-
cles performance has often been
judged by the roaring sound of its
engine. To the extent that our 1,000-
lb vehicle is large, with a plush inte-
rior and great styling, the customer
might become emotionally attached,
but if the same vehicle is small, lacks
a luxury interior, has less than stellar
styling, and makes no roaring
sounds, then the lack of traditional status symbolism
may not engage the customers emotions. Thus, engi-
neering a very efficient vehicle may be much easier than
marketing one.
To be successful with light vehicles, consumers must
make emotional connections with the vehicles. Tradi-
tional dimensions such as performance and luxury have
already been marketed heavily, but more subtle vectors
such as energy consumption, informational displays,
connectivity, safety, or other attributes specific to electri-
fied vehicles or high technology require significant re-
education and effort. Developing the right mix of
elements to appeal to the senses and emotions of cus-
tomers is as important as engineering the right blend of
power during acceleration.
Energy Consumption and Battery Capacity
If you have not previously thought much about energy
consumption in cars, our efficiency scenarios may not
mean much, so let us further explore how energy con-
sumption relates to a cars battery capacity, typically
measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). A 1,000-lb vehicle
consuming 100 Wh/mi will have roughly a 10-mi range
with a 1-kWh battery pack (1,000 Wh/100 Wh/mi = 10 mi),
whereas a 3,000-lb vehicle will consume roughly three
times the energy and, thus, require three times the bat-
tery capacity to provide the same range. To achieve a
60-mi all-electric range, our 1,000-lb vehicle would
require a 6-kWh battery pack. To achieve the same 60-mi
range, a 3,000-lb vehicle would require an 18-kWh
battery pack.
Charging Strategies
In the above examples, charging a 6-kWh battery pack for
the light vehicle could be accom-
plished very quickly with a fast char-
ger or in fewer than 1 h with a
cost-effective 240-V Level 2 charger.
Alternatively, a standard 120 Vac outlet
(current similar to that of a small win-
dow air conditioner) could be used for
overnight charging. There are also sev-
eral options for charging the 18-kWh
pack of the heavier 3,000-lb vehicle. It
could be done in fewer than 30 min
with a dc fast charger or about 3 h
with a 240-V, 30-A charger.
Consumers inexperienced with
EVs surveyed by auto manufacturers
often say they want their EV to
charge as fast as they can currently
fill their gas tank, with their thought
process being that when they are
traveling and their battery gets low,
they want the convenience of pulling
into a charging station and getting a
quick charge. However, when you ask the same question
of someone who has used an EV for more than a few
months, you get an entirely different answer. Experienced
users expect to mostly charge overnight at their home.
They only expect to charge at a public facility when they
plan a trip outside of their normal commute range. In
fact, many experienced EV users are skeptical of fast
charging, concerned that it might reduce their battery life
or battery capacity. One experienced EV user indicated
that it takes about 30 s to charge the battery15 s to plug
it in before bedtime and 15 s to unplug it in the morning.
As electrified vehicles proliferate, the time and intensi-
ty of battery recharging will become an issue for grid oper-
ators. While customers without experience believe they
need to charge in very short times, experienced EV drivers
find charging overnight to be quite convenient. However,
battery size is a very important consideration for the cost
of the vehicle, the time required to recharge, and the
amount of peak power consumed to charge the battery.
Bigger is not necessarily better.
To understand this issue, let us consider a battery pack
of 1-kWh capacity. Charging this battery in 1 h would
Traditional autos
meet the needs of
both short commutes
and longer-distance
travel with one
vehicle and have
thus set that
expectation for
most of the 1 billion
auto owners around
the world.
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require 1 kW of power for 1 h. However, if we wanted to
charge the same battery in 6 min (ten times faster), it would
require 10 kW for 6 min. This example may not mean much
to someone not used to computing power consumption,
but to a grid operator, the peak power required to accom-
modate recharging large batteries rapidly means knowing
there is enough grid capacity at the location where charg-
ing is to occur so as to accommodate the charging without
overheating the nearest transformer. For a light vehicle
with a relatively small battery pack, the problem is mini-
mal. However, for a vehicle with a larger-capacity battery
pack, the problem can be serious and costly for the grid
operator and, therefore, the ratepayer.
As an example, the Model S from Tesla Motors is an
attractive, high-performance all-EV with a high-capacity
battery pack (either 60 kWh or 85
kWh). Consider that if you want to
charge the battery to one-half of its
capacity in 30 min, the power required
to charge at that rate (assuming 100%
efficiency) is 60 kW (60 kWh/2*2 = 60
kW). This amount of power needs to
be carefully considered based on the
capacity of the grids nearest trans-
former, the time of day, and other local
usage. However, if you want to charge
the battery to 100% of its capacity
overnight, it would be a more moder-
ate charging rate, which would be
handled much more easily by the elec-
tric utility. In fact, charging over 8 h
(overnight), when grid usage is lower
and transformers are generally cooler,
reduces the power requirement and
the risk of transformer damage considerably.
Plug-In Range-Extended Alternative
The Chevy Volt, with a 16-kWh battery pack, has a roughly
38-mi electric range under good conditions before a range-
extender engine starts generating electricity for longer-
range travel. The range-extender feature is intended to
counteract the fear of running out of electricity, sometimes
referred to as range anxiety. This strategy accommodates
local electric driving with the ability to travel longer dis-
tances by burning petroleum. It is aimed at a customer
seeking all-purpose usage within one vehicle. Volt customers
report that they fill their gas tanks about once per month or
even once in several months, so petroleum fuel consumption
is minimal. The battery capacity is noticeably smaller than
that of the Model S and the car is less than half the price, but
less often noticed is the demand on the electrical grid. The
Volt can be charged at night, demanding less than one
houses daytime peak energy requirement, and is therefore
much more accommodating of the grid. In fact, if these cars
were charged only at night, no upgrades would be required
of the grid in most places for quite some time.
Charging Considerations
There are several considerations for charging plug-in vehi-
cles that impact the power required of the grid. First
among them is the time of day when the battery is
charged. In general, if vehicle batteries are charged
between the hours of 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., when grid usage
is at its minimum and local transformer temperatures are
lower, they have the least negative impact on the grid.
Charging during peak grid usage may require upgrades to
the grid to handle peak demand that is higher than is
experienced today. Second, chargers should be designed
with a nighttime mode, to draw only enough power to
charge the battery in the 8-h nighttime period, based on
the known state of charge of the battery. Charging at
night, when usage is low, improves the economics of the
utility grids, potentially reducing the
cost of electricity. Third, with the cur-
rent technology, optimal battery
usage suggests plug-in hybrid and
range-extended EVs are of great inter-
est because of their high energy and
power efficiency. All-electric propul-
sion is exceptionally more attractive
when employed for short local trips,
while hybrid electric propulsion is
more practical for longer-range trips.
This strategy reduces petroleum
usage dramatically (often 5070%,
depending on usage patterns) and
optimizes the usage of electric local
travel without prompting high grid-
upgrade costs. It optimizes petroleum
usage, electric efficiency, battery
capacity, and grid power demand
the key elements in an electrified transportation system.
Some 85% of trips are 20 mi or shorter in the United States
and, thus, would consume only electricity, with petroleum
available for longer trips. With this configuration, the bat-
tery size can be constrained to 8 kWh on a traditional
vehicle, providing 20 mi of range, or 6 kWh, providing the
same 20 mi of range, on a vehicle weighing 2,000 lb or less.
Sensible Design Strategies
Sensible design strategies using current technologies sug-
gest that vehicles should provide a balance of efficient
energy usage for each type of drive cycle while minimiz-
ing the impact on the energy source, whether electricity
from the grid or petroleum from the pump. Electricity con-
sumed from the grid is typically 1020% of the cost of
petroleum and offers considerable improvements in air
quality, so it should be the primary source of energy for
transportation where practical. At the current state of
technology, petroleum is still the primary source of energy
for long-distance travel and will likely remain so for a
decade or more; HEVs offer the best powertrain options
for long-distance travel.
Developing the right
mix of elements to
appeal to the senses
and emotions of
customers is as
important as
engineering the right
blend of power
during acceleration.
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The scenario in which plug-in hybrid or range-extended
EVs incorporating moderate-sized batteries for local elec-
tric travel and small ICEs for long-distance travel are used
offers an exceptionally attractive and efficient single-vehicle
travel solution. This approach has the potential to reduce
petroleum consumption and the associated pollution by
as much as 80% per vehicle, dramatically reducing the
overall cost of energy consumed by transportation. This
strategy also reduces or delays infrastructure investment
in grid upgrades and charging stations, which are required
for all-EVs with higher-capacity batteries, while using the
strengths of the current and emerging technologies to
their fullest.
Summary
Most currently available conventional automobiles have
very inefficient propulsion systems that waste most of the
fuel burned for forward motion. The wasted fuel contrib-
utes to air pollution and has a high economic cost. Electri-
cally powered vehicles can improve transportation efficiency,
dramatically lowering fuel consumption and reducing
emissions in the process. Yet, burning some fossil fuel to
extend the range of current battery storage is a practical
option that is cost effective. Plug-in hybrid and range-
extended EV designs that draw much of their energy from
the grid are a great way to use energy from the grid, partic-
ularly if their battery packs are charged overnight. This
approach allows for gradual electric utility grid infrastruc-
ture upgrades over a period of a decade or two to accom-
modate a gradual shift toward electricity as the primary
fuel for transportation. Plug-in hybrids also avoid the need
for fast charging during the day because they can burn
small amounts of fossil fuels to fill the gap beyond the bat-
tery capacity instead of stopping for a rapid charge at peak
power loads. Plug-in hybrid architectures best blend the
usage of electric motors with smaller, more efficient ICEs to
achieve very efficient and sensible transportation solutions
that appeal to consumers.
While consumers often make purchase decisions based
on emotional considerations or, perhaps, on perceptions
based on their past experiences, consumers and vehicle
designers alike should think beyond the notion of style and
luxury to optimize a broader set of considerations related to
efficiencies, economic impact, and the vehicles impact on
its infrastructure. Keep in mind that roughly 1 billion vehi-
cles are in use on our planet today, and any inefficiency,
multiplied by a billion, results in a huge waste. Well-
thought-out designs can result in improved efficiency of
our transportation system globally and represent a huge
economic opportunity for those who view and understand
the impact of our global transportation system on the
health of our planet and our way of life. A growing number
of people are being excluded from personal transportation,
either by economics or increased urbanization, but the utili-
zation of the available technologies and better design strat-
egies offers the promise of better transportation solutions
for generations to come.
For Further Reading
A. Emadi, Transportation 2.0: ElectrifiedEnabling cleaner,
greener, and more affordable domestic electricity to
replace petroleum, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 9, no. 4,
pp. 1829, July/Aug. 2011.
A. Emadi, Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics
and Motor Drives. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2005.
Electrification Roadmap: Revolutionizing Transporta-
tion and Achieving Energy Security, Electrification Coali-
tion, Nov. 2009.
A. Emadi, S. S. Williamson, and A. Khaligh, Power elec-
tronics intensive solutions for advanced electric, hybrid
electric, and fuel cell vehicular power systems, IEEE
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 567577, May 2006.
S. M. Lukic, J. Cao, R. C. Bansal, F. Rodriguez, and A.
Emadi, Energy storage systems for automotive applica-
tions, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 2258
2267, June 2008.
S. G. Wirasingha and A. Emadi, Classification and
review of control strategies for plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 60, no. 1,
pp. 111122, Jan. 2011.
Biographies
Randy Reisinger (reisinr@mcmaster.ca) is the industry
liaison manager for the Canada Excellence Research Chair
in Hybrid Powertrain Program at McMaster University in
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. In 2006, he was senior advisor
for CalCars.org, promoting the first plug-in Prius devel-
oped by CalCarss Ron Gremban. In 2010, he cofounded
Sugar Rides Inc., which built an 800-mi/gal-equivalent EV
prototype, then participated in the Automotive X-Prize
Competition with finalist TeamTW4XP.
Ali Emadi (emadi@mcmaster.ca) is the Canada Excel-
lence Research Chair in Hybrid Powertrain and director
of the McMaster Institute for Automotive Research and
Technology at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada. Before joining McMaster University, he was the
Harris Perlstein Endowed Chair Professor of Engineering
and director of the Electric Power and Power Electronics
Center and Grainger Laboratories at Illinois Institute of
Technology, Chicago.
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______________
______________
INCE 2002, THE RAIL
transport industry in
Spain has increased
its consumption of
electricity by 6% annu-
ally. Although one of the arguments
used to defend the increased con-
sumption is that rail is the transport
type that consumes the least energy
per passenger, it does require an
enormous input of energy, which
demands continuous improvement,
above all with regard to safety and
energy saving.
The saving of energy, quality of sup-
ply, reliability, reduction of power surg-
es, capacity to accelerate during start-
up, and losses of voltage in the over-
head power line are some of the topics
that must be taken into account when
discussing research in railway trans-
port. These aspects become especially
problematic when dealing with railway
dc power lines, that is, regional net-
works, light railways, and metropolitan
network trains. In these cases, due to
the technology in the diode rectifiers
contained in electrical substations, the
flow of power is only admitted from the
network toward the power line and not in the opposite
direction. On the one hand, this simplifies the electrical
substation and its connection to the transport network; on
the other hand, it renders impossible the option of per-
forming a regenerative braking (returning the electrical
energy), with the consequential loss of energy that the
Spanish Manager of Railway Infrastructures (ADIF) has
estimated can be around 20% of the energy consumed.
The first alternative to this problem is the revision of
the technology in substations, converting them into
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Improving
railway efficiency
with energy storage.
By Marcos Lafoz Pastor, Luis Garca-Tabars
Rodrguez, and Cristina Vzquez Vlez
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reversible substations that are capable of injecting power
surges into the network from the power line whenever
there is energy from trains braking, which would mean a
reduction of the electrical security problems within the
system. The second alternative of interest is the storage
of energy, which allows for a much wider energy utiliza-
tion scenario, with the railway substation eventually
becoming in a sense, a micronetwork. In railway lines
with a lot of traffic, the energy from braking is usually
consumed by another train that is accelerating at that
moment. So in those cases, energy storage is not a reli-
able option, but in railway lines with
less traffic, it results in an improve-
ment in the efficiency.
The recommended levels of
power and energy in energy storage
for short-distance trains depend on
the braking conditions and the type
of machine. The power is between
500 and 2,000 kW. On the other hand,
braking time is around 10 s. So high-
power and low-energy systems
would be required.
Energy-Storage Systems
Suitable for Railways
Storing energy is a way to modify
the basic equation of electrical
energy production, which states
that the energy produced must
equal the consumed energy. If an energy-storage device
(ESD) is present in the network, the equation is modi-
fied; the produced energy is now the sum of the con-
sumed and the stored energies with their correspond-
ing signs: plus when storing and minus when pump-
ing back. This means that storing is a way to decouple
the offer and the demand at a certain moment. ESDs
can be classified depending on the power and energy
densities. Massive energy storage, such as hydropump-
ing power or compressed air, usually requires certain
geographical conditions, whereas fast ESDs such as
some types of batteries, super capacitors, flywheels
[also called kinetic energy-storage systems (KESSs)], and
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) do not
have those restrictions. In the case of capacitors, the
energy is stored in the electrical field; in the case of a
flywheel it is stored as kinetic energy in a rotating ele-
ment; and in a superconducting magnet, it is stored in
the magnetic field of a lossless inductor.
Any ESD can be defined by two basic parameters, the
power and the energy. Usually, both are independent,
resembling the flow rate and the volume of a water tank.
For instance, one can imagine a big deposit (high energy)
with a small drain (low power) or any other combination
of these two variables. It is also very
common to speak in terms of energy
and power densities, normalizing
with the mass or the volume of the
device.
The key question here is: what
type of energy storage is the most
appropriate for a certain application?
This is not an easy question to
answer, given that it depends on the
specific problem. The majority of the
work published on this matter and
the research in recent years have
been based on battery technology and
ultracapacitors (condensers with a
capacity of thousands of farads),
although other interesting options
can be considered, such as flywheels.
This type of energy storage is called
kinetic energy storage in general and, more specifically, a
flywheel energy storage system (FESS) when such devic-
es are used. This provides an attractive solution for two
main reasons: high-density levels of power and energy
can be achieved, and the total cost does not grow linearly
with the increase of power and energy, for example, in
the case of batteries. Therefore, flywheels will be the
technology discussed in this article.
Another issue to be discussed is whether to install the
ESD onboard or trackside. The options for onboard storage
are normally more efficient, taking into account the fact
that they work closer to the site of consumption and less
power is lost during transmission. On the other hand, they
Flywheel
Power
Electronics
M/G
Power
Supply
Line
2
1
E J
2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1. The kinetic energy-storage components: (a) the flywheel, (b) the electrical machine, and (c) the power electronics.
Storing energy is a
way to modify the
basic equation of
electrical energy
production, which
states that the
energy produced
must equal the
consumed energy.
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bring with them extra weight and require space, which
sometimes is unavailable, and so offboard storage applica-
tions, connected to the railway power line, may be almost
a necessity.
Kinetic Energy Storage Based on Flywheels
A kinetic energy-storage system is a flywheel driven by
an electrical machine, able to work
as a motor or a generator. When the
machine (acting as a motor) exerts a
positive torque on a flywheel with a
certain moment of inertia, it
increases its speed at a rate torque/
inertia, until it reaches maximum
velocity, storing a given kinetic ener-
gy. At this stage, the energy can be
kept constant by just supplying the
idle losses with the motor. For
releasing the energy, the electrical
machine (acting as a generator)
applies a negative torque to the fly-
wheel, braking at a rate (torque/inertia) and pumping
the energy back to the source to where it is connected.
The relevant issue in the storage system is how much
energy can be stored per mass or volume unit (some-
times preference is given to cost unit). In the particular
case of the flywheel, in theory, all the energy one would
want can be stored, provided that the flywheel is large
enough. The question is how to do so in an efficient
manner and within the limits allowed by the technolo-
gy currently in use. Two main
groups of technologies are being
developed for flywheels: metallic
and compound materials. The for-
mer is relatively slow (below 10,000
r/min). The wheel is metallic and
often has magnetic levitation sys-
tems, which offsets its weight.
These slow storage systems are, in
theory, simpler in a technological
sense, and their main use is in sta-
tionary applications, where their
weight is not an obstacle. There is
also another family of flywheels,
rapid ones, that can achieve a velocity of 50,000 r/min
and use wheels made of composite materials such as
Material (MPa) (kg/m
3
) e
M
(kJ/Kg)
Steel
(AISI 4340)
1,800 7,800 140
Alloy
(AlMnMg)
600 2,700 135
Titanium
(TiAl62r5)
1,200 4,500 162
Fiberglass
(60%)
1,600 2,000 485
Carbon
fiber (60%)
2,400 1,500 970
Transport Power UPS Industry
Railway
(light trains,
intercity)
Frequency
regulation
and support
Critical loads
(communica-
tion centers,
airports,
hospitals, etc.)
Cranes,
motor
starting
Trams,
buses
Renewable
energies
Ferries
Automobiles
TABLE 2. Applications of Flywheels.
The efficiency during
the power exchange
between the
flywheel and the
load depends highly
on the power level.
CLR (dc/ac)
CLM (dc/ac)
230 V
SRM + Flywheel
750 V
400 V
Catenary
dc/dc
Figure 2. The connection schema for the flywheel equipment. CLM: machine-side converter; CLR: grid-side converter; SRM: switched reluctance machine.
TABLE 1. Materials Used in Flyweels.
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carbon fibers, which offer high lev-
els of mechanical resistance and
low density. The elevated cost of the
wheel and the difficulty of manu-
facturing mean that its use is
restricted in general to applications
of limited energy in which the sys-
tem price is not a critical issue.
Table 1 shows that greater densi-
ties per mass unit are achieved using
compound materials (ideally carbon
fiber). However, if the concern is to
achieve energy per volume unit, metals such as steel can
be as effective as fibers and are much more economical.
Table 2 displays some applications of these storage sys-
tems, classified bysectors.
Description of the Technology
The flywheel developed for the railway application
[Advance Energy Storage Systems Project (SA2VE)] is made
of high-resistance forged steel, weighing 6 t and capable of
spinning at a speed of 6,500 r/min,
and it has an energy-storage capacity
of 200 MJ (55 kWh). The mechanical
part is also formed by conventional
ceramic bearings. Given the load on
the axle and the highly elevated rota-
tion speed, a magnetic levitation sys-
tem has been put in place using per-
manent magnets and an electromag-
net to give regulation capacity,
reducing the stress on the axle and
therefore the sizing of the bearings.
The electrical machine, which serves for acceleration and
braking (depending on whether one wishes to store or
release energy), is a switched reluctance machine operat-
ing at 350 kW and that turns at the same speed as the
wheel. This machine is connected to the electrical network
through a series of power electronics equipment, which
are given the role of properly adapting voltage and fre-
quency levels between the supply and the machine and
the network to which the system is connected. The control
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3. The equipment associated with the flywheel energy storage at the ADIFs railway substation in Madrid, Spain. The (a) entrance to the security
pit at the ADIF substation, (b) power electronics converters, (c) the flywheel energy storage device, and (d) the control room. (Photos courtesy of ADIF.)
A kinetic energy-
storage system is a
flywheel driven by an
electrical machine,
able to work as a
motor or a generator.
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hardware has been developed specifically by the Centre for
Energy, Environment and Technology Research (CIEMAT)
for this application and is based on a distributed network
of microcontrollers, which manage all the electronic devic-
es and inform the system operators command center,
from where they can be controlled.
The system developed for this application offers a
series of advantages in comparison with other commer-
cial devices, for example, simplicity and robustness, and it
has been designed with aim of providing competitive
technology as opposed to other types of technology such
as chemical batteries and ultracondensers (Figure 1).
Experimental Commissioning
of the Energy-Storage System
in a Railway Substation
The complete system was first installed and tested in the
CEDEX Laboratory in Madrid, Spain, in conditions similar
to those of the substation in terms of voltage and power
levels. Different operation modes, the thermal behavior,
Figure 5. The speed versus time operation profile.
3,500 r/min
2,000 r/min
t
Figure 6. The speed maintenance around the reference value, waiting for a load to be absorbed or delivered (the time scale is not real).
Maximum Speed
Recovery Speed
t
P
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Monitoring environment: (a) voltage and (b) current evolution of the railway power line.
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the response capacity, and the reli-
ability of the communication and
controls were checked during this
stage. Finally, the system was moved
to the Cerro Negro railway substation
in Madrid, owned by ADIF, where it
would be commissioned. The connec-
tion schema for the system is shown
in Figure 2.
For safety reasons, the flywheel
was installed in a protected pit locat-
ed in the high-voltage equipment
area of the railway substation. The
power electronics and control equip-
ment were located in the substation
building, as was the system control
post, though it is not necessary to
operate it from there, as it can be
accessed using a remote connection
from the ADIF substation control cen-
ter. Figure 3 shows the equipment
installed in the substation.
The automatic operation mode of
the system has two control vari-
ables: the current consumed by the
railway power line from the substa-
tion and its voltage. Depending on
these variables, the ESD operation is
defined as shown in Figure 4.
If there is no current consumed
from the substation and the overhead
power line voltage exceeds a certain
maximum limit, it can be concluded
that the train is returning energy to
the line. In this case, the flywheel
must store this energy. On the other
hand, if the voltage is below a certain
limit and some level of current con-
sumption from the substation is
detected, this indicates that the train
is demanding an input of energy. In
this case, and if the storage device has
available energy, this energy will be
provided to the train, and so network
consumption will be reduced.
The ESD will maintain a reference
speed or status that will depend on the
given operation criteria. For this partic-
ular case, the flywheel is set at the low-
est operation speed range (2,000 r/min)
awaiting a train braking. In this scenar-
io, the braking energy would be
absorbed to increase the flywheel speed. That energy can
be directly returned, a short time afterward to the same or
another train accelerating, so the flywheel speed would be
reduced again. This operation is described in Figure 5.
Speed will tend to fall after a certain amount of time
due to energy losses, and so to maintain flywheel speed
around a certain value, it should be recovered through a
small power input from time to time. Figure 6 shows the
Figure 8. The details of electric currents at the electrical machine of the ESD in (a) storage
mode, (b) supplying mode, and (c) transition during a flywheel demand.
(a)
(b)
(c)
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evolution of speeds over time with
these additional power inputs.
Mechanical losses are the most
important losses in a flywheel, so it is
important to reduce them as much as
possible. To minimize them, two
important measures have been con-
sidered: the use of magnetic levitation
to lessen the bearings axial loada
ring of permanent magnets and an
additional electromagnet for fine reg-
ulation have been disposed to do so
and the reduction of the air pressure
around the flywheel to make smaller
the aerodynamic lossesan inner
pressure of 100 mbar is accomplished.
This results in an average efficiency of 98% when there is
no power exchange. The efficiency during the power
exchange between the flywheel and the load depends
highly on the power level, and it is mainly associated with
the copper losses at the electrical machine, being in the
range of 8090% in the case of our study. Figures 7 and 8
show the results obtained with the flywheel during the
tests in the railway substation.
Figure 7(a) shows the operating and monitoring envi-
ronment while the system is working, and Figure 7(b)
shows a sample of the power line voltage and current
injected by the system for storage in a series of tests
regarding absorption and power injection. Figure 8 shows
the results of the dc voltage and the current managed by
the electrical machine in motor mode (storage mode)
and generator mode (recovery mode), and the transition
between stand-by state and consumption state, which is
produced in a few milliseconds. The dc-voltage oscilla-
tion is lower than 10%, an acceptable value for the elec-
tric system.
As their power lines are high-
capacity transportation lines, a more
extended concept of energy manage-
ment can be considered for railways,
by integrating the train traffic and the
grid stability with renewable energy
generation, electric vehicle recharging,
and energy storage of different types
to increase the reliability of the whole
system. Some projects are currently
being carried out in Spain based on
this idea. Figure 9 shows a schema of
an application example where the
energy management is carried out
from a railway power line, with
mechanical energy storage, storage
with batteries and ultracapacitors, renewable energy gener-
ation, electric vehicle charging, and the presence of the grid.
This article presents the technology of flywheels
applied to railway transport, but it does not mean that it is
the most appropriate for this application. Only the combi-
nation of different technologies of energy storage and
power supply, advanced control devices, and optimized
strategies of operation will provide the increase in effi-
ciency and reliability that such complex systems require.
Biographies
Marcos Lafoz Pastor (marcos.lafoz@ciemat.es) is with Cen-
tro de Investigaciones Energticas, Medioambientales y
Tecnolgicas in Spain.
Luis Garca-Tabars Rodrguez (luis.garcia@ciemat.es) is
with Centro de Investigaciones Energticas, Medioambien-
tales y Tecnolgicas in Spain.
Cristina Vzquez Vlez (cristina.vazquez@ciemat.es)
is with Centro de Investigaciones Energticas, Medio-
ambientales y Tecnolgicas in Spain.
Auxiliary Service Lab
230 V 45 kV
Power Line CLM
1
+ 1
CLM
2
+ 2
dc/dc
cat
CLR
dc/dc
1
EV Fast
Chargers
400 V
700 V
3,500 V
dc/dc
2
ac/dc
PV Panel
UC
1
ES
Figure 9. A microgrid concept based on railway power lines. UC: ultracapacitors, EV: electric vehicle, PV: photovoltaic panel, and ES: energy storage.
For safety reasons,
the flywheel was
installed in a
protected pit located
in the high-voltage
equipment area of
the railway
substation.
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___________________
______________
________________
MICROGRID IS A CLUSTER OF DISTRIBUTED
generation (DG), renewable sources, and
local loads connected to the utility grid. A
microgrid provides a solution to manage
local generations and loads as a single grid-
level entity. It has the potential to maximize overall sys-
tem efficiency, power quality, and energy surety for critical
loads. The Microgrid Exchange Group, an ad
hoc group of expert and imple-
menters of microgrid
technology, has defined a microgrid as a group of inter-
connected loads and distributed energy resources within
clearly defined electrical boundaries that acts as a single
controllable entity with respect to the grid. A microgrid
can connect and disconnect from the grid to enable it to
operate in both grid-connected or island mode.
Microgrids can operate in parallel to the grid or as an
island. The most compelling feature of a
microgrid is its ability to separate
and isolate itself from the
The Role of Energy Storage
in a Microgrid Concept
Examining the opportunities and promise of microgrids.
By Qiang Fu, Ahmad Hamidi, Adel Nasiri,
Vijay Bhavaraju, Slobodan (Bob) Krstic,
and Peter Theisen
TOWN COURTESY OF
WIKIMEDIA COMMONS/SIMISA
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utilitys distribution system during grid events, i.e., faults,
voltage collapses, and blackouts. It may also intentionally
disconnect during grid maintenance
and when the quality of power from
the grid falls below certain standards.
A microgrid can be reconnected to the
utility grid without any interruption
once grid stability is recovered.
Figure 1 shows the concept of a
future microgrid for a small town.
There are several types of genera-
tion, including renewables and non-
renewables. Renewable sources, e.g.,
solar photovoltaic (PV), can be more
distributed. Energy-storage systems
(ESSs) are also distributed, but their
controls have to be coordinated to
support frequency and voltage. A
proper mixture of energy sources and
management of the resources thus
becomes an important requirement
for the future high-reliability industrial parks or campuses
and townships with energy surety mandates.
Microgrid Drives: Benefits
and Barriers
There are several technical drivers behind the idea of
microgrids, including
utility transmission constraints requiring that sup-
plies be located closer to their loads
demands for improved power reliability, efficiency,
and quality
a desire for energy security
the integration of renewable energy and distributed
energy resources
military demands for enhanced energy securitysure-
ty, survivability, supply, sufficiency, and sustainability
higher system efficiency (e.g., use of generation waste
heat in a combined heat and power installation).
In addition, the lower costs of solar PV installations, natu-
ral gas, and energy-storage devices have been supporting
further expansion of DG and microgrids.
The microgrid concept provides opportunities for eco-
nomic development in the electric power and clean energy
industry. According to Navigant Research, the microgrid mar-
ket was at US$10 billion in 2013 and projected to increase to
more than US$40 billion annually by 2020. In addition to eco-
nomic development opportunities, microgrids are envi-
sioned to be environmentally friendly and a promising way
of building net zero energy communities, which have the
ability to operate separately from bulk grid and sustain
themselves in the event of a grid outage. This is crucial for
critical infrastructure, such as hospitals, public facilities, mili-
tary bases, and emergency-response facilities.
As envisioned, a microgrid would provide added value
to society, the grid, and customers by improving energy
reliability; reducing the cost of energy; managing price vol-
atility; assisting in the optimization of power delivery sys-
