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Title( The Religion of the Ancient Celts
Author( J. A. MacCulloch
Release )ate( January *+, +,,- ./Book 0*123+4
.)ate last u%!ate!( )ece"ber *1, +,,-4
'anguage( /nglish
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The scientific stu!y of ancient Celtic religion is a thing of recent
groth. As a result of the %aucity of "aterials for such a stu!y,
earlier riters in!ulge! in the il!est s%eculati#e flights an!
connecte! the religion ith the !istant /ast, or sa in it the re"ains
of a "onotheistic faith or a series of esoteric !octrines #eile! un!er
%olytheistic cults. ?ith the orks of MM. Gai!oH, Bertran!, an! )'Arbois
!e Jubain#ille in 9rance, as ell as by the %ublication of 6rish teIts
by such scholars as )rs. ?in!isch an! 5tokes, a ne era "ay be sai! to
ha#e !ane!, an! a floo! of light as %oure! u%on the scanty re"ains of
Celtic religion. 6n this country the %lace of honour a"ong stu!ents of
that religion belongs to 5ir John Rh.Jy4s, hose :ibbert 'ectures K8n
the 8rigin an! Groth of Religion as illustrate! by Celtic :eathen!o"K
>*FF2@ as an e%och&"aking ork. /#ery stu!ent of the subject since that
ti"e feels the i""ense !ebt hich he oes to the in!efatigable
researches an! the brilliant suggestions of 5ir John Rh.Jy4s, an! 6
oul! be ungrateful if 6 !i! not recor! "y in!ebte!ness to hi". 6n his
:ibbert 'ectures, an! in his later "asterly ork on KThe Arthurian
'egen!K, hoe#er, he took the stan!%oint of the B"ythologicalB school,
an! ten!e! to see in the ol! stories "yths of the sun an! !an an! the
!arkness, an! in the !i#inities sun&go!s an! !an&go!!esses an! a host
of !ark %ersonages of su%ernatural character. The %resent riter,
stu!ying the subject rather fro" an anthro%ological %oint of #ie an! in
the light of "o!ern folk sur#i#als, has foun! hi"self in !isagree"ent
ith 5ir John Rh.Jy4s on "ore than one occasion. But he is con#ince!
that 5ir John oul! be the last %erson to resent this, an! that, in
s%ite of his "ythological inter%retations, his :ibbert 'ectures "ust
re"ain as a source of ins%iration to all Celtic stu!ents. More recently
the stu!ies of M. 5alo"on Reinach an! of M. )ottin, an! the #aluable
little book on KCeltic ReligionK, by Professor Anyl, ha#e broken fresh
groun!..*4
6n this book 6 ha#e "a!e use of all the a#ailable sources, an! ha#e
en!ea#oure! to stu!y the subject fro" the co"%arati#e %oint of #ie an!
in the light of the anthro%ological "etho!. 6 ha#e also inter%rete! the
earlier cults by "eans of recent folk&sur#i#als o#er the Celtic area
here#er it has see"e! legiti"ate to !o so. The results are su""arise!
in the intro!uctory cha%ter of the ork, an! stu!ents of religion, an!
es%ecially of Celtic religion, "ust ju!ge ho far they for" a true
inter%retation of the earlier faith of our Celtic forefathers, "uch of
hich rese"bles %ri"iti#e religion an! folk&belief e#eryhere.
;nfortunately no Celt left an account of his on religion, an! e are
left to our on inter%retations, "ore or less #ali!, of the eIisting
"aterials, an! to the light she! on the" by the co"%arati#e stu!y of
religions. As this book as ritten !uring a long resi!ence in the 6sle
of 5kye, here the ol! language of the %eo%le still sur#i#es, an! here
the Kgenius lociK s%eaks e#eryhere of things re"ote an! strange, it "ay
ha#e been easier to atte"%t to realise the ancient religion there than
in a busier or "ore %rosaic %lace. $et at e#ery %oint 6 ha#e felt ho
"uch oul! ha#e been gaine! coul! an ol! Celt or )rui! ha#e re#isite!
his for"er haunts, an! %er"itte! "e to Luestion hi" on a hun!re! "atters
hich "ust re"ain obscure. But this, alas, "ight not beM
6 ha#e to thank Miss Turner an! Miss Annie Gilchrist for #aluable hel%
ren!ere! in the ork of research, an! the 'on!on 'ibrary for obtaining
for "e se#eral orks not alrea!y in its %ossession. 6ts stores are an
in#aluable ai! to all stu!ents orking at a !istance fro" libraries.
J.A. MACC;''8C:.
T:/ R/CT8R$,
BR6)G/ 89 A''A<,
K8ctoberK *G**.
988T<8T/5(
.*4 5ee also "y article BCeltsB in :astings' K/ncyclo%ae!ia of Religion
an! /thicsK, #ol. iii.
.TRA<5CR6B/R'5 <8T/( Throughout this book, so"e characters are use!
hich are not %art of the 'atin&* character set use! in this e&book. The
string B.Jy4B is use! to re%resent a loer&case B$B ith a circu"fleI
"ark on to% of it, B.Na4B is use! to re%resent a loer&case BAB ith a
line on to% of it, an! B.oe4B is use! to re%resent the BoeB&ligature.
<u"bers in braces such as BOEPB are use! to re%resent the su%erscri%tion
of nu"bers, hich as use! in the book to gi#e e!ition nu"bers to
books.4
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>KThis list is not a Bibliogra%hy.K@
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*G,-.
B/RTRA<)( A. Bertran!, KReligion !es gaulois.K Paris, *FG3.
CAMPB/'', K?:TK( J.9. Ca"%bell, KPo%ular Tales of the ?est :ighlan!s.K 1
#ols. /!inburgh, *FG,.
CAMPB/'' K'9K( J.9. Ca"%bell, K'eabhar na 9einne.K 'on!on, *F3+.
CAMPB/'', K5u%erstitionsK( J.G. Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitions of the
:ighlan!s an! 6slan!s of 5cotlan!.K *G,,.
CAMPB/'', K?itchcraftK( J.G. Ca"%bell, K?itchcraft an! 5econ! 5ight in
the :ighlan!s an! 6slan!s of 5cotlan!.K *G,+.
C8RMAC( KCor"ac's Glossary.K Tr. by J. 8')ono#an. /!. by ?. 5tokes.
Calcutta, *F2F.
C8;RC/''/&&5/</;6'.( J.'. Courcelle&5eneuil, K'es !ieuI gaulois !'a%res
les "onu"ents figures.K Paris, *G*,.
KC6'K( KCor%us 6nscri%tionu" 'atinaru".K Berlin, *F2E f.
KCMK( KCeltic MagaHine.K 6n#erness, *F3- f.
C;RT6<, K:T6K( J. Curtin, K:ero Tales of 6relan!.K *FG1.
C;RT6<, KTalesK( J. Curtin, KTales of the 9airies an! Ghost ?orl!.K
*FG-.
)A'R/''( 5ir J.G. )alHell, K)arker 5u%erstitions of 5cotlan!.K *FE-.
)'ARB865( :. )'Arbois !e Jubain#ille, KCours !e litterature celtiLue.K
*+ #ols. Paris, *FFE&*G,+.
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*G,1.
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!ieuI celtiLues a for"es !'ani"auI.K Paris, *G,2.
)'ARB865 KP:K( :. )'Arbois !e Jubain#ille, K'es %re"iers habitants !e
l'/uro%e.K + #ols. Paris, *FFG&*FG1.
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)8TT6<( G. )ottin, KManuel %our ser#ir a l'etu!e !e l'antiLuite
celtiLue.K Paris, *G,2.
/'T8<( C.6. /lton, K8rigins of /nglish :istory.K 'on!on, *FG,.
9RAR/R, KGBKO+P( J.G. 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P. E #ols. *G,,.
G;/5T( 'a!y Guest, KThe Mabinogion.K E #ols. 'lan!o#ery, *F1G.
:AR'6TT( ?.C. :aHlitt, K9aiths an! 9olk&lore( A )ictionary of <ational
Beliefs, 5u%erstitions, an! Po%ular Custo"s.K + #ols. *G,-.
:8')/R( A. :ol!er, KAltceltischer 5%rachschatH.K E #ols. 'ei%Hig, *FG*
f.
:;''( Miss /. :ull, KThe Cuchullin 5aga.K 'on!on, *FGF.
K6TK( 5ee ?in!isch&5tokes.
KJA6K( KJournal of the Anthro%ological 6nstitute.K 'on!on, *F3* f.
J8$C/, K8CRK( P.?. Joyce, K8l! Celtic Ro"ancesKO+P. 'on!on, *FG1.
J8$C/, KP<K( P.?. Joyce, K:istory of 6rish <a"es of PlacesKO1P. + #ols.
'on!on, *G,*.
J8$C/, K5:K( P.?. Joyce, K5ocial :istory of Ancient 6relan!.K + #ols.
'on!on, *G,E.
J;''6A<( C. Jullian, KRecherches sur la religion gauloise.K Bor!eauI,
*G,E.
=/AT6<G( =eating, K:istory of 6relan!.K Tr. 8'Mahony. 'on!on, *F22.
=/<</)$( P. =enne!y, K'egen!ary 9ictions of the 6rish Celts.K *F22.
'ARM6<6/( ?. 'ar"inie, K?est 6rish 9olk&Tales an! Ro"ances.K *FGE.
'/A:$( 'eahy, K:eroic Ro"ances of 6relan!.K + #ols. 'on!on, *G,-.
'/ BRAR( A. 'e BraH, K'a 'egen!e !e la Mort cheH les Bretons
ar"oricains.K + #ols. Paris, *G,+.
K''K( K'eabhar 'aignechK >Book of 'einster@, facsi"ile re%rint. 'on!on,
*FF,.
'8T:( 'oth, K'e Mabinogion.K + #ols. Paris, *FFG.
K';K( K'eabhar na h&;i!hreK >Book of the )un Co@, facsi"ile re%rint.
'on!on, *F3,.
MACBA6<( A. MacBain, K/ty"ological )ictionary of the Gaelic 'anguage.K
6n#erness, *FG2.
MAC)8;GA''( Mac!ougall, K9olk an! :ero Tales.K 'on!on, *FG*.
MAC=6<'A$( J.M. Mackinlay, K9olk&lore of 5cottish 'ochs an! 5%rings.K
Glasgo, *FGE.
MART6<( M. Martin, K)escri%tion of the ?estern 6slan!s of 5cotlan!KO+P.
'on!on, *3*2.
MA;R$( A. Maury, KCroyances et legen!es !u Moyen Age.K Paris, *FG2.
M8<<6/R( ). Monnier, KTra!itions %o%ulaires co"%arees.K Paris, *F-1.
M88R/( A.?. Moore, K9olk&lore of the 6sle of Man.K *FG*.
<;TT&M/$/R( A. <utt an! =. Meyer, KThe Coyage of Bran.K + #ols. 'on!on,
*FG-&*FG3.
8'C;RR$ KMCK( /. 8'Curry, KManners an! Custo"s of the Ancient 6rish.K 1
#ols. 'on!on, *F3E.
8'C;RR$ KM5. MatK( /. 8'Curry, KM5. Materials of Ancient 6rish :istory.K
)ublin, *F2*.
8'GRA)$( 5.:. 8'Gra!y, K5il#a Ga!elica.K + #ols. *FG+.
R//5( Re#. ?.J. Rees, K'i#es of Ca"bro&British 5aints.K 'lan!o#ery,
*F-E.
R/6<AC:, B9( 5. Reinach, KBronHes 9igures !e la Gaule ro"aine.K Paris,
*G,,.
R/6<AC:, B9 KCatal. 5o""aireK( 5. Reinach, KCatalogue Co""aire !u Musee
!es AntinLuitee <ationalesKO1P. Paris.
R/6<AC:, B9 CMR( 5. Reinach, KCultes, Mythes, et Religions.K + #ols.
Paris, *G,-.
RC( KRe#ue CeltiLue.K Paris, *F3, f.
R/</'( C. Renel, KReligions !e la Gaule.K Paris *G,2.
R:.J$45, KA'K( 5ir John Rh.Jy4s, KThe Arthurian 'egen!.K 8Ifor!, *FG*.
R:.J$45, KCBKO1P( 5ir John Rh.Jy4s, KCeltic BritainKO1P. 'on!on, *G,F.
R:.J$45, KC9'K( 5ir John Rh.Jy4s, KCeltic 9olk&'ore.K + #ols. 8Ifor!,
*G,*.
R:.J$45, K:'K( 5ir John Rh.Jy4s, K:ibbert 'ectures on Celtic
:eathen!o".K 'on!on, *FFF.
5/B6''8T( P. 5ebillot, K'a 9olk&lore !e la 9rance.K 1 #ols. Paris, *G,1
f.
5=/</( ?.9. 5kene, K9our Ancient Books of ?ales.K + #ols. /!inburgh,
*F2F.
5T8=/5, KT6GK( ?hitley 5tokes, KThree 6rish Glossaries.K 'on!on, *F2+.
5T8=/5, KTri%. 'ifeK( ?hitley 5tokes, KThe Tri%artite 'ife of Patrick.K
'on!on *FF3.
5T8=/5, K;5K( ?hitley 5tokes, K;rkeltischer 5%rachschatH.K Goettingen,
*FG1 >in 9ick's KCergleichen!e ?oerterbuchKO1P@.
TA$'8R( 6. Taylor, K8rigin of the Aryans.K 'on!on, n.!.
KT5CK( KTransactions of 5ociety of Cy""ro!or.K
KT85K( KTransactions of the 8ssianic 5ociety.K )ublin *F-1&*F2*.
KTri%. 'ifeK( 5ee 5tokes.
?6')/( 'a!y ?il!e, KAncient 'egen!s an! 5u%erstitions of 6relan!.K +
#ols. *FF3.
?6<)65C:, KTainK( /. ?in!isch, K)ie altirische :el!ensage Tain Bo
Cualgne.K 'ei%Hig, *G,-.
?6<)65C:&5T8=/5, K6TK( /. ?in!isch an! ?. 5tokes, K6rische TeIte.K
'ei%Hig, *FF, f.
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*G,E.
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C:APT/R 6.
6<TR8);CT8R$.
To su""on a !ea! religion fro" its forgotten gra#e an! to "ake it tell
its story, oul! reLuire an enchanter's an!. 8ther ol! faiths, of
/gy%t, Babylon, Greece, Ro"e, are knon to us. But in their case
liturgies, "yths, theogonies, theologies, an! the accessories of cult,
re"ain to yiel! their re%ort of the outar! for" of hu"an belief an!
as%iration. :o scanty, on the other han!, are the recor!s of Celtic
religionM The bygone faith of a %eo%le ho ha#e ins%ire! the orl! ith
noble !rea"s "ust be constructe! %ainfully, an! often in fear an!
tre"bling, out of frag"entary an!, in "any cases, transfor"e! re"ains.
?e ha#e the surface obser#ations of classical obser#ers, !e!ications in
the Ro"ano&Celtic area to go!s "ostly assi"ilate! to the go!s of the
conLuerors, figure! "onu"ents "ainly of the sa"e %erio!, coins, sy"bols,
%lace an! %ersonal na"es. 9or the 6rish Celts there is a "ass of ritten
"aterial foun! "ainly in ele#enth an! telfth century M55. Much of this,
in s%ite of alteration an! eIcision, is base! on !i#ine an! heroic
"yths, an! it also contains occasional notices of ritual. 9ro" ?ales
co"e !ocu"ents like the KMabinogionK, an! strange %oe"s the %ersonages
of hich are ancient go!s transfor"e!, but hich tell nothing of rite or
cult..+4 Caluable hints are furnishe! by early ecclesiastical !ocu"ents,
but "ore i"%ortant is eIisting folk&custo", hich %reser#es so "uch of
the ol! cult, though it has lost its "eaning to those ho no use it.
9olk&tales "ay also be inLuire! of, if e !iscri"inate beteen hat in
the" is Celtic an! hat is uni#ersal. 'astly, Celtic burial&"oun!s an!
other re"ains yiel! their testi"ony to ancient belief an! custo".
9ro" these sources e try to rebuil! Celtic %aganis" an! to guess at its
inner s%irit, though e are orking in the tilight on a hea% of
frag"ents. <o Celt has left us a recor! of his faith an! %ractice, an!
the unritten %oe"s of the )rui!s !ie! ith the". $et fro" these
frag"ents e see the Celt as the seeker after Go!, linking hi"self by
strong ties to the unseen, an! eager to conLuer the unknon by religious
rite or "agic art. 9or the things of the s%irit ha#e ne#er a%%eale! in
#ain to the Celtic soul, an! long ago classical obser#ers ere struck
ith the religiosity of the Celts. They neither forgot nor transgresse!
the la of the go!s, an! they thought that no goo! befell "en a%art fro"
their ill..E4 The sub"ission of the Celts to the )rui!s shos ho they
elco"e! authority in "atters of religion, an! all Celtic regions ha#e
been characterise! by religious !e#otion, easily %assing o#er to
su%erstition, an! by loyalty to i!eals an! lost causes. The Celts ere
born !rea"ers, as their eILuisite /lysiu" belief ill sho, an! "uch
that is s%iritual an! ro"antic in "ore than one /uro%ean literature is
!ue to the".
The analogy of religious e#olution in other faiths hel%s us in
reconstructing that of the Celts. Though no historic Celtic grou% as
racially %ure, the %rofoun! influence of the Celtic te"%era"ent soon
BCelticise!B the religious contributions of the non&Celtic ele"ent hich
"ay alrea!y ha#e ha! "any Celtic %arallels. Because a gi#en Celtic rite
or belief see"s to be Bun&Aryan,B it nee! not necessarily be borroe!.
The Celts ha! a sa#age %ast, an!, conser#ati#e as they ere, they ke%t
"uch of it ali#e. 8ur business, therefore, lies ith Celtic religion as
a hole. These %ri"iti#e ele"ents ere there before the Celts "igrate!
fro" the ol! BAryanB ho"eA yet since they a%%ear in Celtic religion to
the en!, e s%eak of the" as Celtic. The earliest as%ect of that
religion, before the Celts beca"e a se%arate %eo%le, as a cult of
nature s%irits, or of the life "anifeste! in nature. But "en an! o"en
%robably ha! se%arate cults, an!, of the to, %erha%s that of the latter
is "ore i"%ortant. As hunters, "en orshi%%e! the ani"als they sle,
a%ologising to the" for the slaughter. This a%ologetic attitu!e, foun!
ith all %ri"iti#e hunters, is of the nature of a cult. 8ther ani"als,
too sacre! to be slain, oul! be %reser#e! an! orshi%%e!, the cult
gi#ing rise to !o"estication an! %astoral life, ith tote"is" as a
%robable factor. /arth, %ro!ucing #egetation, as the fruitful "otherA
but since the origin of agriculture is "ainly !ue to o"en, the /arth
cult oul! be %ractise! by the", as ell as, later, that of #egetation
an! corn s%irits, all regar!e! as fe"ale. As "en began to interest
the"sel#es in agriculture, they oul! join in the fe"ale cults, %robably
ith the result of changing the seI of the s%irits orshi%%e!. An
/arth&go! oul! take the %lace of the /arth&"other, or stan! as her
consort or son. Cegetation an! corn s%irits oul! often beco"e "ale,
though "any s%irits, e#en hen they ere eIalte! into !i#inities,
re"aine! fe"ale.
?ith the groth of religion the #aguer s%irits ten!e! to beco"e go!s an!
go!!esses, an! orshi%ful ani"als to beco"e anthro%o"or%hic !i#inities,
ith the ani"als as their sy"bols, atten!ants, or #icti"s. An! as the
cult of #egetation s%irits centre! in the ritual of %lanting an! soing,
so the cult of the !i#inities of groth centre! in great seasonal an!
agricultural festi#als, in hich the key to the groth of Celtic
religion is to be foun!. But the "igrating Celts, conLuering ne lan!s,
e#ol#e! !i#inities of arA an! here the ol! fe"ale influence is still at
ork, since "any of these are fe"ale. 6n s%ite of %ossessing so "any
local ar&go!s, the Celts ere not "erely "en of ar. /#en the KeLuitesK
engage! in ar only hen occasion arose, an! agriculture as ell as
%astoral in!ustry as constantly %ractise!, both in Gaul an! Britain,
before the conLuest..14 6n 6relan!, the belief in the !e%en!ence of
fruitfulness u%on the king, shos to hat eItent agriculture flourishe!
there..-4 Music, %oetry, crafts, an! tra!e ga#e rise to culture
!i#inities, %erha%s e#ol#e! fro" go!s of groth, since later "yths
attribute! to the" both the origin of arts an! crafts, an! the
intro!uction of !o"estic ani"als a"ong "en. Possibly so"e culture go!s
ha! been orshi%ful ani"als, no orshi%%e! as go!s, ho ha! gi#en these
ani"als to "an. Culture&go!!esses still hel! their %lace a"ong
culture&go!s, an! ere regar!e! as their "others. The %ro"inence of
these !i#inities shos that the Celts ere "ore than a race of arriors.
The %antheon as thus a large one, but on the hole the !i#inities of
groth ere "ore generally i"%ortant. The ol!er nature s%irits an!
!i#ine ani"als ere ne#er Luite forgotten, es%ecially by the folk, ho
also %reser#e! the ol! rituals of #egetation s%irits, hile the go!s of
groth ere orshi%%e! at the great festi#als. $et in essence the loer
an! the higher cults ere one an! the sa"e, an!, sa#e here Ro"an
influence !estroye! Celtic religion, the ol!er %ri"iti#e stran!s are
e#eryhere a%%arent. The te"%era"ent of the Celt ke%t hi" close to
nature, an! he ne#er Luite !ro%%e! the %ri"iti#e ele"ents of his
religion. Moreo#er, the early influence of fe"ale cults of fe"ale
s%irits an! go!!esses re"aine! to the en! as another %re!o"inant factor.
Most of the Celtic !i#inities ere local in character, each tribe
%ossessing its on grou%, each go! ha#ing functions si"ilar to those of
other grou%s. 5o"e, hoe#er, ha! or gaine! a "ore uni#ersal character,
absorbing !i#inities ith si"ilar functions. 5till this local character
"ust be borne in "in!. The nu"erous !i#inities of Gaul, ith !iffering
na"es&&but, ju!ging by their assi"ilation to the sa"e Ro"an !i#inity,
si"ilar functions, are best un!erstoo! as go!s of local grou%s. This is
%robably true also of Britain an! 6relan!. But those go!s orshi%%e! far
an! i!e o#er the Celtic area "ay be go!s of the un!i#i!e! Celts, or
go!s of so"e !o"inant Celtic grou% eIten!ing their influence on all
si!es, or, in so"e cases, %o%ular go!s hose cult %asse! beyon! the
tribal boun!s. 6f it see" %recarious to see such close si"ilarity in the
local go!s of a %eo%le eIten!ing right across /uro%e, a%%eal can be "a!e
to the influence of the Celtic te"%era"ent, %ro!ucing e#eryhere the
sa"e results, an! to the ho"ogeneity of Celtic ci#ilisation, sa#e in
local areas, e.g. the 5outh of Gaul. Moreo#er, the co"%arison of the
#arious testi"onies of onlookers %oints to a general si"ilarity, hile
the %er"anence of the %ri"iti#e ele"ents in Celtic religion "ust ha#e
ten!e! to kee% it e#eryhere the sa"e. Though in Gaul e ha#e only
inscri%tions an! in 6relan! only !istorte! "yths, yet those testi"onies,
as ell as the e#i!ence of folk&sur#i#als in both regions, %oint to the
si"ilarity of religious %heno"ena. The )rui!s, as a "ore or less
organise! %riesthoo!, oul! assist in %reser#ing the general likeness.
Thus the %ri"iti#e nature&s%irits ga#e %lace to greater or lesser go!s,
each ith his se%arate !e%art"ent an! functions. Though groing
ci#ilisation ten!e! to se%arate the" fro" the soil, they ne#er Luite
lost touch ith it. 6n return for "an's orshi% an! sacrifices, they
ga#e life an! increase, #ictory, strength, an! skill. But these
sacrifices, ha! been an! still often ere rites in hich the
re%resentati#e of a go! as slain. 5o"e !i#inities ere orshi%%e! o#er
a i!e area, "ost ere go!s of local grou%s, an! there ere s%irits of
e#ery %lace, hill, oo!, an! strea". Magic rites "ingle! ith the cult,
but both ere gui!e! by an organise! %riesthoo!. An! as the Celts
belie#e! in unseen go!s, so they belie#e! in an unseen region hither
they %asse! after !eath.
8ur knole!ge of the higher si!e of Celtic religion is %ractically a
blank, since no !escri%tion of the inner s%iritual life has co"e !on to
us. :o far the Celts culti#ate! religion in our sense of the ter", or
ha! gli"%ses of Monotheis", or ere trouble! by a !ee% sense of sin, is
unknon. But a %eo%le hose s%iritual influence has later been so great,
"ust ha#e ha! gli"%ses of these things. 5o"e of the" "ust ha#e knon the
thirst of the soul for Go!, or sought a higher ethical stan!ar! than
that of their ti"e. The enthusiastic rece%tion of Christianity, the
!e#otion of the early Celtic saints, an! the character of the ol! Celtic
church, all suggest this.
The relation of the Celtic church to %aganis" as "ainly intolerant,
though not holly so. 6t often a!o%te! the less har"ful custo"s of the
%ast, "erging %agan festi#als in its on, foun!ing churches on the sites
of the ol! cult, !e!icating sacre! ells to a saint. A saint oul! #isit
the to"b of a %agan to hear an ol! e%ic rehearse!, or oul! call u%
%agan heroes fro" hell an! gi#e the" a %lace in %ara!ise. 8ther saints
recall !ea! heroes fro" the 'an! of the Blesse!, an! learn the nature of
that on!erlan! an! the heroic !ee!s
B8f the ol! !ays, hich see" to be
Much ol!er than any history
That is ritten in any book.B
Rea!ing such narrati#es, e gain a lesson in the fine s%irit of
Christian tolerance an! Christian sy"%athy.
988T<8T/5(
.+4 5o"e riters sa in the bar!ic %oetry a )rui!ic&esoteric syste" an!
traces of a cult %ractise! secretly by the bar!s&&the B<eo&)rui!ic
heresyBA see )a#ies, KMyth. of the Brit. )rui!sK, *F,GA :erbert, KThe
<eo&)rui!ic :eresyK, *FEF. 5e#eral 9rench riters sa in B)rui!is"B a
"onotheistic faith, #eile! un!er %olytheis".
.E4 'i#y, #. 12A Caesar, #i. *2A )ion. :al. #ii. 3,A Arrian, KCynegK.
III#. *.
.14 Caesar, #i. *-, cf. #. *+, Bha#ing age! ar, re"aine! there an!
culti#ate! the lan!s.B
.-4 Cf. Pliny, K:<K I#ii. 3, I#iii. *F on the heele! %loughs an!
agricultural "etho!s of Gauls an! Britons. Cf. also 5trabo, i#. *. +,
i#. -. -A Giral!. Ca"b. KTo%. :ib.K i. 1, K)escr. Ca"b.K i. FA Joyce,
K5:K ii. +21.
