Comparison of electrodialysis reversal (EDR) and electrodeionization reversal (EDIR)

for water softening

Hong-Joo Lee
a
, Jung-Hoon Song
b, 1
, Seung-Hyeon Moon
b,

a
Department of Bioenergy Science and Technology, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
b
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 500-712, Republic of Korea
H I G H L I G H T S
Periodical change of the polarity was
examined as a water softening process.
Appropriate current density was cho-
sen for the constant current operation.
Process performances of EDR and EDIR
were compared for water softening.
EDIR process showed a lower electric
resistance and power consumption.
G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
The empirical limiting current density as functions of ow rate and hardness concentration was determined
for the operation current in the electrodeionization reversal (EDIR).
a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 November 2012
Received in revised form 28 December 2012
Accepted 29 December 2012
Available online 30 January 2013
Keywords:
Electrodeionization reversal (EDIR)
Groundwater
Water softening
Ion exchange membrane process
Polarity change
In the present study, EDR (electrodialysis reversal) and EDIR (electrodeionization reversal), ion exchange
membrane processes using periodic change of the polarity, were examined as water softening process. The
LCD (limiting current density) was empirically determined as a function of linear ow velocity with different
hardness concentrations in synthetic solutions. In addition, the inuence of the LCD on the transport phe-
nomena and water splitting were investigated. Accordingly, an appropriate operating current was selected
for the constant current operation based on the LCD.
The process performances of EDR and EDIR were compared for removal of hardness materials from a ground-
water. Water softening performances of both EDR and EDIR processes were performed with various opera-
tion parameters including current density, ow velocity and hardness concentration. The EDIR process
showed notably lower electric resistance and power consumption than the EDR process. The study showed
that the EDIR process with an optimized constant current mode and periodic polarity change could be
used as an effective water softening process by decreasing resistance and power consumption.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Hardness in water systems represents divalent or trivalent cation
species such as calcium, magnesium and, to a less extent, aluminum
and iron. They usually react with soap anions or precipitate in the
Desalination 314 (2013) 4349
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 62 970 2435; fax: +82 62 970 2434.
E-mail address: shmoon@gist.ac.kr (S.-H. Moon).
1
Current address of J.H. Song: Secondary Battery Research Team, Research Institute of
Industrial Science and Technology (RIST), 32 Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk
790-330, Republic of Korea.
0011-9164/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.12.028
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Desalination
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ desal
formof sulfates or carbonates in many streams [1,2]. Various water soft-
ening processes such as ion exchange, nanoltration, and precipitation
have been applied to remove hardness materials from water [35].
Among the processes, ion exchange is broadly used for water softening
due to the easiness of its operation and high hardness removal efcien-
cy. However, it has shortcomings such as the release of exchanged ions
and the periodic chemical regeneration of ion exchange resins.
As an alternative process of ion exchange, electrodialysis (ED), an
electrochemical process using ion exchange membranes in an electric
eld, has been considered for the removal of ionic species including
hardness and organics from electrolytes [6,7]. However, its perfor-
mance decreases due to the deposition of foulants (colloidal particles
and organic materials) in many cases. Change of the electric polarity
