CHAPTER – I

VECTOR ALGEBRA
INTRODUCTION:
Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Theory is often called Electromagnetics. It is a
subject which deals with electric field, magnetic field and also electromagnetic fields and
phenomena.
EMF Theory is essential to analyze and design all communication and radar
systems. Infact, it is also used in Bio-Systems and in this context it is called Bio-
Electromagnetics. Source of electromagnetic field is electric charges: either at rest or in
motion. However an electromagnetic field may cause a redistribution of charges that in
turn change the field and hence the separation of cause and effect is not always visible.

APPLICATIONS OF EMF THEORY:

1. Communication Systems.
Wireless Communication
Satellite Communication
TV Communication
Cellular Communication
Mobile Communication
Microwave Communication
Fibre-Optic Communication.
2. Electrical Machines
Electro mechanical Energy conversion systems.
Electrical Motors
Transformers
Electrical Relays
3. Radars
Speed-trap radars
Weather forecast radars
Remote sensing radars
Radio astronomy radars
Meteorological radars
4. Industries
Induction heating
Melting and forging
Surface hardening
Annealing
Soldering
Dielectric heating
5. All types of antenna analysis and design.
6. All types of transmission lines and wave guides.

The analysis and design of a system, device or circuit requires the use of some
theory or the other.

1
 The analysis of a system is universally defined as one by which the output is
obtained from the given input and system details.
The design of a system is one by which the system details are obtained from the
given input and output.
These two important tasks of analysis and design are executed by two most
popular theories, namely, CIRCUIT and ELECTROMAGNETIC theories.

COMPARISON OF CIRCUIT AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORIES

Sl.No. Circuit Theory EMF Theory

1 Deals with Voltage (V) and
Current (I).
2 V and I are scalars.
3 V and I are functions of time (t).
4 Radiation effects are neglected.
5 Circuit theory cannot be used to
analyze or design a complete
communication system.
6 It is useful at low frequencies.
7 At low frequencies the length of
connecting wires is very much
smaller than λ.
8 Cannot be applied in free space.
9 Using circuit theory, transmitter
and receiver circuits can be
analyzed and designed. But it
cannot be used to design or
analyze a medium like free
space.
10 Basic laws are Ohm’s law and
Kirchhoff’s law.
11 Basic theorems are Thevenin’s,
Norton’s, Reciprocity,
Superposition, Maximum power
transfer theorems.
12 Basic equations are Mesh/Loop
equations.
Deals with Electric (E) and Magnetic (H)
fields.
E and H are vectors.
E and H are functions of time (t) and space
variables (x, y, z) or (ρ, φ, z) or (r, θ, φ).
Radiation effects can be considered.
Field theory can be used where circuit
theory fails to hold good for the analysis
and design of a communication system.
It is useful at all frequencies, particularly at
high frequencies.
At high frequencies the length of
connecting components are of the order of
λ.
Is applicable in free space.
Using field theory, the medium can also be
analyzed and designed.
Basic laws are Coulomb’s law, Gauss’s
law, Ampere’s circuit law.
Basic theorems are Reciprocity, Helmholtz,
Stoke’s, Divergence and Poynting
theorems.
Basic equations are Maxwell, Poisson,
Laplace and Wave.

2
VECTOR ANALYSIS:

The analysis and design of a system or device is impossible without mathematics.