tems, including the provision for
services, providing different levels of
service quality and value to customers
segments at different price points;
helping to manage the intermittency
of renewables; promoting the deploy-
ment and integration of energy-effi-
cient and environmentally friendly
technologies; and increasing the resil-
iency and security of the power deliv-
ery system by promoting the dispersal
of power resources.
However, some technical and non-
technical barriers must be overcome
to provide these benefits. The greatest
technical challenges are monitoring,
controls, and protection. A highly effi-
cient and reliable supervisory and
monitoring system has to be devel-
oped to accommodate a wide range of load and genera-
tion variations. The communication and information
layers play a critical role in the supervisory management
for microgrids. A lack of standardized communication and
controls has thus far limited microgrid development to
custom designs and case studies. Other technical chal-
lenges include microgrid sizing and planning, steady-state
and dynamic performance, utility system and equipment
upgrades, and interconnection requirements.
Additionally, to ensure that microgrids operate as legal
entities, regulatory barriers need to be resolved, including
regulatory policies, microgrid ownership models, the choice
of voltage level, the legality of microgrids, service territories,
utility tariffs, and environmental and sitting laws.
Ongoing Microgrid Activities
Several microgrid projects are currently under research and
development in the United States, including the 100-kW
Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions
(CERTS) microgrid test bed near Columbus, Ohio, the 3-MW
Santa Rita correctional facility test site in Alameda County,
California, the Smart Power Infrastructure Demonstration
for Energy Reliability and Security (SPIDERS) microgrids, the
700-kWFort Sill microgrid project, and the Illinois Institute
of Technologys Perfect Power System. The CERTS microgrid
test bed uses advanced control techniques to perform
seamless islanding and reconnection and apply the peer-
to-peer and plug-and-play concepts for devices. One of the
goals of the SPIDERS program is to provide reliable backup
power during emergencies by integrating renewables and
other DG sources into the microgrid and to ensure that crit-
ical operations can be sustained during prolonged utility
power outages. In the Fort Sill microgrid project, the objec-
tive is to demonstrate a field-scale, renewable-focused,
intelligent microgrid, which serves critical mission power
A highly efficient
and reliable
supervisory and
monitoring system
has to be developed
to accommodate a
wide range of load
and generation
variations.
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requirements in a sustainable, reliable, and secure manner.
This microgrid includes two natural gas generators, one
500-kWh energy-storage element, small wind and solar PV
systems, various loads, and a static switch. Worldwide,
there are several other other experimental microgrid facili-
ties under operation and construction as well.
Figure 2 shows the configuration of
the Fort Sill microgrid, which has a rat-
ing of 0.480 kV, 60 Hz, and 630 kW. It is
connected to the utility grid through a
0.48-kV/13.20-kV transformer and a
static switch. The generations in this
microgrid include two natural gas gen-
erators rated at 190 kW each, one
30-kW solar PV system, a 2.5-kW wind
turbine, and a 250-kW energy-storage
device. The solar PV and wind turbine
generators are connected to the system
through inverters operating in a cur-
rent mode while the energy storage
inverter operates in a voltage mode.
The system also includes various
motor loads and variable loads. The motor loads mainly
include chillers, water pumps, and air compressors.
The microgrid concept has already been applied at the
community level to provide benefits to customers. The first
microgrid in The Netherlands was built in Bronsbergen
Holiday Park, Zutphen, mainly to improve power quality.
The microgrid consists of solar PV systems on 108 houses,
with a peak total generation of 315 kW and a peak load of
150 kW. Two battery storage systems with inverters and a
grid tie switch have been added to convert the existing sys-
tem to a microgrid. An aerial photo of
the park and the configuration of the
microgrid are shown in Figure 3. The
configuration is mesh type and cen-
trally controlled.
Needs for ESSs in Microgrids
It is well known that within an envi-
sioned microgrid, various types of
DG and customers create and
demand varying active and reactive
power profiles that may challenge
the stability of the system. The ESSs,
therefore, play a critical role in stabi-
lizing the voltage and frequency of
the microgrid for both short- and
long-term applications. From the device to system level,
the ESS is a crucial element in the integration of DG into
the microgrid. Researchers have employed various types
of energy storage at the turbine and farm levels for wind
Wind Turbines
Substation
Grid
Switch
Natural
Gas Generation
ESS
ESS
ESS
Fuel Cell Energy
Solar Panels
Figure 1. A microgrid envisioned for a small town.
The inverter plays
a critical role to
regulate voltage
and frequency and
mange transitions
to island and
grid-tie modes.
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energy to smooth the power intermittency and make
wind power more compatible with grids and microgrids.
Novel topologies for solar PV converters are being pro-
posed and discussed for integrating batteries into solar PV
systems to make them capable of providing continuous
power during a cloudy day. For microgrid planning, vari-
ous projects have focused on the optimization of the allo-
cation of ESSs for microgrids. There is research underway
aimed at determining the optimal location and size for
energy storage within a microgrid so that a minimal cost
and system energy loss can be achieved while microgrid
reliability and surety are improved.
Energy-storage units can either be
distributed or centralized in a
microgrid. The distributed ESS not
only actively manages and controls
the functions of the storage devices
to provide power support to local
loads but also tries to maximize its
life, efficiency, and safety. It also
communicates to the upper-layer
control unit such as the supervisory
control unit to perform other
advanced operations. A centralized
ESS is typically observed in a smaller
microgrid but typically when some
critical facilities are involved. It usu-
ally performs similarly to a main
backup power supply in the event of
bulk grid blackout. A higher energy
and power level is needed to support
the whole system from couple of
minutes to hours.
Energy-Storage Technologies
Energy storage with newer battery
technologies has become a reality.
The lead-acid battery-based technolo-
gy has been replaced by lithium-ion (Li-ion) technology and
many other alternatives. There are currently several types
of energy-storage technologies with different characteris-
tics, e.g., energy and power density, efficiency, cost, lifetime,
and response time. Examples of ESSs are ultracapacitors,
superconducting magnetic ESSs, flywheels, batteries, com-
pressed air, pumped hydro, fuel cells, and flow batteries.
Currently, energy storage is a tradeoff between power
and energy density. Although ultracapacitors and hybrid
batteries offer higher power density, their capacity (in Ah)
and energy density are nowhere close to those of batteries.
They can release a large amount of power but only for a few
Utility
Grid
Transformer
13.2 kV/0.480 kV
Energy
Storage
Battery System
250 kW
13.2 kV
PV
30 kW
Wind
2.5 kW
M M M M M
M
Air
Compressor
10 hp
Water
Pump
30 hp
Chilled
Water
Process
Pump 3
10 hp
Tower
Sweep
Pump
40 hp
Chilled
Water
Loop
Pump 3
200 hp
Chiller 3
400 hp
NG1
190 kW
NG2
190 kW
Static
Switch
Figure 2. The configuration of the Fort Sill microgrid.
GSM
Modem
PQ Master
MV
10 kV 400 kVA
Inv A Inv B
Battery A Battery B
Static Switch
P
Q
PQ
PQ
PQ
PQ
Modem
PV PV PV
PV PV PV
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) An aerial view and (b) the configuration of the Bronsbergen Holiday Park microgrid in The Netherlands.
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seconds. On the other hand, fuel cells are capable of storing
a vast amount of energy but are limited in the peak output
power. Based on the available technologies, batteries are the
best choice to provide both power and energy densities.
There are several types of batteries currently in use for
industrial applications. Nickel cadmium (NiCd), lead acid,
and Li-ion are the most popular exist-
ing battery types. NiCd-based batter-
ies contain toxic metals and are
environmentally unfriendly. Further-
more, the memory effect and high
maintenance requirements are other
drawbacks that make this type of bat-
tery less favorable for industrial appli-
cations. Nickelmetal hybrids (NiMH)
are another type of nickel-based bat-
tery that offers higher energy density and shorter cycle life
compared to the NiCd battery but still suffers from high
maintenance requirements due to the memory effect.
Lead-acid batteries are the most cost-efficient com-
mercial batteries for power-supported applications. The
short cycle life and low energy density are the two main
disadvantages of these types of batteries. Lead-acid bat-
teries could be a good choice for applications in which a
power support with low depth of discharge rate is
required. Deep cycling has a serious impact on the life
cycle of the battery.
Among all of the different types of energy storage cur-
rently available commercially, Li-ion batteries offer the best
solution for high-power and high-energy applications.
Recent technologies also provide a combination of high
power and energy density with considerably high cycle and
floating lifetime (a >5,000-cycle life). Li-ion batteries come in
various types based on the chemistries for the active positive
and negative materials. Different materials for the electrodes
lead to various battery specifications in terms of power and
energy density, voltage characteristics, life, and safety. Choos-
ing the appropriate battery chemistry to meet the required
specifications of the application is
vital. Similar to other battery types, Li-
ion batteries consist of two electrodes,
an anode, a cathode, a separator to
prevent shorting, and an electrolyte as
a conductor.
The cathode is a lithium metal
oxide, and common materials such as
lithium, cobalt, manganese, and iron
phosphate oxide as well as combined
chemistries including lithium nickel
cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) or lithi-
um manganese cobalt oxide (NMC)
are used as the cathode electrode.
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) has
typically been used as the positive
active material for Li-ion batteries
since 1979, when John Goodenough
et al. investigated the first rechargeable Li-ion battery. High
capacity, energy density, and cycle life were the main
advantages of cells based on LiCoO2 as the positive elec-
trode. However, high energy release when the battery is
abused was a safety concern and a disadvantage of the ear-
lier batteries. Lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4) was pro-
posed to mitigate safety concerns
while representing similar voltage and
energy density, however, with faster
capacity fading.
Combining several lithium metal
oxides to take the advantage of several
features has created new lines of bat-
teries. The NCA type, which is a mix-
ture of lithium, nickel, cobalt, and
aluminum oxides, and the NMC type,
which is a compound of lithium, nickel, manganese, and
cobalt oxides, were two popular compounds based on nick-
el. Having nickel in the compound increases the lifetime
LiFePO
4
NCA NMC
Lithium Titanate Oxide (LTO)
Lead Acid LiMn
2
O
4
LiCoO
2
Cycle Life
Cost
Performance
Energy Density
Power Density
Safety
(a) (b)
Figure 5. The schematic of the lab setup for microgrid testing: (a) 500-kVA energy storage
inverter and (b) 250-kWh and 500-kW Li-ion battery.
Figure 4. A property comparison of several types of electrochemical
batteries.
Batteries are the
best choice to
provide both power
and energy densities.
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and energy density of the device. NCA has high energy and
power densities and an excellent life span, whereas NMC
presents lower power density with almost similar energy
density but represents better safety features. The develop-
ment of lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4
) in the 1990s for
positive active materials was a significant safety improve-
ment. However, lower energy and power density and cell
voltage were the drawbacks of this type of battery cell.
Since the 1980s, when Rachid Yazami proposed graph-
ite as the negative active material in secondary
(rechargeable) Li-ion batteries, it has
been commonly used because of the
reversible electrochemical intercala-
tion (insertion) of lithium ions.
Graphite as a negative electrode is
sensitive to the operating tempera-
ture of the cell. By overheating the
battery cell, the Li-ion permeable
solid-electrolyte interphase layer
protecting lithium ions from react-
ing with electrolyte breaks down,
and an irreversible reaction between
the lithium ions and electrolyte may
cause thermal runaway and, poten-
tially, fire. Replacing the graphite
with lithium titanate as the negative
active material eliminates the over-
heating issue. Moreover, because of
the capability of lithium titanate to
operate at higher voltages, a higher
charging rate is possible, which
reduces the charging time to as low
as several minutes. On the other
hand, the power and energy density
as well as the cell terminal voltage
are reduced. The electrolyte in Li-ion
batteries is normally a lithium-salt
such as lithium hexafluorophos-
phate in an organic solvent.
Figure 4 shows a comparison of
several types of battery chemistries,
considering lithium iron phosphate
as a reference case. An appropriate type can be chosen
based on the requirements for energy and power density,
cost, cycle life, performance, and safety.
Optimal Allocation for
ESS in Microgrids
Planning the best locations and sizes for ESSs can have a
significant impact on the power system, including
enhancing the power system reliability and power quality,
reducing the power system cost, controlling high energy
cost imbalance charges, minimizing
power loss, improving voltage pro-
files, serving the demand for peak
load, and correcting the power factor.
In recent years, much research
has been focused on determining the
location and capacity of ESSs. Algo-
rithms combining multipass dynam-
ic programming were proposed to
maximize fuel-cost savings and ben-
efits from energy pricing differences
between peak- and light-load peri-
ods. Methodologies were also devel-
oped to optimize the allocation and
PI
1/s
P, Q,
V
rms
, f
Calc
I
V
m
Q
m
P
V
fb
V
mag
V
base
= 1
f
base
= 1
P
fb
Q
fb
shf.qv
shf.pf
Q
adj
P
adj
Data
Bus
P
ref
Q
ref
V
ref
f
ref
V
ref
V
fb
Q
ref
Q
fb
W
Q
PI
shf.pf
shf.qv
f
ref
f
fb
P
ref
P
fb
W
P
PI
f
fb
Q
adj
P
adj
LCL
Filter
Comm
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Frequency
Storage Power
Voltage
0
6
0
4
8
0
4
0
1 10 1 00 0 50 0 40 0 30 0 20 0 10 0 00
Figure 6. The block diagram of the storage inverter controls.
Figure 7. The microgrid voltage, frequency, and output power of a storage inverter in black start
and island mode.
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economical operation of ESSs in
microgrids. A genetic algorithm opti-
mization technique based on a mul-
tiobjective function was used to
evaluate the economic impact of the
energy-storage-specific costs on the
net present value of energy-storage
installations in distribution substa-
tions. One research group proposed a
two-stage stochastic optimal algo-
rithm for sizing the ESS in an isolat-
ed wind-diesel power system. The
authors considered wind penetra-
tion, ESS efficiency, and diesel oper-
ating strategy to minimize the cost of
supplied energy. Research in another
work presented an integrated elec-
tricity production cost analysis for
autonomous electrical networks
based on renewable energy sources
and energy-storage configurations.
The initial cost of the energy storage,
the input electricity, and fuel cost, as
well as the fixed and variable mainte-
nance and operating costs of the
entire installation were taken into
consideration. A group of researchers
made use of particle swarm optimi-
zation to achieve optimal dispatch of
controllable loads and generators as well as to effectively
use the battery storage of each microgrid. The cost of the
microgrid is reduced by selling the stored energy at higher
prices and shaving peak loads from the larger system. The
authors in another work focused on the optimal ESS for
maximizing the support to the network voltage control in a
distributed system. It has been shown that the location of
the ESS impacts the transient stability and voltage quality
of a multibus microgrid.
Multiobjective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO)
has become an efficient tool for solving the multiobjective
optimization problems in power system by searching for
an acceptable pareto-optimal set. Xu and Singh proposed
a modified particle swarm optimiza-
tion based on multiobjective optimi-
zation algorithm to solve the
energy-storage design problem,
which not only considers energy-
storage capacity and power rate but
also the operation strategy. The
authors in another work proposed a
MOPSO method to determine an
optimal static var compensator (SVC)
installation scheme for the required
loading margin with the SVC instal-
lation locations and capacities
derived from the use of the SVC for
all considered contingencies. A MOPSO approach, which
adopts differential evolution algorithm, was presented to
optimize the operation of an interconnected microgrid,
which comprises a variety of distributed energy resources
and storage devices to minimize both cost and emission
resulted from supplying local demands.
Energy-Storage Interface
and Controls in a Microgrid
Figure 5 shows a 500-kW energy-storage inverter and 250-
kWh, 500-kW Li-ion battery for the Fort Sill microgrid. The
inverter plays a critical role to regulate voltage and fre-
quency and mange transitions to island and grid-tie
Frequency
Storage Power
Voltage
2
0
6
0
4
8
0
4
0
0
1 30 1 20 1 10 1 00 0 50 0 40 0 30
Frequency
Storage Power
Source 1
Voltage
2
0
6
0
0
1
0
2 30 2 00 1 30 1 00 0 30 0 00
Figure 8. The microgrid voltage, frequency, and output power of a storage inverter when
transitioning from island to grid-tie mode.
Figure 9. The off-grid to on-grid transition with a storage inverter in voltage mode and a source
inverter in current mode.
Frequency
Storage Power
Renewable
6
0
1
0
3
5
1
5
0 25 0 20 0 15 0 10 0 05 0 00
Figure 10. The microgrid frequency and output power of two inverters when transitioning from
grid-tie to island mode.
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modes. The inverter control is designed for the device to
operate in voltage mode (grid forming).
In voltage mode, the inverter behaves as a synchronous
generator and regulates its output voltage magnitude and
phase to adjust its output reactive
and active power. It can serve as a fre-
quency and voltage reference for
other sources in a microgrid. Voltage
mode is against current mode, in
which the inverter behaves as a cur-
rent source and adjusts its real and
reactive power by varying the phase
and magnitude of output voltage.
A typical control block diagram for
a microgrid storage inverter is shown
in Figure 6. This control can operate
the inverter in both island and grid-
tie modes and support the transition
mechanism. During island mode, if
the storage is the sole source, it
needs to provide power to all loads.
Voltage magnitude is only adjusted
in this mode. When the storage is
working in parallel with other sourc-
es, it adjusts the terminal voltage
phase to change the output power
and regulate frequency. The feedback
for angle adjustment can come from both output power
and system frequency. The feedback for terminal voltage
magnitude adjustment can come from both output reac-
tive power and system voltage.
When the microgrid is in grid-tie mode, the frequency
is determined by the grid. The inverter regulates the phase
of output voltage versus grid to adjust output power. It
should be noted that this control can place the storage in
either charging or discharging mode in both island and
grid-tie modes. It means that the direction of the power
can be both ways while the inverter is in voltage mode.
Adjustment of terminal voltage magnitude versus grid
voltage regulates the reactive power.
Figures 710 show the traces for a microgrid system
with an energy-storage inverter, two inverter-based sourc-
es, and loads. The energy-storage inverter is in voltage
mode, and the inverter-based sources are in current mode.
Figure 7 shows the system voltage and frequency as well
as the total power delivered by the inverters when all
three inverters are running in off-grid mode. The system
starts from zero voltage and experiences step load chang-
es. The load is initially at 40 kW and then is reduced to
12.5 kW and zero in steps. The system voltage and fre-
quency experience small variations according to the block
diagram of Figure 6.
Figure 8 shows the waveforms of the voltage, frequen-
cy, and output power of the storage inverter when the sys-
tem is moved from off-grid to grid-tie mode. The inverter
settings are different for these two modes depending on
the batterys state of charge and system load. In off-grid
mode, the inverter is providing 10 kW because of the load
demand. In grid-tie mode, the inverter is charging the
storage with 20 kW by power settings.
Another example illustrating the
off- to on-grid transition is shown in
Figure 9. Initially, the storage inverter is
configured as black start supporting
the systems voltage and picks up 20
kW of load. One inverter-based source
is configured in current mode and fol-
lows the storage inverters power com-
mand, so that each one shares 10 kW.
At 85 s, the microgrid is reconnected to
the grid. The source inverter and stor-
age inverter follow their power com-
mand of 0 and 20 kW of charging,
respectively.
Figure 10 shows the waveforms of
the voltage, frequency, and output
power of two inverters when the sys-
tem transitions from grid-tie to off-
grid mode. Source inverter 1 is in
current mode, and its output power
remains constant during both modes.
The storage inverter is in voltage
mode, and its power changes from 15
to 35 kW. During the transition, the frequency drops to
59.35 Hz before recovering to 59.85 Hz in island mode.
For Further Reading
C. Marnay, H. Asano, S. Papathanassiou, and G. Strbac, Pol-
icymaking for microgrids, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 6,
no. 3, pp. 6677, 2008.
M. D. Johnson and R. A. Ducey, Overview of U.S. Army
microgrid efforts at fixed installations, in Proc. IEEE
Power and Energy Society General Meeting, 2011, pp. 12.
(2012, Oct. 15). U.S. Army Installation Management
Energy Portfolio. [Online]. Available: http://armyenergy.hqda.
pentagon.mil/docs/Energy_Portfolio_15_Sep_10.pdf
Q. Fu, L. F. Montoya, A. Solanki, A. Nasiri, V. Bhavaraju, T.
Abdallah, and D. C. Yu, Microgrid generation capacity
design with renewable and energy storage addressing
power quality and surety, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3,
no. 4, pp. 20192027, Dec. 2012.
M. Nick, M. Hohmann, R. Cherkaoui, and M. Paolone,
On the optimal placement of distributed storage systems
for voltage control in active distribution networks, in Proc.
2012 3rd IEEE PES Int. Conf. Exhibition on Innovative
Smart Grid Technologies, 2012, pp. 16.
C. Chen, S. Duan, T. Cai, B. Liu, and G. Hu, Optimal allo-
cation and economic analysis of energy storage system in
microgrids, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 10,
pp. 27622773, Oct. 2011.
Jason Stamp, SPIDERS: Smart power infrastructure
demonstration for energy, reliability, and security, in
Multiobjective
particle swarm
optimization has
become an efficient
tool for solving the
multiobjective
optimization
problems in power
system by searching
for an acceptable
pareto-optimal set.
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_________________________________
Advanced Microgrid Concepts Technologies Workshop,
Beltsville, MD, June 78, 2012, pp. 12.
R. H. Lasseter, Extended CERTS microgrid, in Proc. IEEE
Power and Energy Society General MeetingConversion
Delivery Electrical Energy 21st Century, 2008, pp. 15.
C. Marnay, N. DeForest, and J. Lai, A green prison: The
Santa Rita Jail Campus microgrid, in Proc. IEEE PES Gen-
eral Meeting, San Diego, CA, July 2226, 2012, pp. 12.
J. Kelly and D. V. Dollen, The Illinois Institute of Tech-
nologys Perfect Power System Prototype, in Grid-Interop,
Albuquerque, NM, Nov. 79, 2007, pp. 14.
Biographies
Qiang Fu (QiangFu2@Eaton.com) earned his B.S. and M.S.
degrees in electrical engineering from
Chongqing University, China, in 2006
and 2009, respectively, and his Ph.D.
from the University of WisconsinMil-
waukee in 2013. Currently, he is an
electrical engineer with the Corporate
Research and Technology Group of
Eaton Corporation. His research main-
ly focuses on modeling and assessing
of microgrid as well as probabilistic
analysis of power system. He is a
coauthor of the book Architecture, Pro-
gramming, and Interfacing for the Fre-
escale DSP 56F8346 (China Machine
Press, 1999). He has published more
than ten conference and journal
papers and was awarded one Chinese
patent. He is a Member of the IEEE.
Ahmad Hamidi (hamidis@uwm.edu) earned his B.Sc.
and M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering from Shiraz Uni-
versity and Toosi University of Technology, Iran, in 2006 and
2009, respectively. Since 2011, he has been working toward
his Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering at the University
of WisconsinMilwaukee. His research interests are model-
ing of renewable energy resources and integration with
energy storage systems. He is a Student Member of the IEEE.
Adel Nasiri (nasiri@uwm.edu) earned his B.S. and M.S.
degrees from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran,
Iran, in 1996 and 1998, respectively, and his Ph.D. degree
from Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, in 2004, all
in electrical engineering. He worked for Moshanir Power
Engineering Company, Tehran, from 1998 to 2001. He also
worked for For Health Technologies, Inc., Daytona Beach,
Florida, from 2004 to 2005. He is presently a professor in
the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science at the University of WisconsinMilwaukee. His
research interests are renewable energy systems includ-
ing wind and solar energy, energy storage, and
microgrids. He is currently an editor of IEEE Transactions
on Smart Grid, associate editor of IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, associate editor of the International
Journal of Power Electronics, and an editorial board
member of Journal of Power Components and Systems. He
is a Senior Member of the IEEE.
Vijay Bhavaraju (VijayBhavaraju@eaton.com) earned
his B.S. degree in electrical engineering from IIT-Madras,
India, in 1976, his M.S. degree in power system operation
and controls from S.V. University Tirupathi, India, in 1988,
and his Ph.D. degree in power electronics from Texas A&M
University, College Station, in 1994. He worked in the oil
industry designing and commissioning off-shore and land
rigs. He developed three products, the Mud-Pump Syn-
chronizer, the Auto-Drill, and Block Controller, while work-
ing at Tech Power Controls (later acquired by NOV). He was
at Ford-Ecostar from 1998 to 2004, working on inverters for
microturbines, photovoltaics, and fuel cells. Since 2005, he
has been with the Corporate
Research and Technology Group of
Eaton Corporation, Milwaukee, Wis-
consin. He has been involved in dif-
ferent projects related to inverters for
solar, batteries, and microgrids. He
led a team that released the 250-kW
PV inverter. He was a member of IEEE
1547 standard from 2000 to 2004. He
is currently a member of the IEC
Project Team for Microgrid for Disas-
ter Preparedness and Recovery. He is
a Member of the IEEE.
Slobodan (Bob) Krstic (Slobo-
danKrstic@Eaton.com) earned his
B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical
engineering from the University of
WisconsinMilwaukee in 1979 and 1986, respectively.
His industrial experience has centered on defining and
analyzing design concepts for new power conversion
technologies and products for industrial and Navy
applications, including ship propulsion and power dis-
tribution systems. His other experience includes tech-
nology development in sensorless motor diagnostics,
motor drives, active filters, power semiconductor test-
ing, and dc and ac circuit breakers. He holds 11 U.S.
patents and has published 11 technical papers. He has
held various positions at DRS Technologies and American
Superconductor and is presently a principal engineer with
the Corporate Research and Technology Group of Eaton
Corporation, where his focus is on the design and imple-
mentation of microgrids for military and commercial
installations.
Peter Theisen (PeterJTheisen@eaton.com) earned his
B.S. in electrical engineering and M.S. in mechanical engi-
neering from Marquette University in 1974 and 1979,
respectively. He has been with Eaton Corporation since
1974 and presently is a senior principal engineer with the
Corporate Research & Technology Group. He has been
awarded over 35 U.S. patents.
The most compelling
feature of a
microgrid is its
ability to separate
and isolate itself
from the utilitys
distribution system
during grid events.
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__________________
______________
_________________
___________
_____________
_______________
____
U.S. Government work not protected by U.S. Copyright I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / DECEMBER 2013 30
MARINE CORPS FORWARD
operating base is a self-con-
tained remote temporary
military base designed to
support combat operations
in an austere environment, often without
pre-existing infrastructure. Similar in func-
tion to a permanent military base, this tem-
porary base contains planning spaces,
billeting tents, and a variety of equipment
that all require electricity. As there is no utili-
ty grid, the primary source of a temporary
bases electrical power is provided on site by
diesel generators.
Marines and soldiers are responsible for
the transportation, safe employment,
maintenance, and refueling of forward-
deployed generators. These efforts enable
sustained generator operation but also
impose significant logistical challenges to
deployed forces. For instance, the cost of
fuel alone is a tremendous financial bur-
den to the Department of Defense at an
estimated US$400 per gallon delivered to a
remote base. In addition to the high cost of
fuel, the necessity of resupply convoys to
deliver the fuel poses a significant risk to
U.S. armed forces. Former Commandant of
the Marine Corps General James Conway
Reducing Fuel Consumption
at a Remote Military Base
Introducing an energy management system.
By Ryan L. Kelly, Giovanna Oriti,
and Alexander L. Julian
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related that 1015% of Marine casualties occur during fuel
and water convoy operations alone. More efficient genera-
tor use presents an opportunity to reduce the overall fuel
consumption on a temporary base and, in turn, save
money while reducing risk to American troops.
On a typical remote base, each generator is connected to
its own set of loads and operates independently from other
generators. Most of the time, generators operate at a low
load. The fuel efficiency of a diesel generator is related to its
electrical loading, such as the 10-kW tactical quiet genera-
tor shown in Figure 1. Generators operate most efficiently
when they are fully loaded. For a given load, a smaller gen-
erator at a high operating point is more efficient than a
large generator at a low operating point in terms of fuel
consumed per power delivered to the load.
The introduction of an energy management system
(EMS) into the power system of a remote temporary base
improves efficiency by ensuring that the smallest genera-
tor is selected to power the loads. The EMS provides an
interface between the loads, power sources, and energy
storage elements, as shown in Figure 2. If the batteries are
charged and sufficiently rated, the EMS can shut down
both generators and draw power from the batteries alone.
Lab Demonstration and Simulations
A laboratory experiment was conducted to demonstrate the
EMSs ability to disconnect from an external voltage source,
operate using batteries alone, and then reconnect to an
external voltage source while maintaining uninterrupted
current to the load. The electrical schematic for the hardware
setup in the laboratory is depicted in Figure 3. The EMS box
inFigure 3 includes the battery pack, the buck/boost convert-
er, and the H-bridge converter, which allow the EMS to inject
current to power a load or draw current to charge the battery
pack. A printed circuit board (PCB)
mounted integrated power module
using six insulated-gate bipolar tran-
sistors (IGBTs) and antiparallel
diodes was used to implement the
H-bridge (two legs) and the buck/
boost converters (third leg). Logic
stored on a field programmable gate
array (FPGA) dictates which power
source the EMS selects based on the
loads power demand.
If no generators are connected,
then the EMS is the sole power pro-
vider and operates as a voltage
source, drawing power from the bat-
teries. When a generator is connect-
ed, the EMS can operate in one of
the following modes:
charging the batteries, in
which case the H-bridge works
as a rectifier and the third leg
operates as a buck converter
supplying additional current to
the load; thus, the H-bridge
operates as an inverter con-
trolled as a current source and
the third leg boosts the voltage
standby mode, monitoring the
load demands
peak power management by
load shedding and/or genera-
tor connect/disconnect.
For the experimental setup in
Figure 3, V
sA
= V
sB
= 116 V
rms
, L
sA
=
L
sB
= 300 H, L
fil
= 1160 H, C
cfil
=
12 F, and the load is a 109- resis-
tor. Six 12-V lead-acid batteries are
used, producing 72-V dc output. The
boost converter raises this voltage
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to 200 V, creating a dc bus for the H-bridge converter. A thy-
ristor switch, Crydom CWD2410-10, is used as the discon-
nect/connect switch. The lab power supply is used to
represent both voltage sources V
sA
and V
sB
since they
operate at separate times.
A photo of the laboratory experiment is shown in
Figure 4. The batteries are shown in the top left corner
while the electronics, including three PCBs, are visible on
the front. Two of the three PCBs are custom while the third
one is a Xilinx FPGA development board.
The handoff from one voltage source to the other is
demonstrated by the experimental setup shown in Figure 3
in two steps. In step 1, the EMS disconnects from V
sA
by
turning off a thyristor switch. Once disconnected from
V
sA
, the EMS draws power from the batteries as it waits
for V
cfil
to synchronize with V
sB
. Once synchronized, the
EMS connects to V
sB
at the next V
cfil
zero crossing, as
shown in step 2.
The experimental voltages and currents produced
when disconnecting the EMS from V
sA
are shown in
Figure 5, and the corresponding waveforms for the con-
nection to V
sB
are shown in Figure 6. In these figures, V
cfil
is the output bus voltage seen by the load, I
EMS
is the cur-
rent injected from the H-bridge inverter, I
load
is the cur-
rent through the load resistor, and I
lsA
and I
lsB
are the
source currents from V
sA
and V
sB
, respectively. The two
sets of experimental plots demonstrate that the load
does not experience any disturbance when a generator
handoff occurs.
Note that the voltage V
cfil
is slightly lower when the
generators are disconnected and the EMS alone provides
voltage to the load, as shown in Figure 5. This was inten-
tionally done to visualize the transition in the laboratory
experiment. The EMS was programmed to supply a volt-
age slightly lower than the main
power source. Since the H-bridge is
controlled as a voltage source invert-
er, the voltage can be controlled very
precisely.
From Figure 5, it can be noted that
just before V
sA
is turned off, there is a
moment when current flows
between the main power source and
the EMS, thus producing a spike in
the I
lsA
and I
EMS
waveforms because
the main power and the EMS are
both trying to control the ac bus volt-
age. A small angle or phase differ-
ence between the EMS output voltage
and the main power supply voltage
cause a discontinuity to occur when
V
sB
gets connected, as shown in Fig-
ure 6. These glitches do not affect the
load; however, they will be addressed
in the future as the EMS digital con-
troller gets further refined.
Figure 2. The EMS provides an interface between loads, power
sources, and energy storage elements.
+
Battery Bank
Generator 2 Generator 1
V
sa
V
sb
EMS
Critical Loads Noncritical Loads
Figure 1. The efficiency of a 10-kW generator versus load.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Load (kW)
S
y
s
t
e
m