is considered as one of the methods to minimize membrane fouling
and increase process performance in the ED system. Until now, the
electrodialysis reversal (EDR) process, an ED process that employs
the periodic change of polarity, has shown good feasibility in many
industrial application areas including water softening and the pro-
duction of potable water [8,9].
Electrodeionization (EDI), an ion exchange membrane process
combined with ED and ion change, has been used to produce
ultrapure water [10,11]. In EDI, ion exchange resins packed between
cation and anion exchange membranes in a diluate compartment re-
move ions with high removal efciency [12,13]. The process perfor-
mance of EDI, however, decreases due to the scale formation on the
surface of resins and membranes as a form of hydroxides when the
solution pH becomes basic during the operation. With the reversal
of the polarity of electrodes, scale formation can be prevented in the
operation, so called electrodeionization reversal (EDIR) [14,15]. Inter-
ests in the periodic change of polarity in EDR and EDIR have increased
due to their environmentally friendly aspect since it can remove
hardness materials without severe scale formation compared with
corresponding conventional ion exchange membrane processes (ED
and EDI).
In general, a high current density affects water dissociation and
scale formation in ion exchange membrane systems. Especially, water
dissociation occurs in a bipolar interface between cation exchange
membrane and anion exchange resins. The water dissociation in the
membrane leads to pH change in the compartment. In addition, scale
formation is a critical consideration in the operation of ion exchange
membrane processes when operated at a higher current density than
the limiting current density (LCD), causing to generate an alkaline envi-
ronment [16,17]. Therefore, the operating current density should be
lower than the LCD value, even though a higher current is preferred
for a high ux.
In a previous study, the EDIR process was applied to remove hard-
ness from tap water with low hardness concentration [16]. It was con-
cluded that EDIR could be used as a promising water softening
process without scale formation. However, the study did not show the
process performance in detail from a practical point of view. Further-
more, Lee et al. studied the inuences of the operation parameters
(ow rate, hardness concentration, and polarity reversal period) on
the process performance and long term experiments using synthetic
solutions [17]. However, the inuence of the current density on the
membrane transport phenomena and the process performances was
not examined in the EDIR system since the study was performed at a
constant voltage.
In the present study, the LCD equation was empirically determined
as a function of ow velocity with different hardness concentration. At
the determined constant current operation, the inuence of the operat-
ing parameters (current density, ow velocity, hardness concentration
and the polarity change) on the hardness removal efciency was inves-
tigated for a wide range of hardness concentrations (between 20
and 300 mg/L as CaCO
3
) in synthetic solutions. Also, EDR and EDIR
were operated to remove hardness from a groundwater in a constant
current operation and to compare their performance.
2. Experimental
2.1. Experimental setup
Both EDR and EDIR systems, which consist of 6 cell pairs in three
hydraulic stages, were operated to remove hardness from synthetic
solution and a groundwater. A schematic illustration of the EDIR system
is found elsewhere [16]. The effective area of Pt coated Ti electrodes for
both anode and cathode was 100 cm
2
with the height of 12.5 cm and
the width of 8.0 cm. The thickness of the compartments was 0.4 cm
each after being packed with resins. The EDIR stack was prepared by
lling a mixture of cation and anion ion exchange resins (mixing ratio
of 2:3) in the rst and third hydraulic stages. Cation exchange resin,
Amberlite IR 120 (Na
+
form) (Rhom and Hass Co., France), and anion
exchange resin, Amberlite IRA 402 (Cl