Mathematics is the backbone of science and engineering. For all analytical or
computational purposes, mathematical background is essentia l. Mathematical modeling
of systems is a common practice.
Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which EM concepts are most
conveniently expressed and best comprehended. Vectors are introduced in physics and
mathematics, primarily in the Cartesian coordinate system. Although Cylindrical
coordinates are found in Calculus texts, the spherical coordinate system is seldom used.
All three coordinate systems must be used in electromagnetics.
A quantity can either be a Scalar or Vector.
The term scalar refers to a quantity whose value may be represented by a single
positive or negative real number. In other words, a scalar is a quantity that has only
magnitude. The x, y, z we speak in basic algebra are scalars and the quantities they
represent are scalars.
Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature, entropy, electric potential
and population are scalars. Voltage is also a scalar quantity, although the complex
representation of a sinusoidal voltage, an artificial procedure, produces a complex scalar,
or phasor, which requires two real numbers for its representation such as amplitude and
phase angle, or real part and imaginary part.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. We shall be concerned with
only two and three – dimensional spaces, but vectors are defined in n - dimensional space
in more advanced applications.
Force, velocity, acceleration, electric field intensity and a straight line from the
positive to the negative terminal of a storage battery are examples of vectors. Each
quantity is characterized by both magnitude and direction.
There is other class of physical quantities called Tensors: where magnitude and
direction vary with coordinate axes.
To distinguish between a scalar and a vector, it is customary to represent a vector
by a letter with an arrow on top of it, such as Ā or Ē, or by a letter in boldface type such
as A and B. A scalar is represented simply by a letter – e.g. A, B, U and V.
EM theory is essentially a study of some particular fields.
A field may be defined mathematically as some function of a vector which connects an
arbitrary origin to a general point in space. Field concept is invariably related to a
region. It is possible to associate some physical effect with a field, such as the force on a
compass needle in the earth’s magnetic field or the movement of smoke particles in the
field defined by the vector velocity of air in some region of space.
Both scalar fields and vector fields exist. The temperature throughout the bowl of
a soup, the density at any point in the earth, sound intensity in a theatre, electric potential
in a region and refractive index of a stratified medium are examples of scalar fields. The
gravitational and magnetic fields of the earth, the voltage gradient in a cable, the
temperature gradient in a soldering – iron tip and velocity of rain drops in the atmosphere
are examples of vector fields. The value of a field varies in general with both position and
time.

3
UNIT VECTOR:
A vector A has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of A is a scalar
written as A or |A|. A Unit Vector, a A along A is defined as a vector whose magnitude is
unity and its direction is along A.

aA = A/|A| = Ā/A
We have,
|a A | = 1. Thus, A can be written as
A = A aA
which completely specifies A in terms of its magnitude A and its direction a A .

To describe a vector in the Rectangular Coordinate System, let us first consider a

vector A or Ā extending outward from the origin. This vector A can be identified by three
component vectors, lying along the three coordinate axes, whose vector sum must be the
given vector. If the component vectors of the vector A are x, y, and z, then, A = x + y + z.

In other words, the component vectors have

magnitudes which depend on the given vector, but they each
have a known and constant direction. This suggests that the
unit vectors have unit magnitude and directed along the
coordinate axes in the direction of the increasing coordinate
values.

Thus, vector Ā in Cartesian coordinates may be

represented as
Ā = (A x, Ay , Az )
Or
Ā = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z
where A x, Ay , Az are called the components of A in the x, y and z directions respectively
and a x , a y, a z are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions.

The magnitude of vector Ā or A is given by

A = Ā = √(Ax² + Ay ² + Az²)
and the unit vector along A or Ā is given by
aA = (Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az)/ √(Ax² + Ay ² + Az²)
Properties of Unit Vectors:
i. ax . ax = ay . ay = az . a z = 1
ii. ax x ax = ay x a y = az x a z = 0
iii. ax x ay = a z
iv. ax . ay = 0
v. ay x ax = - az

4
Vector Algebra:

1. Addition and Subtraction:

Two vectors A and B can be added together to give another vector C, that is
C=A+B
The vector addition is carried out component by component.
Thus, if A = (Ax , Ay, Az) and B = (Bx,By, Bz) ,
C = (Ax + Bx) a x + (Ay + By) a y + (Az + Bz) a z

Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as

D = A – B = A + (-B)
= (Ax - Bx) a x + (Ay - By) a y + (Az - Bz) a z
Graphical representation of Vector Addition and Subtraction:

Vector addition obeys

i. Commutative law
A + B = B + A (Addition) : kA = A k (Multiplication)
ii. Associative law
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C : k(lA) = (kl)A
iii. Distributive law
k(A + B) = kA + kB

5
Position and Distance Vector:
A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be represented by (x, y, z).
“The position vector, rp (or radius vector) of point P is as the directed sitance
from the origin O to P.”
rp = OP = x a x + y a y + z a z.