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
J
P
8

B
a
s
e
d
)
6 7 8 9 10
Figure 3. A schematic of the EMS laboratory setup.
Step 1:
Source A Disconnected
EMS
Step 2:
Source B Connected
L
sA
V
sA
V
sB
V
cfil
V
batt
C
cfil
I
IsA
I
IsB
I
load
I
EMS
L
fil
L
sB
R
sA
R
sB
+
660 H
9
9
0
F
1.95 mF
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A physics-based model of the circuit shown in Figure 3
was implemented using the MATLAB/Simulink software.
The voltage sources V
sA
and V
sB
were simulated using
ideal voltage sources, while all other circuit parameters
were set to match the laboratory setup.
Figures 7 and 8 present the simulation results that are
in good agreement with the simulations except for the
noise due to the nonideal voltage
source used in the laboratory. In par-
ticular, the source current waveforms
I
lsA
and I
lsB
, displayed at the bottom
of Figures 5 and 6, respectively, pres-
ent some ripple because the laborato-
ry power supply voltage, unlike the
simulated one, is nonideal. The fifth
and seventh harmonics are usually
present. Additionally, the thyristor
switch controlled by the EMS to con-
nect and disconnect the source con-
tributes to the noise observed in the
experimental waveforms.
Traditional Generator Employment
Typically, on a remote military base, each generator is
directly connected to its own separate set of loads. A
notional profile representing the load demand for a 5- and
20-kW generator is depicted over a 24-h period in Figure 9.
This method of generator employment will be referred to
as traditional scenario hereafter. By visual inspection, it is
clear that both the 5- and 20-kW gen-
erators run at less than 50% of their
rated maximum load throughout the
notional scenario. Since a generators
efficiency is directly proportional to
its loading, such a low generator load-
ing, as presented in Figure 9, gives
room for optimization.
The fuel flows were estimated
using each generators capacity and
operating point. The fuel flow curves
used for the generators are shown in
Figure 10. The corresponding linear
best-fit equations for these curves
Figure 4. A photo of the EMS laboratory setup.
Figure 5. The experimental measurements: the EMS provides power
to the load after it disconnects from VsA.
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
200
0
200
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
V
o
l
t
s
V
cfil
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
I
lsA
I
EMS
I
load
Figure 6. The experimental measurements: the EMS stops providing
power to the load after it connects to VsB.
200
0
200
V
o
l
t
s
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
V
cfil
I
lsA
I
EMS
I
load
Figure 7. The simulation results: the EMS provides power to the load
after it disconnects from VsA.
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
200
0
200
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
V
o
l
t
s
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
V
cfil
I
lsA
I
EMS
I
load
Marines and soldiers
are responsible for
the transportation,
safe employment,
maintenance, and
refueling of forward-
deployed generators.
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are given in Table 1. The generator loading, fuel flow data,
and the fuel consumed by each generator under the tra-
ditional method of employment are summarized in Table
2. Using the traditional method of generator employment
for the load profile in Figure 9, the data in Table 2 show
that the two generators consumed a total of 22.7 gal of
fuel in a 24-h period.
In the next section, these results will be compared to the
scenario where an EMS manages the loads and the genera-
tors, together with a battery pack, for the same load profile.
EMS-Integrated Generator Employment
The EMS-enabled scenario is compared to the traditional
scenario using the same 24-h load profile presented in
Figure 9. Unlike the traditional scenario, the loads are con-
nected to the EMS, not directly to a generator. Critical
loads are connected to the EMS critical bus, and the non-
critical loads are connected to the EMS noncritical bus, as
shown in Figure 2. Figure 11 presents a notional profile
representing load demand over a 24-h period for the EMS-
enabled scenario.
Critical loads are those electrical devices that must be
powered at all times to ensure safety or mission success.
Noncritical loads may be briefly turned off without causing
a major disruption to safety or operational requirements. To
use the same load profile for both the traditional and EMS-
enabled scenarios, the two sets of loads were separated into
the same groups. The loads connected to the 5- and 20-kW
generators in Figure 9 correspond to the critical and non-
critical loads, respectively, in Figure 11.
Another difference between the EMS-enabled setup
and the traditional method of generator employment is
that, in the EMS setup, no more than one generator is used
to power the loads at any given time. In other words, the
EMS may connect to generator 1, generator 2, or operate
solely on battery power.
The design principles guiding the EMS logic are as
follows:
provide uninterrupted power to critical loads at all
times
shed noncritical loads when necessary to maintain
power to the critical loads
use the battery bank to supplement power to main-
tain generator operation no higher than 100%
utilize the battery bank or the smallest generator pos-
sible to supply power to the loads.
Figure 8. The simulation results: the EMS stops providing power to
the load after it connects to VsB.
200
0
200
V
o
l
t
s
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
2
0
2
A
m
p
s
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
4
0
Time (ms)
V
cfil
I
lsA
I
EMS
I
load
Figure 9. The traditional two-generator handling of the loads.
0 2 4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
P
o
w
e
r

(
k
W
)
20-kW Gen
at 7.5 kW
20-kW Gen at 4.6 kW
5-kW Gen at 1.5 kW
20-kW Gen
at 0 kW
6 8 10
Time of Day (h)
12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Total
20-kW Gen Loads
5-kW Gen Loads
Figure 10. The fuel flow curves for the generators.
5 kW
15 kW
20 kW
2.40
2.20
2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0 20 40 60
Operating Point (% of Capacity)
F
u
e
l

F
l
o
w

(
g
a
l
/
h
)
80 100
TABLE 1. Generator fuel flow linear best-fit
equations.
Generator Size Fuel Flow (gal/h)
5 kW f5 (x) = 0.0046x + 0.113
15 kW f15 (x) = 0.0098x + 0.2419
20 kW f20 (x) = 0.0169x + 0.4163
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Ideally, the EMS can draw power solely from the battery
bank during periods of minimal load demand, thereby
saving fuel because the generators are shut down. The
EMS-enabled topology explored in this section assumes a
battery bank of 12-V lead-acid batteries with a total use-
able capacity of 64.8 MJ. This capacity is based on a maxi-
mum total battery power draw of 3 kW over a 6-h time
period. This capability creates the potential for the desired
batteries-only mode of operation during extended periods
of low loading.
Logic was implemented in a Simulink model to explore
how the EMS handles the notional 24-h load profile in
Figure 11. An overview of the logic flowchart is shown in
Figure 12.
In step 1 of the flowchart, the EMS measures the aver-
age power demanded by the load. In step 2, the EMS com-
pares the load demand to the capacity of the power
source that is currently connected. The connected power
source could be the 3-kW battery pack, the 5-kW genera-
tor, or the 15-kW generator. If a generator is connected,
the EMS may also inject up to 3 kW of additional power
from the battery pack to maintain a generator loading of
no higher than 100%. If the battery pack decreases below a
20% state of charge (SoC), the EMS connects to the next
largest generator to enable battery charging.
Step 3 takes corrective action in the event of a source
power deficit or a generator power excess. Most impor-
tantly, if the load demand exceeds the source capacity, the
EMS sheds the noncritical bus to preserve uninterrupted
power to the critical loads. Alternatively, if a generator is
being used to power the loads and it has excess power,
then the EMS will use this excess power to recharge the
batteries.
Assuming the EMS has completed any required actions
from step 3, it then executes a power source handoff as
shown in step 4. When a handoff occurs, the EMS first
sheds the noncritical bus (if it was not already shed in
step 2). This shedding event is important because it reduc-
es the potentially large load that would be placed upon
the battery pack for the duration of the handoff when
neither generator is connected. In this analysis, no load
TABLE 2. Total generator fuel consumption using traditional generator employment.
Power Source Time of Day Duration
(h)
Generator
Load (kW)
Generator
Operating Point
Fuel Flow
(gal/h)
Fuel Consumed
(gal)
5-kW gen 00002359 24 1.5 30% 0.251 6.024
20-kW gen 00000500 5 0 0% 0.4163 2.0815
05001000 5 4.6 23% 0.805 4.025
10001430 4.5 7.5 37.5% 1.05 4.725
14301930 5 4.6 23% 0.805 4.025
19302359 4.5 0 0% 0.4163 1.87335
Total 22.75385
Figure 11. The EMS-enabled load handling.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
P
o
w
e
r