form), were used for the

setup of the EDIR system. Fig. 1 shows the experimental setup and the
schematic explanation for the polarity change of the EDIR system with
three hydraulic stages.
Ion exchange membranes, NEOSEPTA CMX and AMX (ASTOM
Co., Japan) with an effective area of 100 cm
2
, were used in the exper-
imental setup for the EDR and EDIR operation. Table 1 shows the
properties of ion exchange membranes, which were characterized
with appropriate methods found elsewhere [17].
Feed solutions with different hardness concentrations were pre-
pared for synthetic solutions by dissolving CaCl
2
2H
2
O, MgCl
2
6H
2
O,
and Na
2
SO
4
with the same molar ratio in distilled water. Table 2
shows the composition of prepared synthetic solutions. The concentra-
tionof cations was analyzedinanionchromatography, DX120 (Dionex,
USA).
2.2. Determination of the empirical limiting current density
Currentvoltage relations were obtained by measuring a potential
response for a step-wise increase in current with a digital multimeter,
HP 34401 (Agilent, USA). LCD values were calculated from the inter-
section of two slopes between the ohmic and plateau regions in the
plot of the currentvoltage. The LCD values were determined for differ-
ent hardness concentrations (between 20 and 300 mg/L as CaCO
3
) and
different feed ow rates (between 30 and 120 mL/min) in synthetic
solutions. The ow rates of concentrate and electrode rinse solution
were maintained at 20 mL/min during experiments. A feed solution
containing hardness materials was pumped through three compart-
ments (diluate, concentrate and electrode rinsing compartments).
2.3. Operation of EDR and EDIR systems in the synthetic solutions
The EDR and EDIR systems were operated with different feed ow
rate and hardness concentrations at a constant current after the LCD
values were determined. The operation current density was set at
70% of the determined LCD value through experiments. The feed solu-
tion, containing the hardness concentration from 20 to 110 mg/L as
CaCO
3
, was pumped through three compartments. The ow rates in
the diluate compartment were varied from 30 to 120 mL/min during
the operation. In addition, the inuence of the polarity reversal time
on the process performances was investigated by increasing time
from 15 to 30 min.
2.4. Operation of EDR and EDIR systems in a groundwater
In the present study, the EDR and EDIR systems were operated for
hardness removal from a groundwater. The compositions and the
water quality of the groundwater are shown in Table 3. As shown in
the table, the groundwater consists of 12 mg/L of Ca
2+
and 2.5 mg/L
of Mg
2+
, the total hardness being estimated as 40.5 mg/L as CaCO
3
.
The feed solution was continuously supplied to three compartments
at a ow rate of 60 mL/min. For the hardness removal from the
44 H.-J. Lee et al. / Desalination 314 (2013) 4349
groundwater, the polarity was changed every 20 min during the opera-
tion. The process performances of EDIR for the removal of hardness in
the groundwater were compared with those of EDR under the same ex-
perimental conditions.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Determination of the empirical limiting current density
Through the LCD determination experiments, the current in the
stack was increased step-wisely and the corresponding voltage drop
was measured using a multimeter. Fig. 2(a) shows the currentvoltage
curves obtained for the ED stack consisting of three stages. The LCD
value of three hydraulic stages was determined in a similar plot of the
currentvoltage curve for the stack. The LCD value was determined as
1.15 A/m
2
in the gure at a hardness concentration of 20 mg/L as
CaCO
3
and a ow rate of 90 mL/min. After the current exceeded the
limiting current, the sudden change of slope occurred due to drastic
increase in the boundary layer resistance. The results reect a complete
depletion of salt at the membrane surface facing the dilute solution [18].
At higher current densities than LCD, the sudden increase in resistance
of the membrane cell occurred, which was shown in the cell resistance
plot versus the reciprocal current in Fig. 2(b).
Fig. 3 shows the LCD measurement results as a function of feed
velocity with different hardness concentrations. The gure shows that
the value of LCD increased with the increasing ow rate and hardness
concentration. In this study, the empirical LCD, i
lim,emp
, was estimated
as a function of feed velocity for various feed concentrations using
Eq. (1), i.e.,
i
lim;emp
aCu
b
1
where C represents the concentration of the feedsolution and u the feed
velocity. In addition, a and b in the equation are characteristic constants
depending on the spacer geometry and the feed conditions in a given
stack conguration.
The constants a and b were obtained from a double logarithmic
graph of i
lim,emp
/C over u as explained in the previous study [18]. Fig. 4
shows the values of constants a and b, which was determined as a func-
tion of owrate for different hardness concentration. The characteristic
value of the constant a decreased signicantly with increasing hardness
concentration. Meanwhile, the constant b showed similar values within
a range between 0.6 and 0.8 even with the increasing hardness concen-
tration. Estimation of the empirical LCDshowed that the constant a was
affected by the concentration of an electrolyte condition, while the
constant b was affected by hydrodynamic conditions, as reported in
the previous studies [18,19].
3.2. Inuence of current density on water splitting and transport
phenomena
When an ion exchange membrane process is operated at a higher
current density than LCD, water dissociation occurs on the membrane
surface thus increasing the pH value [20]. From the estimated LCD
value, the EDR experiments were carried out at three current densities,
(a) Before the polarity change
(b) After the polarity change
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration on the EDIR congurations consisting of three hydraulic
stages.
Table 1
Characteristic properties of ion exchange membranes.
CMX AMX Solution condition for
characterization
Electric resistance (cm
2
) 3.07 2.75 0.5 M NaCl
Thickness (mm) 0.17 0.18
Exchange capacity (meq/g dry membrane) 1.8 1.5 0.1 M HCl
Transport number 0.98 0.98 0.5 M KCl/0.1 M KCl
Water content 0.25 0.28 Distilled water
Table 2
Different hardness concentration of synthetic solutions.
Hardness
(mg/L as CaCO
3
)
CaCl
2
2H
2
O
(mol/L)
MgCl
2
6H
2
O
(mol/L)
Na
2
SO
4
(mol/L)
20 0.10 0.10 0.10
50 0.25 0.25 0.25
80 0.40 0.40 0.40
110 0.55 0.55 0.55
160 0.80 0.80 0.80
300 1.50 1.50 1.50
Table 3
Compositions and water quality in the ground water.
Characteristic value
Conductivity (S/cm) 145
pH 7.13
Concentration (mg/L) Na
+
10.9
Ca
2+
12.1
Mg
2+
2.5
SO
4
2
42.3
Cl