C:APT/R 66.
T:/ C/'T6C P/8P'/.
5crutiny re#eals the fact that Celtic&s%eaking %eo%les are of !iffering
ty%es&&short an! !ark as ell as tall an! fairer :ighlan!ers or
?elsh"en, short, broa!&hea!e! Bretons, #arious ty%es of 6rish"en. Men
ith <orse na"es an! <orse as%ect Bha#e the Gaelic.B But all alike ha#e
the sa"e character an! te"%era"ent, a striking itness to the influence
hich the character as ell as the language of the Celts, hoe#er they
ere, "a!e on all ith ho" they "ingle!. /thnologically there "ay not
be a Celtic race, but so"ething as han!e! !on fro" the !ays of
co"%arati#e Celtic %urity hich el!e! !ifferent social ele"ents into a
co""on ty%e, foun! often here no Celtic tongue is no s%oken. 6t
e"erges here e least eI%ect it, an! the stoli! Anglo&5aIon "ay
su!!enly aaken to so"ething in hi"self !ue to a forgotten Celtic strain
in his ancestry.
To "ain theories of Celtic origins no hol! the fiel!(
>*@ The Celts are i!entifie! ith the %rogenitors of the short,
brachyce%halic BAl%ine raceB of Central /uro%e, eIisting there in
<eolithic ti"es, after their "igrations fro" Africa an! Asia. The ty%e
is foun! a"ong the 5la#s, in %arts of Ger"any an! 5can!ina#ia, an! in
"o!ern 9rance in the region of Caesar's BCeltae,B a"ong the Au#ergnats,
the Bretons, an! in 'oHere an! Jura. Re%resentati#es of the ty%e ha#e
been foun! in Belgian an! 9rench <eolithic gra#es..24 Professor 5ergi
calls this the B/urasiatic race,B an!, contrary to general o%inion,
i!entifies it ith the Aryans, a sa#age %eo%le, inferior to the
!olichoce%halic Me!iterranean race, hose language they Aryanise!..34
Professor =eane thinks that they ere the"sel#es an Aryanise! folk
before reaching /uro%e, ho in turn ga#e their acLuire! Celtic an!
5la#ic s%eech to the %rece!ing "asses. 'ater ca"e the Belgae, Aryans, ho
acLuire! the Celtic s%eech of the %eo%le they conLuere!..F4
Broca assu"e! that the !ark, brachyce%halic %eo%le ho" he i!entifie!
ith Caesar's BCeltae,B !iffere! fro" the Belgae, ere conLuere! by the",
an! acLuire! the language of their conLuerors, hence rongly calle!
Celtic by %hilologists. The Belgae ere tall an! fair, an! o#erran Gaul,
eIce%t ALuitaine, "iIing generally ith the Celtae, ho in Caesar's ti"e
ha! thus an infusion of Belgic bloo!..G4 But before this conLuest, the
Celtae ha! alrea!y "ingle! ith the aboriginal !olichoce%halic folk of
Gaul, 6berians, or Me!iterraneans of Professor 5ergi. The latter ha!
a%%arently re"aine! co"%arati#ely %ure fro" a!"iIture in ALuitaine, an!
are %robably the ALuitani of Caesar..*,4
But ere the short, brachyce%halic folk CeltsS Caesar says the %eo%le ho
call the"sel#es BCeltaeB ere calle! Gauls by the Ro"ans, an! Gauls,
accor!ing to classical riters, ere tall an! fair..**4 :ence the Celtae
ere not a short, !ark race, an! Caesar hi"self says that Gauls
>inclu!ing Celtae@ looke! ith conte"%t on the short Ro"ans..*+4 5trabo
also says that Celtae an! Belgae ha! the sa"e Gaulish a%%earance, i.e.
tall an! fair. Caesar's state"ent that ALuitani, Galli, an! Belgae !iffer
in language, institutions, an! las is #ague an! unsu%%orte! by
e#i!ence, an! "ay "ean as to language no "ore than a !ifference in
!ialects. This is also suggeste! by 5trabo's or!s, Celtae an! Belgae
B!iffer a littleB in language..*E4 <o classical riter !escribes the
Celts as short an! !ark, but the re#erse. 5hort, !ark %eo%le oul! ha#e
been calle! 6berians, ithout res%ect to skulls. Classical obser#ers
ere not craniologists. The short, brachyce%halic ty%e is no %ro"inent
in 9rance, because it has alays been so, eli"inating the tall, fair
Celtic ty%e. ConLuering Celts, feer in nu"ber than the broa! an!
narro&hea!e! aborigines, inter"arrie! or "a!e less lasting alliances
ith the". 6n course of ti"e the ty%e of the "ore nu"erous race as
boun! to %re#ail. /#en in Caesar's !ay the latter %robably outnu"bere!
the tall an! fair Celts, ho ha!, hoe#er, Celticise! the". But
classical riters, ho kne the true Celt as tall an! fair, sa that
ty%e only, just as e#ery one, on first #isiting 9rance or Ger"any, sees
his generalise! ty%e of 9rench"an or Ger"an e#eryhere. 'ater, he
"o!ifies his o%inion, but this the classical obser#ers !i! not !o.
Caesar's ca"%aigns "ust ha#e !raine! Gaul of "any tall an! fair Celts.
This, ith the ten!ency of !ark ty%es to out&nu"ber fair ty%es in 5outh
an! Central /uro%e, "ay hel% to eI%lain the groing %ro"inence of the
!ark ty%e, though the tall, fair ty%e is far fro" unco""on..*14
>+@ The secon! theory, alrea!y antici%ate!, sees in Gauls an! Belgae a
tall, fair Celtic folk, s%eaking a Celtic language, an! belonging to the
race hich stretche! fro" 6relan! to Asia Minor, fro" <orth Ger"any to
the Po, an! ere "asters of Teutonic tribes till they ere !ri#en by
the" fro" the region beteen /lbe an! Rhine..*-4 5o"e Belgic tribes
clai"e! a Ger"anic ancestry,.*24 but BGer"anB as a or! sel!o" use!
ith %recision, an! in this case "ay not "ean Teutonic. The fair hair of
this %eo%le has "a!e "any su%%ose that they ere akin to the Teutons.
But fairness is relati#e, an! the !ark Ro"ans "ay ha#e calle! bron hair
fair, hile they occasionally !istinguishe! beteen the BfairB Gauls an!
fairer Ger"ans. Their institutions an! their religions >K%aceK Professor
Rh.Jy4s@ !iffere!, an! though they ere so long in contact the na"es of
their go!s an! %riests are unlike..*34 Their languages, again, though of
BAryanB stock, !iffer "ore fro" each other than !oes Celtic fro" 6talic,
%ointing to a long %erio! of 6talo&Celtic unity, before 6taliotes an!
Celts se%arate!, an! Celts ca"e in contact ith Teutons..*F4 The ty%ical
Ger"an !iffers in "ental an! "oral Lualities fro" the ty%ical Celt.
Contrast an east country 5cot, !escen!ant of Teutonic stock, ith a ?est
:ighlan!er, an! the !ifference lea%s to the eyes. Celts an! Ger"ans of
history !iffer, then, in relati#e fairness, character, religion, an!
language.
The tall, blon!e Teutonic ty%e of the Ro gra#es is !olichoce%halic. ?as
the Celtic ty%e >assu"ing that Broca's BCeltsB ere not true Celts@
!olicho or brachyS Broca thinks the Belgae or B=y"riB ere
!olichoce%halic, but all "ust agree ith hi" that the skulls are too fe
to generalise fro". Celtic iron&age skulls in Britain are
!olichoce%halic, %erha%s a recru!escence of the aboriginal ty%e. Broca's
B=y"ricB skulls are "esoce%halicA this he attributes to crossing ith
the short roun!&hea!s. The e#i!ence is too scanty for generalisation,
hile the ?alloons, %erha%s !escen!ants of the Belgae, ha#e a high in!eI,
an! so"e Gauls of classical art are broa!&hea!e!..*G4
5kulls of the British roun! barros >early Celtic BronHe Age@ are "ainly
broa!, the best s%eci"ens shoing affinity to <eolithic brachyce%halic
skulls fro" Grenelle >though their oners ere - inches shorter@,
5elaigneauI, an! Borreby..+,4 )r. Be!!oe thinks that the narro&skulle!
Belgae on the hole reinforce! the "eso& or brachyce%halic roun! barro
folk in Britain. )r. Thurna" i!entifies the latter ith the Belgae
>Broca's =y"ri@, an! thinks that Gaulish skulls ere roun!, ith
beetling bros..+*4 Professors Ri%ley an! 5ergi, !isregar!ing their
!ifference in stature an! higher ce%halic in!eI, i!entify the" ith the
short Al%ine race >Broca's Celts@. This is negati#e! by Mr. =eane..++4
Might not both, hoe#er, ha#e originally s%rung fro" a co""on stock an!
reache! /uro%e at !ifferent ti"esS.+E4
But !o a fe hun!re! skulls justify these far&reaching conclusions
regar!ing races en!uring for thousan!s of yearsS At so"e #ery re"ote
%erio! there "ay ha#e been a Celtic ty%e, as at so"e further %erio!
there "ay ha#e been an Aryan ty%e. But the Celts, as e kno the", "ust
ha#e "ingle! ith the aborigines of /uro%e an! beco"e a "iIe! race,
though %reser#ing an! en!oing others ith their racial an! "ental
characteristics. 5o"e Gauls or Belgae ere !olichoce%halic, to ju!ge by
their skulls, others ere brachyce%halic, hile their fairness as a
relati#e ter". Classical obser#ers %robably generalise! fro" the higher
classes, of a %urer ty%eA they tell us nothing of the %eo%le. But the
higher classes "ay ha#e ha! #arying skulls, as ell as stature an!
colour of hair,.+14 an! 6rish teIts tell of a tall, fair, blue&eye!
stock, an! a short, !ark, !ark&eye! stock, in 6relan!. /#en in those
!istant ages e "ust consi!er the %eo%le on ho" the Celts i"%resse!
their characteristics, as ell as the Celts the"sel#es. ?hat ha%%ene! on
the /urasian ste%%e, the hy%othetical cra!le of the BAryans,B hence the
Celts ca"e Bste%%ing estar!s,B see"s clear to so"e, but in truth is a
book seale! ith se#en seals. The "en hose Aryan s%eech as to !o"inate
far an! i!e "ay alrea!y ha#e %ossesse! !ifferent ty%es of skull, an!
that age as far fro" Bthe #ery beginning.B
Thus the Celts before setting out on their K?an!erjahreK "ay alrea!y
ha#e been a "iIe! race, e#en if their lea!ers ere of %urer stock. But
they ha! the bon! of co""on s%eech, institutions, an! religion, an! they
for"e! a co""on Celtic ty%e in Central an! ?estern /uro%e. 6nter"arriage
ith the alrea!y "iIe! <eolithic folk of Central /uro%e %ro!uce! further
re"o#al fro" the un"iIe! Celtic racial ty%eA but though both reacte! on
each other as far as language, custo", an! belief ere concerne!, on the
hole the Celtic ele"ents %re!o"inate! in these res%ects. The Celtic
"igration into Gaul %ro!uce! further racial "ingling ith !escen!ants of
the ol! %alaeolithic stock, !olichoce%halic 6berians an! 'igurians, an!
brachyce%halic sarthy folk >Broca's Celts@. Thus e#en the first Celtic
arri#als in Britain, the Goi!els, ere a %eo%le of "iIe! race, though
%robably relati#ely %urer than the late co"ing Brythons, the latest of
ho" ha! %robably "ingle! ith the Teutons. :ence a"ong Celtic&s%eaking
folk or their !escen!ants&&short, !ark, broa!&bea!e! Bretons, tall, fair
or rufous :ighlan!ers, tall chestnut&haire! ?elsh"en or 6rish"en,
:ighlan!ers of <orse !escent, short, !ark, narro&hea!e! :ighlan!ers,
6rish"en, an! ?elsh"en&&there is a co""on Celtic KfaciesK, the result of
ol! Celtic characteristics %oerful enough so to i"%ress the"sel#es on
such #arie! %eo%les in s%ite of hat they ga#e to the Celtic inco"ers.
These %eo%les beca"e Celtic, an! Celtic in s%eech an! character they
ha#e re"aine!, e#en here ancestral %hysical ty%es are reasserting
the"sel#es. The folk of a Celtic ty%e, hether %re&Celtic, Celtic, or
<orse, ha#e all s%oken a Celtic language an! eIhibit the sa"e ol! Celtic
characteristics&&#anity, loLuacity, eIcitability, fickleness,
i"agination, lo#e of the ro"antic, fi!elity, attach"ent to fa"ily ties,
senti"ental lo#e of their country, religiosity %assing o#er easily to
su%erstition, an! a co"%arati#ely high !egree of seIual "orality. 5o"e
of these traits ere alrea!y note! by classical obser#ers.
Celtic s%eech ha! early lost the initial K%K of ol! 6n!o&/uro%ean
s%eech, eIce%t in or!s beginning ith K%tK an!, %erha%s, K%sK. Celtic
K%areK >'at. K%raeK@ beca"e KareK, "et ith in KAre"oriciK, Bthe !ellers
by the sea,B KAreclutaK, Bby the Cly!e,B the region atere! by the
Cly!e. 6rish KathairK, ManI KayrK, an! 6rish KiasgK, re%resent
res%ecti#ely 'atin K%aterK an! K%iscisK. KPK occurring beteen #oels
as also lost, e.g. 6rish KcaoraK, Bshee%,B is fro" Kka%eraIKA KforK,
Bu%onB >'at. Ksu%erK@, fro" Ku%erK. This change took %lace before the
Goi!elic Celts broke aay an! in#a!e! Britain in the tenth century B.C.,
but hile Celts an! Teutons ere still in contact, since Teutons
borroe! or!s ith initial K%K, e.g. Gothic KfairguniK, B"ountain,B
fro" Celtic K%ercunionK, later K/rcunioK, the :ercynian forest. The loss
"ust ha#e occurre! before *,,, B.C. But after the se%aration of the
Goi!elic grou% a further change took %lace. Goi!els %reser#e! the soun!
re%resente! by KLuK, or "ore si"%ly by KcK or KchK, but this as change!
into K%K by the re"aining continental Celts, ho carrie! ith the" into
Gaul, 5%ain, 6taly, an! Britain >the Brythons@ or!s in hich KLK beca"e
K%K. The British K/%i!iiK is fro" Gaulish Ke%osK, Bhorse,B hich is in
8l! 6rish KechK >'at. KeLuusK@. The Parisii take their na"e fro"
KTarisiiK, the Pictones or Picta#i of Poictiers fro" KPictosK >hich in
the %lural KPi!iK gi#es us BPictsB@, !eri#e! fro" KLuictoK. This change
took %lace after the Goi!elic in#asion of Britain in the tenth century
B.C. 8n the other han!, so"e continental Celts "ay later ha#e regaine!
the %oer of %ronouncing KLK. 6n Gaul the KLK of K5eLuanaK >5eine@ as
not change! to K%K, an! a tribe !elling on its banks as calle! the
5eLuani. This assu"es that 5eLuana as a %re&Celtic or!, %ossibly
'igurian..+-4 Professor Rh.Jy4s thinks, hoe#er, that Goi!elic tribes,
i!entifie! by hi" ith Caesar's Celtae, eIiste! in Gaul an! 5%ain before
the co"ing of the Galli, an! ha! %reser#e! KLK in their s%eech. To the"
e oe 5eLuana, as ell as certain na"es ith KLK in 5%ain..+24 This at
least is certain, that Goi!elic Celts of the KLK grou% occu%ie! Gaul an!
5%ain before reaching Britain an! 6relan!. 6rish tra!ition an!
archaeological !ata confir" this..+34 But hether their !escen!ants ere
re%resente! by Caesar's BCeltaeB "ust be uncertain. Celtae an! Galli,
accor!ing to Caesar, ere one an! the sa"e,.+F4 an! "ust ha#e ha! the
sa"e general for" of s%eech.
The !ialects of Goi!elic s%eech&&6rish, ManI, Gaelic, an! that of the
continental Goi!els&&%reser#e! the KLK soun!A those of Gallo&Brythonic
s%eech&&Gaulish, Breton, ?elsh, Cornish&&change! KLK into K%K. The
s%eech of the Picts, %erha%s connecte! ith the Pictones of Gaul, also
ha! this K%K soun!. ?ho, then, ere the PictsS Accor!ing to Professor
Rh.Jy4s they ere %re&Aryans,.+G4 but they "ust ha#e been un!er the
influence of Brythonic Celts. )r. 5kene regar!e! the" as Goi!els
s%eaking a Goi!elic !ialect ith Brythonic for"s..E,4 Mr. <icholson
thinks they ere Goi!els ho ha! %reser#e! the 6n!o&/uro%ean K%K..E*4
But "ight they not be !escen!ants of a Brythonic grou%, arri#ing early
in Britain an! !ri#en northar!s by neco"ersS Professor ?in!isch an!
)r. 5tokes regar! the" as Celts, allie! to the Brythons rather than to
the Goi!els, the %honetics of their s%eech rese"bling those of ?elsh
rather than 6rish..E+4
The theory of an early Goi!elic occu%ation of Britain has been conteste!
by Professor Meyer,.EE4 ho hol!s that the first Goi!els reache! Britain
fro" 6relan! in the secon! century, hile )r. MacBain.E14 as of the
o%inion that /nglan!, a%art fro" ?ales an! Cornall, kne no Goi!els,
the %lace&na"es being Brythonic. But unless all Goi!els reache! 6relan!
fro" Gaul or 5%ain, as so"e !i!, Britain as "ore easily reache! than
6relan! by "igrating Goi!els fro" the Continent. Pro"inent Goi!elic
%lace&na"es oul! beco"e Brythonic, but insignificant %laces oul!
retain their Goi!elic for", an! to these e "ust look for !ecisi#e
e#i!ence..E-4 A Goi!elic occu%ation by the ninth century B.C. is
suggeste! by the na"e BCassiteri!esB >a or! of the KLK grou%@ a%%lie!
to Britain. 6f the Goi!els occu%ie! Britain first, they "ay ha#e calle!
their lan! KTretanisK or KTritanisK, hich Pictish in#a!ers oul! change
to KPretanisK, foun! in ?elsh B$nys Pri!ain,B Pri!ain's 6sle, or 6sle of
the Picts, B%ointing to the original un!erlying the Greek .Greek(
Pretanikai <esoi4 or Pictish 6sles,B.E24 though the change "ay be !ue to
continental K%K Celts tra!ing ith KLK Celts in Britain. ?ith the
Pictish occu%ation oul! agree the fact that 6rish Goi!els calle! the
Picts ho ca"e to 6relan! KCruithneNTritaniNPre&taniK. 6n 6relan! they
al"ost certainly a!o%te! Goi!elic s%eech.
?hether or not all the Pictish in#a!ers of Britain ere calle!
BPicta#i,B this or! or Picti, %erha%s fro" KLuictoK >6rish KcichtK,
Bengra#erB@,.E34 beca"e a general na"e for this %eo%le. KTK ha! been
change! into K%K on the ContinentA hence BPicta#iB or BPictones,B Bthe
tattooe! "en,B those ho Bengra#e!B figures on their bo!ies, as the
Picts certainly !i!. )is%ossesse! an! !ri#en north by inco"ing Brythons
an! Belgae, they later beca"e the #irulent ene"ies of Ro"e. 6n E,2
/u"enius !escribes all the northern tribes as BCale!onii an! other
Picts,B hile so"e of the tribes "entione! by Ptole"y ha#e Brythonic
na"es or na"es ith Gaulish cognates. Place&na"es in the Pictish area,
%ersonal na"es in the Pictish chronicle, an! Pictish na"es like
BPeanfahel,B.EF4 ha#e Brythonic affinities. 6f the Picts s%oke a
Brythonic !ialect, 5. Colu"ba's nee! of an inter%reter hen %reaching to
the" oul! be eI%laine!..EG4 'ater the Picts ere conLuere! by 6rish
Goi!els, the 5cotti. The Picts, hoe#er, "ust alrea!y ha#e "ingle! ith
aboriginal %eo%les an! ith Goi!els, if these ere alrea!y in Britain,
an! they "ay ha#e a!o%te! their su%%ose! non&Aryan custo"s fro" the
aborigines. 8n the other han!, the "atriarchate see"s at one ti"e to
ha#e been Celtic, an! it "ay ha#e been no "ore than a conser#ati#e
sur#i#al in the Pictish royal house, as it as elsehere..1,4 Britons,
as ell as Cale!onii, ha! i#es in co""on..1*4 As to tattooing, it as
%ractise! by the 5cotti >Bthe scarre! an! %ainte! "enBS@, an! the
Britons !ye! the"sel#es ith oa!, hile hat see" to be tattoo "arks
a%%ear on faces on Gaulish coins..1+4 Tattooing, %ainting, an!
scarifying the bo!y are #arieties of one general custo", an! little
stress can be lai! on Pictish tattooing as in!icating a racial
!ifference. 6ts %ur%ose "ay ha#e been orna"ental, or %ossibly to i"%art
an as%ect of fierceness, or the figures "ay ha#e been tote" "arks, as
they are elsehere. 9inally, the !escri%tion of the Cale!onii, a Pictish
%eo%le, %ossessing fla"ing hair an! "ighty li"bs, shos that they
!iffere! fro" the short, !ark %re&Celtic folk..1E4
The Pictish %roble" "ust re"ain obscure, a elco"e %uHHle to
antiLuaries, %hilologists, an! ethnologists. 8ur knole!ge of Pictish
religion is too scanty for the inter%retation of Celtic religion to be
affecte! by it. But e kno that the Picts offere! sacrifice before
ar&&a Celtic custo", an! ha! )rui!s, as also ha! the Celts.
The earliest Celtic Bking!o"B as in the region beteen the u%%er aters
of the Rhine, the /lbe, an! the )anube, here %robably in <eolithic
ti"es the for"ation of their Celtic s%eech as a !istincti#e language
began. :ere they first beca"e knon to the Greeks, %robably as a
se"i&"ythical %eo%le, the :y%erboreans&&the folk !elling beyon! the
Ri%oean "ountains hence Boreas ble&&ith ho" :ecataeus in the fourth
century i!entifies the". But they ere no knon as Celts, an! their
territory as Celtica, hile BGalatasB as use! as a synony" of BCeltae,B
in the thir! century B.C..114 The na"e generally a%%lie! by the Ro"ans
to the Celts as BGalliB a ter" finally confine! by the" to the %eo%le
of Gaul..1-4 5uccessi#e ban!s of Celts ent forth fro" this
co"%arati#ely restricte! territory, until the Celtic Be"%ireB for so"e
centuries before E,, B.C. inclu!e! the British 6sles, %arts of the
6berian %eninsula, Gaul, <orth 6taly, Belgiu", :ollan!, great %art of
Ger"any, an! Austria. ?hen the Ger"an tribes re#olte!, Celtic ban!s
a%%eare! in Asia Minor, an! re"aine! there as the Galatian Celts.
Archaeological !isco#eries ith a Celtic KfaciesK ha#e been "a!e in "ost
of these lan!s but e#en "ore striking is the itness of %lace&na"es.
Celtic K!unonK, a fort or castle >the Gaelic K!unK@, is foun! in
co"%oun! na"es fro" 6relan! to 5outhern Russia. KMagosK, Ba fiel!,B is
"et ith in Britain, 9rance, 5itHerlan!, Prussia, 6taly, an! Austria.
Ri#er an! "ountain na"es fa"iliar in Britain occur on the Continent. The
Pennine range of Cu"berlan! has the sa"e na"e as the A%%enines. Ri#ers
na"e! for their inherent !i#inity, K!e#osK, are foun! in Britain an! on
the Continent&&)ee, )e#a, etc.
Besi!es this linguistic, ha! the Celts also a %olitical unity o#er their
great Be"%ire,B un!er one hea!S 5uch a unity certainly !i! not %re#ail
fro" 6relan! to the Balkan %eninsula, but it %re#aile! o#er a large %art
of the Celtic area. 'i#y, folloing Ti"agenes, ho %erha%s cite! a lost
Celtic e%os, s%eaks of king A"bicatus ruling o#er the Celts fro" 5%ain
to Ger"any, an! sen!ing his sister's sons, Bello#esus an! 5ego#esus,
ith "any folloers, to foun! ne colonies in 6taly an! the :ercynian
forest..124 Mythical as this "ay be, it suggests the hege"ony of one
tribe or one chief o#er other tribes an! chiefs, for 'i#y says that the
so#ereign %oer reste! ith the Bituriges ho a%%ointe! the king of
Celticu", #iH. A"bicatus. 5o"e such unity is necessary to eI%lain Celtic
%oer in the ancient orl!, an! it as "a!e %ossible by unity of race or
at least of the congeries of Celticise! %eo%les, by religious
soli!arity, an! %robably by regular gatherings of all the kings or
chiefs. 6f the )rui!s ere a Celtic %riesthoo! at this ti"e, or alrea!y
for"e! a cor%oration as they !i! later in Gaul, they "ust ha#e
en!ea#oure! to for" an! %reser#e such a unity. An! if it as ne#er so
co"%act as 'i#y's or!s suggest, it "ust ha#e been regar!e! as an i!eal
by the Celts or by their %oets, A"bicatus ser#ing as a central figure
roun! hich the i!eas of e"%ire crystallise!. The hege"ony eIiste! in
Gaul, here the Ar#erni an! their king clai"e! %oer o#er the other
tribes, an! here the Ro"ans trie! to eaken the Celtic unity by
o%%osing to the" the Ae!ni..134 6n Belgiu" the hege"ony as in the han!s
of the 5uessiones, to hose king Belgic tribes in Britain sub"itte!..1F4
6n 6relan! the Bhigh kingB as su%re"e o#er other s"aller kings, an! in
Galatia the unity of the tribes as %reser#e! by a council ith regular
asse"blies..1G4
The !iffusion of the A"bicatus legen! oul! hel% to %reser#e unity by
recalling the "ythic greatness of the %ast. The Boii an! 6nsubri
a%%eale! to transal%ine Gauls for ai! by re"in!ing the" of the !ee!s of
their ancestors..-,4 <or oul! the )rui!s o"it to infuse into their
%u%ils' "in!s the senti"ent of national greatness. 9or this an! for
other reasons, the Ro"ans, to ho" Bthe so#ereignty of all GaulB as an
obnoIious atch&or!, en!ea#oure! to su%%ress the"..-*4 But the Celts
ere too i!ely scattere! e#er to for" a co"%act e"%ire..-+4 The Ro"an
e"%ire eIten!e! itself gra!ually in the consciousness of its %oerA the
cohesion of the Celts in an e"%ire or un!er one king as "a!e i"%ossible
by their "igrations an! !iffusion. Their unity, such as it as, as
broken by the re#olt of the Teutonic tribes, an! their subjugation as
co"%lete! by Ro"e. The !rea"s of i!e e"%ire re"aine! !rea"s. 9or the
Celts, in s%ite of their #igour, ha#e been a race of !rea"ers, their
conLuests in later ti"es, those of the s%irit rather than of the "aile!
fist. Their su%eriority has consiste! in i"%arting to others their
characteristicsA organise! unity an! a #ast e"%ire coul! ne#er be
theirs.