(
k
W
)
1
2
3 4
5
6 7
Total
Noncritical Loads
Critical Loads
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time of Day (h)
12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Figure 12. The EMS logic flowchart.
Measure load demand.
Evaluate the appropriate power
source configuration.
Switch power sources as required
based upon Step 2.
Charge batteries
if a power excess
exists with a
generator
connected.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 4
Shed
the noncritical
bus if a
power deficit
exists.
Step 3
Restore the noncritical bus if it was
shed in Step 3.
Step 5
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shedding occurs. An exception to this is when the EMS
transitions from a generator to the battery pack. If the EMS
selects the battery pack as the desired power source, it is
implied that batteries are capable of handling the load
and, thus, load shedding is not necessary.
When the handoff to the desired
power source is completed, step 5 dic-
tates that the EMS will restore the non-
critical bus. The EMS continues to
sense the load demand from step 1
and make power source handoff deci-
sions as necessary.
The logic from Figure 12 was
applied to the notional 24-h load
demand shown in Figure 11. Boxed
regions surrounding different portions
of the total load demand are annotated
in Figure 11. Each region defines the
period of time in which the EMS
remained in a particular power source
configuration. An associated numeric
label corresponding to each region
relates to the information contained in
Tables 35. It was assumed that the battery bank was fully
charged at the beginning of the simulation.
Data regarding which generator the EMSs logic chose
to power the load, the loading placed upon the generator,
the mode of battery operation (either off, supplying
power to the load, or drawing power to recharge), and the
battery SoC is summarized in Table 3. A more detailed
battery SoC tracking is shown in Table 4, and the result-
ing total fuel consumption over the 24-h period is calcu-
lated in Table 5.
In the EMS-enabled scenario, the
total fuel consumed by the gas gen-
erators was 11.6 gal over the 24-h
period, approximately half of the
daily fuel consumed by the tradi-
tional method of generator employ-
ment from Table 2. Note that 0.34 gal
of fuel are added to the quantity in
Table 5, which would be needed to
restore the battery to its fully
charged state. The battery charging
and discharging is estimated to have
an efficiency of 90%.
Conclusions
The integration of the EMS into the
power system of a remote military
base decreases the overall generator fuel consumption by
50% while still providing necessary power to the loads.
The decreased fuel consumption results from optimiza-
tion in various areas. First, the EMS uses the battery pack
TABLE 3. EMS operational states corresponding to the regions identified in Figure 11.
Region Time of Day Load Demand
(kW)
Generator
Selected
Generator Load
(kW)
Battery Mode Battery Load
(kW)
1 00000500 1.5 None 0 Supply 1.5
2 05001000 6.1 5 kW 5 Supply 1.1
3 10001210 9 15 kW 15 Charge 6
4 12101430 9 15 kW 9 Off 0
5 14301930 6.1 5 kW 5 Supply 1.1
6 19302105 1.5 5 kW 5 Charge -3.5
7 21052359 1.5 None 0 Supply 1.5
TABLE 4. Battery bank SoC corresponding to the regions identified in Figure 11.
Region Duration (h) Battery Load
(kW)
Intial Capac-
ity (MJ)
Energy
Drawn (MJ)
Remaining
Capacity (MJ)
Initial SoC Final SoC
1 5 1.5 64.8 29.7 35.1 100% 54.2%
2 5 1.1 35.1 21.8 13.3 54.2% 20.6%
3 2.17 6 13.3 42.2 55.5 20.6% 85.7%
4 2.33 0 55.5 0.0 55.5 85.7% 85.7%
5 5 1.1 55.5 21.8 33.7 85.7% 52.0%
6 1.57 3.5 33.7 17.8 51.5 52% 79.5%
7 2.92 1.5 51.5 17.3 34.2 79.5% 52.8%
The use of an EMS
enables generators
to run up to 100%
with the battery
pack ensuring that
additional power is
available when
needed.
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to provide power in times of low loading, meaning the
generators are shut off and not consuming any fuel. Sec-
ond, the battery packs supplemental power allows a
15-kW generator to be substituted for the 20-kW genera-
tor in the traditional scenario. This is beneficial because
the 15-kW generator has a lower fuel flow than the 20-kW
generator for any given load. Third, the EMS only operates
one generator at a time. The chosen generator is the small-
est option available that can power the loads while the
other generator is shut down. The data in Table 5 show
that the generators operate at 100% load most of the time.
In general, the generators operating points are consistent-
ly higher than those shown in Table 2 for the traditional
method of generator employment.
The 24-h load profile used here might seem unrealistic,
i.e., a set of loads with a 20-kW peak requirement never
exceeded 9 kW in the notional power profile. Surprisingly,
though, such underutilization is quite common. Data col-
lected in the field show that remote temporary bases con-
tain as much as 115 kW of generator capacity for total
load profiles that, in reality, seldom reach above 45 kW.
The EMS serves a purpose in larger microgrid architec-
tures above 20 kW as well. Excessive generation capacity
drives traditional military generator employment, but in
reality, these generators never operate in the most effi-
cient manner because doctrine limits them to 80% loading
at best. The use of an EMS enables generators to run up to
100% with the battery pack ensuring that additional
power is available when needed. The EMS may incorpo-
rate solar or wind power to charge the battery pack, allevi-
ating some of that requirement from the generators.
For Further Reading
B. Frazee. (2010, Feb.). Energy symposium looks at reducing
the load in Marine Corps expeditionary operations, in U. S.
Marine Corps Forces Reserve. [Online]. Available: http://www.
marforres.marines.mil/MFRNews/NewsArticleDisplay/
tabid/7930/Article/81664/
G. Oriti, A. L. Julian, and N. J. Peck, Power electronics
enabled energy management systems, in Proc. IEEE
Applied Power Electronics Conf. and Expo., Long Beach, CA,
Mar. 2013, pp. 32243231.
Diesel Service and Supply. (2013). Approximate die-
sel fuel consumption chart. [Online]. Available: http://
www. di esel servi ceandsupply. com/Di esel _Fuel _
Consumption.aspx
J. B. Andriulli, A. E. Gates, H. D. Haynes, L. B. Klett, S. N.
Matthews, E. A. Nawrocki, P. J. Otaduy, M. B. Scudiere, T. J.
Theiss, J. F. Thomas, L. M. Tolbert. M. L. Yauss, and C. A.
Voltz. (1999, Nov.). Advanced power generation systems for
the 21st century: Market survey and recommendations for
a design philosophy. Oak Ridge National Laboratory report
ORNL/TM-1999/213. [Online]. Available: http://web.ornl.
gov/~webworks/cpr/v823/rpt/104704.pdf
Biographies
Ryan L. Kelly (rkelly@usna.edu) earned the bachelor of
science degree in computer science from the U.S. Naval
Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, in 2004 with a follow-up
assignment as a Marine Corps helicopter pilot. In 2013, he
earned the M.S.E.E. from the Naval Postgraduate School,
Monterey, California. He is currently serving as a military
faculty member of the Department of Computer and
Electrical Engineering at the U.S. Naval Academy.
Giovanna Oriti (giovanna.oriti@ieee.org) is an associ-
ate professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineer-
ing Department of the Naval Postgraduate School,
Monterey, California. Her research interests include
power converters modeling and design, EMI, energy
management, and electric ship systems. She is a Senior
Member of the IEEE.
Alexander L. Julian (ajulian@nps.edu) is an associate
professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department of the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey,
California. He contributed to shipboard electronic designs
and research for over 15 years by designing, modeling, and
prototyping power electronics and motion control systems
for many Navy applications.
TABLE 5. Generator selection, loading, and fuel consumption for the total load profile in Figure 11.
Region Selected
Generator
Duration
(h)
Generator
Load (kW)
Generator
Operating Point
Fuel Flow
(gal/h)
Fuel Consumed
(gal)
1 None
2 5 kW 5 5 100% 0.57 2.9
3 15 kW 2.17 15 100% 1.23 2.7
4 15 kW 2.33 9 60% 0.83 1.9
5 5 kW 5 5 100% 0.57 2.9
6 5 kW 1.57 5 100% 0.57 0.9
7 None
Total 11.2
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___________
________________
___________
__________________________
________________
______________________________________
_____________
______________________________________
____
N THE LAST DECADE, THE INCREASED PERFORMANCE, IMPROVING EFFICIENCY, AND
decreasing cost of electronic power converters have spurred the rediscovery and prolif-
eration of dc power distribution systems. These are increasingly of interest for ships,
where a dc grid has significant benefits, yet significant challenges must also be over-
come before these systems can be widely adopted.
The benefits of dc systems in microgrids in general, and ships in particular, are many. Voltage con-
version is performed at high frequencies (tens of kilohertz), thereby eliminating the need for large
60-Hz transformers. The need to synchronize generators is eliminated, so each generating plant can
operate at its own optimum speed for maximum efficiency. As shown in Figure 1, many different kinds
of power generation, conversion, or storage elements (flywheels, batteries, supercapacitors, etc.) can be
interfaced to the main distribution bus with simplified common interfaces to provide back-up power,
compensate for temporary power mismatches, and provide premium power that may be necessary to
support future pulse loads. The distribution bus can be divided into multiple sections to improve sur-
vivability, and bus ties can be instantly operated without first synchronizing the buses. Most loads,
including nearly all motors, have electronic power interfaces to the grid, so dc distribution eliminates
redundant rectification and inversion, as shown in Figure 2.
Many of these advantages also apply to terrestrial microgrids that are applied in data and telecom-
munication centers, renewable energy systems, and other increasingly common industrial applications
that have no inherent 50-Hz ac nature, even if the size and weight advantages are not as valuable.
While these benefits of dc systems also apply to all other forms of transportation, from automo-
biles to locomotives, ship systems are somewhat different in terms of power and size; the large scale
of ship systems presents unique challenges for system protection. It is one thing to protect a low-
voltage system, even at relatively high currents. It is quite another to protect a system operating at
tens of kilovolts and tens of kiloamperesapproximately 100 MW.
A new approach has been proposed for the protection and rapid reconfiguration of such systems,
capitalizing on the inherent controllability and current-limiting capabilities of electronic power
New fault protection strategies are essential
to the adoption of dc power systems.
By P. Cairoli and R.A. Dougal
New Horizons
in DC Shipboard
Power Systems
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converters, as illustrated in Figure 3. The
objective is to immediately take action to
limit fault damage by quickly depowering,
reconfiguring, and repowering the system
so fast that (properly designed) loads are
unaware of the incident.
Faults in dc systems pose unique chal-
lenges. Were it not for the current-limiting
effect of electronic power converters, short
circuits in an infinite bus dc system can
quickly escalate to enormous currents,
unmitigated by the inductive impedances of
cables or transformers that moderate (even if
at high levels) short-circuit currents in ac
systems. Arcing faults in dc are especially
hazardous because they tend not to self-
extinguish. Lacking the regular zero cross-
ings of an ac system (Figure 4), there is no
opportunity for an arc to extinguish, as is
dramatically illustrated by a video produced
by our collaborators at the University of
Texas at Austin (see https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=HaLSTnJE44o#t=120). Thus,
the potential for arc flash accidents and for
thermal damage is immense.
Another notable problem in dc systems is
that the traditional metallic-contact
mechanical circuit breakers are essentially
ineffectivefor precisely the same reasons
that arc faults in dc systems are dangerous.
The success of mechanical circuit break-
ers is largely attributable to the fact that
alternating currents naturally cross zero at
every half-period, thereby creating condi-
tions for self-extinction of arcs between
parting contacts. In a dc system, however,
there are no natural zero crossings, so arc
recovery demands that currents be forced
to zero by additional means. Within limited
voltage and current ranges, dc circuit break-
ers can be made functional by incorporating
special structures, such as magnetic arc
blowers and arc chutes, to dissipate and
cool the arc so that the voltage across the
arc eventually exceeds the system voltage
and forces the current to zero. However, this
approach requires larger and more expen-
sive devices and eventually fails to work at
high enough voltages.
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Paradoxically, the fact that electronic power converters
can and do generally moderate fault currents in dc systems
means that circuit protection is more difficult than in ac
systems. In infinite grid ac systems, fault currents are typi-
cally 10100 times larger than the nominal rated currents,
and this substantially greater current actually assists in
blowing the arcs into the arc chute of a circuit breaker. By
contrast, currents in dc systems may be limited by the
source-side power converters, and currents may not
become large enough to signal a fault; even if they are, this
may not generate the requisite J B # forces needed to
quickly move the arc.
Figure 1. The power system architecture of an all-electric ship. The system is characterized with multiple power sources, storage elements, and
multiple-load topologies, all connected through a reconfigurable power distribution bus.
Main
Turbine
Converter 1
Propulsion
Fault
Cable 13
Fault
Zone 2
Fault
Zone 1
Load
Zone 3
Propulsion
Auxiliary
Turbine
Main
Turbine
Converter 3 Converter 4
Load
Zone 1
Load
Zone 2
Load
Zone 4
Converter 2
Auxiliary
Turbine
Figure 2. A multiterminal MVdc distribution system. The blue squares are mechanical contactors. They can be either contactors or no-load bus
tie switches, and they are not required to open on sustained fault current like circuit breakers.
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On the other hand, synthetic means
can be applied to induce current zeros
and permit the opening of metallic
contacts. A number of approaches have
been described in recent years, but all
of them imply the introduction of addi-
tional devices that have to be controlled
(much like a power converter), protect-
ed, and monitored. An alternative relies
on the direct control of converters that
are already in the systemthe convert-
ers that interface sources to the distri-
bution bus. These converters can
supply a first form of fault protection by
limiting the current in case of overload or a faulted condition.
This constitutes a great advantage, since fault currents can
be actively limited to the rated current of the systemor
even a fraction of the rated currentwhen compared to the
extremely dangerous fault currents that could be 10100
times larger in ac systems.
But by limiting currents, multiterminal dc systems pose
a further problem related to discrimination between faults
and normal operating conditions. Although the energy
available to drive fault currents can be actively limited, this
makes the detection of faults more difficult because the
fault current amplitude and time gradient of current may
not be significantly different from the values expected from
the normal operations of the system. This means that new
methods for detecting faults are needed; the traditional
methods are not readily applicable to multiterminal dc dis-
tribution systems. The approach described here addresses
all of these problems.
Fault Protection in dc Distribution Systems
The interruption of a fault current in a dc system requires
that the voltage across the interrupting device become
larger than the system nominal voltage and large enough
that it imposes a large negative / dI dt on the system cur-
rent. This can be problematic in systems populated by
semiconductor devices because it requires that all of the
components be rated for voltages higher, perhaps much
higher, than the nominal operating voltage.
By limiting fault current at the output of feeding con-
verters, the system voltage collapses during a fault, which
makes it much easier to generate the required negative
/ dI dt without exceeding the device voltage ratings. Fault
current limitation also limits the amount of energy that
builds up in filter inductances connected to the distribu-
tion bus and thus contains the energy that needs to be
dissipated by the arc of any mechanical contactor, such as
a bus segmentizing contactor or bus tie switch.
Coordination Between Power
Converters and Contactors
Segmentizing contactors or bus tie switches can normally
be used to reconfigure the distribution system or to split
the distribution bus into sections as
appropriate for the operation mode of
the power system. These devices
would already be part of the system,
but they have slow mechanics and
would be limited to breaking small
currents, since other devices, such as
circuit breakers, would be present to
quickly interrupt fault currents. In the
case where fault protection is provid-
ed by coordination of feeding power
converters and contactors, contactors
must assume a new function, and
they must participate at the fault pro-
tection process. For this reason, while they need not be
V
s
V
in
i
in
i
o
V
o
+
+
+
Main
Source
Switching
Power
Converter
Controller
I
V
R
V
ref
I
max
d
Figure 3. Active fault current limiting: a switching power converter
that can be controlled in voltage and current mode and provide fault
current limitation.
Current Zero Crossing
I (A)
I (A)
t (s)
Constant ValueNo Current Zero Crossing
(a)
(b)
16.67-ms/20-ms Cycle
t (s)
Figure 4. Zero crossing: (a) points where it is easy to extinguish the
alternating current and (b) the nonexistence of a natural zero crossing
in the direct current.
Fault detection and
coordination of the
protection devices
is a fundamental
aspect of fault
current limitation
and fault isolation.
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designed to interrupt intense fault
currents, the opening time becomes
important in their ability to quickly
isolate the faulted sections so as to
minimize the time during which the
distribution bus is de-energized.
On top of mechanical contactors,
the method we proposed involves
the action of power electronics con-
verters to limit and quench fault cur-
rents. Fully controllable electronic power converters,
composed of switches with turn-off capability (e.g., insu-
lated-gate bipolar transistors, metaloxidesemiconductor
field-effect transistors, and gate turn-off thyristors), are
essential to the protection scheme.
After a bus fault, a converter can protect the system by
either actively limiting the fault current or by turning off
the converter switches. The action of the switches opening
interrupts the current from the primary side immediately,
but the current on the load side does not cease immedi-
ately. The energy stored in the output filter discharges into
the fault. The fault current ceases only after this energy is
completely dissipated. In case of a current-limiting action
of the power converter, the fault current can be either lim-
ited to a certain value or driven to zero. Once the fault cur-
rent is forced to zero, switches that are not rated to
interrupt a high prospective fault current (as circuit break-
ers are rated) can be used to physically isolate the faulted
section of the system. These switches must be rated to
support the system nominal current but not to open the
prospective fault current (e.g., bus segmentizing contac-
tors, bus tie switches, etc.).
This approach eliminates dc circuit breakers in favor of
simpler, smaller bus segmentizing contactors by coordinat-
ing the action of these contactors with the action of power
converters. According to this method, power converters are
commanded to briefly de-energize the
distribution grid so that the contactors
can safely open, isolate the faulted sec-
tion of the system, and reconfigure the
remaining network without breaking
large currents.
According to this approach, after a
fault is detected, the current-limit set-
tings of power converters and the trip
settings of contactors should be operat-
ed according to the following sequence:
1) The current-limit set points of converters that feed
the affected bus should be set to zero.
2) As soon as the fault current decays to the rated open-
ing current of the bus segmentizing contactors, appro-
priate contactors should be actuated to reconfigure
the system and isolate the faulted section. This oper-
ating mode can take advantage of the forward voltage
of the low-current intercontact arc to more rapidly
drive the system current to zero. During this time, the
current is small enough so as not to damage the
contactor.
3) After the current is driven to zero, the converter set
points are reset so as to re-energize the system.
Two important features of this protection scheme are
that the energy discharged into the fault is no more than
the energy stored in the filter components of the feeding
converters, and the out-of-service time can be very short,
as shown in Figure 5.
Fault Detection
Fault detection and coordination of the protection devices
is a fundamental aspect of fault current limitation and fault
isolation. Multiterminal dc distribution systems offer the
threat that multiple sources or storage elements might feed
fault currents. On the other hand, each of these sources will
be interfaced by means of fully con-
trollable converters and so each is
able to limit its own contribution to
any fault current. Although the ener-
gy available to drive fault currents can
be actively limited, this makes the
detection of faults more difficult
because the fault current amplitude
and time gradient may be very similar
to the normal operation transient
events (e.g., load connections, con-
stant power load steps, capacitor con-
nections, etc.). For this reason,
traditional fault detection methods
are not readily applicable to multiter-
minal dc distribution systems.
Overcurrent relays, distance
relays, differential current relays, and
minimum voltage relays have been
widely studied for ac distribution
I (A)
1,000 I
n
100 I
n
10 I
n
I
n
Fault
Perspective Fault Current
Fault Current Interruption
with Circuit Breaker
Coordination of Power Converter
and Segmentizing Contactor
Fault Current
Limitation
t
fault
t
coordination
t
CB t (s)
Figure 5. The coordination of power converters and contactors: a comparison of fault current
in a system with coordination between power converters and contactors and in a traditional
system. Fault current can be limited to the nominal current of the system instead of breaking
the perspective fault current limited only by the passive elements of the system.
Arcing faults in
dc are especially
hazardous because
they tend not to
self-extinguish.
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systems and provide a reliable way to coordinate fault
protection to isolate the smallest portion of the system
neighboring a fault. Many of these relays can be easily
adopted to work in a corresponding dc distribution sys-
tem powered by sources with small internal impedances
and are thus capable of providing fault currents much
larger than the nominal system currents. In the case of dc
distribution systems powered by sources interfaced to the
distribution bus through current-limited power convert-
ers, some of the traditional detection methods used in ac
are not appropriate because fault currents limited by con-
verters are not much larger than normal operating cur-
rents. In fact, the methods based on current threshold and
current derivative threshold cannot be effective because
of the similarity between nominal operation currents and
short-circuit fault currents. The methods based on voltage
sags (minimum voltage) measurement might be good for
tripping the converters offline when a fault happens but
they cannot discriminate between faults in different loca-
tions. For this reason, the coordination of converters and
contactors can be difficult. The methods based on imped-
ance or distance relays are widely used in traditional dis-
tribution and transmission systems with a radial
configuration and the presence of multiple sources in dif-
ferent locations. In fact, if there are too many radial lines
and busses, the time delay for breakers closest to the
source becomes excessive if the protection system is
based on currenttime tripping
curves. Instead, relays that respond
to a voltagecurrent ratio are more
sensitive to faults than those that
respond only to current. In case of a
fault, the impedance relay sees the
impedance shifting from a domi-
nantly resistive impedance to a
smaller and dominantly inductive
impedance that is typical of the line
impedance. In this way, the imped-
ance relay permits discrimination
between faults in different locations.
Whereas in ac systems the relay
reacts to changing impedance, in dc
systems direct measurement of a
complex impedance is not possible
because there is no fundamental
frequency on which to base the
notion of impedance. Some emerg-
ing methods propose to measure the
impedance spectrum of the bus by
injecting a broad-spectrum current
perturbation and then measuring
the resulting voltage perturbation
and extracting the associated
impedance magnitude and phase
spectrum. Even though such a mea-
surement of the bus impedance
gives very detailed information about the state of the bus,
this method requires high bandwidth measurements and
intense computing capability and may therefore be more
suitable for identifying a fault location after the system
has been protected rather than for detecting a fault to
take initial action.
We propose a new approach based on time evolution of
apparent resistance as the discriminating characteristic for
a short-circuit fault. This method requires much less com-
puting capability and is more suitable for fast protection.
Under the assumption that the faulted path has a much
R
1-..
R
1-4
R
1-3
R
1-2
R()
10 20 30 40 50 60
t (ms)
Trip Zone
A
B
C
D
No-Trip Zone
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
B
u
s
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
6,000
7,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Time (s)
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Load Connections
Fault at Load Fault on Main Bus
Conv 1
Conv 2
Load
Conv 1
Conv 2
Load
Figure 6. Resistance-time trip characteristic: the trip characteristic for
contactors that tie the main distribution bus. The resistive threshold and
time threshold can be designed depending on the system configuration.
Figure 7. Fault detection and coordination: (a) voltage and (b) current on the main bus during
a short circuit fault close to the load (t = 0.3 s to t = 0.34 s) and during a fault on the main
bus (t = 0.5 s to t = 0.56 s). Normal operation transient events do not trip the fault protection
(t = 0 s to t = 0.25 s).
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smaller impedance than the unfaulted load paths, the
faulted path impedance dominates the definition of the
equivalent impedance at the terminals of any particular
protection device. The voltagecurrent ratio calculated at
the terminals of converters and contactors is determined
by the resistance of the cable between the device and the
fault. Since the equivalent resistance seen by any one con-
tactor will be different depending on the position of the
fault, this allows a protection algorithm to differentiate
between faults close to or far from
the device and to take appropriate
action. This provides a fast and
effective method for detecting and
identifying faults, and importantly, it
relies only on local measurements.
Protection Coordination
A fault discrimination algorithm
based on apparent resistance can
be implemented in any converter
that is capable of measuring volt-
age and current at its terminals.
The ratio is then used by the con-
verter decision algorithm to give a
current-limiting reference or an
enabling signal. When the convert-
er recognizes an equivalent resis-
tance lower than a predefined
threshold, it goes into current-lim-
iting mode, bringing the current
down to some predetermined
small value. The converter stays in
this mode until the equivalent
resistance returns above some predefined threshold after
a predefined time delay. In this way, the hysteresis of
the algorithm avoids oscillations between fault and non-
fault conditions.
A similar fault detection algorithm is present in the
controller of each contactor that segments the dc bus and
in each contactor between the dc bus and the loads. In
these contactors, the decision-making algorithm has mul-
tiple statuses to provide coordination between contactors.
Since the protection scheme relies on fast-acting contac-
tors, not circuit breakers, and since contactors cannot
open against fault currents, each contactor is allowed to
open only after its own current falls below its rated open-