6.9
Total hardness (mg/L as CaCO
3
) 40.5
45 H.-J. Lee et al. / Desalination 314 (2013) 4349
i.e., under LCD (70% of LCD), LCD, and above LCD (130% of LCD). Fig. 5
shows the diluate pH at representative current densities for various
hardness concentrations. The pH in the diluate compartment increased
rapidly when the current density was higher than LCD due to water
dissociation on the surface of an anion exchange membrane for all
examined hardness concentrations [20]. With the increasing hardness
concentration, the water dissociation increased further at lower
hardness concentrations due to the concentration depletion in the
boundary layer on the membrane surface. The diluate pH increased up
to 7.6 at the hardness concentration of 20 mg/L as CaCO
3
, while the
diluate pH values were measured as 6.4 at the higher concentrations
(80 and 110 mg/L as CaCO
3
). As the applied current density increased,
the resulting pH value increased more as shown in the gure. The pH
values for examined hardness concentrations were notably increased
at a higher than LCD.
Fig. 6 illustrates water dissociation and transport phenomena
occurring on the interface between an ion exchange membrane and
ion exchange resins with different current densities. In general, water
dissociation becomes dominant especially at a higher current density
than the LCDas explained in the gure. The pHchange at a high current
density increases possibility of the scale formation during the operation
[17]. It is suggested that ion exchange membrane processes should be
operated at a lower current density than LCD to minimize the scale
formation.
3.3. Inuence of operation parameters on the water softening
Table 4 shows the removal efciencies of cations (Na
+
, Ca
2+
and
Mg
2+
) in the EDR system at different current densities. The removal
efciency of ions increased with increasing current density even at a
higher current density than LCD [20,21]. Also the table shows that the
removal efciencies of divalent ions such as Mg
2+
and Ca
2+
ions
were higher than that of monovalent ion (Na
+
) for all examined
current densities. The higher removal efciencies of divalent ions can
(a) Relationship between applied current and voltage
Reciprocal current (1/A)
0 100 200 300 400 500
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
V
/
A
)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Stack
First stage
Second stage
Third stage
(b) Relationship between the reciprocal current
and resistance
Voltage (V)
0 5 10 15 20
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
A
/
m
2
)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Stack
First stage
Second stage
Third stage
Limiting current density
Fig. 2. Determination of the limiting current density (hardness of 20 mg/L as CaCO
3
and ow rate of 90 mL/min).
Flow rate (ml/min)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
L
i
m
i
t
i
n
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
A
/
m
2
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
300 mg/L as CaCO
3
160 mg/L as CaCO
3
110 mg/L as CaCO
3
80 mg/L as CaCO
3
50 mg/L as CaCO
3
20 mg/L as CaCO
3
Fig. 3. Measurement of the empirical limiting current density as functions of ow rate
and hardness concentration.
Hardness (mg/L as CaCO
3
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
a
x
1
0
3

(
A
s
b
m
1
-
b
/
g
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
b
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
Fig. 4. Determination of constants for the empirical limiting current density.
Operation current density
p
H
5.6
6.0
6.4
6.8
7.2
7.6
8.0
20 mg/L as CaCO
3
50 mg/L as CaCO
3
80 mg/L as CaCO
3
110 mg/L as CaCO
3
70 % LCD 130 % LCD LCD
Fig. 5. pH change in diluate as functions of current density and hardness concentration.
46 H.-J. Lee et al. / Desalination 314 (2013) 4349
be explained by the higher mobility of divalent ions than sodium ion
[22]. The removal efciency of Ca
2+
was higher than that of Mg
2+
in
Table 4, which is attributed by the fact that Ca
2+
has a higher adsorp-
tion capacity than Mg
2+
on the cation exchange resins [17,23].
The EDR was performed for hardness removal from synthetic solu-
tions containing different hardness concentrations at a constant current
density. Fig. 7 shows the removal efciencies of divalent and monova-
lent ions at a feed velocity of 60 mL/min. The removal efciencies of
divalent ions showed higher values than that of sodium ions due to
the higher ionic mobility, while those of sodium ions were between
40 and 50%. Also the removal efciencies of divalent cations were
(a) At a lower than the limiting current density
(b) At a higher than the limiting current density
+
Cation exchange resin
Anion exchange resin
Diluate