988T<8T/5(
.24 Ri%ley, KRaces of /uro%eKA ?ilser, K''Anthro%ologieK, Ii#. 1G1A
Collignon, Kibi!.K *&+,A Broca, KRe#. !'Anthro%.K ii. -FG ff.
.34 5ergi, KThe Me!iterranean RaceK, +1* ff., +2E ff.
.F4 =eane, KMan, Past an! PresentK, -** ff., -+*, -+F.
.G4 Broca, KMe". !'Anthro%.K i. E3, ff. :o#elacLue thinks, ith =eane,
that the Gauls learne! Celtic fro" the !ark roun!&hea!s. But Galatian
an! British Celts, ho ha! ne#er been in contact ith the latter, s%oke
Celtic. 5ee :ol"es, KCaesar's ConLuest of GaulK, E**&E*+.
.*,4 Caesar, i. *A Collignon, KMe". 5oc. !'Anthro%. !e ParisK, EO"eP ser.
i. 23.
.**4 Caesar, i. *.
.*+4 Caesar, ii. E,.
.*E4 Caesar, i. *A 5trabo, i#. *. *.
.*14 Cf. :ol"es, +G-A Be!!oe, K5cottish Re#ieK, IiI. 1*2.
.*-4 )'Arbois, K'es CeltesK, *3-.
.*24 Caesar, ii. 1A 5trabo, #ii. *. +. Ger"ans are taller an! fairer than
GaulsA Tacitus, KAgric.K ii. Cf. Be!!oe, KJA6K II. E-1&E--.
.*34 )'Arbois, KP:K ii. E31. ?elsh Gy!ion an! Teutonic ?uotan "ay ha#e
the sa"e root, see %. *,-. Celtic Taranis has been co"%are! to )onar,
but there is no connection, an! Taranis as not certainly a thun!er&go!.
Much of the folk&religion as alike, but this a%%lies to folk&religion
e#eryhere.
.*F4 )'Arbois, ii. +-*.
.*G4 Be!!oe, K''Anthro%ologieK, #. -*2. Tall, fair, an! highly
brachyce%halic ty%es are still foun! in 9rance, Kibi!.K i. +*EA
Bortran!&Reinach, K'es CeltesK, EG.
.+,4 Be!!oe, -*2A K''Anthro%.K, #. 2EA Taylor, F*A Greenell, KBritish
BarrosK, 2F,.
.+*4 K9ort. Re#.K I#i. E+FA KMe". of 'on!on Anthr. 5oc.K, *F2-.
.++4 Ri%ley, E,GA 5ergi, +1EA =eane, -+GA Taylor, **+.
.+E4 Taylor, *++, +G-.
.+14 The ?alloons are both !ark an! fair.
.+-4 )'Arbois, KP:K ii. *E+.
.+24 Rh.Jy4s, KProc. Phil. 5oc.K *FG*A BCeltae an! Galli,B KProc. Brit.
Aca!.K ii. )'Arbois %oints out that e !o not kno that these or!s are
Celtic >KRCK Iii, 13F@.
.+34 5ee %%. -*, E32.
.+F4 Caesar, i. *.
.+G4 KCBKO1P *2,.
.E,4 5kene, i. ch. FA see %. *E-.
.E*4 KRCPK iii. E,FA K=eltic ResearchesK.
.E+4 ?in!isch, B=elt. 5%rachen,B /rsch&Gruber's K/ncylo%ae!ieKA 5tokes,
K'inguistic Calue of the 6rish AnnalsK.
.EE4 KT:5CK *FG-&*FG2, -- f.
.E14 KCMK Iii. 1E1.
.E-4 6n the 6sle of 5kye, here, looking at na"es of %ro"inent %laces
alone, <orse !eri#ati#es are to Gaelic as E to +, they are as * to -
hen na"es of insignificant %laces, untouche! by <orse influence, are
inclu!e!.
.E24 Rh.Jy4s, KCBKO1P +1*.
.E34 )'Arbois, K'es CeltesK, ++.
.EF4 Be!e, K/ccl. :ist.K i. *+.
.EG4 A!a"nan, KCita 5. Col.K
.1,4 5ee %. +++.
.1*4 )io Cass. lII#i. *+A Caesar, #. *1. 5ee %. ++E.
.1+4 6si!ore, K/ty"ol.K iI. +, *,EA Rh.Jy4s, KCBK +1+&+1EA Caesar, #. *1A
<icholson, KRCPK in. EE+.
.1E4 Tacitus, KAgric.K ii.
.114 6f KCeltaeK is fro" KLeloK, Bto raise,B it "ay "ean Bthe lofty,B
just as "any sa#ages call the"sel#es Bthe "en,B K%ar eIcellenceK.
Rh.Jy4s !eri#es it fro" KLelK, Bto slay,B an! gi#es it the sense of
Barriors.B 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.KA 5tokes, K;5K FE. KGalataeK is fro" KgalaK
>6rish KgalK@, Bbra#ery.B :ence %erha%s Barriors.B
.1-4 BGalliB "ay be connecte! ith BGalatae,B but )'Arbois !enies this.
9or all these titles see his KP:K ii. EG2 ff.
.124 'i#y, #. E* f.A )'Arbois, KP:K ii. E,1, EG*.
.134 5trabo, i#. *,. EA Caesar, i. E*, #ii. 1A K9rag. :ist. Graec.K i.
1E3.
.1F4 Caesar, ii. 1.
.1G4 5trabo, Iii. -. *.
.-,4 Polybius, ii. ++.
.-*4 Caesar, i. +, *&E.
.-+4 8n the subject of Celtic unity see Jullian, B)u %atriotis"e
gaulois,B KRCK IIiii. E3E.
C:APT/R 666.
T:/ G8)5 89 GA;' A<) T:/ C8<T6</<TA' C/'T5.
The %assage in hich Caesar su"s u% the Gaulish %antheon runs( BThey
orshi% chiefly the go! MercuryA of hi" there are "any sy"bols, an! they
regar! hi" as the in#entor of all the arts, as the gui!e of tra#ellers,
an! as %ossessing great influence o#er bargains an! co""erce. After hi"
they orshi% A%ollo an! Mars, Ju%%iter an! Miner#a. About these they
hol! "uch the sa"e beliefs as other nations. A%ollo heals !iseases,
Miner#a teaches the ele"ents of in!ustry an! the arts, Ju%%iter rules
o#er the hea#ens, Mars !irects ar.... All the Gauls assert that they
are !escen!e! fro" )is%ater, their %rogenitor.B.-E4
As ill be seen in this cha%ter, the Gauls ha! "any other go!s than
these, hile the Ro"an go!s, by hose na"es Caesar calls the Celtic
!i#inities, %robably only a%%roIi"ately corres%on!e! to the" in
functions. As the Greeks calle! by the na"es of their on go!s those of
/gy%t, Persia, an! Babylonia, so the Ro"ans i!entifie! Greek, Teutonic,
an! Celtic go!s ith theirs. The i!entification as sel!o" co"%lete, an!
often eIten!e! only to one %articular function or attribute. But, as in
Gaul, it as often %art of a state %olicy, an! there the fusion of cults
as inten!e! to break the %oer of the )rui!s. The Gauls see" to ha#e
a!o%te! Ro"an ci#ilisation easily, an! to ha#e acLuiesce! in the %rocess
of assi"ilation of their !i#inities to those of their conLuerors. :ence
e ha#e thousan!s of inscri%tions in hich a go! is calle! by the na"e
of the Ro"an !eity to ho" he as assi"ilate! an! by his on Celtic
na"e&&Ju%iter Taranis, A%ollo Grannus, etc. 8r so"eti"es to the na"e of
the Ro"an go! is a!!e! a !escri%ti#e Celtic e%ithet or a or! !eri#e!
fro" a Celtic %lace&na"e. Again, since Augustus reinstate! the cult of
the 'ares, ith hi"self as chief 'ar, the e%ithet Augustus as gi#en to
all go!s to ho" the character of the 'ares coul! be ascribe!, e.g.
Belenos Augustus. Cults of local go!s beca"e cults of the genius of the
%lace, cou%le! ith the genius of the e"%eror. 6n so"e cases, hoe#er,
the nati#e na"e stan!s alone. The %rocess as ai!e! by art. Celtic go!s
are re%resente! after Greco&Ro"an or Greco&/gy%tian "o!els. 5o"eti"es
these carry a nati#e !i#ine sy"bol, or, in a fe cases, the ty%e is
%urely nati#e, e.g. that of Cernunnos. Thus the nati#e %aganis" as
largely transfor"e! before Christianity a%%eare! in Gaul. Many Ro"an
go!s ere orshi%%e! as such, not only by the Ro"ans in Gaul, but by the
Gauls, an! e fin! there also traces of the 8riental cults affecte! by
the Ro"ans..-14
There ere %robably in Gaul "any local go!s, tribal or otherise, of
roa!s an! co""erce, of the arts, of healing, etc., ho, bearing
!ifferent na"es, "ight easily be i!entifie! ith each other or ith
Ro"an go!s. Caesar's Mercury, Mars, Miner#a, etc., %robably inclu!e "any
local Miner#as, Mars, an! Mercuries. There "ay, hoe#er, ha#e been a fe
great go!s co""on to all Gaul, uni#ersally orshi%%e!, besi!es the
nu"erous local go!s, so"e of ho" "ay ha#e been a!o%te! fro" the
aborigines. An eIa"ination of the !i#ine na"es in :ol!er's
KAltceltischer 5%rachschatHK ill sho ho nu"erous the local go!s of
the continental Celts "ust ha#e been. Professor Anyl reckons that +3,
go!s are "entione! once on inscri%tions, +1 tice, ** thrice, *, four
ti"es, E fi#e ti"es, + se#en ti"es, 1 fifteen ti"es, * nineteen ti"es
>Grannos@, an! * thirty&nine ti"es >Belenos@..--4
The go! or go!s i!entifie! ith Mercury ere #ery %o%ular in Gaul, as
Caesar's or!s an! the itness of %lace&na"es !eri#e! fro" the Ro"an na"e
of the go! sho. These ha! %robably su%%lante! earlier na"es !eri#e!
fro" those of the corres%on!ing nati#e go!s. Many te"%les of the go!
eIiste!, es%ecially in the region of the Allobrogi, an! bronHe
statuettes of hi" ha#e been foun! in abun!ance. Pliny also !escribes a
colossal statue !esigne! for the Ar#erni ho ha! a great te"%le of the
go! on the Puy !e )o"e..-24 Mercury as not necessarily the chief go!,
an! at ti"es, e.g. in ar, the nati#e ar&go!s oul! be %ro"inent. The
nati#e na"es of the go!s assi"ilate! to Mercury are "any in nu"berA in
so"e cases they are e%ithets, !eri#e! fro" the na"es of %laces here a
local BMercuryB as orshi%%e!, in others they are !eri#e! fro" so"e
function of the go!s..-34 8ne of these titles is Artaios, %erha%s
cognate ith 6rish KartK, Bgo!,B or connecte! ith KartosK, Bbear.B
Professor Rh.Jy4s, hoe#er, fin!s its cognate in ?elsh KarK, B%loughe!
lan!,B as if one of the go!'s functions connecte! hi" ith
agriculture..-F4 This is su%%orte! by another inscri%tion to Mercurius
Cultor at ?urte"berg. 'ocal go!s of agriculture "ust thus ha#e been
assi"ilate! to Mercury. A go! Moccus, Bsine,B as also i!entifie! ith
Mercury, an! the sine as a freLuent re%resentati#e of the corn&s%irit
or of #egetation !i#inities in /uro%e. The flesh of the ani"al as often
"iIe! ith the see! corn or burie! in the fiel!s to %ro"ote fertility.
The sine ha! been a sacre! ani"al a"ong the Celts, but ha! a%%arently
beco"e an anthro%o"or%hic go! of fertility, Moccus, assi"ilate! to
Mercury, %erha%s because the Greek :er"es cause! fertility in flocks an!
her!s. 5uch a go! as one of a class hose i"%ortance as great a"ong
the Celts as an agricultural %eo%le.
Co""erce, "uch !e#elo%e! a"ong the settle! Gauls, ga#e rise to a go! or
go!s ho guar!e! roa!s o#er hich "erchants tra#elle!, an! boun!aries
here their transactions took %lace. :ence e ha#e an inscri%tion fro"
$orkshire, BTo the go! ho in#ente! roa!s an! %aths,B hile another
local go! of roa!s, eLuate! ith Mercury, as Ci"iacinus..-G4
Another go!, 8g"ios, a nati#e go! of s%eech, ho !ras "en by chains
fastene! to the ti% of his tongue, is i!entifie! in 'ucian ith
:eracles, an! is i!entical ith the Goi!elic 8g"a..2,4 /loLuence an!
s%eech are i"%ortant "atters a"ong %ri"iti#e %eo%les, an! this go! has
"ore likeness to Mercury as a culture&go! than to :eracles, Greek
riters s%eaking of eloLuence as bin!ing "en ith the chains of :er"es.
5e#eral local go!s, of agriculture, co""erce, an! culture, ere thus
i!entifie! ith Mercury, an! the Celtic Mercury as so"eti"es orshi%%e!
on hillto%s, one of the e%ithets of the go!, )u"ias, being connecte!
ith the Celtic or! for hill or "oun!. 6rish go!s ere also associate!
ith "oun!s.
Many local go!s ere i!entifie! ith A%ollo both in his ca%acity of go!
of healing an! also that of go! of light..2*4 The to functions are not
inco"%atible, an! this is suggeste! by the na"e Grannos, go! of ther"al
s%rings both in Britain an! on the Continent. The na"e is connecte! ith
a root hich gi#es or!s "eaning Bburning,B Bshining,B etc., an! fro"
hich co"es also 6rish KgrianK, Bsun.B The go! is still re"e"bere! in a
chant sung roun! bonfires in Au#ergne. A sheaf of corn is set on fire,
an! calle! BGranno "io,B hile the %eo%le sing, BGranno, "y frien!A
Granno, "y fatherA Granno, "y "other.B.2+4 Another go! of ther"al
s%rings as Bor#o, Bor"o, or Bor"anus, hose na"e is !eri#e! fro"
Kbor#oK, hence ?elsh KberK, Bboiling,B an! is e#i!ently connecte! ith
the bubbling of the s%rings..2E4 Coti#e tablets inscribe! Grannos or
Bor#o sho that the offerers !esire! healing for the"sel#es or others.
The na"e Belenos foun! o#er a i!e area, but "ainly in ALuileia, co"es
fro" Kbelo&sK, bright, an! %robably "eans Bthe shining one.B 6t is thus
the na"e of a Celtic sun&go!, eLuate! ith A%ollo in that character. 6f
he is the Belinus referre! to by Geoffrey of Mon"outh,.214 his cult "ust
ha#e eIten!e! into Britain fro" the Continent, an! he is often "entione!
by classical riters, hile "uch later Ausonius s%eaks of his %riest in
Gaul..2-4 Many %lace an! %ersonal na"es %oint to the %o%ularity of his
cult, an! inscri%tions sho that he, too, as a go! of health an! of
healing&s%rings. The %lant KBelinuntiaK as calle! after hi" an!
#enerate! for its healing %oers..224 The sun&go!'s functions of light
an! fertility easily %asse! o#er into those of health&gi#ing, as our
stu!y of Celtic festi#als ill sho.
A go! ith the na"e Ma%onos, connecte! ith or!s !enoting
Byouthfulness,B is foun! in /nglan! an! Gaul, eLuate! ith A%ollo, ho
hi"self is calle! KBonus PuerK in a )acian inscri%tion. Another go!
Mogons or Mogounos, hose na"e is !eri#e! fro" KMagoK, Bto increase,B
an! suggests the i!ea of youthful strength, "ay be a for" of the
sun&go!, though so"e e#i!ence %oints to his ha#ing been a sky&go!..234
The Celtic A%ollo is referre! to by classical riters. )io!orus s%eaks
of his circular te"%le in an islan! of the :y%erboreans, a!orne! ith
#oti#e offerings. The kings of the city here the te"%le stoo!, an! its
o#erseers, ere calle! BBorea!s,B an! e#ery nineteenth year the go!
a%%eare! !ancing in the sky at the s%ring eLuinoI..2F4 The
i!entifications of the te"%le ith 5tonehenge an! of the Borea!s ith
the Bar!s are Luite hy%othetical. A%ollonius says that the Celts
regar!e! the aters of /ri!anus as !ue to the tears of A%ollo&&%robably
a nati#e "yth attributing the creation of s%rings an! ri#ers to the
tears of a go!, eLuate! by the Greeks ith A%ollo..2G4 The Celtic
sun&go!, as has been seen, as a go! of healing s%rings.
5o"e siIty na"es or titles of Celtic ar&go!s are knon, generally
eLuate! ith Mars..3,4 These ere %robably local tribal !i#inities
regar!e! as lea!ing their orshi%%ers to battle. 5o"e of the na"es sho
that these go!s ere thought of as "ighty arriors, e.g. CaturiI,
Bbattle&king,B Belatu&Ca!ros&&a co""on na"e in Britain&&%erha%s "eaning
Bco"ely in slaughter,B.3*4 an! AlbioriI, Borl!&king.B.3+4 Another na"e,
Rigisa"us, fro" KriIK an! Ksa"usK, Blike to,B gi#es the i!ea of
Bking&like.B.3E4
Toutatis, Totatis, an! Tutatis are foun! in inscri%tions fro" 5eckau,
$ork, an! 8l! Carlisle, an! "ay be i!entifie! ith 'ucan's Teutates, ho
ith Taranis an! /sus "entione! by hi", is regar!e! as one of three
%an&Celtic go!s..314 :a! this been the case e shoul! ha#e eI%ecte! to
fin! "any "ore inscri%tions to the". The scholiast on 'ucan i!entifies
Teutates no ith Mars, no ith Mercury. :is na"e is connecte! ith
KteutaK, Btribe,B an! he is thus a tribal ar&go!, regar!e! as the
e"bo!i"ent of the tribe in its arlike ca%acity.
<eton, a ar&go! of the Accetani, has a na"e connecte! ith 6rish KniaK,
Barrior,B an! "ay be eLuate! ith the 6rish ar&go! <et. Another go!,
Ca"ulos, knon fro" British an! continental inscri%tions, an! figure! on
British coins ith arlike e"ble"s, has %erha%s so"e connection ith
Cu"al, father of 9ionn, though it is uncertain hether Cu"al as an
6rish !i#inity..3-4
Another go! eLuate! ith Mars is the Gaulish Braciaca, go! of "alt.
Accor!ing to classical riters, the Celts ere !runken race, an! besi!es
i"%orting Luantities of ine, they "a!e their on nati#e !rinks, e.g.
.Greek( chour"i4, the 6rish Kcuir"K, an! KbraccatK, both "a!e fro" "alt
>KbraichK@..324 These or!s, ith the Gaulish KbraceK, Bs%elt,B.334 are
connecte! ith the na"e of this go!, ho as a !i#ine %ersonification of
the substance fro" hich the !rink as "a!e hich %ro!uce!, accor!ing to
%ri"iti#e i!eas, the !i#ine frenHy of intoIication. 6t is not clear hy
Mars shoul! ha#e been eLuate! ith this go!.
Caesar says that the Celtic Ju%%iter go#erne! hea#en. A go! ho carries a
heel, %robably a sun&go!, an! another, a go! of thun!er, calle!
Taranis, see" to ha#e been eLuate! ith Ju%%iter. The sun&go! ith the
heel as not eLuate! ith A%ollo, ho see"s to ha#e re%resente! Celtic
sun&go!s only in so far as they ere also go!s of healing. 6n so"e cases
the go! ith the heel carries also a thun!erbolt, an! on so"e altars,
!e!icate! to Ju%%iter, both a heel an! a thun!erbolt are figure!. Many
races ha#e sy"bolise! the sun as a circle or heel, an! an ol! Ro"an
go!, 5u""anus, %robably a sun&go!, later assi"ilate! to Ju%%iter, ha! as
his e"ble" a heel. The Celts ha! the sa"e sy"bolis", an! use! the heel
sy"bol as an a"ulet,.3F4 hile at the "i!su""er festi#als blaHing
heels, sy"bolising the sun, ere rolle! !on a slo%e. Possibly the go!
carries a thun!erbolt because the Celts, like other races, belie#e! that
lightning as a s%ark fro" the sun.
Three !i#inities ha#e clai"s to be the go! ho" Caesar calls )is%ater&&a
go! ith a ha""er, a crouching go! calle! Cernunnos, an! a go! calle!
/sus or 5il#anus. Possibly the nati#e )is%ater as !ifferently en#isage!
in !ifferent !istricts, so that these oul! be local for"s of one go!.
*. The go! Taranis "entione! by 'ucan is %robably the Taranoos an!
Taranucnos of inscri%tions, so"eti"es eLuate! ith Ju%%iter..3G4 These
na"es are connecte! ith Celtic or!s for Bthun!erBA hence Taranis is a
thun!er&go!. The scholiasts on 'ucan i!entify hi" no ith Ju%%iter, no
ith )is%ater. This latter i!entification is su%%orte! by "any ho
regar! the go! ith the ha""er as at once Taranis an! )is%ater, though
it cannot be %ro#e! that the go! ith the ha""er is Taranis. 8n one
inscri%tion the ha""er&go! is calle! 5ucellosA hence e "ay regar!
Taranis as a !istinct !eity, a thun!er&go!, eLuate! ith Ju%%iter, an!
%ossibly re%resente! by the Taran of the ?elsh tale of K=ulhychK..F,4
Pri"iti#e "en, hose only ea%on an! tool as a stone aIe or ha""er,
"ust ha#e regar!e! it as a sy"bol of force, then of su%ernatural force,
hence of !i#inity. 6t is re%resente! on re"ains of the 5tone Age, an!
the aIe as a !i#ine sy"bol to the Mycenaeans, a hierogly%h of <eter to
the /gy%tians, an! a orshi%ful object to Polynesians an! Chal!eans. The
cult of aIe or ha""er "ay ha#e been i!es%rea!, an! to the Celts, as to
"any other %eo%les, it as a !i#ine sy"bol. Thus it !oes not necessarily
!enote a thun!erbolt, but rather %oer an! "ight, an! %ossibly, as the
tool hich sha%e! things, creati#e "ight. The Celts "a!e KeI #otoK
ha""ers of lea!, or use! aIe&hea!s as a"ulets, or figure! the" on altars
an! coins, an! they also %lace! the ha""er in the han! of a go!..F*4
The go! ith the ha""er is a gracious bear!e! figure, cla! in Gaulish
!ress, an! he carries also a cu%. :is %lastic ty%e is !eri#e! fro" that
of the AleIan!rian 5era%is, ruler of the un!erorl!, an! that of
:a!es&Pluto..F+4 :is e"ble"s, es%ecially that of the ha""er, are also
those of the Pluto of the /truscans, ith ho" the Celts ha! been in
contact..FE4 :e is thus a Celtic )is%ater, an un!erorl! go!, %ossibly
at one ti"e an /arth&go! an! certainly a go! of fertility, an! ancestor
of the Celtic folk. 6n so"e cases, like 5era%is, he carries a K"o!iusK
on his hea!, an! this, like the cu%, is an e"ble" of chthonian go!s, an!
a sy"bol of the fertility of the soil. The go! being bene#olent, his
ha""er, like the tool ith hich "an for"s so "any things, coul! only be
a sy"bol of creati#e force..F14 As an ancestor of the Celts, the go! is
naturally re%resente! in Celtic !ress. 6n one bas&relief he is calle!
5ucellos, an! has a consort, <antos#elta..F-4 Carious "eanings ha#e been
assigne! to B5ucellos,B but it %robably !enotes the go!'s %oer of
striking ith the ha""er. M. )'Arbois hence regar!s hi" as a go! of
blight an! !eath, like Balor..F24 But though this Celtic )is%ater as a
go! of the !ea! ho li#e! on in the un!erorl!, he as not necessarily a
!estructi#e go!. The un!erorl! go! as the go! fro" ho" or fro" hose
king!o" "en ca"e forth, an! he as also a go! of fertility. To this e
shall return.
+. A bear!e! go!, %robably sLuatting, ith horns fro" each of hich
hangs a torLue, is re%resente! on an altar foun! at Paris..F34 :e is
calle! Cernunnos, %erha%s Bthe horne!,B fro" KcernaK, Bhorn,B an! a
hole grou% of na"eless go!s, ith si"ilar or a!!itional attributes,
ha#e affinities ith hi".
>a@ A bronHe statuette fro" Autun re%resents a si"ilar figure, %robably
horne!, ho %resents a torLue to to ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ents. 9iIe! abo#e
his ears are to s"all hea!s..FF4 8n a "onu"ent fro" Can!oeu#res is a
sLuatting horne! go!, %ressing a sack. To genii stan! besi!e hi" on a
ser%ent, hile one of the" hol!s a torLue..FG4
>b@ Another sLuatting horne! figure ith a torLue occurs on an altar
fro" Rei"s. :e %resses a bag, fro" hich grain esca%es, an! on it an oI
an! stag are fee!ing. A rat is re%resente! on the %e!i"ent abo#e, an! on
either si!e stan! A%ollo an! Mercury..G,4 8n the altar of 5aintes is a
sLuatting but hea!less go! ith torLue an! %urse. Besi!e hi" is a
go!!ess ith a cornuco%ia, an! a s"aller !i#inity ith a cornuco%ia an!
an a%%le. A si"ilar sLuatting figure, su%%orte! by "ale an! fe"ale
!eities, is re%resente! on the other si!e of the altar..G*4 8n the altar
of Beaune are three figures, one horne! ith a cornuco%ia, another
three&hea!e!, hol!ing a basket..G+4 Three figures, one fe"ale an! to
"ale, are foun! on the )enne#y altar. 8ne go! is three&face!, the other
has a cornuco%ia, hich he offers to a ser%ent..GE4
>c@ Another i"age re%resents a three&face! go!, hol!ing a ser%ent ith a
ra"'s hea!..G14
>!@ Abo#e a seate! go! an! go!!ess on an altar fro" Mal"aison is a block
car#e! to re%resent three faces. To be co"%are! ith these are se#en
steles fro" Rei"s, each ith a tri%le face but only one %air of eyes.
Abo#e so"e of these is a ra"'s hea!. 8n an eighth stele the hea!s are
se%arate!..G-4
Cernunnos "ay thus ha#e been regar!e! as a three&hea!e!, horne!,
sLuatting go!, ith a torLue an! ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent. But a horne! go!
is so"eti"es a "e"ber of a tria!, %erha%s re%resenting "yths in hich
Cernunnos as associate! ith other go!s. The three&hea!e! go! "ay be
the sa"e as the horne! go!, though on the Beaune altar they are
!istinct. The #arious re%resentations are linke! together, but it is not
certain that all are #arying ty%es of one go!. :orns, torLue, horne!
snake, or e#en the tri%le hea! "ay ha#e been sy"bols %ertaining to "ore
than one go!, though generally associate! ith Cernunnos.