ing current. At this condition, a contactor can open the
remaining current without damage. For converters the
fault discrimination resistance has a single value, for
contactors the threshold has a time characteristic set after
exceeding a trigger value, together with a current direction
condition that allows contactors connected at the same
node to distinguish between different directions of the
fault current. The threshold values are defined by a resis-
tance-time trip characteristic that can be properly
designed for each contactor, as shown in Figure 6. When
the measured equivalent resistance falls below the resis-
tance-time threshold after the alarm condition, and the
current is positive, the contactor is
responsible for opening. The defined
time steps of the resistance-time curve
can be determined by a number of
things including the distribution bus
time constant and the control band-
width of the connected power convert-
ers. The resistive thresholds, instead,
can be selected depending on the distri-
bution bus configuration and the
parameters of each cable section
between devices. To provide selectivity
and redundancy between contactors, a
time interval between one threshold
and the next threshold can be defined
depending on the time constant of the
distribution bus and on the time to
open the contactor.
Simulation results demonstrate the
effectiveness of the fault detection
method and the coordination between
feeding power converters and mechani-
cal contactors for fault protection in a
multiterminal medium-voltage dc dis-
tribution system. A particular study system operates at a
rated voltage of 5 kV and a rated power of 40 MW and has
two power sources interfaced to the dc bus through con-
trollable power converters. As illustrated from the plot of
the current in Figure 7, fault currents can be very similar
to current dynamics due to different kinds of load connec-
tionsload step ( . ), t s 0 05 = a step of a constant power
load ( . ), t s 0 5 1 = a load connection with a capacitor
( . ), t s 0 22 = and a short-circuit fault ( . t s 0 3 = and
. ) . t s 0 5 = However, the equivalent resistance measured at
the terminals of the two feeding converters shows a clear
distinction between fault conditions and dynamics due to
normal operation.
When a fault happens ( . t s 0 3 = and . ), t s 0 5 = the con-
verters are briefly de-energized, the voltage collapses for a
short interval, and then the bus is re-energized as soon as
A new approach has
been proposed for
the protection and
rapid reconfiguration
of such systems,
capitalizing on
the inherent
controllability and
current-limiting
capabilities of
electronic power
converters.
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the faulted part of the system is isolat-
ed. By using the measurement of the
equivalent resistance at the terminals
of both power converters and segmen-
tizing contactors, we can distinguish
short-circuit faults so that the system
can be protected from damage. Above
all, the measurement of resistance
allows the contactors to discriminate
whether to open so that they can iso-
late the faulted section of the system.
The simulation results demon-
strate that the fault detection method
using time-to-trip curves as a func-
tion of apparent circuit resistance properly coordinates
the feeding power converters with the contactors and effi-
ciently protects the system against short-circuit faults. In
the example, the fault was detected and isolated within
1020 ms, and the distribution bus was re-energized with-
in 4060 ms. The coordination of converters and contac-
tors does not rely on communication; therefore, only local
information is needed. For systems with a short distribu-
tion bus and a high nominal current, the consequent low
resistance of the cable sections of the bus increases the
probability for the device to trip out of the desired range of
time. The same effect happens for a distribution bus with
sections of irregular length. This means that in certain
conditions, the contactors are not able to isolate the
smallest portion of the distribution bus after a fault and
one or more healthy sections of the system are discon-
nected. In these situations, this detection method can be
combined with differential current measurements that
can provide more accurate fault detection with the help of
communication between protection devices. In this way,
the resistance-time detection method can provide backup
protection in case of communication failure.
In conclusion, new fault protection strategies are
essential to the adoption of dc power distribution systems,
especially for electric ships. New approaches that capital-
ize on the current-limiting capabilities of electronic power
converters respond to this need and open the door to new
challenges and opportunities in power systems.
For Further Reading
N. Doerry, Transitioning technology to naval ships, Sci-
ence Technol. Found. Future Naval Fleets, Special
Rep. 306: Naval Engineering in the 21st Century, 2011.
M. E. Baran and N. R. Mahajan, DC distribution for indus-
trial systems: Opportunities and challenges, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Applicat., vol. 39, no. 6, Nov./Dec. 2003,
pp. 15961601.
J. G. Ciezki and R. W. Ashton, Selec-
tion and stability issues associated
with a navy shipboard DC zonal elec-
tric distribution system, IEEE Trans.
Power Deliv., vol. 15, no. 2, Apr. 2000,
pp. 665669.
H. Li, W. Li, M. Luo, A. Monti, and F.
Ponci, Design of smart MVDC power
grid protection, IEEE Trans. Instrum.
Measure., vol. 60, no. 9, Sept. 2011,
pp. 30353046.
P. Cairoli, I. Kondratiev, and R. A.
Dougal, Coordinated control of the bus tie switches and
power supply converters for fault protection in dc
microgrids, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 4,
Apr. 2013, pp. 20372047.
P. Cairoli, K. Lentijo, and R. A. Dougal, Coordination
between supply power converters and contactors for fault
protection in multi-terminal MVDC distribution systems,
in Proc. IEEE Electric Ship Technology Symp. (ESTS 2013),
Apr. 2224, 2013, Arlington, VA, pp. 493499.
Biographies
P. Cairoli (pietro.cairoli@gmail.com) earned his Dr.Eng. and
M.S. degrees in electrical engineering in 2010 from the
Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy. He earned his Ph.D.
degree in electrical engineering from the University of
South Carolina in 2013. He currently works in the Depart-
ment of Electrical Engineering at the University of South
Carolina in the Power and Energy Systems Group on dc
distribution system analysis and protection, simulation
models, power electronics, and embedded control for
power management and protection.
R.A. Dougal (dougal@cec.sc.edu) earned his Ph.D. degree
in electrical engineering from Texas Tech University, Lub-
bock, in 1983. He is currently the chair of the Electrical Engi-
neering Department at the University of South Carolina,
Columbia, where he also leads the Power and Energy Sys-
tems Group. He is a director of the Electric Ship R&D Con-
sortium, which is developing electric power technologies
for the next generation of electric ships, codirector of the
National Science Foundation Industry/University Coopera-
tive Research Center for Grid-Connected Advanced Power
Electronic Systems, and leads the development of the Virtu-
alTestBeda computational environment for simulation-
based design and virtual prototyping of dynamic,
multidisciplinary systems.
After a bus fault, a
converter can protect
the system by either
actively limiting the
fault current or by
turning off the
converter switches.
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________________
____________
HE U.S. TRANSPORTATION SECTOR
consumes approximately 14 million
barrels of petroleum every day,
which is more than the total oil con-
sumption of any other nation in the
world. The most prominent sustainable solution to
profoundly reduce both oil consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions lies in grid-enabled elec-
tric vehicles (EVs) These vehicles are propelled
either partially or fully by electricity through energy
storage systems such as electrochemical batteries,
which need to be charged from the grid.
One of the most important realities that will facili-
tate the adoption of grid-enabled plug-in EVs (PEVs) is
the method by which these vehicles will be charged
and if the nations electrical infrastructure can sustain
the charging requirements of PEVs without the
need for a comprehensive evolution. Since nearly
all residences and businesses in the United States
are already equipped with a 120-Vac mains con-
nection, and most with a 240-Vac connection,
most charging will be done through onboard level 1
(120 Vac/16 A/1.92 kW
Max
) and level 2 (240 Vac/
80A/19.2 kW
Max
) chargers when the vehicle is parked
either overnight at home or during the day at the
office. Even though onboard level 1 and level 2 charg-
ing would be the most prominent charging paradigm
By Haoyu Wang, Amin Hasanzadeh,
and Alireza Khaligh
Transportation
Electrification
Conductive charging of electrified vehicles.
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for the next generation of PEVs, there is a crucial need to
depl oy hi gh-power off-board l evel 3 ( 208
600 Vac/400 A/240 kW
Max
) chargers. This would not only
eliminate the range anxiety phenomenon among drivers
but also enable long trips of considerable distance without
substantial vehicle downtime, as level
3 chargers would serve a similar func-
tion for PEVs as gas stations do for con-
ventional internal combustion engine
(ICE) vehicles. This article focuses on
the conductive onboard and off-board
battery charging of PEVs.
Charging Levels and
Infrastructures
A diagram of a typical PEV energy
transfer system is shown in Figure 1. A
low-frequency transformer is used to
deliver ac power from the grid to the
neighborhood where the EV supply
equipment (EVSE) is installed. Typically, the
EVSE includes conductors; EV connectors;
attachment plugs; communication proto-
cols; and all other fittings, devices, and
power outlets and/or apparatuses. The EVSE
serves as the energy transfer interface
between the premises wirings and the
PEVs onboard or off-board battery chargers.
Depending on the power level and the
required charging facilities, the charging of
EVs and plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEVs), cumu-
latively called PEVs, can be classified into
three different levels. The corresponding
power supplies, charging power levels,
EVSE costs, all-electric mile ranges for 1 h
of charge, and charging times are summa-
rized in Table 1.
In the United States, level 1 charging is
adapted for a single-phase, 120-V/16-A, 60-Hz
grid outlet. A level 1 charger is easy to inte-
grate on board. The installation and EVSE
cost for level 1 charging is estimated to be
US$500800. The relatively low price makes
level 1 applicable to home charging. A major-
ity of the available EVs and PHEVs are
equipped with an onboard charger (OBC),
which is compatible with level 1 charging.
However, the low charging power increases
the charging time of the battery pack (up to
17 h) to charge a typical 25-kWh battery pack
from 20% state of charge (SoC) to full SoC.
Level 2 charging requires a single-phase
240-V power outlet, which is available in
most residential garages as well as public
facilities. Using the 6.6-kW OBC, it takes
3.5 h to charge a typical 25-kWh battery
pack from 20% SoC to full SoC. In comparison to level 1,
without compromising the convenience of accessibility,
the level 2 charging time is much less. The installation and
EVSE cost of level 2 charging is expected to be US$3,150
5,100. Although it is much higher than level 1 charging, it
is still affordable to consumers and
small businesses. Consequently, level
2 charging is expected to be the
dominant charging method for pri-
vate and public facilities. Since Feb-
ruary 2011, five charging stations
have been installed at the University
of Maryland, College Park. Each
charging station is equipped with
one 120-V port for level 1 charging
and one 240-V port for level 2 charg-
ing. All of these stations are free and
open to the public. Figure 2 shows a
Tesla Model S being charged at one
of these stations.
For high-power
onboard charging
applications, CCM is
preferable because
of its low peak
current and low
current ratings.
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Level 3 fast charging extends the charging power to a
much higher level (excess of 50 kW). Consequently, the
charging time is significantly reduced. The level 3 charging
stations are expected to charge a PEV battery pack to 80%
SoC in fewer than 30 min. One of the frontier EV manufac-
turers, Tesla Motors Inc., is aimed at fully charging its EVs in
5 min in the foreseeable future using its supercharging
stations. To implement level 3 fast charging, an off-board
charger is necessary to convert three-phase 208 V600-Vac
power to 200 V450-Vdc power, which fits the voltage range
of the battery pack. However, level 3 charging comes with
extremely high costs, which include the installation, infra-
structure, and maintenance costs. It should be noted that
the rapid charging of a battery pack can cause it to overheat
and potentially decrease the battery life. Moreover, drawing
ultrahigh power from the grid increases the demand from
the grid and might cause an overload of the local distribu-
tion facilities. Consequently, level 3 charging is mainly
intended for commercial and public charging stations.
Table 2 lists the charging characteristics and infrastruc-
tures of some of the commercially available PEVs on the
market as of December 2013. All listed PEVs are equipped
with OBCs compatible with level 1 and level 2 charging. All
PEVs, except for the Tesla Model S, use a universal charge
connector, which is defined by the standard SAE J1772.
Battery Charging Strategies
A Li-ion cell has a higher energy density than other bat-
tery chemistries such as lead acid cell, nickel cadmium
cell, and Ni-metal hydride cell. In PEVs, the energy densi-
ty and the weight of the battery are two of the most criti-
cal parameters that determine the electric range of the
vehicle. Consequently, the Li-ion cell has dominated the
market of commercially available PEVs. This can be
observed in Table 2, as all the listed PEVs are equipped
with an Li-ion battery pack. Although extended life cycles,
increased energy density, and a slight cost reduction have
been achieved with the evolution of battery technology,
the Li-ion battery pack is still the most expensive and
heaviest component of a PEV.
It is not only the battery chemistry that determines the
power level at which a cell can accept a charge but also
Electric
Utility
Power
System
Service Drop
Meter
Service
Equipment
Branch Circuit
Grid
Building
EV Energy Transfer System
ac Charge
Port
dc Charge
Port
ac Electrical Energy
dc Electrical Energy
OBC
Battery Pack with Battery
Managing System
Power Electronics and
Motor Controller
Electric Drive
Motor
EV
Transformer
Meter
EVSE
Figure 1. A diagram of an EV energy transfer system (modified from Young et al.).
TABLE 1. Charging power levels.
Charging
Level
Power Supply Power Limit
(kW)
Installation and
EVSE Cost
Typical Charging
Power (kW)
Range for 1 h of
Charge (mi)
Charging Time
EV PHEV
Level 1 120-Vac
single phase
1.92 US$500800 1.4 34 ~17 h ~7 h
Level 2 240-Vac
single phase
19.2 US$3,1505,100 3.3 (onboard) 810 ~7 h ~3 h
6.6 (onboard) 1720 ~3.5 h ~1.4 h
Level 3 Three-phase
208600
Vac or dc
240 US$30,000
16,000
>50
(off-board)
5060 3045
min
~10
min
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the method used to charge the battery. Various methods
can be adopted to safely charge Li-ion batteries. The meth-
od shown in Figure 3(a) is called constant current
constant voltage (CC-CV), which is adopted by a majority
of the onboard battery chargers. The rate at which a bat-
tery is discharged relative to its maximum capacity is
known as the C-rate. The basic idea behind this technique
is that the battery is charged with a constant current, typi-
cally rated at 0.51 C. When the battery voltage reaches its
cutoff voltage, its voltage is kept fixed and it is charged at
this constant voltage until the current draw decreases to
the end charging current, e.g., 0.02 C, which represents a
full charge. For a deeply depleted battery pack, the battery
voltage might go down to 1 V/cell. In this case, a precharge
stage is required to charge the battery voltage from 1 V/
cell to 2.5 V/cell. In the precharge stage, the charging cur-
rent is fixed at a constant rate (typically 0.1 C).
To increase the charge acceptance rate of the battery,
multistage CCCV (MCC-CV) has been proposed. The prin-
ciple is almost the same as CC-CV. However, instead of
providing the battery with one constant current level,
several current steps are applied up to the cutoff voltage
as shown in Figure 3(b).
In addition, a few other charging methods with less
impact on battery polarization and higher charge accep-
tance rates are being investigated. One approach
discharges the battery at specific time intervals during
charging to increase the charging acceptance. This
approach can be applied to both CC-CV and MCC-CV
techniques. A simplified example of the CC-CV method
with negative pulses is shown in Figure 4(a). Another
approach uses a variable pulse charge strategy. In this
approach, the optimal pulse charge frequency is continu-
ously varied to distribute ions in the electrolyte evenly.
Between pulses, a variable rest period is applied to neu-
tralize and diffuse the ions. This rest period is defined by a
maximum power point tracker to determine the maxi-
mum level of current acceptance for a given SoC in real
time. A typical waveform of the variable frequency associ-
ated with pulse charging is shown in Figure 4(b). Using
this method, the charge rate can be increased in compari-
son to conventional CC-CV and fixed-frequency pulse
charging methods.
Figure 2. A Tesla Model S being charged at the University of Mary-
land, College Park.
TABLE 2. The charging characteristics and infrastructures of some of the commercially available
PEVs.
Vehicle EV Type Price Battery OBC (kW) E-Range (mi) Connector Type Charging Time (h)
Level 1 Level 2
Nissan
Leaf
EV US$35,200 24-kWh
Li-ion
3.3 100 SAE J1772
JARI/TEPCO
22 8
BMW
ActiveE
EV Lease only 32-kWh
Li-ion
7.2 100 SAE J1772 810 45
Ford Focus EV US$39,200 23-kWh
Li-ion
6.6 76 SAE J1772 20 34
Mitsubishi I
EV US$29,125 16-kWh
Li-ion
3.3 62 SAE J1772
JARI/TEPCO
22.5 7
Honda Fit EV Lease only 20-kWh
Li-ion
3.3 76 SAE J1772 6 3
Toyota
Prius
PHEV US$32,000 4.4-kWh
Li-ion
3.3 15 SAE J1772 3 1.5
Chevy Volt PHEV US$39,145 16-kWh
Li-ion
3.3 35 SAE J1772 10 4
Cadillac
ELR
PHEV n/a 16.5-kWh
Li-ion
3.3 35 SAE J1772 n/a 4.5
Tesla
Model S
EV US$95,400 85-kWh
Li-ion
10 265 Mobile connec-
tor
34 14
Note: Specification data are based on public information and are subject to change.
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Isolated Onboard PEV Chargers
The typical power architecture of an OBC is shown in
Figure 5. Typically, an isolated OBC consists of two stages:
1) the first stage for ac/dc conversion and power factor
correction (PFC) and 2) the second stage for dc/dc conver-
sion and galvanic isolation.
The first-stage ac/dc PFC converter typically consists of
an electromagnetic interference (EMI) input filter, rectifier,
PFC converter, and dc link capacitor.
The PFC converter is controlled by a
high-frequency signal to regulate the
ac line current to follow the ac line
voltage and frequency. Ideally, the
ac/dc PFC stage should be equivalent
to a resistive load to eliminate the
total harmonic distortion (THD) and
maximize the power transfer.
Boost and its derivative topologies
are commonly used in the PFC stage.
This is because of their simple circuit
configurations, continuous input cur-
rent, and low THD. To be compatible
with universal grid voltages (85265 V,
4770 Hz), typically the output voltage of the boost-type PFC
stage is regulated at 390 V. There are three operation modes
for boost-type PFC converters: 1) continuous conduction
mode (CCM), 2) discontinuous conduction mode, and 3)
boundary conduction mode (BCM). For high-power onboard
charging applications, CCM is preferable because of its low
peak current and low current ratings.
Six commonly used boost-type PFC stages are shown in
Figure 6. Figure 6(a) shows the conventional single-phase
boost PFC converter, where a full-bridge diode rectifier is
followed by a boost converter. PFC is achieved by controlling
the duty cycle of the MOSFET to shape the inductor current
to be sinusoidal and in phase with the grid voltage. A sin-
gle-phase PFC performs well for level 1 charging. However,
for level 2 charging, the inductor
becomes bulky and the components
current stress becomes high. An inter-
leaved boost PFC converter is prefera-
ble in level 2 chargers. Figure 6(b)
provides the schematic of a two-phase
interleaved boost PFC converter, whose
interleaving legs are operated with 180
phase difference. The interleaved boost
PFC converter has less current stress in
each individual leg. With the ripple
cancellation effect, both the input cur-
rent ripple and output capacitor root
mean square current can be reduced.
The typical experimental waveforms of
an interleaved boost PFC stage design by the Power Elec-
tronics Energy Harvesting and Renewable Energies Labora-
tory (PEHREL) at the University of Maryland are
demonstrated in Figure 7. In comparison to the current rip-
ples in each individual inductor, the current ripple in the
input side is significantly reduced.
As an alternative, the diode bridge and boost converter
can be integrated into one stage. Figure 6(c) shows a bridge-
less boost PFC converter, where S
1
and S
2
are controlled
with the same gate signal. Figure 6(d)
is a bridgeless version of a two-phase
interleaved boost PFC converter. In
Figure 6(d), S
1
and S
2
are controlled
with one gate signal and S
3
and S
4
are
controlled with a second gate signal.
The two channels are shifted with a
180 phase difference. Using the
bridgeless structure, the input diode
bridge can be eliminated. Fewer semi-
conductor devices mean less power
I
t
I
t
(a) (b)
CC CV MCC CV
I
t
f
t
(a) (b)
CC CV
1 Grid
Input
Filter
ac/dc
PFC
Converter
Isolated
dc/dc
Converter
OBC
Onboard
Battery
Pack
Figure 3. The Li-ion battery charging techniques: (a) CC-CV and (b)
MCC-CV.
Figure 4. The advanced fast-charging techniques: (a) CC-CV with a
negative pulse and (b) variable frequency pulse charge (Khaligh and
Dusmez).
Figure 5. A block diagram of an isolated OBC.
Bidirectional power
flow between the
grid and the vehicle
has gained interest
from academia and
industry.
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loss and higher conversion efficiency.
However, the EMI is higher for bridge-
less boost PFC converters and, thus, a
bigger EMI filter is required.
Figure 6(e) shows a multilevel
boost PFC converter. Because of its
two-level structure, the voltage stress
on each MOSFET is reduced to half.
Multilevel configuration has advan-
tages such as high power quality,
reduced THD, and reduced EMI noise.
Moreover, its dc output voltage is
insensitive to load and supply distur-
bances. Figure 6(f) shows a bridgeless
interleaved resonant boost PFC con-
verter. This topology is proposed to
operate in BCM in level 2 onboard
charging applications. Diodes D
1
D
4
are operated with grid frequency.
Thus, no fast diodes are required.
However, it has disadvantages in
terms of additional high side drives
and a complicated control scheme.
Grid
D
1
D
5
D
6
D
2
D
3
D
4
S
1
C
dc
Load
L
2
L
1
S
2
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
Grid
Load
C
dc
L
1
L
2
Grid
D
1
D
2
D
2
D
4
L
1
L
2
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
C
dc
Load
Grid
D
1
D
3
D
2
D
4
L
1
Load
S
1
S
2
C
dc2
C
dc1
D
5
Grid
D
1
D
3
D
2
D
4
L
1
S
1
D
5
C
dc
Load
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
D
1
D
2
S
1
S
2
Grid
Load
C
dc
L
1
Figure 6. The unidirectional ac/dc PFC stages: (a) a single-phase boost PFC converter, (b) a two-phase interleaved boost PFC converter,
(c) a bridgeless boost PFC converter, (d) a bridgeless interleaved boost PFC converter, (e) a multilevel boost PFC converter, and (f) a bridgeless
interleaved resonant boost PFC converter.
v
dc
i
in
i
L1
i
L2
1
1
2
4
3
10.0 A 500 mV 100 mV 500 mV 1 2 3 4
Figure 7. The experimental waveforms of an interleaved boost PFC stage designed by PEHREL
at the University of Maryland. From top to bottom: v
dc
(50 V/div), i
in
(10 A/div), i
L1
(5 A/div), i
L2
(5 A/div); time 10 ms/div.
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A typical second-stage isolated dc/dc converter consists
of a switching network, a high-frequency transformer, a
rectifier, and a low-pass filter. For frequency-modulated
resonant converters, an additional resonant tank between
switching network and high frequency is required.
In high switching frequency appli-
cations, MOSFETs are preferred
because of their fast switching speed
and no tail current. In hard switching
topologies, higher switching frequen-
cies would lead to high stress and
high EMI noise. Thus, soft switching
techniques, which include zero volt-
age switching (ZVS) and zero current
switching (ZCS), are desired. For MOS-
FETs, ZVS is more suitable because
operation with ZVS eliminates both
body diode reverse recovery and
semiconductor output capacitances
from inducing switching loss in MOS-
FETs. Figure 8 provides the ZVS wave-
forms of power MOSFETs, wherein
the drain source voltage (v
ds
) decreas-
es to zero before the gate source volt-
age (v
gs
) begins to rise.
Six commonly used isolated ZVS
dc/dc topologies are summarized in Figure 9. Figure 9(a) is a
full-bridge phase shift ZVS converter. S
1
and S
2
are driven
by two complementary 50% duty cycle gate signals. S
3
and
S
4
are also driven by two complementary 50% duty cycle
gate signals. There is an adjustable phase difference
Tek PreVu
v
gs3
10 V/div
v
ds3
200 V/div
v
gs4
10 V/div
v
ds4
200 V/div
2
3
t :2 s/div
V
bat
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
L
r
L
o
C
o
n:1
D
3
D
1
D
4 D
2
V
dc
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
+
V
bat
V
bat
V
bat
V
bat
V
bat
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
S
1
S
3
S
8
S
6
S
5
S
7
S
2
S
4
S
1
S
1
S
1
S
3
S
3
S
3
S
2
S
2
S
2
S
4
S
4
S
4
L
r
L
r 1
L
o
L
r 1
L
r
L
r
L
m
L
r 2
C
r
C
r
L
r 2
C
o
C
o2
C
o2
C
o
C
o2
C
o1
C
o1
C
o1
n:1
n:1
n:1
n
2
:1
n
1
:1
n:1
n:1
D
3
D
3
D
1
D
1
D
4
D
4
D
2
D
2
V
dc
V
dc
V
dc
+
V
dc
V
dc
+
Dr
C
h
D
8
D
6
D
4
D
4
D
4
D
2
D
2
D
2
D
7
D
5
D
o
D
3
D
3
D
3
D
1
D
1
D
1
D
a
L
o
Figure 8. The experimental ZVS waveforms of a full-bridge inductor inductor capacitor (LLC)
stage designed by PEHREL at the University of Maryland. (Horizontal axistime: 2 s/div.)
Figure 9. The unidirectional isolated ZVS dc/dc converters in PEV battery charging applications: (a) a full-bridge phase-shift ZVS converter,
(b) a full-bridge trailing-edge ZVS converter, (c) a full-bridge ZVS converter with a capacitive output filter, (d) a full-bridge LLC resonant converter,
(e) a full-bridge interleaved ZVS converter with a voltage doubler, and (f) a full-bridge ZVS PWM resonant converter.
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between the gate signals of S
1
and S
2
and the gate signals
of S
3
and S
4
. By controlling this phase difference, the output
voltage can be regulated. The advantages lie in its pulse-
width modulation (PWM) operation and wide output volt-
age range. However, in light load conditions, two MOSFETs
in the lagging leg lose ZVS features. In addition, because of
high di/dt, there are reverse recovery losses in rectifier
diodes. Figure 9(b) is a full-bridge trailing-edge ZVS convert-
er, which is a derivative of the phase-shift ZVS converter.
The difference between a full-bridge trailing-edge ZVS con-
verter and a phase-shift ZVS converter mainly lies in the
switch pattern. S
2
and S
4
are driven by two complementary
50% duty cycle gate signals, whereas S
1
and S
3
are driven by
two 180 phase difference and adjustable duty cycle gate
signals. By controlling this duty cycle, the output voltage
can be regulated. The features of the full-bridge trailing-
edge ZVS converter are similar to those of the full-bridge
phase shifted ZVS converter. An additional clamp network
consisting of D
C
, R
C
, and C
C
is needed to clamp the voltage
ringing due to diode junction capacitance with the leakage
inductance of the transformer.
Figure 9(c) shows a full-bridge ZVS converter with a
capacitive output filter. The switching pattern is the same
as that of the trailing-edge ZVS converter. However, there
is no clamp network, and the output filter consists of a
capacitor. In this topology, two MOSFETs are always
turned on with ZVS and two MOSFETs are always turned
on with ZCS. The rectifier diodes are turned off with low
di/dt so that the reverse recovery losses can be minimized.
The disadvantage mainly lies in the MOSFETs high peak
currents. Figure 9(e) shows the interleaved version of
Figure 9(c), which offers benefits such as reduced current
ripple and reduced filter size. However, the number of gate
drivers, MOSFETs, and transformers are doubled, and the
control scheme is more complicated.
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
420 V
100 V
f
min
f
max
f
p
ZVS
Region 2
ZVS
Region 1
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.75
Normalized Frequency (f /f
p
)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