The position vector of point P is useful in defining its position in space.

Ex: Point P (3, 4, 5) and its position vector 3 a x + 4 a y + 5 a z are as shown.
“The distance vector is the displacement from one point to another.”
If two points ‘P’ and ‘Q’ are given by (xp , yp , zp ) and (xq, yq, zq), the distance vector (or
separation vector) is the displacement from
‘P’ to ‘Q’ as shown.
rpq = rq - rp
= (xq - xp )a x + (yq - yp )a y +(zq - zp )a z.
Note that point P is not a vector, only
position vector of ‘P’ i.e., rp is only the
vector.

2. Vector Multiplication:
The product of two vectors A and
B is either a scalar or vector depending on
the manner how they are multiplied. There are two
types of vector multiplication.
 Scalar or Dot Product: A. B.
 Vector or Cross Product: A X B.

Dot Product:
The dot product of two vectors A and B
written as A. B is defined geometrically as the
product of magnitudes of A and B and the cosine
of the smaller angle between them.
A.B = |A| |B| cos θAB

The dot product of two vectors yields a scalar. If A = (Ax,, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx,By, Bz) , then
A.B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by component.

It is to be noted that scalar or dot product obeys the commutative law.

i.e. A.B = B.A
Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal i.e. perpendicular if their dot product is
zero.
i.e. A.B = 0
Conversely, we can say that if the dot product of two vectors A and B is zero, and neither
of the vectors is zero, then they are perpendicular.
The scalar product of a vector with itself yields the square of its magnitude.

6
Thus,
A.A = | A| | A| cos 0° = A2

The scalar product of a vector and a unit vector yields the component of the
vector in the unit vector direction. Thus, we have
Ax .A = | Ax| | A| cos α = Ax
Ay .A = | Ay| | A| cos β = Ay
Az .A = | Az| | A| cos γ = Az
Where cos α, cos β and cos γ are the direction cosines with α the angle between A and x-
axis, β the angle between A and y-axis and γ the angle between A and z-axis.

The dot product obeys the Distributive Law.

A.(B+C) =
A.B + A.C

The dot product of unit

vectors in the rectangular
coordinate system is as
follows:
ax.ay = ay.az = a z.ax = 0
but,
ax.ax = ay. ay = az. az = 1
In other words, the scalar
or dot product of one
coordinate unit vector with
a different one is always
zero, while the scalar
product of a unit vector
with itself is always unity (
for orthogonal system).

The Line Integral:

An important application of the scalar product involves the line integral. Suppose
we move along a curved path from point P 1 to P2 in a radial force field F acting on an
object in the r (radial) direction. At any point ‘P’ the product of a path length dL and the
component of F parallel to it is given by
F cos θ dL = FL dL
where,
FL = component of F in the direction of path and
θ = angle between positive directions of path and F.
From the figure, it is clear that the component of dL in the r (and F) direction is given by
dr = cos θ dL

Using vector notation, we have

F.dL = Fcos θ dL= FL dL = F dr.

7
where dL = vector incremental length (magnitude dL in the direction of path).
The product of a force F and a distance dr represents an incremental amount of
work dW done by the force F in moving an object a distance cos θ dL = dr.
Thus,
dW = F.dL = F cos θ dL
If the path is broken up into segments parallel and perpendicular to F, we note from
above equation that contributions to the work occur only for the segments parallel to F (θ
= 0°) with no work for the segments perpendicular to F (θ = 90°). Summing up the
contributions of the segments parallel to F, we obtain the total work W between the end
points of the point. For finite length segments dL, this value is approximate.

As dL → 0, it becomes exact as given by

P2 (end)
W = ∫ F .dL
P1 (start)
where, P1 = starting point (lower limit of integration)
P2 = end point (upper limit of integration)
The formulation of above equation is called a line integral giving the total work W done
by F on an object (equals energy imparted to the object) moved over the path from P 1 to
P2 .