The sLuatting attitu!e of the go! has been !ifferently eI%laine!, an!
its affinities regar!e! no as Bu!!hist, no as Greco&/gy%tian..G24 But
if the go! is a )is%ater, an! the ancestral go! of the Celts, it is
natural, as M. Moat %oints out, to re%resent hi" in the ty%ical
attitu!e of the Gauls hen sitting, since they !i! not use seats..G34
?hile the horns ere %robably sy"bols of %oer an! orn also by chiefs
on their hel"ets,.GF4 they "ay also sho that the go! as an
anthro%o"or%hic for" of an earlier ani"al go!, like the olf&skin of
other go!s. :ence also horne! ani"als oul! be regar!e! as sy"bols of
the go!, an! this "ay account for their %resence on the Rei"s "onu"ent.
Ani"als are so"eti"es re%resente! besi!e the !i#inities ho ere their
anthro%o"or%hic for"s..GG4 5i"ilarly the ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent %oints to
ani"al orshi%. But its %resence ith three&hea!e! an! horne! go!s is
enig"atic, though, as ill be seen later, it "ay ha#e been connecte!
ith a cult of the !ea!, hile the ser%ent as a chthonian ani"al..*,,4
These go!s ere go!s of fertility an! of the un!erorl! of the !ea!.
?hile the bag or %urse >interchangeable ith the cornuco%ia@ as a
sy"bol of Mercury, it as also a sy"bol of Pluto, an! this "ay %oint to
the fact that the go!s ho bear it ha! the sa"e character as Pluto. The
significance of the torLue is also !oubtful, but the Gauls offere!
torLues to the go!s, an! they "ay ha#e been regar!e! as #ehicles of the
arrior's strength hich %asse! fro" hi" to the go! to ho" the #ictor
%resente! it.
Though "any atte"%ts ha#e been "a!e to %ro#e the non&Celtic origin of
the three&hea!e! !i#inities or of their i"ages,.*,*4 there is no reason
hy the conce%tion shoul! not be Celtic, base! on so"e "yth no lost to
us. The Celts ha! a cult of hu"an hea!s, an! fiIe! the" u% on their
houses in or!er to obtain the %rotection of the ghost. Bo!ies or hea!s
of !ea! arriors ha! a %rotecti#e influence on their lan! or tribe, an!
"yth tol! ho the hea! of the go! Bran sa#e! his country fro" in#asion.
6n other "yths hu"an hea!s s%eak after being cut off..*,+4 6t "ight thus
easily ha#e been belie#e! that the re%resentation of a go!'s hea! ha! a
still "ore %oerful %rotecti#e influence, es%ecially hen it as
tri%licate!, thus looking in all !irections, like Janus.
The significance of the tria! on these "onu"ents is uncertain but since
the su%%orting !i#inities are no "ale, no fe"ale, no "ale an! fe"ale,
it %robably re%resents "yths of hich the horne! or three&hea!e! go! as
the central figure. Perha%s e shall not be far rong in regar!ing such
go!s, on the hole, as Cernunnos, a go! of abun!ance to ju!ge by his
e"ble"s, an! by the cornuco%ia hel! by his co"%anions, %robably
!i#inities of fertility. 6n certain cases figures of sLuatting an!
horne! go!!esses ith cornuco%ia occur..*,E4 These "ay be consorts of
Cernunnos, an! %erha%s %rece!e! hi" in origin. ?e "ay also go further
an! see in this go! of abun!ance an! fertility at once an /arth an! an
;n!er&earth go!, since earth an! un!er&earth are "uch the sa"e to
%ri"iti#e thought, an! fertility s%rings fro" belo the earth's surface.
Thus Cernunnos oul! be another for" of the Celtic )is%ater. Generally
s%eaking, the i"ages of Cernunnos are not foun! here those of the go!
ith the ha""er >)is%ater@ are "ost nu"erous. These to ty%es "ay thus
be !ifferent local for"s of )is%ater. The sLuatting attitu!e of
Cernunnos is natural in the i"age of the ancestor of a %eo%le ho
sLuatte!. As to the sy"bols of %lenty, e kno that Pluto as confoun!e!
ith Plutus, the go! of riches, because corn an! "inerals ca"e out of
the earth, an! ere thus the gifts of an /arth or ;n!er&earth go!.
Celtic "yth "ay ha#e ha! the sa"e confusion.
8n a Paris altar an! on certain steles a go! attacks a ser%ent ith a
club. The ser%ent is a chthonian ani"al, an! the go!, calle! 5"ertullos,
"ay be a )is%ater..*,14 Go!s ho are anthro%o"or%hic for"s of earlier
ani"al !i#inities, so"eti"es ha#e the ani"als as sy"bols or atten!ants,
or are regar!e! as hostile to the". 6n so"e cases )is%ater "ay ha#e
outgron the ser%ent sy"bolis", the ser%ent being regar!e! locally as
his foeA this assu"es that the go! ith the club is the sa"e as the go!
ith the ha""er. But in the case of Cernunnos the ani"al re"aine! as his
sy"bol.
)is%ater as a go! of groth an! fertility, an! besi!es being lor! of
the un!erorl! of the !ea!, not necessarily a !ark region or the abo!e
of B!arkB go!s as is so often assu"e! by riters on Celtic religion, he
as ancestor of the li#ing. This "ay "erely ha#e "eant that, as in other
"ythologies, "en ca"e to the surface of the earth fro" an un!ergroun!
region, like all things hose roots struck !ee% !on into the earth. The
lor! of the un!erorl! oul! then easily be regar!e! as their
ancestor..*,-4
E. The ha""er an! the cu% are also the sy"bols of a go! calle! 5il#anus,
i!entifie! by M. Moat ith /sus,.*,24 a go! re%resente! cutting !on a
tree ith an aIe. AIe an! ha""er, hoe#er, are not necessarily
i!entical, an! the sy"bols are those of )is%ater, as has been seen. A
%urely su%erficial connection beteen the Ro"an 5il#anus an! the Celtic
)is%ater "ay ha#e been foun! by Gallo&Ro"an artists in the fact that
both ear a olf&skin, hile there "ay once ha#e been a Celtic olf
tote"&go! of the !ea!..*,34 The Ro"an go! as also associate! ith the
olf. This "ight be regar!e! as one out of "any eIa"%les of a "ere
su%erficial assi"ilation of Ro"an an! Celtic !i#inities, but in this
case they still ke%t certain sy"bols of the nati#e )is%ater&&the cu% an!
ha""er. 8f course, since the latter as also a go! of fertility, there
as here another link ith 5il#anus, a go! of oo!s an! #egetation. The
cult of the go! as i!es%rea!&&in 5%ain, 5. Gaul, the Rhine %ro#inces,
Cisal%ine Gaul, Central /uro%e an! Britain. But one inscri%tion gi#es
the na"e 5el#anos, an! it is not i"%ossible that there as a nati#e go!
5el#anus. 6f so, his na"e "ay ha#e been !eri#e! fro" Ksel#aK,
B%ossession,B 6rish KsealbhK, B%ossession,B Bcattle,B an! he "ay ha#e
been a chthonian go! of riches, hich in %ri"iti#e co""unities consiste!
of cattle..*,F4 )o"estic ani"als, in Celtic "ythology, ere belie#e! to
ha#e co"e fro" the go!'s lan!. 5el#anus oul! thus be easily i!entifie!
ith 5il#anus, a go! of flocks.
Thus the Celtic )is%ater ha! #arious na"es an! for"s in !ifferent
regions, an! coul! be assi"ilate! to !ifferent foreign go!s. 5ince /arth
an! ;n!er&earth are so nearly connecte!, this !i#inity "ay once ha#e
been an /arth&go!, an! as such %erha%s took the %lace of an earlier
/arth&"other, ho no beca"e his consort or his "other. 8n a "onu"ent
fro" 5alHbach, )is%ater is acco"%anie! by a go!!ess calle! Aeracura,
hol!ing a basket of fruit, an! on another "onu"ent fro" 8ber&5eebach,
the co"%anion of )is%ater hol!s a cornuco%ia. 6n the latter instance
)is%ater hol!s a ha""er an! cu%, an! the go!!ess "ay be Aeracura.
Aeracura is also associate! ith )is%ater in se#eral inscri%tions..*,G4
6t is not yet certain that she is a Celtic go!!ess, but her %resence
ith this e#i!ently Celtic go! is al"ost sufficient %roof of the fact.
5he "ay thus re%resent the ol! /arth&go!!ess, hose %lace the nati#e
)is%ater gra!ually usur%e!.
'ucan "entions a go! /sus, ho is re%resente! on a Paris altar as a
oo!"an cutting !on a tree, the branches of hich are carrie! roun! to
the neIt si!e of the altar, on hich is re%resente! a bull ith three
cranes&&Tar#os Trigaranos. The sa"e figure, unna"e!, occurs on another
altar at Tre#es, but in this case the bull's hea! a%%ears in the
branches, an! on the" sit the bir!s. M. Reinach a%%lies one for"ula to
the subjects of these altars&&BThe !i#ine ?oo!"an hes the Tree of the
Bull ith Three Cranes.B.**,4 The hole re%resents so"e "yth unknon to
us, but M. )'Arbois fin!s in it so"e allusion to e#ents in the
Cuchulainn saga. To this e shall return..***4 Bull an! tree are %erha%s
both !i#ine, an! if the ani"al, like the i"ages of the !i#ine bull, is
three&horne!, then the three cranes >KgaranusK, BcraneB@ "ay be a rebus
for three&horne! >KtrikerasK@, or "ore %robably three&hea!e!
>KtrikarenosK@..**+4 6n this case oo!"an, tree, an! bull "ight all be
re%resentati#es of a go! of #egetation. 6n early ritual, hu"an, ani"al,
or arboreal re%resentati#es of the go! ere %erio!ically !estroye! to
ensure fertility, but hen the go! beca"e se%arate! fro" these
re%resentati#es, the !estruction or slaying as regar!e! as a sacrifice
to the go!, an! "yths arose telling ho he ha! once slain the ani"al. 6n
this case, tree an! bull, really i!entical, oul! be "ythically regar!e!
as !estroye! by the go! ho" they ha! once re%resente!. 6f /sus as a
go! of #egetation, once re%resente! by a tree, this oul! eI%lain hy,
as the scholiast on 'ucan relates, hu"an sacrifices to /sus ere
sus%en!e! fro" a tree. /sus as orshi%%e! at Paris an! at Tre#esA a
coin ith the na"e A/sus as foun! in /nglan!A an! %ersonal na"es like
/sugenos, Bson of /sus,B an! /sunertus, Bhe ho has the strength of
/sus,B occur in /nglan!, 9rance, an! 5itHerlan!..**E4 Thus the cult of
this go! "ay ha#e been co"%arati#ely i!es%rea!. But there is no
e#i!ence that he as a Celtic Jeho#ah or a "e"ber, ith Teutates an!
Taranis, of a %an&Celtic tria!, or that this tria!, intro!uce! by Gauls,
as not acce%te! by the )rui!s..**14 :a! such a great tria! eIiste!,
so"e instance of the occurrence of the three na"es on one inscri%tion
oul! certainly ha#e been foun!. 'ucan !oes not refer to the go!s as a
tria!, nor as go!s of all the Celts, or e#en of one tribe. :e lays
stress "erely on the fact that they ere orshi%%e! ith hu"an
sacrifice, an! they ere a%%arently "ore or less ell&knon local
go!s..**-4
The insular Celts belie#e! that so"e of their go!s li#e! on or in hills.
?e !o not kno hether such a belief as entertaine! by the Gauls,
though so"e of their !eities ere orshi%%e! on hills, like the Puy !e
)o"e. There is also e#i!ence of "ountain orshi% a"ong the". 8ne
inscri%tion runs, BTo the MountainsBA a go! of the Pennine Al%s,
Poeninus, as eLuate! ith Ju%%iterA an! the go! of the Cosges "ountains
as calle! Cosegus, %erha%s still sur#i#ing in the giant su%%ose! to
haunt the"..**24
Certain grou%e! go!s, K)ii CassesK, ere orshi%%e! by Celts on the
right bank of the Rhine, but nothing is knon regar!ing their functions,
unless they ere roa! go!s. The na"e "eans BbeautifulB or B%leasant,B
an! KCassiK a%%ears in %ersonal an! tribal na"es, an! also in
KCassiteri!esK, an early na"e of Britain, %erha%s signifying that the
ne lan!s ere B"ore beautifulB than those the Celts ha! left. ?hen tin
as !isco#ere! in Britain, the Me!iterranean tra!ers calle! it .Greek(
chassiteros4, after the na"e of the %lace here it as foun!, as
Kcu%reusK, Bco%%er,B as so calle! fro" Cy%rus..**34
Many local tutelar !i#inities ere also orshi%%e!. ?hen a ne
settle"ent as foun!e!, it as %lace! un!er the %rotection of a tribal
go!, or the na"e of so"e !i#inise! ri#er on hose banks the #illage as
%lace!, %asse! to the #illage itself, an! the !i#inity beca"e its
%rotector. Thus )ea Bibracte, <e"ausus, an! Casio ere tutelar
!i#inities of Bibracte, <i"es, an! Caison. 8ther %laces ere calle!
after Belenos, or a grou% of !i#inities, usually the KMatresK ith a
local e%ithet, atche! o#er a certain !istrict..**F4 The foun!ing of a
ton as celebrate! in an annual festi#al, ith sacrifices an! libations
to the %rotecting !eity, a %ractice co"bate! by 5. /loi in the eighth
century. But the custo" of associating a !i#inity ith a ton or region
as a great hel% to %atriotis". Those ho fought for their ho"es felt
that they ere fighting for their go!s, ho also fought on their si!e.
5e#eral inscri%tions, BTo the genius of the %lace,B occur in Britain,
an! there are a fe traces of tutelar go!s in 6rish teIts, but generally
local saints ha! taken their %lace.
The Celtic cult of go!!esses took to for"s, that of in!i#i!ual an! that
of grou%e! go!!esses, the latter "uch "ore nu"erous than the grou%e!
go!s. 6n!i#i!ual go!!esses ere orshi%%e! as consorts of go!s, or as
se%arate %ersonalities, an! in the latter case the cult as so"eti"es
far eIten!e!. 5till "ore %o%ular as the cult of grou%e! go!!esses. 8f
these the KMatresK, like so"e in!i#i!ual go!!esses, ere %robably early
/arth&"others, an! since the %ri"iti#e fertility&cults inclu!e! all that
"ight then be su""e! u% as Bci#ilisation,B such go!!esses ha! alrea!y
"any functions, an! "ight the "ore rea!ily beco"e !i#inities of s%ecial
crafts or e#en of ar. Many in!i#i!ual go!!esses are knon only by their
na"es, an! ere of a %urely local character..**G4 5o"e local go!!esses
ith !ifferent na"es but si"ilar functions are eLuate! ith the sa"e
Ro"an go!!essA others ere ne#er so eLuate!.
The Celtic Miner#a, or the go!!esses eLuate! ith her, Btaught the
ele"ents of in!ustry an! the arts,B.*+,4 an! is thus the eLui#alent of
the 6rish Brigit. :er functions are in kee%ing ith the %osition of
o"an as the first ci#iliser&&!isco#ering agriculture, s%inning, the art
of %ottery, etc. )uring this %erio! go!!esses ere chiefly orshi%%e!,
an! though the Celts ha! long outgron this %ri"iti#e stage, such
culture&go!!esses still retaine! their i"%ortance. A go!!ess eLuate!
ith Miner#a in 5outhern 9rance an! Britain is Belisa"a, %erha%s fro"
KL#alK, Bto burnB or Bshine.B.*+*4 :ence she "ay ha#e been associate!
ith a cult of fire, like Brigit an! like another go!!ess 5ul, eLuate!
ith Miner#a at Bath an! in :esse, an! in hose te"%le %er%etual fires
burne!..*++4 5he as also a go!!ess of hot s%rings. Belisa"a ga#e her
na"e to the Mersey,.*+E4 an! "any go!!esses in Celtic "yth are
associate! ith ri#ers.
5o"e ar&go!!esses are associate! ith Mars&&<e"etona >in Britain an!
Ger"any@, %erha%s the sa"e as the 6rish <e"on, an! Cathubo!ua, i!entical
ith the 6rish ar&go!!ess Ba!b&catha, Bbattle&cro,B ho tore the
bo!ies of the slain..*+14 Another go!!ess An!rasta, Bin#incible,B
%erha%s the sa"e as the An!arta of the Coconces, as orshi%%e! by the
%eo%le of Bou!icca ith hu"an sacrifices, like the nati#e Bellona of the
5cor!isci..*+-4
A go!!ess of the chase as i!entifie! ith Arte"is in Galatia, here she
ha! a %riestess Ca""a, an! also in the est. At the feast of the
Galatian go!!ess !ogs ere crone! ith floers, her orshi%%ers feaste!
an! a sacrifice as "a!e to her, feast an! sacrifice being %ro#i!e! out
of "oney lai! asi!e for e#ery ani"al taken in the chase..*+24 8ther
go!!esses ere eLuate! ith )iana, an! one of her statues as !estroye!
in Christian ti"es at Tre#es..*+34 These go!!esses "ay ha#e been thought
of as rushing through the forest ith an atten!ant train, since in later
ti"es )iana, ith ho" they ere co"%letely assi"ilate!, beca"e, like
:ol!a, the lea!er of the Bfurious hostB an! also of itches'
re#els..*+F4 The 'ife of Caesarius of Arles s%eaks of a B!e"onB calle!
)iana by the rustics. A bronHe statuette re%resents the go!!ess ri!ing a
il! boar,.*+G4 her sy"bol an!, like herself, a creature of the forest,
but at an earlier ti"e itself a !i#inity of ho" the go!!ess beca"e the
anthro%o"or%hic for".
Go!!esses, the earlier s%irits of the aters, %rotecte! ri#ers an!
s%rings, or ere associate! ith go!s of healing ells. )irona or 5irona
is associate! ith Grannos "ainly in /astern Gaul an! the Rhine
%ro#inces, an! is so"eti"es re%resente! carrying gra%es an! grain..*E,4
Thus this go!!ess "ay once ha#e been connecte! ith fertility, %erha%s
an /arth&"other, an! if her na"e "eans Bthe long&li#e!,B.*E*4 this oul!
be an a%%ro%riate title for an /arth&go!!ess. Another go!!ess, 5tanna,
"entione! in an inscri%tion at PerigueuI, is %erha%s Bthe stan!ing or
abi!ing one,B an! thus "ay also ha#e been /arth&go!!ess..*E+4 Grannos
as also associate! ith the local go!!esses Cesunna an! A#entia, ho
ga#e their na"es to Cesona an! A#anche. :is statue also stoo! in the
te"%le of the go!!ess of the 5eine, 5eLuana..*EE4 ?ith Bor"o ere
associate! Bor"ana in 5outhern Gaul, an! )a"ona in /astern Gaul&&%erha%s
an ani"al go!!ess, since the root of her na"e occurs in 6rish K!a"K,
BoI,B an! ?elsh K!afa!K, Bshee%.B )ea BriIia as the consort of
'uIo#ius, go! of the aters of 'uIeuil. <a"es of other go!!esses of the
aters are foun! on KeI #otosK an! %laLues hich ere %lace! in or near
the". The Ro"an <y"%hae, so"eti"es associate! ith Bor"o, ere the
eLui#alents of the Celtic ater&go!!esses, ho sur#i#e! in the
ater&fairies of later folk&belief. 5o"e ri#er&go!!esses ga#e their
na"es to "any ri#ers in the Celtic area&&the nu"erous A#ons being na"e!
fro" Abnoba, go!!ess of the sources of the )anube, an! the "any )ees an!
)i#es fro" )i#ona. Clota as go!!ess of the Cly!e, 5abrina ha! her
throne Bbeneath the translucent a#eB of the 5e#ern, 6cauna as go!!ess
of the $onne, 5eLuana of the 5eine, an! 5innan of the 5hannon.
6n so"e cases forests ere rule! by go!!esses&&that of the Ar!ennes by
)ea Ar!uinna, an! the Black 9orest, %erha%s because of the "any aters
in it, by )ea Abnoba..*E14 ?hile so"e go!!esses are knon only by being
associate! ith a go!, e.g. =os"erta ith Mercury in /astern Gaul,
others ha#e re"aine! se%arate, like /%ona, %erha%s a ri#er&go!!ess
"erge! ith an ani"al !i#inity, an! knon fro" inscri%tions as a
horse&go!!ess..*E-4 But the "ost striking instance is foun! in the
grou%e! go!!esses.
8f these the K)eoe MatresK, hose na"e has taken a 'atin for" an! hose
cult eIten!e! to the Teutons, are "entione! in "any inscri%tions all
o#er the Celtic area, sa#e in /ast an! <orth&?est Gaul..*E24 6n art they
are usually re%resente! as three in nu"ber, hol!ing fruit, floers, a
cornuco%ia, or an infant. They ere thus go!!esses of fertility, an!
%robably !eri#e! fro" a cult of a great Mother&go!!ess, the /arth
%ersonifie!. 5he "ay ha#e sur#i#e! as a go!!ess BerecynthiaA orshi%%e!
at Autun, here her i"age as borne through the fiel!s to %ro"ote
fertility, or as the go!!esses eLuate! ith )e"eter an! =ore, orshi%%e!
by o"en on an islan! near Britain..*E34 5uch cults of a Mother&go!!ess
lie behin! "any religions, but gra!ually her %lace as taken by an
/arth&go!, the Celtic )is%ater or )ag!a, hose consort the go!!ess
beca"e. 5he "ay therefore be the go!!ess ith the cornuco%ia on
"onu"ents of the horne! go!, or Aeracura, consort of )is%ater, or a
go!!ess on a "onu"ent at /%inal hol!ing a basket of fruit an! a
cornuco%ia, an! acco"%anie! by a ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent..*EF4 These
sy"bols sho that this go!!ess as akin to the KMatresK. But she
so"eti"es %reser#e! her in!i#i!uality, as in the case of Berecynthia an!
the KMatresK, though it is not Luite clear hy she shoul! ha#e been thus
tri%ly "ulti%lie!. A si"ilar %heno"enon is foun! in the close connection
of )e"eter an! Perse%hone, hile the Celts regar!e! three as a sacre!
nu"ber. The %ri"iti#e !i#ision of the year into three seasons&&s%ring,
su""er, an! inter&&"ay ha#e ha! its effect in tri%licating a go!!ess of
fertility ith hich the course of the seasons as connecte!..*EG4 6n
other "ythologies grou%s of three go!!esses are foun!, the :athors in
/gy%t, the Moirai, Gorgons, an! Graiae of Greece, the Ro"an 9ates, an!
the <orse <ornae, an! it is noticeable that the KMatresK ere so"eti"es
eLuate! ith the Parcae an! 9ates..*1,4
6n the KMatresK, %ri"arily go!!esses of fertility an! %lenty, e ha#e
one of the "ost %o%ular an! also %ri"iti#e as%ects of Celtic religion.
They originate! in an age hen o"en culti#ate! the groun!, an! the
/arth as a go!!ess hose cult as %erfor"e! by %riestesses. But in
course of ti"e ne functions ere bestoe! on the KMatresK. Possibly
ri#er&go!!esses an! others are "erely "others hose functions ha#e
beco"e s%ecialise!. The KMatresK are foun! as guar!ians of in!i#i!uals,
fa"ilies, houses, of tons, a %ro#ince, or a hole nation, as their
e%ithets in inscri%tions sho. The KMatres )o"esticaeK are househol!
go!!essesA the KMatres Tre#eraeK, or KGallaicaeK, or KCe!iantaeK, are the
"others of Tre#es, of the Gallaecae, of the Ce!iantiiA the KMatres
<e"etialesK are guar!ians of gro#es. Besi!es %resi!ing o#er the fiel!s
as KMatres Ca"%estraeK they brought %ros%erity to tons an! %eo%le..*1*4
They guar!e! o"en, es%ecially in chil!birth, as KeI #otosK %ro#e, an!
in this as%ect they are akin to the KJunonesK orshi%%e! also in Gaul
an! Britain. The na"e thus beca"e generic for "ost go!!esses, but all
alike ere the lineal !escen!ants of the %ri"iti#e /arth&"other..*1+4
Po%ular su%erstition has %reser#e! the "e"ory of these go!!esses in the
three Kbonnes !a"esK, K!a"es blanchesK, an! ?hite ?o"en, "et by
ayfarers in forests, or in the three fairies or ise o"en of
folk&tales, ho a%%ear at the birth of chil!ren. But so"eti"es they ha#e
beco"e hateful hags. The KMatresK an! other go!!esses %robably sur#i#e!
in the beneficent fairies of rocks an! strea"s, in the fairy Abon!e ho
brought riches to houses, or /sterelle of Pro#ence ho "a!e o"en
fruitful, or Aril ho atche! o#er "ea!os, or in beings like Melusine,
Ci#iane, an! others..*1E4 6n Gallo&Ro"an Britain the cult of the
KMatresK is foun!, but ho far it as in!igenous there is uncertain. A
?elsh na"e for fairies, K$ Ma"auK, Bthe Mothers,B an! the %hrase, Bthe
blessing of the MothersB use! of a fairy bene!iction, "ay be a
re"iniscence of such go!!esses..*114 The %resence of si"ilar go!!esses
in 6relan! ill be consi!ere! later..*1-4 6"ages of the KMatresK bearing
a chil! ha#e so"eti"es been taken for those of the Cirgin, hen foun!
acci!entally, an! as they are of oo! blackene! ith age, they are knon
as KCierges <oiresK, an! occu%y an honoure! %lace in Christian
sanctuaries. Many churches of <otre )a"e ha#e been built on sites here
an i"age of the Cirgin is sai! to ha#e been "iraculously foun!&&the
i"age %robably being that of a %agan Mother. 5i"ilarly, an altar to the
KMatresK at Caison is no !e!icate! to the Cirgin as the Bgoo!
Mother.B.*124
6n inscri%tions fro" /astern an! Cisal%ine Gaul, an! fro" the Rhine an!
)anube region, the KMatronaeK are "entione!, an! this na"e is %robably
in!icati#e of go!!esses like the KMatresK..*134 6t is akin to that of
"any ri#ers, e.g. the Marne or Meyrone, an! shos that the Mothers ere
associate! ith ri#ers. The Mother ri#er fertilise! a large !istrict,
an! eIhibite! the characteristic of the hole grou% of go!!esses.
Akin also to the KMatresK are the K5ule#iaeK, guar!ian go!!esses calle!