G
a
i
n

(
n
V
o
/
V
d
c
)
B
a
t
t
e
r
y
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
1.50
ZCS Region
V
bat
V
bat
V
bat
V
bat
V
bat
S
1
D
1
L
o
C
o
ac/dc
PFC
Converter
Grid
V
bat
S
1
D
1
L
o1
L
o2 C
o
Grid
S
2
D
2
Grid
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
5
S
1
L
1
C
o
D
4
Grid
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
S
1
L
1
C
1
C
o
L
2
Grid
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
L
1
L
2
S
1
C
1
C
o
Grid
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
D
5
S
1
L
1
C
o
D
6
S
2
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
+
+
+
+
+
ac/dc
PFC
Converter
+
Figure 10. The dc voltage characteristics of an LLC converter.

Figure 11. The unidirectional nonisolated PEV battery chargers: (a) a two-stage buck, (b) a two-stage interleaved buck, (c) a buckboost PFC,
(d) a noninverting buckboost PFC, (e) an SEPIC PFC, and (f) a Ck PFC.
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Figure 9(d) shows a full-bridge LLC (inductor inductor
capacitor) resonant converter. S
1
and S
4
and S
2
and S
3
are
turned on and off complementarily with a dead band. Thus,
the output of the full bridge is a square wave and is fed into
the resonant network. The output voltage is regulated by
controlling the switching frequency. In the case of an induc-
tive resonant network, the primary
MOSFETs would be turned on with
ZVS. Figure 10 provides the dc voltage
frequency characteristics of the LLC
converter. The benefits of the LLC
topology include: 1) short circuit pro-
tection, 2) good voltage regulation in
light load conditions, 3) the ability to
operate with a ZVS over wide load
ranges, and 4) no diode reverse recov-
ery losses in ZVS region 1. However,
because of its high circulating current
at maximum gain, it is difficult to opti-
mize the efficiency of the LLC convert-
er over an ultrawide voltage range (e.g.,
100420 V).
Figure 9(f) shows a full-bridge ZVS
PWM resonant converter. The switch-
ing pattern is the same as that of the
full-bridge phase shift ZVS converter. A half-bridge LLC
resonant circuit shares the lagging leg with a full-bridge
phase-shift converter, which makes sure the lagging leg
MOSFETs are turned on with ZVS across the full load
range. However, a secondary-side hybrid switching circuit
is required to clamp the voltage overshoots that arise dur-
ing the turn off of the rectifier diodes.
Nonisolated PEV Chargers
Although a two-stage structure with galvanic isolation has
been a common topology, with an additional safety mar-
gin, isolation is not a requirement for OBCs, according to
standards such as SAE J1772. Hence, researchers have
studied the applicability of nonisolated chargers for PEVs.
Six different types of nonisolated battery chargers are
summarized in Figure 11. Figure 11(a) shows a two-stage
nonisolated EV charger. An ac/dc PFC converter is used to
convert the universal grid input to a fixed dc link voltage,
which is higher than the maximum battery voltage. A buck
converter is also used to step down the dc link voltage. In
this case, both the CCM and BCM modes of operation are
considered. CCM has lower current stress on each compo-
nent, while BCM has smaller switching losses. In Figure
11(b), a two-phase interleaved noniso-
lated buck charger is demonstrated.
With this interleaving configuration,
output current ripples are mostly com-
pensated as they cancel each other
out. In addition, the current stress on
each leg is reduced to half so that a
higher power level can be achieved.
Instead of two-stage configura-
tions, the PFC and dc/dc stages are
integrated into one single stage. The
single-stage PFC chargers have
reduced power losses, but they have
low-frequency (twice the grid fre-
quency) ripples in the output. The
single-stage topologies must be
adaptable to the universal grid (85
265 V, 4770 Hz) from the input, and
wide battery voltage (100420 V) from
the output. Thus, the selected topology should be able to
both step up and step down the input voltage. Figure 11(c)
is a buckboost PFC converter, which has buck and boost
capabilities and a minimum number of components.
However, its disadvantages lie in four aspects: 1) high side
drive is required; 2) the MOSFET has high voltage stress
(V
in
+ V
out
), which means 1,200-V rating MOSFETs are
required; 3) the ground polarity is reversed on the output
side; and 4) the input current is discontinuous, which
means a bulky EMI filter is required. Figure 11(d) is a non-
inverting buckboost PFC converter. Compared to a con-
ventional inverting buckboost PFC converter, there are
two improvements: 1) voltage stresses on MOSFETs are
reduced and 2) the input ground polarity is the same as
that of the output side.
Figure 11(e) and (f) demonstrates single-ended primary-
inductor converter (SEPIC) PFC and Ck PFC converters,
C
1
S
1
S
2
Grid
Load
C
dc
L
1
C
2
(a)
S
3
Grid
Load
C
dc
L
1
S
1
S
4
S
2
(b)
Figure 12. The bidirectional ac/dc PFC stages: (a) a half-bridge bidirectional boost PFC and (b) a full-bridge bidirectional boost PFC.
The resonant
converters are the
preferred topologies
for the second stage
of onboard and
off-board chargers
because of their
improved
efficiencies.
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respectively. Compared to Figure 11(c) and (d), their input
currents are both continuous, meaning the size of the EMI
filter can be reduced. The SEPIC PFC converter is not invert-
ing. However, the MOSFET has high
voltage stress (V
in
+ V
out
), and 1,200-V
MOSFETs are required. The Ck PFC
converter puts less voltage stress on
the switching MOSFET, but its ground
polarity in the output is reversed.
Bidirectional PEV Chargers
Currently, all commercialized OBCs
have a unidirectional power flow
from the grid to the vehicle. However,
since most vehicles are parked an
average of 95% of the time, it is fore-
seeable that batteries could be used
to let power flow from the vehicle to
the grid. In this emerging vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology,
OBCs are required to have bidirectional power flow capa-
bility. When the vehicle is in idle mode, the battery can
feed power back to the grid.
A typical bidirectional PEV charger consists of two
stages. The first stage is a bidirectional ac/dc PFC convert-
er, and the second stage is a bidirectional dc/dc converter.
Figure 12(a) shows a single-phase half-bridge bidirec-
tional ac/dc PFC converter, while Figure 12(b) shows a sin-
gle-phase, full-bridge bidirectional ac/dc PFC converter.
Although half-bridge topology uses only two MOSFETs to
achieve voltage doubling, it requires semiconductor devic-
es with higher voltage ratings. The full-bridge topology
can alleviate capacitor imbalances, but it comes with a
higher number of semiconductor devices, increasing the
cost and complexity of the control.
The bidirectional dc/dc stage could be either
nonisolated or isolated. Figure 13(a) shows a nonisolated
bidirectional buck converter. During energy transfer from
the grid to the battery, S
2
is off and
S
1
operates as the main switch. The
circuit functions as a buck convert-
er. When the energy is transferred
from the battery to the grid, S
1
is off
and S
2
operates as the main switch.
The circuit functions as a boost con-
verter. Figure 13(b) shows the two-
phase interleaved version of Figure
13(a). With this interleaving configu-
ration, output current ripple is
reduced and a higher power level
can be achieved.
Figure 13(c) shows a bidirectional
dual active-bridge LLC converter,
which is a derivative of the full-bridge LLC resonant con-
verter [see Figure 9(d)]. When the energy is transferred
from the grid to the battery, the active bridge on the
V
bat
S
1
S
2
S
4
S
3 S
5
S
6
S
8
S
7
L
r
L
m
C
r
n:1
C
o
L
lk
S
1
S
3
S
4
S
2
L
r 1
L
r 2
C
r 1
C
r 2
n:1
C
o
V
dc
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
8
V
bat
V
dc
S
1
S
2
L
o
C
o
V
dc
V
bat
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
L
o1
L
o2
C
o
V
dc
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
+
V
bat
+
Figure 13. The bidirectional dc/dc converters in PEV battery charging applications: (a) a nonisolated bidirectional buck converter, (b) the two-phase
interleaved version of (a), (c) a bidirectional dual active-bridge LLC converter, and (d) a bidirectional dual active-bridge CLLC converter.
TABLE 3. The U.S. DOEs technical targets for
OBCs.
3.3-kW Charger
Year Cost Size (L) Weight
(kg)
Efficiency
(%)
2010 US$900
1,000
69 912 9092
2015 US$600 4 4 93
2022 US$330 3.5 3.5 94
The EVSE serves as
the energy transfer
interface between
the premises wirings
and the PEVs onboard
or off-board
battery chargers.
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secondary side of transformer functions as a full-bridge
rectifier. When the energy is transferred from the battery
to the grid, the secondary-side active bridge functions as
an inverter and the primary-side active bridge functions
as a rectifier. Figure 13(d) shows a
bidirectional dual active-bridge
capacitor inductor inductor capaci-
tor (CLLC) converter. In this topology,
there are two identical inductor
capacitor (LC) networks on both the
primary and secondary side.
Bidirectional power flow between
the grid and the vehicle has gained
interest from academia and industry.
However, it has not been implement-
ed in any commercial PEV on the mar-
ket. The challenges mainly lie in four aspects: 1) the
additional cost of power electronics, 2) the possible chance of
battery degradation due to frequent cycling (which might not
be the case in some battery chemistries as a few manufac-
turers believe that slow discharge of the battery when it is
fully charged would not cause degradation), 3) the require-
ment for metering from the utility company, and 4) the lack
of precise policies and standards as of December 2013.
Goals and Challenges
The U.S. Department of Energys (DOEs) technical targets
for 3.3-kW level 2 OBCs are summarized in Table 3. To
design an ultracompact and highly efficient OBC, the fol-
lowing considerations must be taken into account: 1) a
high switching frequency is desired to reduce the volume
and weight, 2) both step-down and step-up operations
should be realized to satisfy the wide output voltage range
requirements, 3) the ZVS feature is desired to reduce the
switching losses and high-frequency EMI, and
4) the conversion efficiency must be
optimized across the full battery
voltage ranges and different load
conditions.
However, it is a challenging task to
satisfy all of the above-mentioned con-
siderations simultaneously. Higher
switching frequency is associated with
smaller voltsecond applied to the
magnetic component; consequently,
the flux variation is smaller and, hence,
the corresponding core losses are reduced. However, the core
loss and the switching loss increase with the increase in fre-
quency. With higher switching frequency, the conversion effi-
ciency could potentially degrade.
Another challenge comes from the
wide range of voltage variation of
the battery pack. Corresponding to the
depleted and full SoC, the voltage of the
battery pack varies from the cutoff volt-
age to the charge voltage (e.g., 100420 V).
This means that the dc/dc conversion
stage must be able to adapt to this wide
voltage range. The PWM topologies have
the advantage of easy regulation of the
output voltage in a wide range. Howev-
er, they also have the disadvantage of
an incomplete ZVS range. Frequency modulation resonant
topologies have a full ZVS range. However, using currently
known topologies, the efficiency of resonant topologies can
only be optimized over a limited range of output voltage. To
overcome these challenges and develop an ultracompact,
highly efficient onboard charging system, the following
components and technologies need to be addressed:
1) Advanced magnetics material: The size of the
magnetic component is constrained by the core loss
associated with high switching frequency. To solve
this problem, a more advanced magnetics material
with smaller core losses in higher switching frequen-
cies must be adopted.
2) Advanced packaging technique: The packaging is
directly relevant to the size of the onboard charging
system. Advances in the packaging technology
improve the space utilization and heat dissipation.
3) Advanced cooling technique: Heat sinks take a large
volume of the charger. The size of the heat sink is
directly determined by the cooling
method. Generally, active cooling
is better than passive cooling. Liq-
uid cooling is preferred in the case
of conventional silicon-based
power electronic interfaces.
4) Advanced switching power devic-
es: Power losses from switching
power devices such as MOSFETs
and diodes take a large portion of
3 Grid
Input
Filter
ac/dc
Converter
dc/dc
Converter
Off-Board Level-3 Charger
Onboard
Battery
Pack
Figure 14. A block diagram of an off-board level-3 charger.
TABLE 4. The power levels for dc direct charging.
Type of Charge Charger Power Level (kW)
Heavy Duty SUV/Sedan Small Sedan
Fast charge, 10 min, 100% SoC 500 250 125
Rapid charge, 15 min, 60% SoC 250 125 60
Quick charge, 60 min, 70% SoC 75 35 20
PHEV, 30 min 40 20 10
The Li-ion cell
has dominated
the market of
commercially
available PEVs.
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the total system losses. Advanced power devices,
including wide-band-gap silicon carbide and gallium
nitride semiconductor devices with low on resistanc-
es, high voltage ratings, faster switching speeds, and
high operating temperatures, help reduce the power
losses and the thermal stress.
5) Advanced converter topologies and control methods:
The converter topology determines the circuit perfor-
mances such as the ZVS feature, EMI, circulating cur-
rent, conduction losses, and switching losses. An
optimized circuit topology and
control method would help opti-
mize the overall circuit perfor-
mance over the wide battery SoC
range.
Off-Board Charging
Level 3 charging, known as dc fast
charging, requires an off-board
charger, which is less constrained by
size. Fast charge, rapid charge, and
quick charge are a few of the
commonly used terms for off-board,
as shown in Table 4. The high power
level and high cost of off-board
charging make it unfeasible for residential areas. Level 3
charging is not compatible with commercial and residen-
tial outlets and, consequently, requires the installment of
new charging infrastructure. Nonetheless, it is attractive
for commercial and public applications such as shopping
centers, parking lots, hotels, highway rest areas, and
ordinary filling stations.
As shown in Figure 14, a level 3 charger is typically fed
through a 208600-Vac three-phase circuit. This system con-
sists of an ac/dc stage and a dc/dc stage. Because of the high
current/power requirements, the off-board charging puts
power quality burdens on electric utility distribution sys-
tems. These burdens can include voltage deviations, har-
monic distortion, peak demand, and thermal loading on
distribution power systems. In particular, the harmonic and
dc injection can particularly increase distribution transform-
er losses resulting in thermal loading, which impacts trans-
former aging accordingly. Although a charging system
equipped with an active front-end rectifier (in the ac/dc
stage) can mitigate this problem, it increases the cost of the
charging station substantially. Alternatively, the degradation
of distribution equipment can be reduced by employing a
smart charging strategy. The allowable harmonic and dc
injection into the grid are limited by IEEE 1547, SAE-J2894
IEC1000-3-2, and the U.S. National Electric Code (NEC) 690
standards.
Different topologies are reported for three-phase off-
board chargers. Since the level 3 battery charger is typical-
ly supplied by 480-V three-phase
voltage, the grid voltage would be
higher than the battery voltage. As
mentioned earlier, an active PFC recti-
fier is required to alleviate grid power
quality issues. Hence, a three-phase
boost converter followed by a dc/dc
converter is required to charge the
battery. Additionally, as mentioned in
the Isolated Onboard PEV Chargers
section, the galvanic isolation is
important in the charger circuits for
safety reasons. Even though PEV
charging standards do not mandate
galvanic isolation as long as the
ground current is maintained within limited boundaries, if
the battery is attached to the vehicles chassis, galvanic
isolation is mandatory for safety reasons. Therefore, to
avoid costly and complex shielding considerations for a
nonisolated dc/dc converter, an isolated dc/dc converter is
preferred. Similar to OBCs, as shown in Figure 9, the reso-
nant converters are the preferred topologies for the sec-
ond conversion stage of off-board charging because of
their improved efficiencies.
The three-phase six-switch boost and Vienna convert-
ers are the most suitable topologies for level 3 charger
applications. Figure 15(a) shows the schematic of a com-
mon three-phase boost-type voltagesource converter
(VSC) followed by a resonant dc/dc converter. The VSC has
a relatively simple structure, despite its high functionality,
that includes six semiconductor switches, three input
inductors, and one output filter capacitor to provide input
PFC and output voltage regulation simultaneously. In this
V
bat
Grid
C
dc
L
1
L
2
L
3
L
1
L
2
L
3
S
1
S
3
S
4
S
5
S
6
S
2
V
bat
Grid
S
1 S
2
S
3
dc/dc
Converter
dc/dc
Converter
(a) (b)
+
C
dc2
C
dc1
Figure 15. Level 3 chargers using (a) a six-switch boost rectifier and (b) a Vienna rectifier.
Charging
convenience and
charging time are
two of the most
important concerns
from the consumer
perspective.
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boost converter, the voltage shape in each phase is inde-
pendent of the current as the current flows over the
switch (insulated-gate bipolar transistor here) or its anti-
parallel diode. At the midpoint of each semiconductor leg
with respect to the midpoint across the output capacitor, a
positive or a negative voltage may be produced. Therefore,
because of the two-level behavior of each semiconductor
leg, the phase of sinusoidal currents can be simply con-
trolled. In fact, the current can be controlled to be in phase
with grid voltage for grid-to-vehicle operation or anti-
phase with grid voltage for V2G operation. Hence, this con-
figuration offers bidirectional operation.
The circuit in Figure 15(b) is a Vienna rectifier, which
contains only three active switches. The switching of
semiconductors is independent of the direction of phase
currents. The major advantage of the three-level
characteristic is that switches can be rated for only half of
the peak value of the line-to-line voltage. Furthermore,
because of the three voltage levels, a smaller grid current
fundamental ripple is generated, and the value of the
input boost inductances can be reduced. In addition,
because of lower switching voltages, a lower conducted
EMI noise is generated.
Conclusions
Although a great vision has been plotted for transporta-
tion electrification, there are several critical hurdles that
EVs must stride. Among these, charging convenience and
charging time are two of the most important concerns
from the consumer perspective. Good power quality, com-
pact size, and high conversion efficiency are three of the
most important features desired from onboard level 1 and
level 2 PEV chargers. To ensure good power quality, the ac/
dc stage must be featured with good PFC and THD reduc-
tion performances. Higher switching frequency, ZVS, and
advanced packaging techniques are necessary to achieve
smaller charger size. To achieve high converter efficiency,
advanced magnetics materials, power semiconductors,
and power electronic topologies must to be addressed. In
particular, the advanced control method must be imple-
mented to optimize the conversion efficiency across the
full SoC range. Level 3 charging is able to reach a much
higher power level and is regarded as an important alter-
native to level 1 and level 2 onboard charging. It is essen-
tial to alleviating range anxiety issues as it allows for
long-distance travel similar to conventional ICE-powered
vehicles. However, it requires an off-board charging station
and is mainly intended for commercial and public
charging stations.
Acknowledgment
This work has been sponsored partly by the National
Science Foundation Grant 1238985 and the Maryland
Industrial Partnerships Program, which are gratefully
acknowledged.
For Further Reading
K. S. K. Young, C. Wang, and L. Y. Wang, Electric vehicle
battery technologies, in Electric Vehicle Integration into
Modern Power Networks. Berlin: Springer, 2013, pp. 1556.
A. Khaligh and S. Dusmez, Comprehensive topological
analysis of conductive and inductive charging solutions
for plug-in electric vehicles, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol.,
vol. 61, no. 8, pp. 34753489, Oct. 2012.
M. Yilmaz and P. Krein, Review of battery charger
topologies, charging power levels and infrastructure for
plug-in electric and hybrid vehicles, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 21522169, May 2013.
C.-Y. Oh, D.-H. Kim, D.-G. Woo, W.-Y. Sung, Y.-S. Kim, and
B.-K. Lee, A high-efficient nonisolated single-stage on-
board battery charger for electric vehicles, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 57465757, Dec. 2013.
S. Dusmez, A. Cook, and A. Khaligh, Comprehensive
analysis of high quality power converters for level 3 off-
board chargers, in Proc. IEEE Vehicle Power and Propul-
sion Conf., 2011, pp. 110.
C. Botsford and A. Szczepanek, Fast charging vs. slow
charging: Pros and cons for the new age of electric vehi-
cles, in Proc. Int. Battery, Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Symp. and
Expo. (EVS24), Stavanger, Norway, May 2009, pp. 19.
SAE Standard for Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge
Coupler, SAE Standard 17722009. [Online]. Available:
http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/stakeholders/
infrastructure/finalsaej1772.doc
IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources
with Electric Power Systems, IEEE Standard 15472003, 2003.
SAE Standard for Power Quality Requirements for Plug-In
Electric Vehicle Chargers, SAE Standard J28942011, 2011.
IEC Standard for Line Current Harmonic Measure-
ments, IEEE Standard 1000-3-2, 1995.
NEC Standard for Compliance for Photovoltaic Systems,
U.S. National Electric Code (NEC) Standard 690.
Biographies
Haoyu Wang is a Ph.D. candidate at the Power Electronic,
Energy Harvesting and Renewable Energies Laboratory at
the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department in the
University of Maryland. He is a Student Member of the IEEE.
Amin Hasanzadeh is a postdoctoral research associate
at the Power Electronic, Energy Harvesting and Renewable
Energies Laboratory at the Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering Department in the University of Maryland. He is a
Member of the IEEE.
Alireza Khaligh (khaligh@ece.umd.edu) is an assistant
professor and the director of the Power Electronic, Energy
Harvesting and Renewable Energies Laboratory at
the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
in the University of Maryland. He is a Senior Member of
the IEEE.
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_______________
_____________________
HE EFFICIENCY OF ANY ELECTRIC VEHICLE (EV) IS LIMITED BY THE EFFI-
ciency of its power electronic motor drive. Currently, EVs use conventional
silicon (Si) insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) or Si metaloxidesemi-
conductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) technologies. Si technology pre-
vents traction motor drives from exceeding the low switching frequencies
(tens of kilohertz) due to excessive switching losses. This is important as the size of pas-
sive components (and thus cost) is inversely related to the switching frequency.
Recent advancements in semiconductor technologies have brought the utilization of wide-
bandgap semiconductor technologies for applications in electrified transportation within reach.
Gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC) technologies have lower switching losses and
lower on-resistance than conventional Si devices. This will allow engineers to increase the
switching frequency while simultaneously improving efficiency in motor drives. This makes
SEMICONDUCTOR COURTESY OF WIKIMEDIA COMMONS/EPROMs NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTOR
Wide-Bandgap
Semiconductor Technology
Its impact on the electrification
of the transportation industry.
By Pourya Shamsi, Matthew McDonough,
and Babak Fahimi
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wide-bandgap devices an attractive replacement for trac-
tion motor drives.
Economics/Manufacturing
Currently, economic concerns are the main roadblock in
the integration of wide-bandgap technologies in automo-
tive motor drives. SiC technology is not compatible with
conventional fabrication equipment in semiconductor
production companies. Hence, to compensate for install-
ing the new equipment, these switches carry a high price
tag. The production processes for epitaxial-ready GaN sub-
strates with low defects are less mature than those for
SiC. Therefore, the heteroepitaxy approach is common for
commercial GaN switches. GaN-on-Si switches can be
manufactured using the existing fabrication equipment.
The recent introduction of low-cost GaN-on-Si switches
resulted in a leap in integrating wide-bandgap technolo-
gies for commercial products.
SiC technology provides a straightforward replacement
for conventional Si switches in automotive motor drives
with SiC junction gate field-effect transistors (JFETs) and
enhancement-mode MOSFETs. This is not the case for
GaN technology. These switches were developed as high
electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). The HEMT structure
was first described in 1975 by Mimura et al., who present-
ed high electron mobility near the interface between an
aluminum GaN (AlGaN) and GaN heterostructure interface.
GaN HEMTs are normally on transistors. To provide a
replacement for enhancement-mode MOSFETs, these
switches are cascaded with an Si MOSFET. This topology,
which is known as cascode, enables the switch to benefit
from the normally off characteristics of the Si MOSFET as
well as the high switching performances of the
higher-voltage GaN HEMT. However,
the result of the cascode configura-
tion demonstrates inferior character-
istics both in efficiency and switching
times as compared to GaN HEMT.
Recently, the development of
enhanced-mode GaN (e-GaN) FETs
revolutionized applications of GaN
technology in dcdc power convert-
ers. These switches provide high per-
formance while simply replacing
conventional normally off Si switch-
es. If these e-GaNs are scaled up in
power, they will be attractive alterna-
tives for traction motor drives.
Gate Drivers
Another additional cost that must be
considered to migrate to wide-
bandgap technologies in automotive
motor drives is the cost associated
with replacing the gate driver circuits.
For commercially available SiC MOS-
FETs, the recommended on-voltage is 20 V, which is higher
than that for the Si technology. Conventional gate driver
auxiliary power supplies must be redesigned, and new gate
drivers with higher voltage (and thus peak current) toler-
ances must be used. Gate drivers that fit these require-
ments exist; however, they are more expensive than
conventional Si gate drivers.
e-GaN switches require 5 V for optimal operations of the
switch. To benefit from the fast switching times of this tech-
nology, fast gate drivers are required. Because of the fast
switching times of GaN switches (i.e., <10 ns), conventional
low-speed optocoupler-based gate drivers cannot provide
sufficient charge and discharge slew rates for maximum
e-GaN speed utilization. Moreover, because of the low
threshold voltage of these switches, a robust gate driver is
required to prevent any mistrigger due to common-mode
noise and electromagnetic interferences. For these reasons,
GaN-based converters must also use specialized gate driv-
ers at potentially greater cost than their Si counterparts.
To demonstrate the challenges regarding the gate driver
of wide-bandgap technologies, a test scenario using SiC
MOSFETs is demonstrated in Figure 1. In this scenario, the
gate driver is not capable of charging the gate capacitor
with an acceptable slew rate. This is due to the large inter-
nal impedance of the gate driver at high frequencies. This
impedance has resulted in the gate voltage sag due to the
voltage variations of the drain. The capacitive current of C
gd
in combination with the voltage spike over the source stray
inductance has resulted in momentary voltage sag of the
gate. This process introduces increased switching losses
over the switch. It should be noted that the same gate driv-
er is capable of handling conventional low-speed Si-IGBTs.
This experiment verifies that high-performance gate
Gate Voltage Drain Voltage
T
T
4
1
2.50 V 1 50.0 V 4 800 mV 1
40.0 ns 2.50 GS/s
10 k Points
129.200 ns
T
Tek Stop
Figure 1. The measured signals from a low-speed gate driver for SiC MOSFETs.
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drivers are mandatory for the full utilization of wide-band-
gap technologies.
Voltage Limitations
In low-voltage applications, GaN-on-Si provides good effi-
ciency and switching characteristics at a reasonable cost.
However, these switches are not commercially available at
higher voltage levels (currently, 650 V is the maximum).
On the other hand, SiC MOSFETs are available in medium-
voltage levels (1,200+ V).
Efficiency
A highly efficient motor drive system will obviously create
a highly efficient product, but it also reduces the price of
the electric vehicle as well by relaxing the battery storage
requirements and thermal design requirements.
GaN-on-SiC technologies demonstrate superior figures
for efficiency and maximum switching frequency among
the available technologies. However, these switches are
not cost effective for automotive motor drive applications
as they are more expensive to manufacture than both SiC
and GaN-on-Si.
SiC and GaN-on-Si switches benefit from low conduction
resistance R
ds(on)
as well as lower capacitive charges. Since
wide-bandgap technologies have high critical fields, GaN and
SiC switches can handle higher voltages than conventional
Si for the same dimensions. By reducing the thickness of
these transistors, much better R
ds(on)
characteristics are
achieved as compared to Si. To define a figure of merit for
comparison of various switch generations, QR:= R
ds(on)
Q
GD
has been introduced. QR is constant for different generations
of each switch technology. In essence, this number demon-
strates the efficiency of a switch technology by eliminating
the size of the die. If the number of paralleled MOSFETs in a
package is increased, R
ds(on)
is improved but the required
gate charge is increased. Although Si technology is reaching
its limits based on QR, the young wide-bandgap technologies
demonstrate much better figures. Based on the QR figures of
GaN switches, this technology can reach a conversion ratio of
50:1, which is far superior to the Si ratio. It should be noted
that in soft-switching applications, Q
GS
can provide more
accurate results. The comparison between on-resistance and
the breakdown voltage of different technologies are shown
in Figure 2.
Thermal Response
In addition to improved thermal requirements due to
efficiency improvements, generally, wide-bandgap technol-
ogies demonstrate a much lower intrinsic carrier concen-
tration compared to Si at temperatures above 300 C. If
operation under harsh thermal conditions is of interest, SiC
JFETs are good candidates. These switches are capable of
operating at temperatures twice as high as the thermal lim-
its of Si technology. Unfortunately, because of the intrinsic
characteristics of their oxide interface, SiC- MOSFETs are not
capable of operating at temperatures higher than that of Si.
The thermal conductance of SiC is superior to the other
technologies. These factors all serve to further relax the
package design and thermal requirements.
Scalability/Internal Diode
Since automotive motor drives require high currents, the
power switches must be multiplexed. Conventional Si
power MOSFETs are designed in a vertical structure to max-
imize the utilization of the volume of the die and simplify
the internal wiring structure. This structure is shown in
Figure 3(a). A vertical structure enables paralleling a large
number of switches on a single substrate. Meshing has
been a common practice in maximizing the utilization of
the die. Currently, SiC power MOSFETs are being delivered
in this structure. A drawback to this structure is the forma-
tion of the parasitic body diode. This diode is of low quality
and imposes reverse recovery losses to the operation of the
SiC MOSFET. Hence, methods to eliminate forward conduc-
tion for this diode are of interest. To increase the switching
performances, a lateral structure has been used.
Currently, the GaN switches are offered in a lateral
structure. This structure is demonstrated in Figure 3(b),
where the dotted line represents the electron gas forma-
tion as the result of the AlGaN layer. The lateral structure
reduces the gate-drain parasitic capacitances, which
results in faster switching times. A high gate-source to
gate-drain capacitance ratio provides better performances
in high-frequency applications. Unfortunately, this struc-
ture also introduces challenges in motor drive applica-
tions. Lateral switches cannot be paralleled in a mesh
structure such as conventional vertical Si MOSFET and
IGBT switches. Also, in high-voltage applications, large
electric fields must be sustained across the surface of the
switch, which imposes technical challenges for manufac-
turing high-voltage GaN devices.
On the other hand, the lateral structure of GaN switches
eliminates the formation of a body diode. Hence, no
reverse recovery charges are detected in switching from
Breakdown Voltage (V)
R
o
n