Ex.1: Work in Linear Field

A force field F is in the x-direction and increases linearly with distance x. Thus,
F = x a x. Find the work done by the force F in moving an object from a point x = 1 to a
point x = 2.

Sol. F.dL = x dx, so

2 2
W = ∫F.dL = ∫x dx = ½ x2 | = 3/2
1 1

If F is in Newton and x is in meters, the work is in joules.

Ex.2: Work in Radial Field

A radial force field F decreases with distance as given by F = r-2 a r. Find the work
done in moving from a point at r = √2 to a point at r = 2√2 by a direct path and one
following rectangular coordinates.

Sol. 1) F.dL = r-2 a r

2√2
W = ∫ F.dL = ∫ r-2 dr
√2

8
 2√2
= - (1/r)|
√2

= 1/(2√2)

2) Instead of integrating along the direct path from r = √2 (at (x, y) = (1, 1)) to r =
2√2 (at (x, y) = (2, 2)), let us follow a rectangular coordinate path from x, y = 1, 1 to x, y
= 2, 1 (constant y) and then from x, y = 2, 1 to x, y = 2, 2 (constant x).

Thus for constant y path, we have

(F.dL)y = a r/(x2 + y2 ) . a x dx

where a r . a x = cos 45° = x/(x2 + y2 ) and

(F.dL)x = x/((x2 + y2 ) √(x2 + y2 ))

Since x = y and dx = dy, the x-constant and y-constant terms are equal. Thus, the total
work is twice the work for y-constant path.

2
i.e. W = ∫F.dL = 2∫ x/((x2 + y2 ) √(x2 + y2 )) dx
1
2 2 2
2 (3/2) 2
=2∫ x/(2x ) dx = (2/√8) ∫ (1/x )dx = (-1/√2) (1/x) |
1 1 1
= 1/(2√2)

Note:
For a vector like F, the line integral depends only on the end points so we could follow
any path. Further, if we integrate F around a closed path, starting say at x, y = 1, 1 and
ending back at x, y = 1, 1, the result is zero.
Thus,
∮ F. dL = 0
where ∮ indicates integration around a closed path. Any field for which the line integral
around a closed path is zero is called a conservative or lamellar field. Not all fields are
lamellar.

Proble ms:

1. Find the work required to move a 5kg mass from x = 0, y = 0 to x = 8, y = 7m

against a force F = x2 a x N.
2. Find the work done in lifting a 6 – tonne (m = 6 x 103 kg) satellite to GSO, height
= 37,000 km. The force of gravity is
F = (G ms me )/r2 a r N

9
 Where,
ms = mass of satellite, kg.
me = mass of earth = 6 x 1024 kg.
r = distance of satellite from centre of earth, m
G = gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
The circumference of earth = 40, 000 km.

Cross Product:
The cross product of two vectors A and B, written as A X B, is a vector
quantity whose magnitude is the area of the parallelepiped formed by A and B and is in
the direction of advance of a right – handed screw as A is turned into B.
Thus,
A X B = AB sinθAB a n

Where,
an is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B.
θAB is the smaller angle between the two vectors.
The direction of a n is taken as the direction of the right thumb when the fingers of the
right hand rotate from A to B.

If A = (Ax, ,Ay, Az) and B = (Bx,By, Bz) , then

AXB=

A X B = (Ay Bz - Az By ) a x + (Az Bx - Ax Bz) a y + (Ax By - Ay Bx ) a z

which is obtained by crossing the terms in cyclic permutation.