KMatresK in a fe inscri%tionsA the KCo"e!o#aeK, hose na"e %erha%s
!enotes guar!ianshi% or %oerA the K)o"inaeK, ho atche! o#er the ho"e,
%erha%s the K)a"esK of "e!iae#al folk&loreA an! the KCirginesK, %erha%s
an a%%ellati#e of the KMatresK, an! significant hen e fin! that #irgin
%riestesses eIiste! in Gaul an! 6relan!..*1F4 The KProIu"aeK ere
orshi%%e! in 5outhern Gaul, an! the KTua!ri#iaeK, go!!esses of
cross&roa!s, at Cherbourg..*1G4
5o"e Ro"an go!s are foun! on inscri%tions ithout being eLuate! ith
nati#e !eities. They "ay ha#e been acce%te! by the Gauls as ne go!s, or
they ha! %erha%s co"%letely ouste! si"ilar nati#e go!s. 8thers, not
"entione! by Caesar, are eLuate! ith nati#e !eities, Juno ith Cli#ana,
5aturn ith Ar#alus, an! to a nati#e Culcan the Celts #oe! s%oils of
ar..*-,4 Again, "any nati#e go!s are not eLuate! ith Ro"an !eities on
inscri%tions. A%art fro" the !i#inities of Pyrenaean inscri%tions, ho
"ay not be Celtic, the na"es of o#er 1,, nati#e !eities, hether eLuate!
ith Ro"an go!s or not, are knon. 5o"e of these na"es are "ere
e%ithets, an! "ost of the go!s are of a local character, knon here by
one na"e, there by another. 8nly in a #ery fe cases can it be asserte!
that a go! as orshi%%e! o#er the hole Celtic area by one na"e, though
so"e go!s in Gaul, Britain, an! 6relan! ith !ifferent na"es ha#e
certainly si"ilar functions..*-*4
The %antheon of the continental Celts as a #arie! one. Traces of the
%ri"iti#e agricultural rites, an! of the %riority of go!!esses to go!s,
are foun!, an! the #aguer as%ects of %ri"iti#e nature orshi% are seen
behin! the cult of !i#inities of sky, sun, thun!er, forests, ri#ers, or
in !eities of ani"al origin. ?e co"e neIt to e#i!ence of a higher stage,
in !i#inities of culture, healing, the chase, ar, an! the un!erorl!.
?e see !i#inities of Celtic grou%s&&go!s of in!i#i!uals, the fa"ily, the
tribe. 5o"eti"es ar&go!s assu"e! great %ro"inence, in ti"e of ar, or
a"ong the aristocracy, but ith the !e#elo%"ent of co""erce, go!s
associate! ith tra!e an! the arts of %eace ca"e to the front..*-+4 At
the sa"e ti"e the %o%ular cults of agricultural !istricts "ust ha#e
re"aine! as of ol!. ?ith the a!o%tion of Ro"an ci#ilisation, enlightene!
Celts se%arate! the"sel#es fro" the loer as%ects of their religion, but
this oul! ha#e occurre! ith groing ci#ilisation ha! no Ro"an e#er
entere! Gaul. 6n rural !istricts the "ore sa#age as%ects of the cult
oul! still ha#e re"aine!, but that these ere entirely !ue to an
aboriginal %o%ulation is erroneous. The Celts "ust ha#e brought such
cults ith the" or a!o%te! cults si"ilar to their on here#er they
ca"e. The %ersistence of these cults is seen in the fact that though
Christianity "o!ifie! the", it coul! not root the" out, an! in
out&of&the&ay corners, sur#i#als of the ol! ritual "ay still be foun!,
for e#eryhere the ol! religion of the soil !ies har!.
988T<8T/5(
.-E4 Caesar, K!e Bell. Gall.K #i. *3, *F.
.-14 Bloch >'a#isse@, K:ist, !e 9ranceK, i. +, 1*GA Reinaoh, KB9K *E,
+E.
.--4 KTrans. Gaelic 5oc. of 6n#ernessK, II#i. %. 1** f.
.-24 Callentin, K'es )ieuI !e la cite !es AllobrogesK, *-A Pliny, K:<K
IIIi#. 3.
.-34 These na"es are Alaunius, Arcecius, Artaius, Ar#ernoriI, Ar#ernus,
A!s"erius, Canetonensis, Cla#ariatis, Cissonius, Ci"brianus, )u"iatis,
Magniacus, Moecus, Toeirenus, Cassocaletus, Cellaunus, Cisuoius,
Biausius, Ci"iacinus, <aissatis. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.-F4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K 2.
.-G4 :uebner, #ii. +3*A KC6'K iii. -33E.
.2,4 'ucian, K:eraclesK, * f. 5o"e Gaulish coins figure a hea! to hich
are boun! s"aller hea!s. 6n one case the cor!s issue fro" the "outh
>Blanchet, i. E,F, E*2&E*3@. These "ay re%resent 'ucian's 8g"ios, but
other inter%retations ha#e been %ut u%on the". 5ee Robert, KRCK #ii.
EFFA Jullian, F1.
.2*4 The e%ithets an! na"es are AneItio"arus, Belenos, Bor"o, Bor#o, or
Bor"anus, Coble!ulita#us, Cos"is >S@, Grannos, 'i#icus, Ma%onos, Mogo or
Mogounos, 5ianus, ToutioriI, Ciu!onnus, Cirotutis. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.2+4 Po""erol, KBall. !e 5oc. !'ant. !e ParisK, ii. fasc. 1.
.2E4 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K Many %lace&na"es are !eri#e! fro" KBor#o, e.g.K
Bourbon l'Archa"baut, hich ga#e its na"e to the Bourbon !ynasty, thus
connecte! ith an ol! Celtic go!.
.214 5ee %. *,+, KinfraK.
.2-4 Jul. Ca%. KMaIi".K ++A :ero!ian, #iii. EA Tert. KA%ol.K IIi#. 3,A
Auson. KProf.K Ii. +1.
.224 5tokes !eri#es KbelinuntiaK fro" KbeljoK&, a tree or leaf, 6rish
KbileK, K;5K *31.
.234 :ol!er, Ks.#.KA 5tokes, K;5K *G3A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +EA see %. *F,,
KinfraK.
.2F4 )io!. 5ic. ii. 13.
.2G4 A%oll. Rho!. i#. 2,G.
.3,4 AlbioriI, Alator, AriIo, Bela!onnis, BarreI, Belatuca!ros,
Bol#innus, Braciaca, Brito#is, BuIenus, Cabetius, Ca"ulus, Cariocecius,
CaturiI, Ce"enelus, Cicollius, Carrus, Cocosus, Coci!uis, Con!atis,
Cnabetius, Corotiacus, )ino"ogeti"arus, )i#anno, )unatis, Glarinus,
:ala"ar!us, :ar"ogius, 6eus!riuus, 'aca#us, 'atabius, 'eucetius,
'euci"alacus, 'enus, Mullo, Me!ocius, Mogetius, <abelcus, <eton, 8celos,
8llon!ios, Ru!ianus, Rigisa"us, Ran!osatis, Riga, 5ego"o, 5inatis,
5"ertatius, Toutates, Tritullus, Cesucius, Cincius, Cituca!ros,
Corocius. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.3*4 )'Arbois, ii. +*-A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K E3.
.3+4 5o Rh.Jy4s, K:'K 1+.
.3E4 :uebner, 2*.
.314 :ol!er, Ks.#.KA 'ucan, i. 111 f. The o%inions of riters ho take
this #ie are collecte! by Reinach, KRCK I#iii. *E3.
.3-4 :ol!er, Ks.#.K The Gaulish na"e Ca"ulogenus, Bborn of Cu"el,B
re%resents the sa"e i!ea as in 9ionn's surna"e, MacCu"all.
.324 Athen. i#. E2A )ioscori!es, ii. **,A Joyce, K5:K ii. **2, *+,A K6TK
i. 1E3, 2G3.
.334 Pliny, K:<K I#iii. 3.
.3F4 Gai!oH, K'e )ieu Gaulois !e 5oleilKA Reinach, KC5K GF, KB9K E-A
Blanchet, i. +3.
.3G4 'ucan, KPhar.K i. 111. Another for", Tanaros, "ay be si"%ly the
Ger"an )onar.
.F,4 'oth, i. +3,.
.F*4 Gai!oH, KRCK #i. 1-3A Reinach, K85K 2-, *EFA Blanchet, i. *2,. The
ha""er is also associate! ith another Celtic )is%ater, eLuate! ith
5yl#anus, ho as certainly not a thun!er&go!.
.F+4 Reinach, KB9K *E3 f.A Courcelle&5eneuil, **- f.
.FE4 Barthele"y, KRCK i. l f.
.F14 5ee 9louest, KRe#. Arch.K #. *3.
.F-4 Reinach, KRCK I#ii. 1-.
.F24 )'Arbois, ii. *+2. :e eI%lains <antos#elta as "eaning B5he ho is
brilliant in ar.B The go!!ess, hoe#er, has none of the attributes of a
ar&go!!ess. M. )'Arbois also sa in a bas&relief of the ha""er&go!, a
fe"ale figure, an! a chil!, the Gaulish eLui#alents of Balor, /thne, an!
'ug >KRCK I#. +E2@. M. Reinach regar!s 5ucellos, <antos#elta, an! a bir!
hich is figure! ith the", as the sa"e trio, because %seu!o&Plutarch
>K!e 9lu#.K #i. 1@ says that KlougosK "eans BcroB in Celtic. This is
"ore than !oubtful. 6n any case /thne has no arlike traits in 6rish
story, an! as 'ug an! Balor ere !ea!ly ene"ies, it re"ains to be
eI%laine! hy they a%%ear tranLuilly si!e by si!e. 5ee KRCK II#i. *+G.
Perha%s <antos#elta, like other Celtic go!!esses, as a ri#er ny"%h.
K<antoK Gaulish is B#alley,B an! KnantK in ol! Breton is BgorgeB or
Bbrook.B :er na"e "ight "ean Bshining ri#er.B 5ee 5tokes, K;5K *GE, E+1.
.F34 KRCK I#iii. +-1. Cernunnos "ay be the Ju%%iter Cernenos of an
inscri%tion fro" Pesth, :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.FF4 Reinach, KB9K *F2, fig. *33.
.FG4 KRe#. Arch.K IiI. E++, %l. G.
.G,4 Bertran!, KRe#. Arch.K I#. EEG, I#i. %l. *+.
.G*4 6bi!. I#. %l. G, *,.
.G+4 6bi!. I#i. G.
.GE4 6bi!. %l. *+ KbisK.
.G14 Bertran!, KRe#. Arch.K I#i. F.
.G-4 6bi!. I#i. *, f.
.G24 6bi!. I#., I#i.A Reinach, KB9K *3, *G*.
.G34 KBull. /%ig.K i. **2A 5trabo, i#. EA )io!. 5ic. #. +F.
.GF4 )io!. 5ic. #. E,A Reinach, KB9K *GE.
.GG4 5ee %. +*+, KinfraK.
.*,,4 5ee %. *22, KinfraK.
.*,*4 5ee, e.g., Moat, KBull. /%ig.K i. +GA !e ?itte, KRe#. Arch.K ii.
EF3, I#i. 3A Bertran!, Kibi!.K I#i. E.
.*,+4 5ee %%. *,+, +1+, KinfraKA Joyce, K5:K ii. --1A Curtin, *F+A KRCK
IIii. *+E, IIi#. *F.
.*,E4 )o" Martin, ii. *F-A Reinach, KB9K *G+, *GG.
.*,14 5ee, hoe#er, %. *E2, KinfraKA an! for another inter%retation of
this go! as eLui#alent of the 6rish 'ug slaying Balor, see )'Arbois, ii.
+F3.
.*,-4 5ee %. ++G, KinfraK.
.*,24 Reinach, KB9K *2+, *F1A Moat, KBull. /%ig.K i. 2+, KRe#. /%ig.K
*FF3, E*G, *FG*, F1.
.*,34 Reinach, KB9K *1*, *-E, *3-, *32, *F*A see %. +*F, KinfraK.
9louest, KRe#. Arch.K *FF-, i. +*, thinks that the i!entification as
ith an earlier chthonian 5il#anus. Cf. Jullian, *3, note E, ho
obser#es that the Gallo&Ro"an assi"ilations ere "a!e Bsur le !oinaine
archaisant !es faits %o%ulaires et rustiLues !e l'6talie.B 9or the
inscri%tions, see :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.*,F4 5tokes, K;5K E,+A MacBain, +31A KRCK II#i. +F+.
.*,G4 Gai!oH, KRe#. Arch.K ii. *FGFA Moat, KBull. /%ig.K i. **GA
Courcelle&5eneuil, F, f.A Pauly&?issoa, KReal. 'eI.K i. 223A
)are"berg&5aglio, K)ict.K ii., Ks.#.K B)is%ater.B
.**,4 'ucan, i. 111A KRCK I#iii. +-1, +-F.
.***4 5ee %. *+3, KinfraK.
.**+4 9or a su%%ose! connection beteen this bas&relief an! the "yth of
Geryon, see Reinach, KB9K *+,A KRCK I#iii. +-F f.
.**E4 KCoins of the Ancient BritonsK, EF2A :ol!er, i. *13-, *13F.
.**14 9or these theories see )o" Martin, ii. +A Bertran!, EE- f.
.**-4 Cf. Reinach, KRCK I#iii. *1G.
.**24 8relli, +*,3, +,3+A Monnier, -E+A Tacitus, IIi. EF.
.**34 :ol!er, i. F+1A Reinach, KRe#. Arch.K II. +2+A )'Arbois, K'es
CeltesK, +,. 8ther grou%e! go!s are the Bacucei, Castoeci, 6cotii,
6fles, 'ugo#es, <er#ini, an! 5il#ani. 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.**F4 9or all these see :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.**G4 Professor Anyl gi#es the folloing statistics( There are E-
go!!esses "entione! once, + tice, E thrice, * four ti"es, + siI ti"es,
+ ele#en ti"es, * fourteen ti"es >5irona@, * tenty&one ti"es
>Ros"erta@, * tenty&siI ti"es >/%ona@ >KTrans. Gael. 5oc. 6n#ernessK,
II#i. 1*E@.
.*+,4 Caesar, #i. *3.
.*+*4 )'Arbois, K'es CeltesK, -1A KRe#. Arch.K i. +,*. 5ee :ol!er,
Ks.#.K
.*++4 5olinus, IIii. *,A :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.*+E4 Ptole"y, ii. +.
.*+14 5ee %. 3*, KinfraK.
.*+-4 )io Cass. lIii. 3A A"". Mare, II#ii. 1. 1.
.*+24 Plutarch, K!e Cir. Mul.K +,A Arrian, KCyneg.K IIIi#. *.
.*+34 5. Greg. K:ist.K #iii. *-.
.*+F4 Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K +FE, GEEA Reinach, KRCK I#i. +2*.
.*+G4 Reinach, KB9K -,.
.*E,4 :ol!er, i. *+F2A Robert, KRCK i#. *EE.
.*E*4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +3.
.*E+4 Anyl, KCelt. Re#.K *G,2, 1E.
.*EE4 :ol!er, Ks.#.KA Bulliot, KRCK ii. ++.
.*E14 :ol!er, i. *,, FG.
.*E-4 :ol!er, Ks.#.KA see %. +*E, KinfraK.
.*E24 :ol!er, ii. 12E. They are #ery nu"erous in 5outh&/ast Gaul, here
also three&hea!e! go!s are foun!.
.*E34 5ee %%. +31&-, KinfraK.
.*EF4 Courcelle&5eneuil, F,&F*.
.*EG4 5ee "y article BCalen!arB in :astings' K/ncyclo%. of Religion an!
/thicsK, iii. F,.
.*1,4 KC6'K #. 1+,F, -33*, #ii. G+3A :ol!er, ii. FG.
.*1*4 9or all these titles see :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.*1+4 There is a large literature !e#ote! to the KMatresK. 5ee )e ?al,
K)ie Mae!er Gottine"KA Callentin, K'e Culte !es MatraeKA )are"berg&5aglio,
K)ict. s.#. MatresKA 6h", KJahrbuch. !es Cereins #on Alterth. in
Rheinlan!eK, <o. FEA Roscher, K'eIiconK, ii. +121 f.
.*1E4 5ee Maury, K9ees !u Moyen AgeKA 5ebillot, i. +2+A Monnier, 1EG f.A
?right, KCelt, Ro"an, an! 5aIonK, +F2 f.A Callentin, KRCK i#. +G. The
KMatresK "ay alrea!y ha#e ha! a sinister as%ect in Ro"an ti"es, as they
a%%ear to be inten!e! by an inscri%tion K'a"iis TribusK on an altar at
<ecastle. :uebner, -,3.
.*114 Anyl, KCelt. Re#.K *G,2, +F. Cf. K$ 9oel 9a"auK, Bthe hill of the
Mothers,B in the Cly!ian range.
.*1-4 5ee %. 3E, KinfraK.
.*124 Callentin, Ko%. cit.K i#. +GA Maury, KCroyances !u Moyen AgeK,
EF+.
.*134 :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.*1F4 5ee %%. 2G, E*3, KinfraK.
.*1G4 9or all these see :ol!er, Ks.#.KA Rh.Jy4s, K:'K *,EA KRCK i#. E1.
.*-,4 9lorus, ii. 1.
.*-*4 5ee the table of i!entifications, %. *+-, KinfraK.
.*-+4 ?e nee! not assu"e ith Jullian, *F, that there as one su%re"e
go!, no a ar&go!, no a go! of %eace. Any %ro"inent go! "ay ha#e
beco"e a ar&go! on occasion.
C:APT/R 6C.
T:/ 6R65: M$T:8'8G6CA' C$C'/.
Three !i#ine an! heroic cycles of "yths are knon in 6relan!, one
telling of the Tuatha )e )anann, the others of Cuchulainn an! of the
9ians. They are !istinct in character an! contents, but the go!s of the
first cycle often hel% the heroes of the other grou%s, as the go!s of
Greece an! 6n!ia assiste! the heroes of the e%ics. ?e shall see that
so"e of the %ersonages of these cycles "ay ha#e been knon in GaulA they
are re"e"bere! in ?ales, but, in the :ighlan!s, here stories of
Cuchulainn an! 9ionn are still tol!, the Tuatha )e )anann are less knon
no than in *-23, hen Bisho% Carseell la"ente! the lo#e of the
:ighlan!ers for Bi!le, turbulent, lying, orl!ly stories concerning the
Tuatha )e!anans.B.*-E4
As the ne Achaean religion in Greece an! the Ce!ic sacre! books of 6n!ia
regar!e! the aboriginal go!s an! heroes as !e"ons an! goblins, so !i!
Christianity in 6relan! so"eti"es s%eak of the ol!er go!s there. 8n the
other han!, it as "ainly Christian scribes ho change! the ol!
"ythology into history, an! "a!e the go!s an! heroes kings. )oubtless
"yths alrea!y eIiste!, telling of the !escent of rulers an! %eo%le fro"
!i#inities, just as the Gauls s%oke of their !escent fro" )is%ater, or
as the 6ncas of Peru, the Mika!os of Ja%an, an! the kings of ;gan!a
consi!ere! the"sel#es offs%ring of the go!s. This is a uni#ersal
%ractice, an! "a!e it the "ore easy for Christian chroniclers to
trans"ute "yth into history. 6n 6relan!, as elsehere, "yth !oubtless
tol! of "onstrous races inhabiting the lan! in earlier !ays, of the
strife of the aborigines an! inco"ers, an! of their go!s, though the
aboriginal go!s "ay in so"e cases ha#e been i!entifie! ith Celtic go!s,
or orshi%%e! in their on %ersons. Many "ythical ele"ents "ay therefore
be looke! for in the euhe"erise! chronicles of ancient 6relan!. But the
chroniclers the"sel#es ere but the continuers of a %rocess hich "ust
ha#e been at ork as soon as the influence of Christianity began to be
felt..*-14 Their %assion, hoe#er, as to sho the !escent of the 6rish
an! the ol!er %eo%les fro" the ol! Biblical %ersonages, a %rocess !ear
to the "o!ern Anglo&6sraelite, so"e of hose argu"ents are base! on the
il! ro"ancing of the chroniclers.
Carious stories ere tol! of the first %eo%ling of 6relan!. Banba, ith
to other !aughters of Cain, arri#e! ith fifty o"en an! three "en,
only to !ie of the %lague. Three fisher"en neIt !isco#ere! 6relan!, an!
Bof the islan! of Banba of 9air ?o"en ith har!ihoo! they took
%ossession.B :a#ing gone to fetch their i#es, they %erishe! in the
!eluge at Tuath 6nba..*--4 A "ore %o%ular account as that of the co"ing
of Cessair, <oah's gran!!aughter, ith her father, husban!, a thir! "an,
'a!ru, Bthe first !ea! "an of /rin,B an! fifty !a"sels. :er co"ing as
the result of the a!#ice of a Klai"h&!hiaK, or Bhan!&go!,B but their
shi% as recke!, an! all sa#e her husban!, 9inntain, ho sur#i#e! for
centuries, %erishe! in the floo!..*-24 Cessair's shi% as less
ser#iceable than her gran!%arent'sM 9olloe! the race of Partholan, Bno
iser one than the other,B ho increase! on the lan! until %lague se%t
the" aay, ith the eIce%tion of Tuan "ac Caraill, ho after "any
transfor"ations, tol! the story of 6relan! to 5. 9innen centuries
after..*-34 The sur#i#al of 9inntain an! Tuan, !oubles of each other,
as an in#ention of the chroniclers, to eI%lain the sur#i#al of the
history of colonists ho ha! all %erishe!. =eating, on the other han!,
rejecting the sole sur#i#or theory as contra!ictory to 5cri%ture,
suggests that Baerial !e"ons,B folloers of the in#a!ers, re#eale! all
to the chroniclers, unless in!ee! they foun! it engra#e! ith Ban iron
%en an! lea! in the rocks.B.*-F4
To hun!re! years before Partholan's co"ing, the 9o"orians ha!
arri#e!,.*-G4 an! they an! their chief Cichol Gricenchos fought
Partholan at Mag 6tha, here they ere !efeate!. Cichol as footless,
an! so"e of his host ha! but one ar" an! one leg..*2,4 They ere !e"ons,
accor!ing to the chroniclers, an! !escen!ants of the luckless :a".
<ennius "akes Partholan an! his "en the first 5cots ho ca"e fro" 5%ain
to 6relan!. The neIt arri#als ere the %eo%le of <e"e! ho returne! to
5%ain, hence they ca"e ><ennius@, or !ie! to a "an >Tuan@. They also
ere !escen!ants of the ine#itable <oah, an! their sojourn in 6relan!
as "uch !isturbe! by the 9o"orians ho ha! reco#ere! fro" their !efeat,
an! finally o#er%oere! the <e"e!ians after the !eath of <e"e!..*2*4
9ro" Tory 6slan! the 9o"orians rule! 6relan!, an! force! the <e"e!ians
to %ay the" annually on the e#e of 5a"hain ><o#. *st@ to&thir!s of
their corn an! "ilk an! of the chil!ren born !uring the year. 6f the
9o"orians are go!s of !arkness, or, %referably, aboriginal !eities, the
tribute "ust be eI%laine! as a !i" "e"ory of sacrifice offere! at the
beginning of inter hen the %oers of !arkness an! blight are in the
ascen!ant. The 9o"orians ha! a toer of glass in Tory 6slan!. This as
one !ay seen by the Milesians, to ho" a%%eare! on its battle"ents hat
see"e! to be "en. A year after they attacke! the toer an! ere
o#erhel"e! in the sea..*2+4 9ro" the sur#i#ors of a %re#iously recke!
#essel of their fleet are !escen!e! the 6rish. Another #ersion "akes the
<e"e!ians the assailants. Thirty of the" sur#i#e! their !efeat, so"e of
the" going to 5cotlan! or Man >the Britons@, so"e to Greece >to return
as the 9irbolgs@, so"e to the north, here they learne! "agic an!
returne! as the Tuatha )e )anann..*2E4 The 9irbolgs, B"en of bags,B
resenting their igno"inious treat"ent by the Greeks, esca%e! to 6relan!.
They inclu!e! the 9irbolgs %ro%er, the 9ir&)o"nann, an! the
Galioin..*214 The 9o"orians are calle! their go!s, an! this, ith the
conte"%tuous e%ithets bestoe! on the", "ay %oint to the fact that the
9irbolgs ere the %re&Celtic folk of 6relan! an! the 9o"orians their
!i#inities, hostile to the go!s of the Celts or regar!e! as !ark
!eities. The 9irbolgs are #assals of Ailill an! Me!b, an! ith the 9ir
)o"nann an! Galioin are hostile to Cuchulainn an! his "en,.*2-4 just as
9o"orians ere to the Tuatha )e )anann. The strifes of races an! of
their go!s are ineItricably confuse!.
The Tuatha )e )anann arri#e! fro" hea#en&&an i!ea in kee%ing ith their
character as beneficent go!s, but later legen! tol! ho they ca"e fro"
the north. They reache! 6relan! on Beltane, shrou!e! in a "agic "ist,
an! finally, after one or, in other accounts, to battles, !efeate! the
9irbolgs an! 9o"orians at Magture!. The ol!er story of one battle "ay be
regar!e! as a euhe"erise! account of the see"ing conflict of nature
%oers..*224 The first battle is !escribe! in a fifteenth to siIteenth
century M5.,.*234 an! is referre! to in a fifteenth century account of
the secon! battle, full of archaic re"iniscences, an! co"%ose! fro"
#arious earlier !ocu"ents..*2F4 The 9irbolgs, !efeate! in the first
battle, join the 9o"orians, after great losses. Meanhile <ua!a, lea!er
of the Tuatha )e )anann, lost his han!, an! as no king ith a ble"ish
coul! sit on the throne, the cron as gi#en to Bres, son of the
9o"orian /latha an! his sister /ri, a o"an of the Tuatha )e )anann. 8ne
!ay /ri es%ie! a sil#er boat s%ee!ing to her across the sea. 9ro" it
ste%%e! forth a "agnificent hero, an! ithout !elay the %air, like the
lo#ers in Theocritus, Brejoice! in their e!lock.B The hero, /latha,
foretol! the birth of /ri's son, so beautiful that he oul! be a
stan!ar! by hich to try all beautiful things. :e ga#e her his ring, but
she as to %art ith it only to one hose finger it shoul! fit. This as
her chil! Bres, an! by this token he as later, as an eIile, recognise!
by his father, an! obtaine! his hel% against the Tuatha )e )anann. 'ike
other on!erful chil!ren, Bres gre tice as Luickly as any other chil!
until he as se#en..*2G4 Though /latha an! /ri are brother an! sister,
she is a"ong the Tuatha )e )anann..*3,4 There is the usual inconsistency
of "yth here an! in other accounts of 9o"orian an! Tuatha )e )anann
unions. The latter ha! just lan!e!, but alrea!y ha! unite! in "arriage
ith the 9o"orians. This inconsistency esca%e! the chroniclers, but it
%oints to the fact that both ere !i#ine not hu"an, an! that, though in
conflict, they unite! in "arriage as "e"bers of hostile tribes often !o.