(

m
m
2
)
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
S
i

L
i
m
i
t
S
i
C

L
i
m
i
t
G
a
N

L
i
m
i
t
Figure 2. The on-resistance versus blocking voltage of different tech-
nologies.
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reverse conduction. The reverse conduction process in
these switches starts when the gate-drain reaches its
threshold voltage. To maintain the reverse conduction, a
voltage drop equivalent to the threshold voltage is
required. Therefore, the reverse conduction efficiency is
poor. This can be solved by actively controlling the switch
for reverse conduction. This process is illustrated in
Figure 4. In this test, the upper GaN FET in a bidirectional
dcdc converter is turned off. The current of the output
inductor forces the lower switch to maintain the current.
Therefore, the drain voltage of the lower switch is dropped
below zero to reach a gate-drain threshold voltage. Hence,
the e-GaN switch is reverse conducting with a voltage drop
of 2 V. To improve the efficiency of the converter, following
by a dead time, the lower switch is turned on. Hence, the
switch is conducting in the reverse direction with a near-
zero drainsource voltage drop. This process is a common
practice to increase the efficiency of dcdc converters and
can be applied to motor drives as well.
Although no commercial GaN Schottky barrier diode
(SBD) is available, research in this field is in progress. SiC
SBDs have been used in switching applications for the
past decade. These diodes bring the superior performanc-
es of SBDs to higher voltage levels.
Packaging
For the transportation industry to fully benefit from the fast
switching times provided by the wide-bandgap
technologies, new types of transistor packages are of para-
mount importance. Conventional packages are not
designed to minimize the parasitic inductance and resis-
tances associated with the lead wires. Therefore, the para-
sitic impedances of many conventional packages [such as
transistor outline (TO) packages] can result in voltage spikes
over the junction during switching periods. Although some
commercially available SiC MOSFETs are using convention-
al TO packages, the majority of GaN-on-Si switches have
been introduced with new packages. These switches are
mostly flip-chip. In this structure, the Si layer is isolated and
can be directly connected to the heat-sink for improved
thermal performances. Land grid array (LGA) packages
minimize the stray inductances for lateral GaN FETs. These
packages are optimized for surface mount applications.
Although LGA introduces low stray inductances in low-
voltage power converters, further improvements for deliv-
ering the minimum required clearance between the drain
and source in higher-voltage applications such as automo-
tive motor drives is demanded.
On the other hand, in a high-power traction drive sys-
tem, semiconductor modules are of interest. This is due to
the large currents required for driving the motors, which
cannot be passed through a printed circuit board. Introduc-
ing conventional semiconductor module packages to the
wide-bandgap technologies will significantly reduce their
performance. The added stray inductances will not only
introduce large voltage overshoot over the junction during
the switching periods but also reduce the switching times
due to the added common source impedances. These chal-
lenges must be addressed before these technologies are
really beneficial to high-power motor drive applications.
To study the performance of wide-bandgap semicon-
ductors in automotive applications, three switched
reluctance machine drives using Si, SiC, and GaN-on-Si
technologies have been developed, which are shown in
Figure 5. This setup includes two 5-kW water-cooled con-
verters using 1,200-V Si and SiC switches as well as a
2-kW water-cooled drive using 200-V GaN e-FETs. Accu-
rate coolant temperature measurements provide an
estimation of the power loss over the semiconductor
switches. The GaN-based converter delivers the highest
efficiency. This is expected, due to the lower breakdown
voltage of the GaN switches, but the Si and SiC-based con-
verters have comparable ratings. The SiC-based converter
has three times lower power losses in compared to the
Si-based converter.
Conclusion
It appears that replacing Si technology with SiC or GaN
will create a less expensive power electronic system,
even though the cost of the switches is higher. This is
Drain
n+ SiC Substrate
n
p
Source SiO
2
n+
Source
Gate
p
n+
(a)
Transition Layer
AlGaN
Source
Drain
Silicon Substrate
GaN
GaN Gate
SiO
2
(b)
Figure 3. The different structures for semiconductor switches: (a) vertical and (b) lateral.
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due to smaller passive elements required due to boosting
the switching frequency and/or relaxed thermal
requirements due to increases in efficiency and
improved thermal conductivity of the switches them-
selves. In a cost-sensitive environment such as the trans-
portation industry, this can be a game changer; however,
manufacturing and packaging concerns must be
addressed before widespread utilization is realized. More
long-term reliability data will also have to be present
before the industry accepts these new technologies.
For Further Reading
Gallium nitride (GaN) versus silicon carbide (SiC) in the
high frequency (RF) and power switching applications,
Application Notes, Microsemis Power Products Group.
Is it the end of the road for silicon in power conver-
sion?, Application Notes, Efficient Power Conversion Co.,
2011.
T. Funaki, J. C. Balda, J. Junghans, A. S. Kashyap, H. A.
Mantooth, F. Barlow, T. Kimoto, and T. Hikihara, Power
conversion with SiC devices at extremely high ambient
temperatures, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 4,
pp. 1321, 1329, July 2007.
Biographies
Pourya Shamsi (shamsip@mst.edu) is currently with the Mis-
souri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri.
Matthew McDonough (mkm103020@utdallas.edu) is a
Ph.D. student in electrical engineering at the University of
Texas at Dallas.
Babak Fahimi (fahimi@utdallas.edu) is a professor of
electrical engineering at the University of Texas at Dallas.
SiC Switches
Si Switches
ZigBee Monitoring
GaN Switches
Controller
Pump,
Flow Meter,
and Radiator
Tek Stop
A Voltage Drop of
2 V Is Measured
124 ns 2.08 V
T
T
T
4
2
a
b
1
Drain Current Drain Voltage
Upper
Gate Signal
Lower
Gate Signal
1 2 3 4 250 mA 2.00 V 2.00 V 2.00 V 40.0 ns 2.50 GS/s 3 1.00 V
40.4356 kHz 10 k Points 136.800 ns
Figure 4. Active reverse conduction in an e-GaN FET.
Figure 5. The developed test setup using three semiconductor
technologies.
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______________
_________________
____________
N TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS,
lower weight and volume of the power
conversion systems is very important to
achieve high power density, high effi-
ciency, and superior performance. The
thermal management of these power conversion units
plays a significant role in reducing the weight and
volume. The use of superconductive motors/genera-
tors, degaussing coils, energy storage modules, and
cables has been considered to increase power densi-
ty and efficiency. High-temperature superconduct-
ing (HTS) components combined with cryogenic
power converters will provide significant benefits in
the electrification of transportation and high power
density power conversion systems. Cryogenic power
converter modules offer other promising benefits
over their room temperature counterparts in terms of
reduced size and weight (i.e., increased power densi-
ty) and improved efficiency, switching speed, and reli-
ability. Such an integration could result in significant
weight and space savings for next-generation mass
transportation systems. In this article, the current
research on cryogenic power electronics and supercon-
ducting motors/generators is discussed for future aircraft
and ships.
Power electronics is the key enabling technology for electro-
mechanical drives, transportation, renewable energy systems, and
power grids. Cryogenic power electronics technology is the next step
Date of publication: 26 February 2014 ICE IMAGE COURTESY OF STOCK.XCHNG/AXONITE
Cryogenic Power
Conversion Systems
The next step in the evolution of power
electronics technology.
By Kaushik Rajashekara
and Bilal Akin
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in the evolution of power electronics technology to obtain
high power density, high efficiency, and superior perfor-
mance for various applications. The overall system effi-
ciency will also increase due to the improved properties
of semiconductor materials at low temperatures. The
performance of semiconductor devices, down to liquid
nitrogen (LN2) temperatures (6377.2 K), has been shown
to improve with the decrease in temperature due to the
improved thermal, electrical, and electronic properties of
the materials. Specifically, the field-effect semiconductor
devices operating at low temperatures have shown
important advantages over those
operating at room temperature,
including lower power dissipation,
improved switching characteristics,
reduced interconnect resistance, and
increased carrier mobility.
The operation of power electronic
and control equipment at cryogenic
temperatures has been investigated
for a number of applications, not
only for controlling superconducting
machines and devices but also for
use in satellites and spacecraft to
remove the need for the auxiliary
heaters that are frequently used
to keep the electronics warm. In
addition, low-temperature elec-
tronics have potential uses in
deep space and terrestrial
applications that include magnetic levitation-
based transportation systems, military all-elec-
tric vehicles (EVs), medical diagnostics, cryogenic
instrumentation, and superconducting magnetic
energy storage systems. Furthermore, supercon-
ducting motors offer a significant advantage to
cruise and cargo ships to significantly expand
their capacity. Because of the higher efficiency of
superconducting motors and cryogenic power
electronics, the fuel consumption is reduced. This
leads to hundreds of thousands of dollars in fuel
savings per year for an average cargo ship. The
HTS system provides superior degaussing over leg-
acy copper coils, and it is more efficient and weighs
significantly less than copper systems.
Cryogenic Power Electronics
Power Devices
The understanding of the characteristics and operation of
power semiconductor devices at cryogenic temperatures
is necessary for integrating the power electronics with the
superconducting power applications. As reported in several
research studies, the operation of power semiconductor
devices at cryogenic temperatures results in improved
switching speed and lower on-state voltage than when
operated at room temperature. This is because the semi-
conductor materials seem to demonstrate better electrical
and thermal properties at lower temperatures up to about
50 K. They also have higher carrier mobility and saturation
velocity at low temperatures, resulting in high-speed opera-
tion. It was also found that the thermal conductivities of
the device and substrate materials improve significantly at
lower temperatures, leading to simpler thermal manage-
ment, lower on-state power loss, and improved reliability. In
addition to the conduction losses, the switching losses of
power devices also decrease at cryogenic temperatures,
leading to increased overall power
conversion efficiency.
Significant improvements in per-
formance have been reported for
many power devices when operated at
cryogenic temperatures: for power
metaloxidesemiconductor field-
effect transistors (MOSFETs) the on-
state resistance falls by about four to
five times; for the diode, the reverse
recovery is reduced by an order of
magnitude; and for insulated-gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs), the tail cur-
rent effects are reduced. It has been
demonstrated that MOSFET operation
at low temperatures provides advan-
tages such as reduced physical size,
enhanced reliability, and higher cur-
rent density. It is also reported that the
MOSFET threshold voltage and transconductance increase
at low temperatures. At 77 K, the threshold voltage has
been found to increase by 1 V due to carrier concentration
reduction when compared to room temperature, and the
breakdown voltage of the power MOSFETs reduces up to
23%. The simulation results of operating silicon power
MOSFETs at room temperature and at liquid nitrogen tem-
perature show that when operating at liquid nitrogen tem-
perature, the channel mobility increased ten times, the
drain current capability increased three times, and the on-
state resistance reduced two to three times, from 300 K to
77 K for that particular device, because of higher carrier
mobility at lower temperatures.
The commercially available MOSFETs in plastic or
metal packages have also been found to work well if they
are immersed in a bath of liquid nitrogen, although these
devices have not been designed for cryogenic applications,
according to a study by Mueller. They can be operated at
much higher current levels with lower conduction losses;
hence, high-efficiency power converters could be
designed. It was also shown that heat sinks other than the
liquid nitrogen may not be required. In a previous work,
Mueller showed that the on-resistance of commercially
available high-voltage MOSFETs (5001,000 V) decreases by
a factor of 1030 or more depending on the drain current if
cooled down to 77 K. These results show that even when
The use of
cryogenically cooled
power converters
will change the way
lightweight, high-
power converters
are designed and
manufactured for
various applications.
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using commercial MOSFETs at low temperatures, the
design of extremely small, lightweight, and low-cost
power converters is possible.
The cryogenic performance of wide-bandgap semicon-
ductor FETs for extreme environmental applications has
also been reported in the literature. At low temperatures,
the 4H-silicon carbide (SiC) metalsemiconductor field
effect transistors (MESFETs) demonstrated a reduction in
the output currents and a positive shift of the threshold
voltage. It was observed that the high-temperature opera-
tion of 4H-SiC Infineon Schottky rectifiers rated 300 V and
600 V was fairly stable at cryogenic
temperatures, but the rectifiers dis-
played certain anomalies. Tunneling
was observed to be dominant in the
reverse characteristics at all tempera-
tures. An increase in the output cur-
rent and a negative shift of the
threshold voltage were observed from
AlGaN/GaN HFETs at cryogenic tem-
peratures. These devices showed
superior cryogenic performance and
higher stability. The tests on the for-
ward conduction and reverse blocking
performance of a 600-V, 4-A GaN
Schottky rectifier from Velox showed
certain anomalies similar to those observed for the SiC
Schottky rectifiers. The characteristics of the recent SiC
and GaN devices need to be further investigated to under-
stand how they operate at very low temperatures.
The characteristics of various power devices at tempera-
tures as low as 20 K have been investigated by Leong, and
the observed on-state behavior for all the measured devices
in their known temperature range is summarized in
Table 1. It is concluded that among the commercially avail-
able power devices, silicon n-channel power MOSFETs are
the most optimized for cryogenic applications. They can
achieve an extremely low on-state resistance and reason-
able breakdown voltages. A large portion of the measured
devices experienced carrier freeze-out effects. GaN HEMTs
show good potential in cryogenic applications but still need
further investigation.
The studies related to cryogenic performance of the IGBT
devices show that these devices could work more efficiently
at low temperatures with the decrease of on-state voltage
and turn-off time despite the decrease of breakdown levels.
The reductions in on-state voltage drop were found to be
about 2030%, and the turn-off time reduction was by a fac-
tor of approximately two to three over the temperature
range from room temperature to as low as 50 K. Similar to
the MOSFETs, the gate threshold voltage of the IGBTs was
found to increase approximately 1 V because of the intrinsic
carrier concentration at 77 K, and the transconductance
increase was observed to increase twofold for the same tem-
perature. Overall, most IGBTs exhibited low forward voltage
drop at temperatures as low as 100 K and slightly above this
temperature due to carrier freeze out. The switching perfor-
mance of the IGBTs also improved at low temperatures.
Passive Components and Integrated Circuits
Many passive components and off-the-shelf integrated cir-
cuits have been shown to operate satisfactorily at tempera-
tures as low as 50 K. The published research has shown that
the low-temperature operation of the capacitors depends on
the dielectric medium such as polypropylene, polycarbon-
ate, mica, film, and ceramic. These capacitors seem to func-
tion properly at 77 K with decreasing leakage current and
dissipation factor at cryogenic temper-
atures. Regarding the magnetic compo-
nents, it was observed that the
magnetic losses generally increase with
cooling, and the power dissipation is
not too different than at room temper-
ature. If superconducting windings are
substituted with copper windings, then
the loss comparison between the core
and windings becomes more promis-
ing. As a better option, a coreless design
is suggested for inductors in cryogenic
environments for maximum efficiency.
Most powder cores maintain a con-
stant inductance value, exhibiting good
stability, but the quality factor and resistance change based
on test frequency and temperature. The long-term effects
and the repeated cyclic operation of passive components at
low temperatures are not as well understood. More compre-
hensive research should be conducted to characterize the
cryogenic behavior of passive components.
Converters
To investigate the feasibility of building a cryogenic power
converter and collocating this converter for energizing the
field winding of a superconducting generator, a project
was carried out by a group of universities in partnership
with Rolls-Royce. A dcdc converter consisting of a num-
ber of parallel-connected power MOSFETs was tested at
cryogenic temperatures. The overall performance of the
unit in terms of reliability and efficiency was reported to
be improved at cryogenic temperatures. An advanced radi-
ation-hardened dcdc converter was characterized in
terms of its performance as a function of temperature in
the range of 133293 K. The converter was evaluated with
respect to its steady-state output voltage regulation, effi-
ciency, output voltage ripple, input current ripple, and out-
put current ripple at various input voltage levels and
loads. This converter showed good performance in regula-
tion, efficiency, and dynamic characteristics at tempera-
tures as low as 173 K. Some instability was observed as the
temperature was decreased further. More testing under
long-term thermal exposure is needed to fully character-
ize this type of converter for potential application in low-
temperature environments.
Cryogenic
refrigeration is
a key technology
for superconducting
generators and
cryogenic power
electronics.
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The commercial off-the-shelf integrated circuits, such
as digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital converters, dcdc
converters, operational amplifiers, and oscillators, have
been investigated for potential use at low temperatures. In
these studies, it is shown that these components operate
well and maintain stability in temperatures as low as 80 K.
Ray et al. evaluated a 175-W buck dc
dc converter operating at 50 kHz. This
converter exhibited full-load efficien-
cy of 97% at liquid-nitrogen tempera-
ture compared to 95.8% at room
temperature. A similar test on a 60-W
dcdc buck converter showed full
functionality at temperatures as low
as 77 K with a slight efficiency degra-
dation. Another comparative study by
Chunjiang reported the testing of dc
dc converters, such as synchronous
rectifiers, zero-voltage switching
(ZVS), and multilevel topologies, oper-
ating from 120 to 500 V in tempera-
tures as low as 20 K. Among these
converters, ZVS has been suggested as
the most efficient option; its overall
losses were 18% fewer than the room temperature losses.
Gardiner et al. evaluated a 50-kW three-phase inverter
with soft switching at 77 K and observed that the total
inverter loss was about 1% of the input power.
Superconducting Motors
The advent of high-temperature superconductors created
an important opportunity for the commercialization of
large electric machines. A depiction of such a machine is
shown in Figure 1. The high-temperature superconductors
enable practical operation at temperatures well above liq-
uid nitrogen. Naturally, a higher operating temperature
reduces the cooling cost while maintaining the supercon-
ductivity of the coils. Also, the reduced ohmic losses in HTS
motors yield significant annual savings
in electricity consumption by a factor
of 50%. Since the HTS wires are capa-
ble of carrying a significantly higher
current than copper and create a very
strong magnetic field in the air gap, a
lighter superconducting motor with a
smaller form factor could be used to
produce the same amount of torque as
that produced by a traditional motor.
The size and weight reduction may
reduce the assembling time as well as
the manufacturing material, transpor-
tation, and labor costs. The elimination
of iron teeth in the armature (stator
windings) of HTS synchronous motors
not only results in smaller-size and
lighter-weight designs but also
decreases the motor noise caused by rotor and stator inter-
action. Superconducting motors operate more stably during
transients than conventional motors due to their small load
angles (15 versus 70 for a conventional motor) and yield
up to three times higher peak torque. As a result, the motor
can operate even under large transients without losing syn-
chronism, which is essential for transportation systems in
which the motor operates with a varying duty cycle. In
TABLE 1. The summarized ndings of the on-state behavior for all of the measured devices.
On-State Behavior
Temperature
Range
20 K 50 K 100 K
Si n-channel MOSFETs and
superjunction MOSFETs
Little degradation in the on state Optimum range
Non-ohmic behavior and negative temperature
dependence
Si p-channel MOSFETs Negative temperature dependence Optimum range
Non-ohmic behavior
SiC MOSFETs Positive temperature dependence Negative temperature dependence
No improvements compared to higher temperatures
GaN HEMTs Almost temperature independent Small positive temperature dependence
Si/SiC Schottky diodes No improvements when compared to higher temperatures
GaAs Schottky diodes Improvements at high current levels
(With permission from K.K. Leong, 2011.)
The advent of
high-temperature
superconductors
created an
important
opportunity for the
commercialization
of large electric
machines.
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2008, the Sumitomo Electric Institute demonstrated an EV
prototype using an HTS motor cooled by liquid nitrogen.
This motor developed around 30 kW with 120-Nm torque.
The EV prototype can run about 13% longer than a conven-
tional EV. The prototypes of superconducting motors for
buses and large trucks are almost ready, and the company
hopes to commercialize the HTS motors by 2020 for buses,
forklifts, and small trucks.
Cryogenic Systems Applications
Low-temperature electronics have potential uses in deep
space and in terrestrial applications that include magnetic
levitation transportation systems, military all-EVs, medical
diagnostics, cryogenic instrumenta-
tion, and superconducting magnetic
energy storage systems. Supercon-
ducting generators and cryogenic
power electronic systems offer signifi-
cant advantages in wind power gener-
ation, distributed propulsion of
aircraft, and many defense applica-
tions. Several studies have reported
the potential for cryogenic power con-
versi on and superconducti ng
machines in future military systems,
ships, and aircraft for propulsion and
onboard power generation, where size
and weight are the primary design
considerations. A number of pro-
grams are currently under way in the United States and
around the world to develop these superconducting
machines. Recently, a 36.5-MW (49,000-hp), 120-r/min syn-
chronous air-core machine producing 2.81 MNm of torque
was tested at the Naval Surface Warfare Center in Phila-
delphia. This machine, shown in Figure 2, has been specifi-
cally designed for the next-generation all-electric ships for
naval applications. A traditional electrical machine with
equivalent electromechanical features weighs about four
times more, occupies much more space, and costs more.
This machine was built for the Office of Naval Research to
show the superiority of HTS motors as the main propul-
sion technology for all-electric ships and submarines.
Based on the literature review, it is clear that the only
technology that can reduce the weight of the power conver-
sion system to acceptable levels in many of the applications
is a superconducting machine with cryogenic power elec-
tronics. It provides savings not only in
the drivetrain cost of the generator/
motor alone but also in the total cost of
energy, which can be 2025% less than
similar systems. While superconduct-
ing technology can reduce the size and
weight of these multimegawatt gener-
ators and motors to acceptable levels,
the collocation of the power converter
that converts the generator output to
the required power within the cryo-
genic environment offers many sys-
tem-level benefits: lower power losses,
low current feed-through connections,
and overall increased power density
and efficiency. In field-excited super-
conducting generators, the cryogenic power converter pro-
vides extremely high levels of controlled generator
excitation with extremely low losses. The use of cryogeni-
cally cooled power converters will change the way
Vacuum
Chamber
Stator
Back-Iron
Superconductor
Rotor Coil
Copper Stator
Coils
Figure 1. A high-temperature superconducting motor. (Image used
with permission from Bretz.)
Figure 2. The 36.5-MW HTS motor designed for naval applications.
(Photo used with permission from Gamble et al.)
Power electronics
is the key enabling
technology for
electromechanical
drives, transportation,
renewable energy
systems, and
power grids.
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lightweight, high-power converters are designed and man-
ufactured for various applications.
The aerospace industry is facing challenges similar to
those of the automotive industry in terms of improving
emissions, fuel economy, and cost. Another similarity is the
move toward replacing mechanical and pneumatic systems
with electrical systems, thus transitioning toward more
electric architectures. The Advisory Council for Aeronautics
Research in Europe has set several
goals to be achieved by 2020 for air
transportation. These include a 50%
reduction of CO
2
emissions through a
drastic reduction of fuel consumption;
an 80% reduction of nitrogen oxide
emissions; a 50% reduction of external
noise; and a green design, manufactur-
ing, maintenance, and disposal product
life cycle. Most of these goals could be
achieved through more electrification
of air transportation. The electrical
power being used by both civil and mil-
itary aircrafts is also growing. Passenger
aircrafts, such as the Boeing 787 and
Airbus 380, are employing many new
electrical technologies. For example,
the Boeing 787 employs a bleedless
environmental control system. These
loads create a substantial increase in
the total electrical power drawn from
the aircraft engine-driven generators. For example, the
power generation in the Boeing 747 is 480 kVA, whereas the
power generation in the more recent A380 aircraft is 840
kVA, and that of the the Boeing 787 is 1,450 kVA.
The sustainability of the aviation industry requires
aircraft that are significantly quieter and more fuel
efficient than todays fleet. Achieving this will require
revolutionary new concepts, in particular, for electric
propulsion. Superconducting machines with cryogenic
power electronics offer a viable path to achieve the
power densities needed in electric propulsion airborne
applications. For example, NASAs technology goals for
future-generation aircraft are shown in Table 2. To
achieve this goal, NASA is proposing to develop a
blended wing body aircraft with a turboelectric distrib-
uted propulsion system. The system consists of at
least two turbine-driven genera-
tors mounted at the tip of the
wings. The outputs of the genera-
tors are rectified and connected to
a number of power converters.
Each power converter converts the
input dc to variable frequency and
variable voltage ac to power the
electric motors that drive the pro-
pulsors as shown in Figure 3. The
propulsion system provides the
required propulsive power for the
aircraft and also assists in aircraft
yaw control through differential
thrust. To achieve maximum effi-
ciency and reduce the weight,
NASA is proposing the use of a
superconducting and cryogenic
electrical system with dc distribu-
tion consisting of a superconduct-
ing generators and cryogenically
cooled power converters.
A few recent studies have focused on faster and more
efficient rail transportation systems since the traditional
railway propulsion systems have mechanical limitations
and maintenance issues due to the dependence on friction
between the wheels and railways. In particular, the mainte-
nance of the traditional systems is quite expensive and
time consuming, thus leading the researchers to look for
TABLE 2. NASAs technology goals for future subsonic vehicles.
Corners of the
Trade Space
N+1 (2015)
Technology Benefits
Relative to a Single Aisle
Reference Configuration
N+2 (2020)
Technology Benefits Relative to
a Large Twin Aisle Reference
Configuration
N+3 (2025)
Technology Benefits
Noise 32 dB 42 dB 71 dB
LTO nitrogen oxide
emissions
60% 75% Better than 75%
Performance
aircraft fuel burn
33% 50% Better than 70%
Performance
field length
33% 50% Exploit metroplex concepts
*
*
Concepts that enable optimal use of runways at multiple airports within the metropolitan areas. (Used with permission from Luongo et al.)
Superconducting
machines with
cryogenic power
electronics offer
a viable path to
achieve the power
densities needed
in electric
propulsion airborne
applications.
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alternative frictionless mass transportation systems that
can exceed the maximum speed (350 km/h) of convention-
al railway systems. For this purpose, research teams in
Japan and the United States have been working on super-