Reversing the order of the vectors A and B results in a unit vector in the opposite
direction, and we see that the cross product is not commutative, for B X A = - (A X B).
If the definition of cross product is applied to the unit vectors a x and a y, we find
ax X ay = az
for each vector has unit magnitude, the two vectors are perpendicular, and the rotation of
ax into ay indicates the positive z – direction by the definition of a right – handed
coordinate system. In a similar way,
ay X az = ax
az X ax = ay
Cross Product has the following basic properties:
1. It is not commutative:
AXB≠BXA
It is anti – commutative:

A X B = - (B X A)

10
 2. It is not associative:
A X (B X C) ≠ (A X B) X C
3. It is distributive:
AX (B + C) = A X B + A X C
4. A X A = 0

A simple example of the use of the cross product may be taken from geometry or
trigonometry. To find the area of the parallelogram, the product of the lengths of the two
adjacent sides is multiplied by the sine of the angle between them. Using vector notation
for the two sides, we then may express the (scalar) area as the magnitude of A X B or
|A X B|.

Ex.1. Vector A = 8 a x + 3 a y - 10 a z and vector B = -15 a x + 6 a y + 17 a z. Find A X B

Sol. A X B = (Ay Bz - Az By ) a x + (Az Bx - Ax Bz) a y + (Ax By - Ay Bx ) a z

⇒ A X B = (3*17 + 10*6) a x + (10*15 – 8*17) a y + (8*6 + 3*15) a z
= 111 a x + 14 a y + 93 a z

Proble ms:

1) Vector A = 20 a y – 5 a z and B = -6 a x + 14 a y. Find A X B.

2) The three vertices of a triangle are located at A(6, -1, 2), B(-2, 3, -4) and
C(-3, 1, 5). Find
a) RAB X RAC
b) the area of the triangle.
c) A unit vector perpendicular to the plane in which the triangle is located.

Scalar Triple Product:

Just as multiplication of two vectors gives a scalar or vector result, multiplicat ion
of three vectors A, B and C gives a scalar or vector result depending on how the vectors
are multiplied. Thus, we have scalar or vector triple product.
Given three vectors A, B and C, we define the scalar triple product as
A.(B X C) = B. (C X A) = C. (A X B)
obtained in cyclic permutation. If A = (Ax, ,Ay, Az), B = (Bx,, By, Bz) and C = (Cx,,Cy, Cz), then
A.(B X C) is the volume of a parallelepiped having A, B and C,

i.e. A.(B X C) =

Since the result of this vector multiplication is scalar, it is called scalar triple product.

Vector Triple Product:

For vector A, B and C, we define the vector triple product as,
A X (B X C) = B. (A.C) - C. (A.B)

11
It should be noted that
(A . B) C ≠ A (B.C)
but
(A . B) C = C (A.B)

Practice Exercise:

1. Find the vector A directed from (2, -4, 1) to (0, -2, 0) in Cartesian coordinates and
find the unit vector along A.
2. Given the vector field, F = 0.4(y – 2x) a x – (200/(x2 +y2 +z2 )) a z.
a) Evaluate |F| at P(-4, 3, 5)
b) Find a unit vector specifying the direction of F at P.
Describe the locus of all points for which
c) Fx = 1
d) |Fz| = 2
3. Let E = 3 a y + 4 a z and F = 4 a x - 10 a y + 5 a z.
a) Find the component of E along F
b) Determine a unit vector perpendicular to both E and F.
4. Show that a = (4, 0, -1), b = (1, 3, 4) and c = (-5, -3, -3) form the sides of a
triangle. Is this a right – angled triangle? Calculate the area of the triangle.
5. Given points A(2, 5, -1), B(3, -2, 4) and C(-2, 3, 1), find
a) RAB, R AC.
b) The angle between RAB and RAC.
c) The length of projection of RAB on RAC.
d) The vector projection of RAB on RAC
6. A triangle is defined by the three points A (2, -5, 1), B (-3, 2, 4) and C (0, 3, 1).
Find
a) RBC X RBA
b) The area of the triangle
c) A unit vector perpendicular to the plane in which the triangle is located.
7. Show that A = 4 a x - 2 a y - a z and B = a x + 4 a y - 4a z are perpendicular.
8. Given A = a x + a y, B = a x + 2a z, C = 2a y + a z, find (A X B) X C and compare it
with A X (B X C).
9. Using the vectors given above find A.BXC and compare it with A X B.C

12