The secon! battle took %lace tenty&se#en years after the first, on
5a"hain. 6t as fought like the first on the %lain of Mag&ture!, though
later accounts "a!e one battle take %lace at Mag&ture! in Mayo, the
other at Mag&ture! in 5ligo..*3*4 6nconsistently, the conLuering Tuatha
)e )anann in the inter#al, hile Bres is their king, "ust %ay tribute
i"%ose! by the 9o"orians. 8b#iously in ol!er accounts this tribute "ust
ha#e been i"%ose! before the first battle an! ha#e been its cause. But
hy shoul! go!s, like the Tuatha )e )anann, e#er ha#e been in
subjectionS This re"ains to be seen, but the anser %robably lies in
%arallel "yths of the subjection or !eath of !i#inities like 6shtar,
A!onis, Perse%hone, an! 8siris. Bres ha#ing eIacte! a tribute of the
"ilk of all hornless !un cos, the cos of 6relan! ere %asse! through
fire an! s"eare! ith ashes&&a "yth base! %erha%s on the Beltane fire
ritual..*3+4 The a#aricious Bres as satirise!, an! Bnought but !ecay
as on hi" fro" that hour,B.*3E4 an! hen <ua!a, ha#ing reco#ere!,
clai"e! the throne, he ent to collect an ar"y of the 9o"orians, ho
asse"ble! against the Tuatha )e )anann. 6n the battle 6n!ech oun!e!
8g"a, an! Balor sle <ua!a, but as "ortally oun!e! by 'ug. Thereu%on
the 9o"orians fle! to their on region.
The Tuatha )e )anann re"aine! "asters of 6relan! until the co"ing of the
Milesians, so na"e! fro" an e%ony"ous Mile, son of Bile. 6th, ha#ing
been sent to reconnoitre, as slain, an! the Milesians no in#a!e!
6relan! in force. 6n s%ite of a "ist raise! by the )rui!s, they lan!e!,
an!, ha#ing "et the three %rinces ho sle 6th, !e"an!e! instant battle
or surren!er of the lan!. The %rinces agree! to abi!e by the !ecision of
the Milesian %oet A"airgen, ho ba!e his frien!s re&e"bark an! retire
for the !istance of nine a#es. 6f they coul! then effect a lan!ing,
6relan! as theirs. A "agic stor" as raise!, hich recke! "any of
their shi%s, but A"airgen recite! #erses, frag"ents, %erha%s, of so"e
ol! ritual, an! o#erca"e the !angers. After their !efeat the sur#i#ors
of the Tuatha )e )anann retire! into the hills to beco"e a fairy folk,
an! the Milesians >the Goi!els or 5cots@ beca"e ancestors of the 6rish.
Throughout the long story of the conLuests of 6relan! there are "any
re!u%lications, the sa"e inci!ents being often ascribe! to !ifferent
%ersonages..*314 )ifferent #ersions of si"ilar occurrences, base! on
ol!er "yths an! tra!itions, "ay alrea!y ha#e been in eIistence, an!
ritual %ractices, !i"ly re"e"bere!, reLuire! eI%lanation. 6n the han!s
of the chroniclers, riting history ith a %ur%ose an! co"bining their
infor"ation ith little regar! to consistency, all this as re!uce! to a
"ore or less connecte! narrati#e. At the han!s of the %rosaic
chroniclers !i#inity %asse! fro" the go!s, though traces of it still
linger.
B$e are go!s, an!, behol!, ye shall !ie, an! the a#es be u%on you at
last.
6n the !arkness of ti"e, in the !ee%s of the years, in the changes of
things,
$e shall slee% as a slain "an slee%s, an! the orl! shall forget you for
kings.B
9ro" the annalistic %oint of #ie the 9o"orians are sea !e"ons or
%irates, their na"e being !eri#e! fro" K"uirK, Bsea,B hile they are
!escen!e! along ith other "onstrous beings fro" the". Professor
Rh.Jy4s, hile connecting the na"e ith ?elsh KfoarK, BgiantB >Gaelic
Kfa"hairK@, !eri#es the na"e fro" KfoK, Bun!er,B an! K"uirK, an! regar!s
the" as sub"arine beings..*3-4 )r. MacBain connecte! the" ith the
fierce %oers of the estern sea %ersonifie!, like the KMuireartachK, a
kin! of sea hag, of a 9ionn balla!..*324 But this association of the
9o"orians ith the ocean "ay be the result of a late folk&ety"ology,
hich rongly !eri#e! their na"e fro" K"uirK. The Celtic eI%erience of
the 'ochlanners or <orse"en, ith ho" the 9o"orians are
associate!,.*334 oul! ai! the conce%tion of the" as sea&%irates of a
"ore or less !e"oniacal character. )r. 5tokes connects the secon!
syllable K"orK ith K"areK in Bnight"are,B fro" K"oroK, an! regar!s the"
as subterranean as ell as sub"arine..*3F4 But the "ore %robable
!eri#ation is that of Ri""er an! )'Arbois, fro" KfoK an! K"orioK >K"orK,
BgreatB@,.*3G4 hich oul! thus agree ith the tra!ition hich regar!e!
the" as giants. They ere %robably beneficent go!s of the aborigines,
ho" the Celtic conLuerors regar!e! as generally e#il, %erha%s eLuating
the" ith the !ark %oers alrea!y knon to the". They ere still
re"e"bere! as go!s, an! are calle! Bcha"%ions of the Ksi!K,B like the
Tuatha )e )anann..*F,4 Thus =ing Bres sought to sa#e his life by
%ro"ising that the kine of 6relan! oul! alays be in "ilk, then that
the "en of 6relan! oul! rea% e#ery Luarter, an! finally by re#ealing
the lucky !ays for %loughing, soing, an! rea%ing..*F*4 8nly an
autochthonous go! coul! kno this, an! the story is suggesti#e of the
true nature of the 9o"orians. The hostile character attribute! to the"
is seen fro" the fact that they !estroye! corn, "ilk, an! fruit. But in
6relan!, as elsehere, this !estructi#e %oer as !e%recate! by begging
the" not to !estroy Bcorn nor "ilk in /rin beyon! their fair
tribute.B.*F+4 Tribute as also %ai! to the" on 5a"hain, the ti"e hen
the %oers of blight feare! by "en are in the ascen!ant. Again, the
king!o" of Balor, their chief, is still !escribe! as the king!o" of
col!..*FE4 But hen e re"e"ber that a si"ilar BtributeB as %ai! to
Cro"" Cruaich, a go! of fertility, an! that after the conLuest of the
Tuatha )e )anann they also ere regar!e! as hostile to agriculture,.*F14
e realise that the 9o"orians "ust ha#e been aboriginal go!s of
fertility ho" the conLuering Celts regar!e! as hostile to the" an!
their go!s. 5i"ilarly, in folk&belief the beneficent corn&s%irit has
so"eti"es a sinister an! !estructi#e as%ect..*F-4 Thus the stories of
BtributeB oul! be !istorte! re"iniscences of the ritual of go!s of the
soil, !iffering little in character fro" that of the si"ilar Celtic
!i#inities. ?hat "akes it certain that the 9o"orians ere aboriginal
go!s is that they are foun! in 6relan! before the co"ing of the early
colonist Partholan. They ere the go!s of the %re&Celtic folk&&9irbolgs,
9ir )o"nann, an! Galioin.*F24&&all of the" in 6relan! before the Tuatha
)e )anaan arri#e!, an! all of the" regar!e! as sla#es, s%oken of ith
the ut"ost conte"%t. Another %ossibility, hoe#er, ought to be
consi!ere!. As the Celtic go!s ere local in character, an! as grou%s of
tribes oul! freLuently be hostile to other grou%s, the 9o"orians "ay
ha#e been local go!s of a grou% at en"ity ith another grou%,
orshi%%ing the Tuatha )e )anaan.
The strife of 9o"orians an! Tuatha )e )anann suggests the !ualis" of all
nature religions. )e"ons or giants or "onsters stri#e ith go!s in
:in!u, Greek, an! Teutonic "ythology, an! in Persia the %ri"iti#e
!ualis" of beneficent an! hurtful %oers of nature beca"e an ethical
!ualis"&&the eternal o%%osition of goo! an! e#il. The sun is #anLuishe!
by clou! an! stor", but shines forth again in #igour. Cegetation !ies,
but un!ergoes a yearly reneal. 5o in "yth the i""ortal go!s are oun!e!
an! slain in strife. But e "ust not %ush too far the analogy of the
a%%arent strife of the ele"ents an! the ars of the go!s. The one
suggeste! the other, es%ecially here the go!s ere ele"ental %oers.
But "yth&"aking "an easily !e#elo%e! the suggestionA go!s ere like "en
an! Bcoul! ne#er get eneuch o' fechtin'.B The Celts kne of !i#ine
co"bats before their arri#al in 6relan!, an! their on hostile %oers
ere easily assi"ilate! to the hostile go!s of the aborigines.
The %rinci%al 9o"orians are !escribe! as kings. /latha as son of <et,
!escribe! by Cor"ac as Ba battle go! of the heathen Gael,B i.e. he is
one of the Tuatha )e )anann, an! has as i#es to ar&go!!esses, Ba!b
an! <e"ain!..*F34 Thus he rese"bles the 9o"orian Tethra hose ife is a
Kba!bK or Bbattle&cro,B %reying on the slain..*FF4 /latha's na"e,
connecte! ith or!s "eaning Bknole!ge,B suggests that he as an
aboriginal culture&go!..*FG4 6n the genealogies, 9o"orians an! Tuatha )e
)anann are ineItricably "ingle!. Bres's te"%orary %osition as king of
the Tuatha )ea "ay reflect so"e "yth of the occasional su%re"acy of the
%oers of blight. ?ant an! niggar!liness characterise his reign, an!
after his !efeat a better state of things %re#ails. Bres's consort as
Brigit, an! their son Rua!an, sent to s%y on the Tuatha )e )anann, as
slain. :is "other's ailing for hi" as the first "ourning ail e#er
hear! in /rin..*G,4 Another go!, 6n!ech, as son of )ea )o"nu, a
9o"orian go!!ess of the !ee%, i.e. of the un!erorl! an! %robably also
of fertility, ho "ay hol! a %osition a"ong the 9o"orians si"ilar to
that of )anu a"ong the Tuatha )e )anann. 6n!ech as slain by 8g"a, ho
hi"self !ie! of oun!s recei#e! fro" his a!#ersary.
Balor ha! a consort Cethlenn, hose #eno" kille! )ag!a. :is one eye ha!
beco"e e#il by contact ith the %oisonous fu"es of a concoction hich
his father's )rui!s ere %re%aring. The eyeli! reLuire! four "en to
raise it, hen his e#il eye !estroye! all on ho" its glance fell. 6n
this ay Balor oul! ha#e slain 'ug at Mag&ture!, but the go! at once
struck the eye ith a sling&stone an! sle hi"..*G*4 Balor, like the
Greek Me!usa, is %erha%s a %ersonification of the e#il eye, so "uch
feare! by the Celts. :ealthful influences an! "agical char"s a#ert itA
hence 'ug, a beneficent go!, !estroys Balor's "aleficence.
Tethra, ith Balor an! /latha, rule! o#er /rin at the co"ing of the
Tuatha )e )anann. 9ro" a %hrase use! in the story of Connla's #isit to
/lysiu", BThou art a hero of the "en of Tethra,B M. )'Arbois assu"es
that Tethra as ruler of /lysiu", hich he "akes one ith the lan! of
the !ea!. The %assage, hoe#er, bears a !ifferent inter%retation, an!
though a 9o"orian, Tethra, a go! of ar, "ight be regar!e! as lor! of
all arriors..*G+4 /lysiu" as not the lan! of the !ea!, an! hen M.
)'Arbois eLuates Tethra ith =ronos, ho after his !efeat beca"e ruler
of a lan! of !ea! heroes, the analogy, like other analogies ith Greek
"ythology, is "islea!ing. :e also eLuates Bres, as te"%orary king of the
Tuatha )e )anann, ith =ronos, king of hea#en in the age of gol!.
=ronos, again, slain by Reus, is %arallel to Balor slain by his gran!son
'ug. Tethra, Bres, an! Balor are thus se%arate frag"ents of one go!
eLui#alent to =ronos..*GE4 $et their %ersonalities are Luite !istinct.
/ach race orks out its "ythology for itself, an!, hile %arallels are
ine#itable, e shoul! not allo these to o#erri!e the actual "yths as
they ha#e co"e !on to us.
Professor Rh.Jy4s "akes Bile, ancestor of the Milesians ho ca"e fro"
5%ain, a Goi!elic counter%art of the Gaulish )is%ater, lor! of the !ea!,
fro" ho" the Gauls clai"e! !escent. But Bile, neither a 9o"orian nor of
the Tuatha )e )anann, is an i"aginary an! sha!oy creation. Bile is neIt
eLuate! ith a Brythonic Beli, assu"e! to be consort of )on, hose
fa"ily are eLui#alent to the Tuatha )e )anann..*G14 Beli as a "ythic
king hose reign as a kin! of gol!en age, an! if he as father of )on's
chil!ren, hich is !oubtful, Bile oul! then be father of the Tuatha )e
)anann. But he is ancestor of the Milesians, their o%%onents accor!ing
to the annalists. Beli is also eLuate! ith /latha, an! since )on,
re%ute! consort of Beli, as gran!"other of 'le, eLuate! ith 6rish
'ug, gran!son of Balor, Balor is eLui#alent to Beli, hose na"e is
regar!e! by Professor Rh.Jy4s as relate! ety"ologically to Balor's..*G-4
Bile, Balor, an! /latha are thus Goi!elic eLui#alents of the sha!oy
Beli. But they also are Luite !istinct %ersonalities, nor are they e#er
hinte! at as ancestral go!s of the Celts, or go!s of a gloo"y
un!erorl!. 6n Celtic belief the un!erorl! as %robably a fertile
region an! a %lace of light, nor ere its go!s har"ful an! e#il, as
Balor as.
8n the hole, the 9o"orians ca"e to be regar!e! as the %oers of nature
in its hostile as%ect. They %ersonifie! blight, inter, !arkness, an!
!eath, before hich "en tre"ble!, yet ere not holly cast !on, since
the i""ortal go!s of groth an! light, rulers of the bright other&orl!,
ere on their si!e an! fought against their ene"ies. $ear by year the
go!s suffere! !ea!ly har", but returne! as conLuerors to rene the
struggle once "ore. Myth s%oke of this as ha#ing ha%%ene! once for all,
but it ent on continuously..*G24 Go!s ere i""ortal an! only see"e! to
!ie. The strife as re%resente! in ritual, since "en belie#e that they
can ai! the go!s by "agic, rite, or %rayer. ?hy, then, !o hostile
9o"orians an! Tuatha )e )anann inter"arryS This ha%%ens in all
"ythologies, an! it %robably reflects, in the !i#ine s%here, hat takes
%lace a"ong "en. :ostile %eo%les carry off each the other's o"en, or
they ha#e %erio!s of frien!liness an! conseLuent inter"arriage. Man
"akes his go!s in his on i"age, an! the %roble" is best eI%laine! by
facts like these, eIaggerate! no !oubt by the 6rish annalists.
The Tuatha )e )anann, in s%ite of their euhe"erisation, are "ore than
hu"an. 6n the north here they learne! "agic, they !elt in four cities,
fro" each of hich they brought a "agical treasure&&the stone of 9al,
hich Broare! un!er e#ery king,B 'ug's unconLuerable s%ear, <ua!a's
irresistible sor!, the )ag!a's ineIhaustible caul!ron. But they are
"ore than iHar!s or )rui!s. They are re&born as "ortalsA they ha#e a
!i#ine orl! of their on, they interfere in an! influence hu"an
affairs. The euhe"erists !i! not go far enough, an! "ore than once their
!i#inity is %ractically acknole!ge!. ?hen the 9ian Caoilte an! a o"an
of the Tuatha )e )anann a%%ear before 5. Patrick, he asks, B?hy is she
youthful an! beautiful, hile you are ol! an! rinkle!SB An! Caoilte
re%lies, B5he is of the Tuatha )e )anann, ho are unfa!ing an! hose
!uration is %erennial. 6 a" of the sons of Milesius, that are %erishable
an! fa!e aay.B.*G34
After their con#ersion, the Celts, sons of Milesius, thought that the
go!s still eIiste! in the hollo hills, their for"er !ellings an!
sanctuaries, or in far&off islan!s, still caring for their for"er
orshi%%ers. This tra!ition ha! its %lace ith that hich "a!e the" a
race of "en conLuere! by the Milesians&&the #ictory of Christianity o#er
%aganis" an! its go!s ha#ing been trans"ute! into a strife of races by
the euhe"erists. The ne faith, not the %eo%le, conLuere! the ol! go!s.
The Tuatha )e )anann beca"e the K)aoine&si!heK, a fairy folk, still
occasionally calle! by their ol! na"e, just as in!i#i!ual fairy kings or
Lueens bear the na"es of the ancient go!s. The euhe"erists ga#e the
9o"orians a "onstrous an! !e"oniac character, hich they !i! not alays
gi#e to the Tuatha )e )anannA in this continuing the ol! tra!ition that
9o"orians ere hostile an! the Tuatha )e )anann beneficent an! "il!.
The "ythological cycle is not a co"%lete Bbo!y of !i#inityBA its
a%%arent co"%leteness results fro" the chronological or!er of the
annalists. 9rag"ents of other "yths are foun! in the K)in!senchasKA
others eIist as ro"antic tales, an! e ha#e no reason to belie#e that
all the ol! "yths ha#e been %reser#e!. But enough re"ains to sho the
true nature of the Tuatha )e )anann&&their su%ernatural character, their
%oers, their !i#ine an! unfailing foo! an! !rink, their "ysterious an!
beautiful abo!e. 6n their contents, their %ersonages, in the actions
that are !escribe! in the", the "aterials of the B"ythological cycle,B
sho ho i!ely it !iffers fro" the Cuchulainn an! 9ionn cycles..*GF4
BThe hite ra!iance of eternityB suffuses itA the heroic cycles, "agical
an! ro"antic as they are, belong far "ore to earth an! ti"e.
988T<8T/5(
.*-E4 9or so"e :ighlan! references to the go!s in saga an! KMaerchenK,
see KBook of the )ean of 'is"oreK, *,A Ca"%bell, K?:TK ii. 33. The
sea&go! 'ir is %robably the 'iur of 8ssianic balla!s >Ca"%bell, K'9K
*,,, *+-@, an! his son Manannan is %erha%s Bthe 5on of the 5eaB in a
Gaelic song >Car"ichael, KCGK ii. *++@. Manannan an! his !aughters are
also knon >Ca"%bell, KitchcraftK, FE@.
.*-14 The euhe"erising %rocess is first seen in tenth century %oe"s by
/ochai! hua 9lainn, but as largely the ork of 9lainn Manistrech, Kob.K
*,-2. 6t is foun! fully fle!ge! in the KBook of 6n#asionsK.
.*--4 =eating, *,-&*,2.
.*-24 =eating, *,3A K''K 1KbK. Cf. KRCK I#i. *--.
.*-34 K''K -.
.*-F4 =eating, ***. Giral!us Ca"brensis, K:ist. 6rel.K c. +, "akes
Roanus sur#i#e an! tell the tale of Partholan to 5. Patrick. :e is the
Caoilte "ac Ronan of other tales, a sur#i#or of the 9ians, ho hel! "any
racy !ialogues ith the 5aint. =eating abuses Giral!us for eLuating
Roanus ith 9inntain in his Blying history,B an! for calling hi" Roanus
instea! of Ronanus, a "istake in hich he, Bthe gui!e bull of the her!,B
is folloe! by others.
.*-G4 =eating, *21.
.*2,4 K''K -KaK.
.*2*4 =eating, *+*A K''K 2KaKA KRCK I#i. *2*.
.*2+4 <ennius, K:ist. Brit.K *E.
.*2E4 K''K 2, FKbK.
.*214 K''K 2KbK, *+3KaKA K6TK iii. EF*A KRCK I#i. F*.
.*2-4 K''K GKbK, **KaK.
.*224 5ee Cor"ac, Ks.#.K B<escoit,B K';K -*.
.*234 K:arl. M55.K +, *3, %%. G,&GG. Cf. frag"ent fro" KBook of
6n#asionsK in K''K F.
.*2F4 K:arl. M5.K -+F,, translate! in KRCK Iii. -G f.
.*2G4 KRCK Iii. 2,A )'Arbois, #. 1,- f.
.*3,4 9or Celtic brother&sister unions see %. ++1.
.*3*4 8')ono#an, KAnnalsK, i. *2.
.*3+4 KRCK I#. 1EG.
.*3E4 KRCK Iii. 3*.
.*314 Professor Rh.Jy4s thinks the Partholan story is the aboriginal,
the "e!ian the Celtic #ersion of the sa"e e#ent. Partholan, ith initial
K%K cannot be Goi!elic >K5cottish Re#ieK, *FG,, BMyth. Treat"ent of
Celtic /thnologyB@.
.*3-4 K:'K -G*.
.*324 KCMK iI. *E,A Ca"%bell K'9K 2F.
.*334 KRCK Iii. 3-.
.*3F4 K;5K +**.
.*3G4 )'Arbois, ii. -+A KRCK Iii. 132.
.*F,4 KRCK Iii. 3E.
.*F*4 KRCK Iii. *,-.
.*F+4 KRCK IIii. *G-.
.*FE4 'ar"i"e, B=ian, son of =ontje.B
.*F14 5ee %. 3FA K''K +1-KbK.
.*F-4 Mannhar!t, KMythol. 9orsch.K E*, f.
.*F24 B9ir )o"nann,B B"en of )o"na,B a go!!ess >Rh.Jy4s, K:'K -G3@, or a
go! >)'Arbois, ii. *E,@. B)o"naB is connecte! ith 6rish&or!s "eaning
B!ee%B >?in!isch, K6TK i. 1GFA 5tokes, K;5K *-E@. )o"na, or )o"nu, "ay
therefore ha#e been a go!!ess of the !ee%, not the sea so "uch as the
un!erorl!, an! so %erha%s an /arth&"other fro" ho" the 9ir )o"nann
trace! their !escent.
.*F34 Cor"ac, Ks.#.K B<eithBA )'Arbois, #. 1,,A KRCK Iii. 2*.
.*FF4 K';K -,. Tethra is glosse! Kba!bK >K6TK i. F+,@.
.*FG4 K6TK i. -+*A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +31 f.
.*G,4 KRCK Iii. G-.
.*G*4 KRCK Iii. *,*.
.*G+4 5ee %. E31.
.*GE4 )'Arbois, ii. *GF, E3-.
.*G14 K:'K G,&G*.
.*G-4 K:'K +31, E*G, 21E. 9or Beli, see %. **+, KinfraK.
.*G24 ?hate#er the signification of the battle of Mag&ture! "ay be, the
%lace hich it as localise! is cro!e! ith <eolithic "egaliths,
!ol"ens, etc. To later fancy these ere the gra#es of arriors slain in
a great battle fought there, an! that battle beca"e the fight beteen
9o"orians an! Tuatha )e )ananns. Mag&ture! "ay ha#e been the scene of a
battle beteen their res%ecti#e orshi%%ers.
.*G34 8'Gra!y, ii. +,E.
.*GF4 6t shoul! be obser#e! that, as in the Ce!as, the 8!yssey, the
Ja%anese K=o&ji&kiK, as ell as in barbaric an! sa#age "ythologies,
KMaerchenK for"ulae aboun! in the 6rish "ythological cycle.
C:APT/R C.
T:/ T;AT:A )/ )A<A<<
The "eaning for"erly gi#en to KTuatha )e )anannK as Bthe "en of science
ho ere go!s,B K!anannK being here connecte! ith K!anK, Bknole!ge.B
But the true "eaning is Bthe tribes KorK folk of the go!!ess )anu,B.*GG4
hich agrees ith the cognates KTuathaK or K9ir )eaK, Btribes KorK "en
of the go!!ess.B The na"e as gi#en to the grou%, though )anu ha! only
three sons, Brian, 6uchar, an! 6ucharbar. :ence the grou% is also calle!
Kfir tri n!eaK, B"en of the three go!s.B.+,,4 The eLui#alents in ?elsh
story of )anu an! her folk are )on an! her chil!ren. ?e ha#e seen that
though they are !escribe! as kings an! arriors by the annalists, traces
of their !i#inity a%%ear. 6n the Cuchulainn cycle they are su%ernatural
beings an! so"eti"es !e"ons, hel%ing or har"ing "en, an! in the 9ionn
cycle all these characteristics are ascribe! to the". But the theory
hich %re#aile! "ost is that hich connecte! the" ith the hills or
"oun!s, the last resting&%laces of the "ighty !ea!. 5o"e of these bore
their na"es, hile other beings ere also associate! ith the "oun!s
>Ksi!K@&&9o"orians an! Milesian chiefs, heroes of the sagas, or those
ho ha! actually been burie! in the"..+,*4 'egen! tol! ho, after the
!efeat of the go!s, the "oun!s ere !i#i!e! a"ong the", the "etho! of
!i#ision #arying in !ifferent #ersions. 6n an early #ersion the Tuatha
)e )anann are i""ortal an! the )ag!a !i#i!es the Ksi!K..+,+4 But in a
%oe" of 9lann Manistrech >Kob.K *,-2@ they are "ortals an! !ie..+,E4 <o
follos a regular chronology gi#ing the !ates of their reigns an! their
!eaths, as in the %oe" of Gilla Coe"ain >ele#enth century@..+,14 :ence
another legen! tol! ho, )ag!a being !ea!, Bo!b )earg !i#i!e! the Ksi!K,
yet e#en here Manannan is sai! to ha#e conferre! i""ortality u%on the
Tuatha )e )anann..+,-4 The ol! %agan "yths ha! shon that go!s "ight
!ie, hile in ritual their re%resentati#es ere slain, an! this "ay ha#e
been the starting&%oint of the euhe"erising %rocess. But the !i#inity of
the Tuatha )e )anann is still recalle!. /ochai! 8'9lynn >tenth century@,
!oubtful hether they are "en or !e"ons, conclu!es, Bthough 6 ha#e
treate! of these !eities in or!er, yet ha#e 6 not a!ore! the".B.+,24
/#en in later ti"es they ere still thought of as go!s in eIile, a #ie
hich a%%ears in the ro"antic tales an! sagas eIisting si!e by si!e ith
the notices of the annalists. They ere also regar!e! as fairy kings an!
Lueens, an! yet fairies of a !ifferent or!er fro" those of or!inary
tra!ition. They are Bfairies or s%rites ith cor%oreal for"s, en!oe!
ith i""ortality,B an! yet also K!ei terreniK or Ksi!eK orshi%%e! by
the folk before the co"ing of 5. Patrick. /#en the saint an! se#eral
bisho%s ere calle! by the fair %agan !aughters of =ing 'oegaire, Kfir
si!eK, B"en of the Ksi!K,B that is, go!s..+,34 The Ksi!K ere na"e!
after the na"es of the Tuatha )e )anann ho reigne! in the", but the
tra!ition being localise! in !ifferent %laces, se#eral "oun!s ere
so"eti"es connecte! ith one go!. The Ksi!K ere "ar#ellous un!ergroun!