conducting maglev trains using linear synchronous motor
superconducting magnets and armature coil on the ground.
The superconducting maglev train is one of the most prom-
ising high-speed mass transportation systems in the world,
offering a fast, reliable, and environmentally friendly sys-
tem that will encourage people to use train transportation
over aircraft and automobiles. It is also known as one of the
safest transportation alternatives with an accident-free
safety record so far. The CO
2
emissions are about one-third
of traditional transportation systems. The recent trend for
superconducting maglev trains is to replace the low-tem-
perature superconducting element with high-temperature
superconductors due to their cooling
advantages. The first HTS-based pro-
totype shown in Figure 4 was tested
in Japan and successfully exceeded
500 km/h the very first day of testing.
The Japan Railway Company is plan-
ning to finalize the railway to provide
passenger service by 2025, connecting
the cities of Tokyo and Nagoya.
Cryogenic Cooling Systems
Cryogenic refrigeration is a key tech-
nology for superconducting genera-
tors and cryogenic power electronics.
The choice of the cryogenic plant is
determined by several factors such
as availability of cryogenic media,
temperature, response to dynamic
loads, power requirements in steady
state and recovery, and the control
system. The power requirements of
refrigeration are very dependent on
the unit power losses and the
required cooling temperature. For example, 1 W of power
loss in the unit to be cooled may require about 810 W of
refrigeration power (cryogenic plant) at liquid nitrogen
temperature (6377 K), whereas to cool at 4 K may require
about 8001,000 W of refrigeration power. The cooling
requirements at low temperatures incur significantly
higher cryogenic costs. Although the refrigeration cost
may have a small impact on the overall cost, it does affect
the selection of a cryogenic plant.
Cryocoolers are generally divided into three types:
recuperative (steady flow), regenerative (oscillating flow),
and a hybrid of the two. There are two major types of
recuperative cycles: JouleThomson and Brayton cycle-
based systems in which there is a steady flow of gas in
one direction with steady low and high pressures in the
appropriate locations. They primarily use heat exchangers
to transfer heat between a working fluid and a transporta-
tion fluid. There are three main regenerative cycle cryo-
coolers: Stirling cycle, GiffordMcMahon (GM), and pulse
tube refrigerators. All three use a transport fluid that pass-
es cyclically through a regenerator and a displacer. The
flow of the gas is controlled such that one end of the dis-
placement tube forms a cold head and the other end
forms a hot end. The frequencies vary from about 1 Hz for
the GM cycle and some pulse tube cryocoolers to about
60 Hz for Stirling cycle coolers. In these regenerative cryo-
coolers, heating occurs as the pressure increases, and
cooling occurs as the pressure decreases. Depending on
the required power and the cryogenic temperature, a par-
ticular cooling system needs to be selected. In general, the
liquefaction plants are relatively more efficient than
regenerative systems. However, they are expensive and
suitable mainly for large-scale systems.
Superconductor
Applications
Needed
Generators Motors
Power
Transmission
Cables
Power
Inverters
Power
Electronics
Power Levels 3040 MW 46 MW 570 MW 130 MW 3040 MW
30-MW Superconductor
Power Transmission
6-MW Superconductor
Electrical Motor Turbo Fans
30-MW Superconductor
Electrical Generator
Rear View
Figure 3. The hybrid electric distributed propulsion (HEDP) Aircraft, 45 MW. (Photos used with per-
mission from Luongo et al. and Haugan.)
Figure 4. The ultra-high-speed superconducting maglev train tested
in Japan. (Photo used with permission from Sawada.)
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Conclusions
The interest of investigating cryogenic power electronics
stems from the idea of building power conditioning sys-
tems with higher efficiency by cooling electronics to cryo-
genic temperatures. As can be observed from the reported
literature, most of the research results are on the
characterization of the operating behavior of the devices
instead of the entire power conversion system. Significant
advancements in cryogenic power conversion technology
are required for application in maglev trains, aircraft based
on NASAs distributed propulsion system, ship propulsion,
and other high-power applications. With the advance-
ment of cryogenic power electronics, the manufacturing
of a superconducting generator unit fully integrated with
the converter, cooling, and coupling components could
become a real possibility. Several studies have concluded
that there is a great potential for cryogenic power conver-
sion in applications such as propulsion motors and power
generators for ships, future military applications, and air-
craft where size and weight are the primary design con-
siderations. Although the cryogenic media have not been
discussed in this article, the selection and integration of
the right cryogenic system for a given application contrib-
ute to the overall performance, efficiency, power density,
and cost of the overall system.
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Biographies
Kaushik Rajashekara (k.raja@utdallas.edu) is with the Erik
Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science,
University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson. He is a Fellow of
the IEEE.
Bilal Akin (bilal.akin@utdallas.edu) is with the Erik
Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science,
University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson. He is a Senior
Member of the IEEE.
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Abudl Rahman, e-mail: titikkhawa@gmail.com
1518 JUNE
ITEC 2014: IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and
Expo, Dearborn, Michigan, USA. Contact Mahesh Krish-
namurthy, e-mail: kmahesh@ece.iit.edu, http://itec-conf.com
2731 JULY
GM 2014: IEEE PES General Meeting, National Harbor, Mary-
land, (Washington, D.C. Metro Area) USA. Contact Paula
Traynor, e-mail: ptraynor@epri.com, http://www.pes-gm.
org/2014/
31 AUGUST3 SEPTEMBER
ITEC Asia-Pacific 2014: IEEE Transportation Electrification
Conference and Expo, Asia-Pacific, Beijing, China. Contact
Xuhui Wen, e-mail: wxh@mail.iee.ac.cn, http://www.
itec2014.com
1215 OCTOBER
ISGT Europe 2014: IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technolo-
gies Europe, Istanbul, Turkey. Contact Prof. Dr. Omer Usta,
e-mail: ustao@itu.edu.tr
2015
1013 MAY
IEMDC 2015 IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives
Conference, 1013 May, Coeur dAlene, Idaho, USA. Contact
Herbert Hess, e-mail: hhess@uidaho.edu
2630 JULY
GM 2015: IEEE PES General Meeting, Denver, Colorado, USA.
Contact Paula Traynor, e-mail: ptraynor@epri.com
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N E WS F E E D
IEEE Power & Energy Society Announces
2013 Scholarship Recipients
HE IEEE POWER & ENERGY
Society (PES) Scholarship
Plus (S+) Initiative recently
announced scholarship distribution
to 228 students at 117 universities
across the United States and Canada
for the academic year 20132014.
The top PES Scholar in each
Region (17) has been identified as
a John W. Estey Outstanding PES
Scholar for 20132014. The follow-
ing are the 20132014 PES S+ Initia-
tive John W. Estey Outstanding PES
Scholars:
Sahil Maripuri, Northeastern
UniversityRegion 1 (Northeast-
ern United States)
Bridget Davis, Ohio Northern
UniversityRegion 2 (Mid-Atlantic
United States)
Samantha McPeak, University of
AlabamaRegion 3 (Southeastern
United States)
Logan Brecklin, University of
Wisconsin, PlattevilleRegion 4
(Midwestern United States)
Anthony Gaskill, Oklahoma State
UniversityRegion 5 (Southwest
United States)
Travis Kinney, Washington State
UniversityRegion 6 (Western
United States)
Kyle Mouratidis, The University
of CalgaryRegion 7 (Canada).
The IEEE PES S+ Initiative provides
multiyear scholarships to qualifying
U.S. and Canadian electrical engi-
neering undergraduate students.
Scholars receive up to three years of
fundingUS$2,000 the first year,
US$2,000 the second year, and
US$3,000 the third yearinter-
spersed with up to two years of valu-
able, hands-on career experience.
The program, made possible by
donations to the IEEE PES Scholarship
Fund of the IEEE Foundation and the
IEEE Canadian Foundation, is in its
third year. Since 2011, 549 scholar-
ships have been distributed to 364
individuals from 137 universities
across the United States and Canada.
More than 100 companies have hired
a PES Scholar for a full-time or intern-
ship position.
Companies and individuals are
encouraged to give back to the
industry and pay it forward by
donating to the initiative. A donation
will educate and inspire the next
generation of power and energy
engineers. Find out how this
program is helping to address the
problem of the shortage of engineers
in the power and energy industry by
visiting the IEEE PES S+ Web site
(http://www.ee-scholarship.org).
T
IEEE Standard 11-2006(R)
for Rotating Electric Machinery
for Rail and Road Vehicles
TANDARD IEEE STD-11 IS
up for revision. It was first
developed when the only
available traction motors were large dc
or induction machines for trains and
ships. Significant work is needed to
include smaller automotive motors as
well as permanent magnet machines
in the standard. The Electric Machines
Committees of the IEEE Industry Appli-
cations Society and IEEE Power & Ener-
gy Society are working together on this
revision. An initial group of individuals
is looking for additional members to
update this standard, at a crucial time
for the transportation industry. If you
are interested or have questions, con-
tact Emmanuel Agamloh at eagam-
loh@advancedenergy.org or Innocent
Kamwa at Kamwa@ieee.org.
S
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___________
________________
_____
HE IEEE FELLOW AWARD
is a special recognition for
members with extraordi-
nary accomplishments in the IEEE
technical fields. To ensure that the
recognition is extraordinary, the
total number of recipients each year
cannot exceed 0.1% of the total
higher-grade IEEE membership.
Class of 2014
As chair of the IEEE Power & Energy
Society (PES) Fellows Committee,
I congratul ate the fol l owi ng
outstanding PES members for their
accomplishments:
Bjarne Andersen for leadership
in high-voltage dc transmis-
si on syst ems, ac power
electronics, and reactive power
compensation
William Bartley for contributions
to the development of generator
and transformer standards for
life-cycle planning and risk
assessment
Carl Benner for contributions to
the development of waveform-
based analytics for electric power
distribution
Kent Brown for leadership in
standards development for the
design, testing, and utilization of
electrical equipment for the
nuclear power industry
Babu Chalamala for contributions
to the development of advanced
materials and device technologies
for vacuum microelectronics and
field emission displays.
Ambrish Chandra for contribu-
tions to power distribution and
renewable energy systems
Kwok Cheung for the develop-
ment and implementation of
energy- and market-manage-
ment systems for control centers
Pete Donalek for contributions to
grid-connected pumped storage
hydrosystems
Mahmud Fotuhi-Firuzabad for
the development of probabilistic
techniques in power-system reli-
ability evaluation
Bjorn Gustavsen for contribu-
tions to frequency-domain mod-
eling techniques
Chris Horwill for contributions to
the testing and commissioning of
flexible ac transmission systems
Hao Huang for contributions to
electric power generation, con-
version, and control in aircraft
Cursino Jacobina for contributions
to the development of power con-
verters and machine drives
Roger King for contributions in
power systems data analytics for
improving grid reliability
Benjamin Kroposki for leader-
ship in renewable and distribut-
ed energy systems integration in
the electric power system
Thomas McDermott for contribu-
tions to the modeling and analy-
sis of electric power distribution
systems and lightning protection
Andrew Ott for leadership in the
design, development, and opera-
tion of competitive wholesale
electricity markets
Muhammed Rahman for contri-
butions to direct torque control
of integrated permanent magnet
machines
Bradford Roberts (deceased 15
October 2013) for contributions
to the uninterruptible power sup-
ply industry and batteries
Sandeep Shukla for contributions
to applied probablistic model
checking for system design
Kiruba Sivasubramaniam for con-
tributions to high-power-density
electric machines for renewable
energy and aerospace applications
Dejan Sobajic for applications
of neural networks for power
engineering
Hisao Taoka for contributions
to computing technology for power-
system analysis and control
Solveig Ward for contributions to
power system protective relay-
ing, communications systems,
and teleprotection
Vahid Madani
PES FellowsCongratulations
to the Class of 2014
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Viewpoint (continued from page 80)
the motor still has to overcome the
energy density of the battery. The new-
est EVs coming off the line at Ford,
Chevy, Nissan, and Tesla have reached
a breakthrough limit of 100 mi per
charge (mpc). The batteries in the lab
right now will be able to deliver an
affordable car with a range of 300 mpc.
When we hit that number within the
next five years,
people will lose
their range anxiety
because they will
know that they can
get where they are
going and back on
a single charge.
While electric
motors are central
to EVs, it is impor-
tant to remember
that they are not
the total solution.
A diverse mix of
fuels is being used
to power vehicles that have electric
motors at their core. For example,
semitrailer trucks are moving toward
natural gas, which can be run
through a fuel cell or in a modified
conventional engine.
Other innovations are propelling
EVs forward. Electric motor manu-
facturers have been ever more clever
in using advanced modeling tools to
maximize the power density in
smaller motors. Advanced perma-
nent magnets also are helping to
increase the efficiency of electric
motors while helping to shrink their
overall size. In addition, improve-
ments in power electronics have
increased the efficiency of switching
and transferring the power through-
out the entire vehicle. This, in turn,
enables EVs to travel greater dis-
tances on a smaller charge.
So, it is really the incremental
growth in various technologies, which
the IEEE and its members are so adept
at developing, that are refining the EV.
Just as gas-powered cars evolved over
the years, we have already seen EVs
evolve over the past five years.
EVs have been around for a very
long time. Many people are surprised
to learn that they were initially devel-
oped in 1917. Henry Fords gasoline
motor pushed EVs aside in the auto-
mobile market, but EV technology was
adapted in a very
big way by the rail-
roads. The hybrid
EV motor has been
used by diesel elec-
tric trains since the
1930s. Trains would
be much heavier
otherwise.
In addition to
losing the weight of
a vehicles power
train, todays EV
manufacturers are
becoming very clev-
er at improving
aerodynamics and reducing drag. They
are achieving these improvements,
which enable their EVs to go a bit far-
ther, by doing a lot of three-dimension-
al modeling that helps keep their cars
frames strong but light.
Another reason that next-genera-
tion vehicles will be more efficient is
that they will be connected with the
highway and other vehicles. There is
a lot of discussion, and standards
are being developed to allow EVs
and fleets of EVs to operate better
together on the road.
Education, Education,
Education
While all of this technology is impor-
tant, educating consumers is probably
even more critical to the success of EVs.
We as a society, nation, and local
community need to do a very good job
of educating consumers about the pros
and cons of EVs. As the industry
matures, we will continue to build bet-
ter solutions that enable consumers to
drive home and charge their EVs over-
night. In the meantime, consumer
acceptance of new forms of fuel and
transportation is key. Overcoming con-
sumer resistance and making them
comfortable enough to buy EVs by the
millions is going to take education and
proof that they work as advertised.
This is because most people only buy a
car every eight to ten years. It is a
major investment, and they feel they
have only one chance to buy the right
car. They need to view the EV as a
direct replacement for what they have
been using all their lives.
The only real technical challenges
that remain are in terms of the electric
power grid. The increased demand for
electricity to fuel EVs is something
that utilities can prepare for now in
terms of power distribution, pricing,
and variable rate structures that will
help people save money and maxi-
mize the grids potential.
Fortunately, the batteries in
todays EVs can be charged in 34 h.
We are aiming for an average of 12 h
in the not so distant future.
Where and When
Today, the United States is one of the
leading countries developing and
manufacturing EV technology. Japan
is very active, and China is coming
on strong under a national mandate
to reduce the pollution caused by
automobiles.
Nevertheless, this industry is not
being driven by the top three or four
countries. There is a lot of homegrown
innovation taking place. Students in
Kenya developed an affordable car for
use in their country. Indias Tata
Motors is launching its EV next. Tata
has an excellent reputation for pro-
ducing cars that anybody can afford.
Currently, the people of California
have purchased the most EVs to date.
This is in part because the state gives
people incentives to buy them. Look-
ing across the country, however, many
Improvements in
power electronics
have increased
the efficiency of
switching and
transferring the
power throughout
the entire vehicle.
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state agencies are buying EVs for pilot
projects of small fleets for use in cit-
ies, and some cit-
ies and other par-
ties are buying
electric buses.
I firmly believe
that the transition
to EVs is well
under way. Within
the next five to ten
years, every two-
car garage will
have a hybrid and
a pure EV. There
will be a variety of
fuel sources used
to move EVs, and
EVs ability to con-
nect into the grid
will make it possible for people to
operate them very efficiently.
There also will be a change in the
ways that we buy, lease, and finance
our ve hi c l e s .
Because technolog-
ical advances will
be introduced as
quickly as they are
to todays smart-
phones, consumers
will lease EVs rath-
er than buy them.
Auto dealers will
buy old cars back so
that manufacturers
can recycle them
into the next gener-
ation of vehicles.
So, when will
we be driving elec-
tric vehicles in
large numbers? If you look under the
hood of the standard vehicle being
sold today, they are already electric to
a large degree. The next few years
will see dramatic increases as
hybrids replace the standard vehicles
and plug-in electric vehicles become
more common. We are already well
under way to a world of clean, effi-
cient, connected, and safe vehicles
across a wide range of transportation
platforms that include cars, trucks,
ships, trains, planes, heavy equip-
ment, and a lot more.
Biography
Lee Stogner (l.stogner@ieee.org) is the
chair of the IEEE Transportation Elec-
trification Initiative (http://electricve-
hicle.ieee.org) and is a past director of
the IEEE Board of Directors.
The next few
years will see
dramatic increases
as hybrids replace
the standard
vehicles and
plug-in electric
vehicles become
more common.
S A L E S O F F I C E S
IEEE Electrification Magazine Representatives
Scott Hill - Account Manager
James G. Elliott Co., Inc.
134 N. LaSalle Ste. 1700
Chicago, IL 60602
Phone: +1 312 348 1202
s.hill@jamesgelliott.com
US - States east of the Mississippi,
Europe, Caribbean, Eastern Canada
Steven Kinzler - Account Manager
James G. Elliott Co., Inc.
626 Wilshire Blvd. - Ste. 500
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Phone: +1 213 596 7239
s.kinzler@jamesgelliott.com
US - States west of the Mississippi, Asia,
Central & South America, Western Canada
Viewpoint (continued from page 77)
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_________________ _______________
________
___________
____________
For more information about the Inaustry Applications Society go to http.//ias.ieee.org/
LeIt: Ms. Janet Flores, IEEE WIE, and Ms.Taqua Khairy, CMD SiE
program co-chair co-presenting at the IAS 2012 Annual Meeting.
Right: Ms. Megha Tak, DA-IICT SB IAS Chapter Chair, accepting a
chapter award Irom Dr. Peter Magyar, IAS CMD Chair
LeIt: Newly Elected IAS Board Member, Ms.Yao Yingbei, Chairing a student poster
session at the IAS Annual Meeting.
Right: Ms. Aathira, (2nd right ) 2012 Thesis Contest 3rd Prize Recipient. accepting
her award at The RIT SB IAS Chapter event with ProI. Vijayakumari C K., thesis
supervisor (m).
Who we are - The Industry Applications Society
serves electrical engineers over a wide spectrum oI in-
dustries and technologies. We are involved in the ap-
plication oI engineering, Irom motor drive and power
electronic technology Ior renewables, transportation,
or industrial processes; we develop automation sys-
tems Ior manuIacturing; we are involved in mining,
cement production, pulp and paper and metal indus-
tries, refneries and chemical plant operation; Irom
rural electric cooperatives to large industrial plants;
Irom the development oI lighting and displays to the
engineering oI electrostatic processes. One IAS mem-
ber out oI fve works in academia or at a government
laboratory, closer to Iundamental technology develop-
ments, while the others are in industry, applying state-
oI-the-art knowledge to new products or their manuIac-
ture. Last but not least, IAS members have developed
and are continuously updating many industry stan-
dards, Irom grounding to DC networks, contributing
to increased electrical saIety at home and in industry.
Where we are and where we meet - The IAS
has close to 10,000 members worldwide. Relative
to its size, the IAS has one oI the largest oIIering
oI conIerences and local chapters oI any IEEE so-
ciety, refecting the broad technical, regional, and
cultural diversity oI our membership. The IAS
has over 170 chapters worldwide with a number
oI student branches, Ior our younger members,
at universities with accomplished student advi-
sors on hand to guide members. Papers that are
presented at our technical conIerences are eligible
to be published in the peer reviewed Transactions
Journal or magazine. More and more women are
joining the society and fnding their way to high-
1he populatlon of the lndustry Appllcatlons 8oclety ls changlng.
Testimonies - 'Being an IAS member has brought me
opportunities I never would have imagined, says Ms.
Taqua Khairy Irom Bahrain. 'I Ieel that I can and will
create reality oI my dreams! IAS had made that possible
and reachable Ior me. The frst time I traveled alone was
when I had a 24 hour trip Irom Bahrain to Florida to at-
tend the IAS annual meeting 2011. This trip wouldn`t
have been possible without the IAS Zucker Award sup-
port. I was there in the US Ior the frst time, sharing a
room with a very sweet Iemale engineer who had a to-
tally diIIerent culture and background. She was Latin,
I was Arab and we made a Iriend there who was Ital-
ian! However, we could still connect through our com-
mon interest in science, engineering and volunteering
work with IEEE. We are still good Iriends! That year I
stood in Iront oI more than 60 people and spoke about
my university and the country I live in. IAS gave me the
opportunity and encouraged me to be an eIIective per-
son, and made me believe that I can make a diIIerence!
A decade-long IAS project oI particular signifcance to
our world is the improvement oI electrical saIety. The
IAS has a technical committee dedicated to this topic,
working on new technology, standards, and signif-
cantly to the dissemination oI knowledge related to the
prevention oI electrical accidents, injuries, and Iatali-
ties. Says Dr. Mary Capelli-SchellpIeIIer, a physician
who works with engineers, IEEE Fellow and IAS mem-
ber: 'The IAS Electrical SaIety Committee has as a
goal no less than changing the electrical saIety culture.
Women Leadlng the Way
level volunteer positions. One oI our newly elected board
members is a young engineer Irom China, Ms. Yao Ying-
bei, a leader in the Chapters and Membership Department.
1ake your englneerlng career to new helghts
by jolnlng the lndustry Appllcatlons 8oclety where you can make a dlfferencel
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V I E WP O I N T
By Lee Stogner
When You Look Under the
Hood of an Electric Vehicle
HEN YOU LOOK UNDER
the hood of an electric
vehicle (EV), you see that
the IEEE is the catalyst that makes
such a vehicle possible. You see com-
puters, networks, software, power
electronics, control systems, batter-
ies, and fuel cells. As individual pieces
without the standards that allow
them to plug into one another and
interoperate, these items could not
come together as a system or a tool
that can propel a car forward.
As it does with much of the other
electronic technology in the world,
the IEEE provides the standards and
existing technology that connect all
of the pieces of an EV together. This
platform can then be built upon and
enhanced to grow and meet future
challenges as we begin to better
understand what the EV needs to do.
In addition to developing needed
standards, the IEEE brings people
together via its publications, special
events, and conferences. These ven-
ues enable people to further develop
ideas and find out what the rest of
the world is doing with regard to EVs.
For example, the 2012 IEEE Interna-
tional Electric Vehicle Conference,
which took place in Greenville, South
Carolina, was a valuable resource for
people and companies looking for
help or technical documentation.
This kind of communication is so
critical because the EV landscape
looks nothing like the current sys-
tem. The company, or companies,
that will make a name for them-
selves in the EV industry in the next
five to ten years may not be one of
the worlds major auto manufactur-
ers. The winners will be companies
that can bring together the technolo-
gy and make it affordable and usable.
They must also create a vehicle that
makes the average consumer want
to buy an EV as a first or second car.
As with all new technology, the
complexity of putting an EV on the
highway is going to reduce consider-
ably as EVs components become
more standardized. More players will
enter the market as EVs become easi-
er to plug together and customize for
different customer bases. Today we
see single companies coming up with
ideas that make their EV special and
unique in the marketplace. We see
other companies that are willing to
partner with one another.
Whatever the business model, the
practice of holding back on new tech-
nology until you get a return on
existing technology is over. There is
so much competition in the EV arena
that companies are bringing their
solutions out as fast as they can.
They know that if they dont get
there first, someone else will. That
being said, there is definitely room
for more than one leader in the EV
market. Cars driven in one part of the
world will likely be different from
those in other parts.
Latest and Greatest
The ability to possess small, very
powerful electric motors is a recent
development that is helping EVs
move forward quickly. A standard
car has to warm up and then gener-
ate enough power to turn the
transmission and four tires, which is
terribly inefficient. The only thing
the gasoline-powered cars have
going for them is the reasonably
high density of energy they can get
from a gallon of gas.
At their core, EVs have very high-
torque motors that allow the standard
1,000-lb power train to be eliminated
completely. The EV is much lighter, but
W
Lee Stogner.
(continued on page 77)
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Charting the
Course to a New
Energy Future
For Information and Program Updates visit
www.pes-gm.org/2014
Mark your calendar now for the 2014
IEEE PES General Meeting in National Harbor!
National Harbor, MD (Washington DC Metro Area)
Gaylord National Resort and Convention Center
Just a stones throw from our nations capital, the PES General Meeting will
attract thousands of professionals from every segment of the electric power and
energy industries. It will feature a comprehensive technical program, including
super sessions, panel sessions, tutorials, technical committee meetings and
standards activities. Plus, enjoy a lineup of excellent technical tours, a student
program, companion activities and much more.
About National Harbor
Located on 300 acres of prime real estate along the scenic Potomac River in
Washington, D.C., National Harbor is the new gateway to the National Capital Region.
This spectacular urban-waterfront community offers stunning views of downtown
Washington, D.C. and Old Town Alexandria, and is just a 15-minute driveor water
taxi rideto the heart of the nations capital.
2014
IEEE PES
GENERAL
MEETING
July 2731, 2014
National Harbor, MD
10.1109/MELE.2014.2303503
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IEEE Electrication Magazine provides timely insights into the
challenges and solutions of electrifying the diverse transportation
sectormaking this periodical a must-read for anyone responsible
for evaluating and purchasing the numerous related products and
services offered in this burgeoning market.
The publication features myriad industries, from semiconductors to
software, renewable energy to energy storage, and power electronics
to communication networks. You will nd that Electrication is an
invaluable means for reaching the most important players in this space.
Each issue of Electrication will be distributed to more than 40,000
print and digital recipients, which includes guaranteed industry
inuencers with real purchasing power: Senior Project Managers,
Project Engineers, Government Transportation Managers, Software
and Hardware/Systems Engineers, Research Engineers, and more.
IEEE Electrication Magazine is sponsored by
Advertise in
Electrication
Magazine
To Reach Key Decision-Makers
in Transportation Electrication
and Microgrid Technology
To Advertise, please contact:
Scott Hill 312-348-1202 s.hill@jamesgelliott.com
U.S. States east of the Mississippi, Europe,
Caribbean, Eastern Canada
Steven Kinzler 213-596-7239 s.kinzler@jamesgelliott.com
U.S. States west of the Mississippi, Asia,
Central & South America, Western Canada
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Figure 10. The dc voltage characteristics of an LLC converter.

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