AMX
AMX
Concentrate
CMX
H
+
OH
-
H
+
OH
-
H
+
OH
-
H
+
OH
-
Diluate
+
AMX
AMX
Concentrate
Cation exchange resin
Anion exchange resin
CMX
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
Ca
2+
SO
4
2-
SO
4
2-
SO
4
2-
SO
4
2-
SO
4
2-
SO
4
2-
Fig. 6. Illustrated explanation on water dissociation and transport phenomena with different current densities.
Table 4
Removal efciencies of cations with different limiting current densities (hardness:
20 mg/L as CaCO
3
, ow rate: 60 mL/min).
Na
+
(%) Mg
2+
(%) Ca
2+
(%)
Under LCD (70% of LCD) 38 58 60
LCD 51 65 71
Over LCD (130% of LCD) 68 85 90
Hardness (mg/L as CaCO
3
)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
R
e
m
o
v
a
l

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Na
+
Ca
2+
Mg
2+
Fig. 7. Removal efciency as a function of hardness concentration in synthetic solutions
(ow rate: 60 mL/min).
47 H.-J. Lee et al. / Desalination 314 (2013) 4349
observed in the range of 60 to 70% even with the increasing hardness
concentrations.
The inuence of ow rate on the removal efciencies of cationic
species was investigated and the results are presented in Fig. 8. As
the ow rate increased, the removal efciencies decreased linearly.
The removal efciency of the divalent cations decreased to about
40% at 120 mL/min. It is suggested that the decreased removal ef-
ciency is due to a shorter contact time between cations and mem-
brane surface or ion exchange resins during the operation.
It is reported that a change of the electric polarity in ion exchange
membrane processes prevents or minimizes membrane fouling and
scale due to the pulsation effects on the membrane surface [24]. Since
increasing the period of the polarity change or the lowfrequency causes
a low pulsation effects on the membrane surface, it is of importance to
determine the appropriate interval of the polarity change for a stable
and reliable operation of the ion exchange membrane systems [17,24].
The inuence of the polarity reversal interval on the conductivity
removal efciency was investigated with different hardness concentra-
tions. The removal efciency decreased linearly as the polarity interval
increased as shown in Fig. 9.
3.4. Water softening in a groundwater using the EDR and EDIR processes
The EDR and EDIR systems were performed for removal of hardness
from the groundwater at a constant current. Scale did not form on the
membrane surfaces during the hardness removal. The performances
of water softening for both systems were compared in terms of current
efciency and the cation removal efciency and the results are shownin
Table 5. The current efciency of the EDIR systemwas estimated as 82%,
higher value than that of the EDR system. The removal efciencies of
divalent cations showed higher than 60%, slightly higher values than
those of the EDR system.
Electric resistances of the stack and three hydraulic stages as a func-
tion of the owrate were estimated in the EDR and EDIR processes, and
the results are shown in Fig. 10. The stack resistance of EDIR process
decreased about 3050% compared with that of the EDR process.
Also, the signicant decrease in the resistance of each hydraulic stage
was observed in the EDIR process. The resistance of the rst stage,
which is the major portion of the total resistance, decreased about
6070% compared with the EDR process.
Considering the total power consumption of EDR and EDIR processes,
the estimated value to treat 1 L water of the EDIR process was 24.2 Wh,
Flow rate (ml/min)
R
e
m
o
v
a
l

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Mg
Ca
Na
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Fig. 8. Removal efciency as a function of ow rate in synthetic solutions (hardness
concentration: 50 mg/L as CaCO
3
).
Polarity reversal (min)
10 15 20 25 30 35
R
e
m
o
v
a
l