%alaces, full of strange things, an! thither fa#oure! "ortals "ight go
for a ti"e or for e#er. 6n this they corres%on! eIactly to the o#ersea
/lysiu", the !i#ine lan!.
But hy ere the Tuatha )e )anann associate! ith the "oun!sS 6f fairies
or an analogous race of beings ere alrea!y in %agan ti"es connecte!
ith hills or "oun!s, go!s no regar!e! as fairies oul! be connecte!
ith the". )r. Joyce an! 8'Curry think that an ol!er race of aboriginal
go!s or Ksi!&folkK %rece!e! the Tuatha )ea in the "oun!s..+,F4 These "ay
ha#e been the 9o"orians, the Bcha"%ions of the Ksi!K,B hile in KMesca
;la!K the Tuatha )ea go to the un!ergroun! !ellings an! s%eak ith the
Ksi!eK alrea!y there. ?e !o not kno that the fairy cree! as such
eIiste! in %agan ti"es, but if the Ksi!eK an! the Tuatha )e )anann ere
once !istinct, they ere gra!ually assi"ilate!. Thus the )ag!a is calle!
Bking of the Ksi!eKBA Ae! Abrat an! his !aughters, 9an! an! 'iban, an!
'abrai!, 'iban's husban!, are calle! Ksi!eK, an! Manannan is 9an!'s
consort..+,G4 'abrai!'s islan!, like the Ksi!K of Mi!er an! the lan! to
hich o"en of the Ksi!eK in#ite Connla, !iffers but little fro" the
usual !i#ine /lysiu", hile Mi!er, one of the Ksi!eK, is associate! ith
the Tuatha )e )anann..+*,4 The Ksi!eK are once sai! to be fe"ale, an!
are freLuently su%ernatural o"en ho run aay or "arry "ortals..+**4
Thus they "ay be a re"iniscence of ol! /arth go!!esses. But they are not
eIclusi#ely fe"ale, since there are kings of the Ksi!eK, an! as the na"e
K9ir si!eK, B"en of the Ksi!eK,B shos, hile 5. Patrick an! his frien!s
ere taken for Ksi!K&folk.
The for"ation of the legen! as also ai!e! by the ol! cult of the go!s
on heights, so"e of the" se%ulchral "oun!s, an! no occasionally sites
of Christian churches..+*+4 The 6rish go! Cenn Cruaich an! his ?elsh
eLui#alent Penn Cruc, hose na"e sur#i#es in KPennocruciu"K, ha#e na"es
"eaning Bchief KorK hea! of the "oun!.B.+*E4 8ther "oun!s or hills ha!
also a sacre! character. :ence go!s orshi%%e! at "oun!s, !elling or
re#ealing the"sel#es there, still lingere! in the haunte! s%otsA they
beca"e fairies, or ere associate! ith the !ea! burie! in the "oun!s,
as fairies also ha#e been, or ere the"sel#es thought to ha#e !ie! an!
been burie! there. The haunting of the "oun!s by the ol! go!s is seen in
a %rayer of 5. Colu"ba's, ho begs Go! to !is%el Bthis host >i.e. the
ol! go!s@ aroun! the cairns that reigneth.B.+*14 An early M5 also tells
ho the Milesians allotte! the un!ergroun! %art of /rin to the Tuatha
)ea ho no retire! ithin the hillsA in other or!s, they ere go!s of
the hills orshi%%e! by the Milesians on hills..+*-4 But, as e shall
see, the go!s !elt elsehere than in hills..+*24
Tu"uli "ay alrea!y in %agan ti"es ha#e been %ointe! out as to"bs of go!s
ho !ie! in "yth or ritual, like the to"bs of Reus in Crete an! of
8siris in /gy%t. Again, fairies, in so"e as%ects, are ghosts of the
!ea!, an! haunt tu"uliA hence, hen go!s beca"e fairies they oul! !o
the sa"e. An! once they ere thought of as !ea! kings, any notable
tu"uli oul! be %ointe! out as theirs, since it is a la in folk&belief
to associate tu"uli or other structures not ith the !ea! or ith their
buil!ers, but ith su%ernatural or "ythical or e#en historical
%ersonages. 6f Ksi!eK e#er "eant Bghosts,B it oul! be easy to call the
!ea! go!s by this na"e, an! to connect the" ith the %laces of the
!ea!..+*34
Many stran!s ent to the ea#ing of the later conce%tion of the go!s,
but there still hung aroun! the" an air of "ystery, an! the belief that
they ere a race of "en as ne#er consistent ith itself.
)anu ga#e her na"e to the hole grou% of go!s, an! is calle! their
"other, like the /gy%tian <eith or the 5e"itic 6shtar..+*F4 6n the
annalists she is !aughter of )ag!a, an! has three sons. 5he "ay be akin
to the go!!ess Anu, ho" Cor"ac !escribes as BK"ater !eoru"
hibernensiu"K. 6t as ell she nurse! the go!s.B 9ro" her na"e he
!eri#es KanaK, B%lenty,B an! to hills in =erry are calle! Bthe Pa%s of
Anu.B.+*G4 Thus as a go!!ess of %lenty )anu or Anu "ay ha#e been an
early /arth&"other, an! hat "ay be a !i" "e"ory of Anu in
'eicestershire confir"s this #ie. A ca#e on the )ane :ills is calle!
BBlack Annis' Boer,B an! she is sai! to ha#e been a sa#age o"an ho
!e#oure! hu"an #icti"s..++,4 /arth&go!!esses usually ha#e hu"an #icti"s,
an! Anu oul! be no eIce%tion. 6n the cult of /arth !i#inities /arth an!
un!er&/arth are %ractically i!entical, hile /arth&go!!esses like
)e"eter an! Perse%hone ere associate! ith the un!erorl!, the !ea!
being )e"eter's folk. The fruits of the earth ith their roots belo the
surface are then gifts of the earth& or un!er&earth go!!ess. This "ay
ha#e been the case ith )anu, for in Celtic belief the gifts of
ci#ilisation ca"e fro" the un!erorl! or fro" the go!s. Professor
Rh.Jy4s fin!s the na"e Anu in the !at. KAnonire!iK, Bchariot of Anu,B in
an inscri%tion fro" Caucluse, an! the i!entification is %erha%s
establishe! by the fact that go!!esses of fertility ere !ran through
the fiel!s in a #ehicle..++*4 Cor"ac also "entions Buanann as "other an!
nurse of heroes, %erha%s a go!!ess orshi%%e! by heroes..+++4
)anu is also i!entifie! ith Brigit, go!!ess of knole!ge >K!anK@,
%erha%s through a folk&ety"ology. 5he as orshi%%e! by %oets, an! ha!
to sisters of the sa"e na"e connecte! ith leechcraft an!
s"ithork..++E4 They are !u%licates or local for"s of Brigit, a go!!ess
of culture an! of %oetry, so "uch lo#e! by the Celts. 5he is thus the
eLui#alent of the Gaulish go!!ess eLuate! ith Miner#a by Caesar, an!
foun! on inscri%tions as Miner#a Belisa"a an! Brigin!o. 5he is the )ea
Brigantia of British inscri%tions..++14 8ne of the seats of her orshi%
as the lan! of the Brigantes, of ho" she as the e%ony"ous go!!ess,
an! her na"e >cf. 6r. KbrigK, B%oerB or BcraftBA ?elsh KbriK, Bhonour,B
BrenonB@ suggests her high functions. But her %o%ularity is seen in the
continuation of her %ersonality an! cult in those of 5. Brigit, at hose
shrine in =il!are a sacre! fire, hich "ust not be breathe! on, or
a%%roache! by a "ale, as atche! !aily by nineteen nuns in turn, an! on
the tentieth !ay by the saint herself..++-4 5i"ilar sacre! fires ere
ke%t u% in other "onasteries,.++24 an! they %oint to the ol! cult of a
go!!ess of fire, the nuns being successors of a #irgin %riesthoo! like
the #estals, %riestesses of Cesta. As has been seen, the go!!esses
Belisa"a an! 5ul, %robably go!!esses of fire, rese"ble! Brigit in
this..++34 But Brigit, like Cesta, as at once a go!!ess of fire an! of
fertility, as her connection ith Can!le"as an! certain ritual sur#i#als
also suggest. 6n the :ebri!es on 5. Bri!e's !ay >Can!le"as&e#e@ o"en
!resse! a sheaf of oats in fe"ale clothes an! set it ith a club in a
basket calle! BBrii!'s be!.B Then they calle!, BBrii! is co"e, Brii! is
elco"e.B 8r a be! as "a!e of corn an! hay ith can!les burning besi!e
it, an! Bri!e as in#ite! to co"e as her be! as rea!y. 6f the "ark of
the club as seen in the ashes, this as an o"en of a goo! har#est an! a
%ros%erous year..++F4 6t is also noteorthy that if cattle cro%%e! the
grass near 5. Brigit's shrine, neIt !ay it as as luIuriant as e#er.
Brigit, or go!!esses ith si"ilar functions, as regar!e! by the Celts
as an early teacher of ci#ilisation, ins%irer of the artistic, %oetic,
an! "echanical faculties, as ell as a go!!ess of fire an! fertility. As
such she far eIcelle! her sons, go!s of knole!ge. 5he "ust ha#e
originate! in the %erio! hen the Celts orshi%%e! go!!esses rather than
go!s, an! hen knole!ge&&leechcraft, agriculture, ins%iration&&ere
o"en's rather than "en's. 5he ha! a fe"ale %riesthoo!, an! "en ere
%erha%s eIclu!e! fro" her cult, as the tabue! shrine at =il!are
suggests. Perha%s her fire as fe! fro" sacre! oak oo!, for "any
shrines of 5. Brigit ere built un!er oaks, !oubtless !is%lacing %agan
shrines of the go!!ess..++G4 As a go!!ess, Brigit is "ore %ro"inent than
)anu, also a go!!ess of fertility, e#en though )anu is "other of the
go!s.
8ther go!!esses re"e"bere! in tra!ition are Cleena an! Cera, celebrate!
in fairy an! itch lore, the for"er %erha%s akin to a ri#er&go!!ess
Clota, the Clutoi!a >a fountain&ny"%h@ of the continental CeltsA the
latter, un!er her alternati#e na"e )irra, %erha%s a for" of a go!!ess of
Gaul, )irona..+E,4 Aine, one of the great fairy&Lueens of 6relan!, has
her seat at =nockainy in 'i"erick, here rites connecte! ith her for"er
cult are still %erfor"e! for fertility on Mi!su""er e#e. 6f they ere
neglecte! she an! her troo%s %erfor"e! the", accor!ing to local
legen!..+E*4 5he is thus an ol! go!!ess of fertility, hose cult, e#en
at a festi#al in hich go!s ere latterly "ore %ro"inent, is still
re"e"bere!. 5he is also associate! ith the aters as a ater&ny"%h
ca%ture! for a ti"e as a fairy&bri!e by the /arl of )es"on!..+E+4 But
ol!er legen!s connect her ith the Ksi!K. 5he as !aughter of /ogabal,
king of the Ksi!K of =nockainy, the grass on hich as annually
!estroye! at 5a"hain by his %eo%le, because it ha! been taken fro" the",
its rightful oners. 8ilill 8lo"" an! 9erchus resol#e! to atch the
Ksi!K on 5a"hain&e#e. They sa /ogabal an! Aine e"erge fro" it. 9erchus
kille! /ogabal, an! 8ilill trie! to outrage Aine, ho bit the flesh fro"
his ear. :ence his na"e of BBare /ar.B.+EE4 6n this legen! e see ho
earlier go!s of fertility co"e to be regar!e! as hostile to groth.
Another story tells of the lo#e of Aillen, /ogabal's son, for Manannan's
ife an! that of Aine for Manannan. Aine offere! her fa#ours to the go!
if he oul! gi#e his ife to her brother, an! Bthe co"%licate! bit of
ro"ance,B as 5. Patrick calls it, as thus arrange!..+E14
Although the 6rish go!s are arriors, an! there are s%ecial ar&go!s,
yet ar&go!!esses are "ore %ro"inent, usually as a grou% of
three&&Morrigan, <e"an, an! Macha. A fourth, Ba!b, so"eti"es takes the
%lace of one of these, or is i!entical ith Morrigan, or her na"e, like
that of Morrigan, "ay be generic..+E-4 KBa!bK "eans Ba scal!&cro,B
un!er hich for" the ar&go!!esses a%%eare!, %robably because these
bir!s ere seen near the slain. 5he is also calle! Ba!bcatha,
Bbattle&Ba!b,B an! is thus the eLui#alent of K&athubo!ua,K or, "ore
%robably, KCathubo!uaK, "entione! in an inscri%tion fro" :aute&5a#oie,
hile this, as ell as %ersonal na"es like KBo!uogenosK, shos that a
go!!ess Bo!ua as knon to the Gauls..+E24 The Kba!bK or battle&cro is
associate! ith the 9o"orian Tethra, but Ba!b herself is consort of a
ar&go! <et, one of the Tuatha )e )anann, ho "ay be the eLui#alent of
<eton, "entione! in 5%anish inscri%tions an! eLuate! ith Mars.
/lsehere <e"an is <et's consort, an! she "ay be the <e"etona of
inscri%tions, e.g. at Bath, the consort of Mars. Cor"ac calls <et an!
<e"an Ba #eno"ous cou%le,B hich e "ay ell belie#e the" to ha#e
been..+E34 To Macha ere !e#ote! the hea!s of slain ene"ies, BMacha's
"ast,B but she, accor!ing to the annalists, as slain at Mag&ture!,
though she rea%%ears in the Cuchulainn saga as the Macha hose
ill&treat"ent le! to the B!ebilityB of the ;lster"en..+EF4 The na"e
Morrigan "ay "ean Bgreat Lueen,B though )r. 5tokes, connecting K"orK
ith the sa"e syllable in B9o"orian,B eI%lains it as
Bnight"are&Lueen.B.+EG4 5he orks great har" to the 9o"orians at
Mag&ture!, an! afterar!s %roclai"s the #ictory to the hills, ri#ers,
an! fairy&hosts, uttering also a %ro%hecy of the e#ils to co"e at the
en! of ti"e..+1,4 5he rea%%ears %ro"inently in the Cuchulainn saga,
hostile to the hero because he rejects her lo#e, yet ai!ing the hosts of
;lster an! the Bron Bull, an! in the en! trying to %re#ent the hero's
!eath..+1*4
The %ro"inent %osition of these go!!esses "ust be connecte! ith the
fact that o"en ent out to ar&&a custo" sai! to ha#e been sto%%e! by
A!a"nan at his "other's reLuest, an! that "any %ro"inent heroines of the
heroic cycles are arriors, like the British Bou!icca, hose na"e "ay be
connecte! ith Kbou!iK, B#ictory.B 5%ecific titles ere gi#en to such
classes of fe"ale arriors&&Kbangaisge!aigK, Kbanfeinni!iK, etc..+1+4
But it is %ossible that these go!!esses ere at first connecte! ith
fertility, their functions changing ith the groing arlike ten!encies
of the Celts. Their nu"ber recalls that of the threefol! KMatresK, an!
%ossibly the change in their character is hinte! in the Ro"ano&British
inscri%tion at Benell to the K'a"iis TribusK, since Morrigan's na"e is
glosse! Kla"iaK..+1E4 5he is also i!entifie! ith Anu, an! is "istress
of )ag!a, an /arth&go!, an! ith Ba!b an! others eI%els the 9o"orians
hen they !estroye! the agricultural %ro!uce of 6relan!..+114 Probably
the scal!&cro as at once the sy"bol an! the incarnation of the
ar&go!!esses, ho rese"ble the <orse Calkyries, a%%earing so"eti"es as
cros, an! the Greek =eres, bir!&like beings hich !rank the bloo! of
the slain. 6t is also interesting to note that Ba!b, ho has the
character of a %ro%hetess of e#il, is often i!entifie! ith the B?asher
at the 9or!,B hose %resence in!icates !eath to hi" hose ar"our or
gar"ents she see"s to cleanse..+1-4
The KMatresK, go!!esses of fertility, !o not a%%ear by na"e in 6relan!,
but the tri%lication of such go!!esses as Morrigan an! Brigit, the
threefol! na"e of )ag!a's ife, or the fact that Ar", )anu, an! Buanan
are calle! B"others,B hile Buanan's na"e is so"eti"es ren!ere! Bgoo!
"other,B "ay suggest that such grou%e! go!!esses ere not unknon. 'ater
legen! knos of hite o"en ho assist in s%inning, or three hags ith
%oer o#er nature, or, as in the KBattle of CentryK, of three
su%ernatural o"en ho fall in lo#e ith Conncrithir, ai! hi" in fight,
an! heal his oun!s. 6n this !ocu"ent an! elsehere is "entione! the
BKsi!K of the ?hite ?o"en.B.+124 Go!!esses of fertility are usually
go!!esses of lo#e, an! the %ro"inence gi#en to fe"ales a"ong the Ksi!eK,
the fact that they are often calle! KBe fin!K, B?hite ?o"en,B like
fairies ho re%resent the KMatresK elsehere, an! that they freely offer
their lo#e to "ortals, "ay connect the" ith this grou% of go!!esses.
Again, hen the Milesians arri#e! in 6relan!, three kings of the Tuatha
)ea ha! i#es calle! /riu, Banba, an! 9otla, ho begge! that 6relan!
shoul! be calle! after the". This as grante!, but only /riu >/rin@
re"aine! in general use..+134 The story is an aetiological "yth
eI%laining the na"es of 6relan!, but the three i#es "ay be a grou% like
the KMatresK, guar!ians of the lan! hich took its na"e fro" the".
Brian, 6uchar, an! 6ucharba, ho gi#e a title to the hole grou%, are
calle! Ktri !ee )onan!K, Bthe three go!s >sons of@ )anu,B or, again,
Bgo!s of K!anKB >knole!ge@, %erha%s as the result of a folk&ety"ology,
associating K!anK ith their "other's na"e )anu..+1F4 Carious attributes
are %ersonifie! as their !escen!ants, ?is!o" being son of all
three..+1G4 Though so"e of these attributes "ay ha#e been actual go!s,
es%ecially /cne or ?is!o", yet it is "ore %robable that the
%ersonification is the result of the subtleties of bar!ic science, of
hich si"ilar eIa"%les occur..+-,4 8n the other han!, the fact that /cne
is the son of three brothers, "ay recall so"e early %ractice of
%olyan!ry of hich instances are "et ith in the sagas..+-*4 M. )'Arbois
has suggeste! that 6uchar an! 6ucharba are "ere !u%licates of Brian, ho
usually takes the lea!ing %lace, an! he i!entifies the" ith three kings
of the Tuatha )ea reigning at the ti"e of the Milesian in#asion&&
MacCuill, MacCecht, an! MacGrainne, so calle!, accor!ing to =eating,
because the haHel >KcollK@, the %lough >KcechtK@, an! the sun >KgrianK@
ere Bgo!s of orshi%B to the". Both grou%s are gran!sons of )ag!a, an!
M. )'Arbois regar!s this secon! grou% as also tri%licates of one go!,
because their i#es 9otla, Banba, an! /riu all bear na"es of 6relan!
itself, are %ersonifications of the lan!, an! thus "ay be Bre!uce! to
unity.B.+-+4 ?hile this reasoning is ingenious, it shoul! be re"e"bere!
that e "ust not lay too "uch stress u%on 6rish !i#ine genealogies,
hile each grou% of three "ay ha#e been si"ilar local go!s associate! at
a later ti"e as brothers. Their se%arate %ersonality is suggeste! by the
fact that the Tuatha )e )anann are calle! after the" Bthe Men of the
Three Go!s,B an! their su%re"acy a%%ears in the inci!ent of )ag!a, 'ug,
an! 8g"a consulting the" before the fight at Mag&ture!&&a natural
%rocee!ing if they ere go!s of knole!ge or !estiny..+-E4 The brothers
are sai! to ha#e slain the go! Cian, an! to ha#e been the"sel#es slain
by 'ug, an! on this see"s to ha#e been base! the story of KThe Chil!ren
of TuirennK, in hich they %erish through their eIertions in obtaining
the KericK !e"an!e! by 'ug..+-14 :ere they are sons of Tuirenn, but "ore
usually their "other )anu or Brigit is "entione!.
Another son of Brigit's as 8g"a, "aster of %oetry an! in#entor of
Kogha"K riting, the or! being !eri#e! fro" his na"e..+--4 6t is "ore
%robable that 8g"a's na"e is a !eri#ati#e fro" so"e or! signifying
Bs%eechB or Briting,B an! that the connection ith Bogha"B "ay be a
"ere folk&ety"ology. 8g"a a%%ears as the cha"%ion of the go!s,.+-24 a
%osition gi#en hi" %erha%s fro" the %ri"iti#e custo" of rousing the
arriors' e"otions by eloLuent s%eeches before a battle. 5i"ilarly the
Babylonian Mar!uk, Bseer of the go!s,B as also their cha"%ion in fight.
8g"a fought an! !ie! at Mag&ture!A but in other accounts he sur#i#es,
ca%tures Tethra's sor!, goes on the Luest for )ag!a's har%, an! is
gi#en a Ksi!K after the Milesian #ictory. 8g"a's counter%art in Gaul is
8g"ios, a :erakles an! a go! of eloLuence, thus bearing the !ual
character of 8g"a, hile 8g"a's e%ithet KgrianainechK, Bof the s"iling
countenance,B recalls 'ucian's account of the Bs"iling faceB of
8g"ios..+-34 8g"a's high %osition is the result of the a!"iration of
bar!ic eloLuence a"ong the Celts, hose loLuacity as %ro#erbial, an! to
hi" its origin as !oubtless ascribe!, as ell as that of %oetry. The
genealogists eI%lain his relationshi% to the other !i#inities in
!ifferent ays, but these confusions "ay result fro" the fact that go!s
ha! "ore than one na"e, of hich the annalists "a!e se%arate
%ersonalities. Most usually 8g"a is calle! Brigit's son. :er functions
ere like his on, but in s%ite of the increasing su%re"acy of go!s o#er
go!!esses, he ne#er really ecli%se! her.
A"ong other culture go!s ere those associate! ith the arts an!
crafts&&the !e#elo%"ent of Celtic art in "etal&ork necessitating the
eIistence of go!s of this art. 5uch a go! is Goibniu, e%ony"ous go! of
s"iths >8l! 6r. KgobaK, Bs"ithB@, an! the !i#ine crafts"an at the battle
of Mag&ture!, "aking s%ears hich ne#er faile! to kill..+-F4 5"iths ha#e
e#eryhere been regar!e! as uncanny&&a tra!ition sur#i#ing fro" the
first intro!uction of "etal a"ong those hitherto accusto"e! to stone
ea%ons an! tools. 5. Patrick %raye! against the Bs%ells of o"en,
s"iths, an! )rui!s,B an! it is thus not sur%rising to fin! that Goibniu
ha! a re%utation for "agic, e#en a"ong Christians. A s%ell for "aking
butter, in an eighth century M5. %reser#e! at 5. Gall, a%%eals to his
Bscience.B.+-G4 Curiously enough, Goibniu is also connecte! ith the
culinary art in "yth, an!, like :e%haistos, %re%ares the feast of the
go!s, hile his ale %reser#es their i""ortality..+2,4 The elation
%ro!uce! by hea!y liLuors cause! the" to be regar!e! as !raughts of
i""ortality, like 5o"a, :ao"a, or nectar. Goibniu sur#i#es in tra!ition
as the KGobhan 5aerK, to ho" the buil!ing of roun! toers is ascribe!.
Another go! of crafts as Crei!ne the braHier >6r. Kcer!K, BartificerBA
cf. 5cots Kcair!K, BtinkerB@, ho assiste! in "aking a sil#er han! for
<ua!a, an! su%%lie! ith "agical ra%i!ity %arts of the ea%ons use! at
Mag&ture!..+2*4 Accor!ing to the annalists, he as !rone! hile
bringing gol!en ore fro" 5%ain..+2+4 'uchtine, go! of car%enters,
%ro#i!e! s%ear&han!les for the battle, an! ith "ar#ellous skill flung
the" into the sockets of the s%ear&hea!s..+2E4
)iancecht, hose na"e "ay "ean Bsift in %oer,B as go! of "e!icine,
an!, ith Crei!ne's hel%, fashione! a sil#er han! for <ua!a..+214 :is
son Miach re%lace! this by a "agic restoration of the real han!, an! in
jealousy his father sle hi"&&a #ersion of the KMaerchenK for"ula of the
jealous "aster. Three hun!re! an! siIty&fi#e herbs gre fro" his gra#e,
an! ere arrange! accor!ing to their %ro%erties by his sister Air"e!,
but )iancecht again confuse! the", Bso that no one knos their %ro%er
cures.B.+2-4 At the secon! battle of Mag&ture!, )iancecht %resi!e! o#er
a healing&ell containing "agic herbs. These an! the %oer of s%ells
cause! the "ortally oun!e! ho ere %lace! in it to reco#er. :ence it
as calle! Bthe s%ring of health.B.+224 )iancecht, associate! ith a
healing&ell, "ay be cognate ith Grannos. :e is also referre! to in the
5. Gall M5., here his healing %oers are eItolle!.
An early chief of the go!s is )ag!a, ho, in the story of the battle of
Mag&ture!, is sai! to be so calle! because he %ro"ise! to !o "ore than
all the other go!s together. :ence they sai!, B6t is thou art the Kgoo!
han!KB >K!ag&!aeK@. The KCoir An"annK eI%lains K)ag!aK as Bfire of go!B
>K!aigK an! K!eaK@. The true !eri#ation is fro" K!agosK, Bgoo!,B an!
K!ei#osK, Bgo!,B though )r. 5tokes consi!ers K)ag!aK as connecte! ith
K!aghK, hence K!agh!aK, Bcunning.B.+234 )ag!a is also calle! Cera, a
or! %erha%s !eri#e! fro" KkarK an! connecte! ith 'at. KcerusK,
BcreatorB an! other na"es of his are KRua!&rofhessaK, Blor! of great
knole!ge,B an! K/ochai! 8llathairK, Bgreat father,B Bfor a great father
to the Tuatha )e )anann as he.B.+2F4 :e is also calle! Ba beautiful
go!,B an! Bthe %rinci%al go! of the %agans.B.+2G4 After the battle he
!i#i!es the KbrugsK or Ksi!K a"ong the go!s, but his son 8engus, ha#ing
been o"itte!, by a stratage" succee!e! in ousting his father fro"
his Ksi!K, o#er hich he no hi"self reigne!.+3,4&&%ossibly the sur#i#al
of an ol! "yth telling of a su%erse!ing of )ag!a's cult by that of
8engus, a co""on enough occurrence in all religions. 6n another #ersion,
)ag!a being !ea!, Bo!b )earg !i#i!es the Ksi!K, an! Manannan "akes the
Tuatha )ea in#isible an! i""ortal. :e also hel%s 8engus to !ri#e out his
foster&father /le"ar fro" his KbrugK, here 8engus no li#es as a
go!..+3*4 The un!ergroun! KbrugsK are the go!s' lan!, in all res%ects
rese"bling the o#ersea /lysiu", an! at once burial&%laces of the
euhe"erise! go!s an! local for"s of the !i#ine lan!. Professor Rh.Jy4s
regar!s )ag!a as an at"os%heric go!A )r. MacBain sees in hi" a sky&go!.