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
45
50
55
60
65
20 mg/L as CaCO
3
50 mg/L as CaCO
3
80 mg/L as CaCO
3
110 mg/L as CaCO
3
Fig. 9. Removal efciency according to the polarity reversal interval in synthetic solutions
(ow rate: 60 mL/min).
Table 5
Comparison of the process performance for water softening of the groundwater.
EDR EDIR
Current efciency (%) 74.5(0.7) 82.4(1.0)
Removal efciency of cations (%)
Mg
2+
59.1(1.3) 63.7(1.0)
Ca
2+
55.6(1.6) 61.6(1.3)
Na
+
35.1(0.1) 39.1(1.6)
Flow rate [ml/min]
0 30 60 90 120 150
Flow rate [ml/min]
0 30 60 90 120 150
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

[
]
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Stack
First stage
Second stage
Third stage
(a) EDR process
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Stack
First stage
Second stage
Third stage
(b) EDIR process
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

[
]
Fig. 10. Electric resistances for the water softening from the groundwater.
48 H.-J. Lee et al. / Desalination 314 (2013) 4349
much lower value than that of the EDR process (38.7 Wh/L). This study
shows that the EDIR process could be operated in an economically com-
petitive way when a proper current density is employed using the deter-
mined LCD values.
4. Conclusions
In this study, ion exchange membrane processes using the peri-
odic change of the polarity, EDR (electrodialysis reversal) and EDIR
(electrodeionization reversal), were operated for the removal of
hardness materials from synthetic solutions and a groundwater as a
water softening process. The LCD (limiting current density) was empir-
ically determined as a function of the owvelocity with different hard-
ness concentrations. In addition, the inuence of current density on the
transport phenomena occurring on the membrane surface was investi-
gated in a constant current mode.
When the process was operated at a higher current density than
LCD, the hardness removal efciency increased and the pH notably
changed due to water dissociation on the membrane surface. The EDR
and EDIR processes were operated at a constant current density of
70% of the determined LCD to remove hardness materials and showed
high removal efciency without scale formation using the change of
the polarity. EDIR process showed signicantly lower total resistance
and power consumption than EDR process. The study shows that the
EDIR process could be an economical water softening process when a
proper current density is employed.
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[8] B.V. Pilat, Industrial application of electrodialysis reversal systems, Desalination
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carbonate supersaturated solution, Desalination 158 (2003) 9194.
[10] J.H. Song, K.H. Yeon, S.H. Moon, A study on water dissociation phenomena and
removal performances in a continuous electrodeionization (CEDI) with current
densities, J. Membr. Sci. 291 (2007) 165171.
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regeneration in a continuous electrodeionization (CEDI) system using electrical
impedance spectroscopy, Desalination 207 (2007) 276285.
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electrodeionization, Desalination 250 (2010) 973976.
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solutions using electrodeionization process, Sep. Purif. Technol. 68 (2009) 390396.
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[15] K. Dermentzis, Continuous electrodeionization through electrostatic shielding,
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using electromembrane processes, Desalination 202 (2007) 18.
[17] H.J. Lee, M.K. Hong, S.H. Moon, A feasibility study on water softening by electro-
deionization with the periodic polarity change, Desalination 284 (2012) 221227.
[18] H.J. Lee, H. Strathmann, S.H. Moon, Determination of the limiting current density in
electrodialysis desalination as an empirical function of linear velocity, Desalination
190 (2006) 4350.
[19] H.J. Lee, F. Sarfert, H. Strathmann, S.H. Moon, Designing of an electrodialysis desali-
nation plant, Desalination 142 (2002) 267286.
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[22] L. Marder, E.M.O. Navarro, V. Prez-Herranz, A.M. Bernardes, J.Z. Ferreira, Evaluation
of transition metals transport properties through a cation-exchange membrane by
chronopotentiometry, J. Membr. Sci. 284 (2006) 267275.
[23] T. Sata, T. Sata, W. Yang, Studies on cation-exchange membranes having
permselectivity between cations in electrodialysis, J. Membr. Sci. 206 (2002) 3160.
[24] H.J. Lee, S.H. Moon, S.P. Tsai, Effects of pulsed electric elds on membrane fouling
in electrodialysis of NaCl solution containing humate, Sep. Purif. Technol. 27
(2002) 8995.
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