More %robably he is an early /arth&go! an! a go! of agriculture. :e has
%oer o#er corn an! "ilk, an! agrees to %re#ent the other go!s fro"
!estroying these after their !efeat by the Milesians&&for"er beneficent
go!s being regar!e! as hurtful, a not unco""on result of the triu"%h of
a ne faith..+3+4 )ag!a is calle! Bthe go! of the earthB Bbecause of the
greatness of his %oer.B.+3E4 Mythical objects associate! ith hi"
suggest %lenty an! fertility&&his caul!ron hich satisfie! all co"ers,
his unfailing sine, one alays li#ing, the other rea!y for cooking, a
#essel of ale, an! three trees alays la!en ith fruit. These ere in
his Ksi!K, here none e#er taste! !eathA.+314 hence his Ksi!K as a
local /lysiu", not a gloo"y lan! of !eath, but the un!erorl! in its
%ri"iti#e as%ect as the %lace of go!s of fertility. 6n so"e "yths he
a%%ears ith a huge club or fork, an! M. )'Arbois suggests that he "ay
thus be an eLui#alent of the Gaulish go! ith the "allet..+3-4 This is
%robable, since the Gaulish go! "ay ha#e been a for" of )is%ater, an
/arth or un!er&/arth go! of fertility.
6f )ag!a as a go! of fertility, he "ay ha#e been an eLui#alent of a go!
hose i"age as calle! KCennK or KCro"" CruaichK, B:ea! KorK Crooke! 8ne
of the Moun!,B or BBloo!y :ea! KorK Crescent.B.+324 Callancey, citing a
teIt no lost, says that KCro"&eochaK as a na"e of )ag!a, an! that a
"otto at the sacrificial %lace at Tara rea!, B'et the altar e#er blaHe
to )ag!a.B.+334 These state"ents "ay su%%ort this i!entification. The
cult of Cro"" is %reser#e! in so"e #erses(
B:e as their go!,
The ithere! Cro"" ith "any "ists...
To hi" ithout glory
They oul! kill their %iteous retche! offs%ring,
?ith "uch ailing an! %eril,
To %our their bloo! aroun! Cro"" Cruaich.
Milk an! corn
They oul! ask fro" hi" s%ee!ily
6n return for a thir! of their healthy issue,
Great as the horror an! fear of hi".
To hi" noble Gaels oul! %rostrate the"sel#es.B.+3F4
/lsehere e learn that this sacrifice in return for the gifts of corn
an! "ilk fro" the go! took %lace at 5a"hain, an! that on one occasion
the #iolent %rostrations of the orshi%%ers cause! three&fourths of the"
to !ie. Again, Bthey beat their %al"s, they %oun!e! their bo!ies ...
they she! falling shoers of tears.B.+3G4 These are re"iniscences of
orgiastic rites in hich %ain an! %leasure "elt into one. The go! "ust
ha#e been a go! of fertilityA the bloo! of the #icti"s as %oure! on the
i"age, the flesh, as in analogous sa#age rites an! folk&sur#i#als, "ay
ha#e been burie! in the fiel!s to %ro"ote fertility. 6f so, the #icti"s'
flesh as instinct ith the %oer of the !i#inity, an!, though their
nu"ber is ob#iously eIaggerate!, se#eral #icti"s "ay ha#e taken the
%lace of an earlier slain re%resentati#e of the go!. A "ythic KCro"
)ubhK, BBlack Cro",B hose festi#al occurs on the first 5un!ay in
August, "ay be another for" of Cro"" Cruaich. 6n one story the na"e is
transferre! to 5. Patrick's ser#ant, ho is aske! by the fairies hen
they ill go to Para!ise. B<ot till the !ay of ju!g"ent,B is the anser,
an! for this they cease to hel% "en in the %rocesses of agriculture. But
in a #ariant Manannan bi!s Cro" ask this Luestion, an! the sa"e result
follos..+F,4 These tales thus enshrine the i!ea that Cro" an! the
fairies ere ancient go!s of groth ho cease! to hel% "en hen they
!eserte! the" for the Christian faith. 6f the sacrifice as offere! at
the August festi#al, or, as the teIts suggest, at 5a"hain, after
har#est, it "ust ha#e been on account of the neIt year's cro%, an! the
flesh "ay ha#e been "ingle! ith the see! corn.
)ag!a "ay thus ha#e been a go! of groth an! fertility. :is ife or
"istress as the ri#er&go!!ess, Boan! >the Boyne@,.+F*4 an! the chil!ren
ascribe! to hi" ere 8engus, Bo!b )earg, )anu, Brigit, an! %erha%s 8g"a.
The euhe"erists "a!e hi" !ie of Cethlenn's #eno", long after the battle
of Mag&ture! in hich he encountere! her..+F+4 6rish "ythology is
re"arkably free fro" obscene an! grotesLue "yths, but so"e of these
cluster roun! )ag!a. ?e hear of the Gargantuan "eal %ro#i!e! for hi" in
s%ort by the 9o"orians, an! of hich he ate so "uch that Bnot easy as
it for hi" to "o#e an! unsee"ly as his a%%arel,B as ell as his con!uct
ith a 9o"orian beauty. Another a"our of his as ith Morrigan, the
%lace here it occurre! being still knon as BThe Cou%le's Be!.B.+FE4 6n
another tale )ag!a acts as cook to Conaire the great..+F14
The beautiful an! fascinating 8engus is so"eti"es calle! KMac 6n! 8cK,
B5on of the $oung 8nes,B i.e. )ag!a an! Boan!, or K6n Mac 8cK, BThe
$oung 5on.B This na"e, like the "yth of his !isinheriting his father,
"ay %oint to his cult su%erse!ing that of )ag!a. 6f so, he "ay then ha#e
been affiliate! to the ol!er go!, as as freLuently !one in %arallel
cases, e.g. in Babylon. 8engus "ay thus ha#e been the high go! of so"e
tribe ho assu"e! su%re"acy, ousting the high go! of another tribe,
unless e su%%ose that )ag!a as a %re&Celtic go! ith functions si"ilar
to those of 8engus, an! that the Celts a!o%te! his cult but ga#e that of
8engus a higher %lace. 6n one "yth the su%re"acy of 8engus is seen.
After the first battle of Mag&ture!, )ag!a is force! to beco"e the sla#e
of Bres, an! is "uch annoye! by a la"%ooner ho eItorts the best %ieces
of his rations. 9olloing the a!#ice of 8engus, he not only causes the
la"%ooner's !eath, but triu"%hs o#er the 9o"orians..+F-4 8n insufficient
groun!s, "ainly because he as %atron of )iar"ai!, belo#e! of o"en, an!
because his kisses beca"e bir!s hich his%ere! lo#e thoughts to youths
an! "ai!ens, 8engus has been calle! the /ros of the Gaels. More %robably
he as %ri"arily a su%re"e go! of groth, ho occasionally suffere!
ecli%se !uring the ti"e of !eath in nature, like Ta""uH an! A!onis, an!
this "ay eI%lain his absence fro" Mag&ture!. The beautiful story of his
#ision of a "ai!en ith ho" he fell #iolently in lo#e contains too "any
KMaerchenK for"ulae to be of any "ythological or religious #alue. :is
"other Boan! cause! search to be "a!e for her, but ithout a#ail. At
last she as !isco#ere! to be the !aughter of a se"i&!i#ine lor! of a
Ksi!K, but only through the hel% of "ortals as the secret of ho she
coul! be taken rung fro" hi". 5he as a san&"ai!en, an! on a certain
!ay only oul! 8engus obtain her. ;lti"ately she beca"e his ife. The
story is interesting because it shos ho the go!s occasionally reLuire!
"ortal ai!..+F24
/Lually influence! by KMaerchenK for"ulae is the story of 8engus an!
/tain. /tain an! 9ua"nach ere i#es of Mi!er, but 9ua"nach as jealous
of /tain, an! transfor"e! her into an insect. 6n this sha%e 8engus foun!
her, an! %lace! her in a glass KgriananK or boer fille! ith floers,
the %erfu"e of hich sustaine! her. :e carrie! the KgriananK ith hi"
here#er he ent, but 9ua"nach raise! a "agic in! hich ble /tain aay
to the roof of /tair, a noble of ;lster. 5he fell through a s"oke&hole
into a gol!en cu% of ine, an! as salloe! by /tair's ife, of ho"
she as reborn..+F34 Professor Rh.Jy4s resol#es all this into a sun an!
!an "yth. 8engus is the sun, /tain the !an, the KgriananK the eI%anse
of the sky..+FF4 But the !an !oes not gro stronger ith the sun's
influence, as /tain !i! un!er that of 8engus. At the sun's a%%earance
the !an begins
Bto faint in the light of the sun she lo#es,
To faint in his light an! to !ie.B
The hole story is built u% on the ell&knon KMarchenK for"ulae of the
BTrue Bri!eB an! the BTo Brothers,B but acco""o!ate! to ell&knon
"ythic %ersonages, an! the KgriananK is the Celtic eLui#alent of #arious
objects in stories of the BCin!erellaB ty%e, in hich the heroine
conceals herself, the object being bought by the hero an! ke%t in his
roo"..+FG4 Thus the tale re#eals nothing of /tain's !i#ine functions,
but it illustrates the "etho! of the B"ythologicalB school in
!isco#ering sun&heroes an! !an&"ai!ens in any inci!ent, "ythical or
not.
8engus a%%ears in the 9ionn cycle as the fosterer an! %rotector of
)iar"ai!..+G,4 ?ith Mi!er, Bo!b, an! Morrigan, he eI%els the 9o"orians
hen they !estroy the corn, fruit, an! "ilk of the Tuatha )e
)anann..+G*4 This "ay %oint to his functions as a go! of fertility.
Although Mi!er a%%ears "ainly as a king of the Ksi!eK an! ruler of the
KbrugK of Bri 'eith, he is also connecte! ith the Tuatha )ea..+G+4
'earning that /tain ha! been reborn an! as no "arrie! to =ing /ochai!,
he reco#ere! her fro" hi", but lost her again hen /ochai! attacke! his
KbrugK. :e as ulti"ately a#enge! in the series of tragic e#ents hich
le! to the !eath of /ochai!'s !escen!ant Conaire. Though his Ksi!K is
locate! in 6relan!, it has so "uch rese"blance to /lysiu" that Mi!er
"ust be regar!e! as one of its lor!s. :ence he a%%ears as ruler of the
6sle of 9alga, i.e. the 6sle of Man regar!e! as /lysiu". Thence his
!aughter Blathnat, his "agical cos an! caul!ron, ere stolen by
Cuchulainn an! Curoi, an! his three cranes fro" Bri 'eith by
Aitherne.+GE4&&%erha%s !istorte! #ersions of the "yths hich tol! ho
#arious ani"als an! gifts ca"e fro" the go!'s lan!. Mi!er "ay be the
6rish eLui#alent of a local Gaulish go!, Me!ros, !e%icte! on bas&reliefs
ith a co or bull..+G14
The #ictory of the Tuatha )ea at the first battle of Mag&ture!, in June,
their #ictory folloe!, hoe#er, by the !eaths of "any of the" at the
secon! battle in <o#e"ber, "ay %oint to ol! "yths !ra"atising the
%heno"ena of nature, an! connecte! ith the ritual of su""er an! inter
festi#als. The %oers of light an! groth are in the ascen!ant in
su""erA they see" to !ie in inter. Christian euhe"erists "a!e use of
these "yths, but regar!e! the go!s as arriors ho ere slain, not as
those ho !ie an! re#i#e again. At the secon! battle, <ua!a loses his
lifeA at the first, though his forces are #ictorious, his han! as cut
off by the 9o"orian 5reng, for e#en hen #ictorious the go!s "ust
suffer. A sil#er han! as "a!e for hi" by )iancecht, an! hence he as
calle! <ua!a KArgetla"K, Bof the sil#er han!.B Professor Rh.Jy4s regar!s
hi" as a Celtic Reus, %artly because he is king of the Tuatha )e )anann,
%artly because he, like Reus or Tyr, ho lost ten!ons or a han! through
the iles of e#il go!s, is also "ai"e!..+G-4 5i"ilarly in the KRig&Ce!aK
the Ac#ins substitute a leg of iron for the leg of Cis%ala, cut off in
battle, an! the sun is calle! Bgol!en&han!e!B because 5a#itri cut off
his han! an! the %riests re%lace! it by one of gol!. The "yth of <ua!a's
han! "ay ha#e arisen fro" %ri"iti#e atte"%ts at re%lacing lo%%e!&off
li"bs, as ell as fro" the fact that no 6rish king "ust ha#e any bo!ily
!efect, or %ossibly because an i"age of <ua!a "ay ha#e lacke! a han! or
%ossesse! one of sil#er. 6"ages ere often "ai"e! or gi#en artificial
li"bs, an! "yths then arose to eI%lain the custo"..+G24 <ua!a a%%ears to
be a go! of life an! groth, but he is not a sun&go!. :is ?elsh
eLui#alent is 'lu! 'laereint, or Bsil#er&han!e!,B ho !eli#ers his
%eo%le fro" #arious scourges. :is !aughter Crei!yla! is to be e!!e! to
Gythur, but is ki!na%%e! by Gyn. Arthur !eci!es that they "ust fight
for her yearly on *st May until the !ay of ju!g"ent, hen the #ictor
oul! gain her han!..+G34 Professor Rh.Jy4s regar!s Crei!yla! as a
Perse%hone, e!!e! alternately to light an! !ark !i#inities..+GF4 But
the story "ay rather be eI%lanatory of such ritual acts as are foun! in
folk&sur#i#als in the for" of fights beteen su""er an! inter, in hich
a Tueen of May figures, an! inten!e! to assist the conflict of the go!s
of groth ith those of blight..+GG4 Crei!yla! is !aughter of a %robable
go! of groth, nor is it i"%ossible that the story of the battle of
Mag&ture! is base! on "ythic eI%lanations of such ritual co"bats.
The Brythons orshi%%e! <ua!a as <o!ons in Ro"ano&British ti"es. The
re"ains of his te"%le eIist near the "outh of the 5e#ern, an! the go!
"ay ha#e been eLuate! ith Mars, though certain sy"bols see" to connect
hi" ith the aters as a kin! of <e%tune..E,,4 An 6rish "ythic %oet
<ua!a <echt "ay be the <echtan ho one! a "agic ell hence issue! the
Boyne, an! as %erha%s a ater&go!. 6f such a ater&go! as associate!
ith <ua!a, he an! <o!ons "ight be a Celtic <e%tune..E,*4 But the
relationshi% an! functions of these #arious %ersonages are obscure, nor
is it certain that <o!ons as eLuate! ith <e%tune or that <ua!a as a
ater&go!. :is na"e "ay be cognate ith or!s "eaning Bgroth,B
B%ossession,B Bhar#est,B an! this su%%orts the #ie taken here of his
functions..E,+4 The ?elsh <u!! :ael, or Bthe Generous,B ho %ossesse! a
her! of +*,,,, "ilch kine, "ay be a "e"ory of this go!, an! it is
%ossible that, as a go! of groth, <ua!a ha! hu"an incarnations calle!
by his na"e..E,E4
'er, hose na"e "eans Bsea,B an! ho as a go! of the sea, is father of
Manannan as ell as of the %ersonages of the beautiful story calle! KThe
Chil!ren of 'irK, fro" hich e learn %ractically all that is knon of
hi". :e resente! not being "a!e ruler of the Tuatha )ea, but as later
reconcile! hen the !aughter of Bo!b )earg as gi#en to hi" as his ife.
8n her !eath, he "arrie! her sister, ho transfor"e! her ste%&chil!ren
into sans..E,14 'er is the eLui#alent of the Brythonic 'lyr, later
i""ortalise! by 5hakes%eare as =ing 'ear.
The greatness of Manannan "ac 'ir, Bson of the sea,B is %ro#e! by the
fact that he a%%ears in "any of the heroic tales, an! is still
re"e"bere! in tra!ition an! folk&tale. :e is a sea&go! ho has beco"e
"ore %ro"inent than the ol!er go! of the sea, an! though not a su%re"e
go!, he "ust ha#e ha! a far&s%rea!ing cult. ?ith Bo!b )earg he as
electe! king of the Tuatha )e )anann. :e "a!e the go!s in#isible an!
i""ortal, ga#e the" "agical foo!, an! assiste! 8engus in !ri#ing out
/le"ar fro" his Ksi!K. 'ater tra!ition s%oke of four Manannans, %robably
local for"s of the go!, as is suggeste! by the fact that the true na"e
of one of the" is sai! to be 8rbsen, son of Allot. Another, the son of
'er, is !escribe! as a renone! tra!er ho !elt in the 6sle of Man, the
best of %ilots, eather&ise, an! able to transfor" hi"self as he
%lease!. The KCoir An"annK a!!s that the Britons an! the "en of /rin
!ee"e! hi" go! of the sea..E,-4 That %osition is %lainly seen in "any
tales, e.g. in the "agnificent %assage of KThe Coyage of BranK, here he
su!!enly see%s into sight, ri!ing in a chariot across the a#es fro"
the 'an! of Pro"iseA or in the tale of KCuchulainn's 5icknessK, here
his ife 9an! sees hi", Bthe horse"an of the creste! sea,B co"ing across
the a#es. 6n the KAgalla"h na 5enorachK he a%%ears as a ca#alier
breasting the a#es. B9or the s%ace of nine a#es he oul! be sub"erge!
in the sea, but oul! rise on the crest of the tenth ithout etting
chest or breast.B.E,24 6n one archaic tale he is i!entifie! ith a great
sea a#e hich se%t aay Tuag, hile the a#es are so"eti"es calle!
Bthe son of 'ir's horsesB&&a na"e still current in 6relan!, or, again,
Bthe locks of Manannan's ife.B.E,34 :is %osition as go! of the sea "ay
ha#e gi#en rise to the belief that he as ruler of the o#ersea /lysiu",
an!, later, of the other&orl! as a "agical !o"ain coter"inous ith this
earth. :e is still re"e"bere! in the 6sle of Man, hich "ay oe its na"e
to hi", an! hich, like "any another islan!, as regar!e! by the Goi!els
as the islan! /lysiu" un!er its na"e of 6sle of 9alga. :e is also the
Manay!!an of ?elsh story.
Manannan a%%ears in the Cuchulainn an! 9ionn cycles, usually as a ruler
of the 8ther&orl!. :is ife 9an! as Cuchulainn's "istress, )iar"ai!
as his %u%il in fairylan!, an! Cor"ac as his guest there. /#en in
Christian ti"es sur#i#ing %agan beliefs cause! legen! to be busy ith
his na"e. =ing 9iachna as fighting the 5cots an! in great !anger, hen
a stranger a%%eare! to his ife an! announce! that he oul! sa#e her
husban!'s life if she oul! consent to aban!on herself to hi". 5he
reluctantly agree!, an! the chil! of the Ka"ourK as the se#enth&century
=ing Mongan, of ho" the annalist says, Be#ery one knos that his real
father as Manannan.B.E,F4 Mongan as also belie#e! to be a rebirth of
9ionn. Manannan is still re"e"bere! in folk&tra!ition, an! in the 6sle
of Man, here his gra#e is to be seen, so"e of his ritual sur#i#e! until
lately, bun!les of rushes being %lace! for hi" on "i!su""er e#e on to
hills..E,G4 Barintus, ho steers Arthur to the fortunate isles, an! 5.
Barri, ho crosse! the sea on horseback, "ay ha#e been legen!ary for"s
of a local sea&go! akin to Manannan, or of Manannan hi"self..E*,4 :is
stee! as /nbarr, Bater foa" KorK hair,B an! Manannan as Bthe horse"an
of the "ane! sea.B BBarintus,B %erha%s connecte! ith Kbarr fin!K,
Bhite&to%%e!,B oul! thus be a surna"e of the go! ho ro!e on /nbarr,
the foa"ing a#e, or ho as hi"self the a#e, hile his "ythic
sea&ri!ing as transferre! to the legen! of 5. Barri, if such a %erson
e#er eIiste!.
Carious "agical %ossessions ere ascribe! to Manannan&&his ar"our an!
sor!, the one "aking the earer in#ulnerable, the other terrifying all
ho behel! itA his horse an! canoeA his sine, hich ca"e to life again
hen kille!A his "agic cloakA his cu% hich broke hen a lie as s%okenA
his tablecloth, hich, hen a#e!, %ro!uce! foo!. Many of these are
foun! e#eryhere in KMaerchenK, an! there is nothing %eculiarly Celtic in
the". ?e nee! not, therefore, ith the "ythologists, see in his ar"our
the #a%oury clou!s or in his sor! lightning or the sun's rays. But
their "agical nature as ell as the fact that so "uch iHar!ry is
attribute! to Manannan, %oints to a co%ious "ythology clustering roun!
the go!, no for e#er lost.
The %arentage of 'ug is !ifferently state!, but that account hich "akes
hi" son of Cian an! of /thne, !aughter of Balor, is best atteste!..E**4
9olk&tra!ition still recalls the relation of 'ug an! Balor. Balor, a
robber li#ing in Tory 6slan!, ha! a !aughter hose son as to kill her
father. :e therefore shut her u% in an inaccessible %lace, but in
re#enge for Balor's stealing Mac6neely's co, the latter gaine! access
to her, ith the result that /thne bore three sons, ho" Balor cast into
the sea. 8ne of the", 'ug, as reco#ere! by Mac6neely an! fostere! by
his brother Ga#i!a. Balor no sle Mac6neely, but as hi"self slain by
'ug, ho %ierce! his single eye ith a re!&hot iron..E*+4 6n another
#ersion, =ian takes Mac6neely's %lace an! is ai!e! by Manannan, in
accor!ance ith ol!er legen!s..E*E4 But 'ug's birth&story has been
influence! in these tales by the KMaerchenK for"ula of the girl hi!!en
aay because it has been foretol! that she ill ha#e a son ho ill slay
her father.
'ug is associate! ith Manannan, fro" hose lan! he co"es to assist the
Tuatha )ea against the 9o"orians. :is a%%earance as that of the sun,
an! by this brilliant arrior's %roess the hosts ere utterly
!efeate!..E*14 This #ersion, foun! in KThe Chil!ren of TuirennK, !iffers
fro" the account in the story of Mag&ture!. :ere 'ug arri#es at the
gates of Tara an! offers his ser#ices as a crafts"an. /ach offer is
refuse!, until he %roclai"s hi"self Bthe "an of each an! e#ery art,B or
Ksa"il!anachK, B%ossessing "any arts.B <ua!a resigns his throne to hi"
for thirteen !ays, an! 'ug %asses in re#ie the #arious crafts"en >i.e.
the go!s@, an! though they try to %re#ent such a "ar#ellous %erson
risking hi"self in fight, he esca%es, hea!s the arriors, an! sings his
ar&song. Balor, the e#il&eye!, he slays ith a sling&stone, an! his
!eath !eci!e! the !ay against the 9o"orians. 6n this account 'ug
Ksa"il!anachK is a %atron of the !i#ine %atrons of craftsA in other
or!s, he is su%erior to a hole grou% of go!s. :e as also in#entor of
!raughts, ball&%lay, an! horse"anshi%. But, as M. )'Arbois shos,
Ksa"il!anachK is the eLui#alent of Bin#entor of all arts,B a%%lie! by
Caesar to the Gallo&Ro"an Mercury, ho is thus an eLui#alent of 'ug..E*-4
This is atteste! on other groun!s. As 'ug's na"e a%%ears in 6rish 'outh
>K'ug&"aghK@ an! in British 'ugu&#allu", near :a!rian's ?all, so in Gaul
the na"es 'ugu!unu" >'yons@, 'ugu!iacus, an! 'ugsel#a >B!e#ote! to
'ugusB@ sho that a go! 'ugus as orshi%%e! there. A Gaulish feast of
'ugus in August&&the "onth of 'ug's festi#al in 6relan!&&as %erha%s
su%erse!e! by one in honour of Augustus. <o !e!ication to 'ugus has yet
been foun!, but i"ages of an! inscri%tions to Mercury aboun! at
'ugu!unu" Con#enaru"..E*24 As there ere three Brigits, so there "ay
ha#e been se#eral for"s of 'ugus, an! to !e!ications to the K'ugo#esK
ha#e been foun! in 5%ain an! 5itHerlan!, one of the" inscribe! by the
shoe"akers of ;Ia"a..E*34 Thus the 'ugo#es "ay ha#e been "ulti%lie!
for"s of 'ugus or K'ugo#osK, Ba hero,B the "eaning gi#en to B'ugB by
8')a#oren..E*F4 5hoe&"aking as not one of the arts %rofesse! by 'ug,
but Professor Rh.Jy4s recalls the fact that the ?elsh 'leu, ho" he
eLuates ith 'ug, !isguise! hi"self as a shoe"aker..E*G4 'ugus, besi!es
being a "ighty hero, as a great Celtic culture&go!, su%erior to all
other culture !i#inities.
The euhe"erists assigne! a !efinite !ate to 'ug's !eath, but si!e by
si!e ith this the "e"ory of his !i#inity %re#aile!, an! he a%%ears as
the father an! hel%er of Cuchulainn, ho as %ossibly a rebirth of the
go!..E+,4 :is high %osition a%%ears in the fact that the Gaulish
asse"bly at 'ugu!unu" as hel! in his honour, like the festi#al of
'ugnasa! in 6relan!. Crafts"en brought their ares to sell at this
festi#al of the go! of crafts, hile it "ay also ha#e been a har#est
festi#al..E+*4 ?hether it as a strictly solar feast is !oubtful, though
Professor Rh.Jy4s an! others insist that 'ug is a sun&go!. The na"e of
the ?elsh 'leu, Blight,B is eLuate! ith 'ug, an! the sa"e "eaning
assigne! to the latter..E++4 This eLuation has been conteste! an! is
!oubtful, 'ugus %robably "eaning Bhero.B.E+E4 5till the sun&like traits
ascribe! to 'ug before Mag&ture! suggest that he as a sun&go!, an!
solar go!s elsehere, e.g. the Polynesian Maui, are culture&go!s as
ell. But it shoul! be re"e"bere! that 'ug is not associate! ith the
true solar festi#als of Beltane an! Mi!su""er.
?hile our knole!ge of the Tuatha )e )anann is base! u%on a series of
"ythic tales an! other recor!s, that of the go!s of the continental
Celts, a%art fro" a fe notices in classical authors an! elsehere,
co"es fro" inscri%tions. But as far as can be ju!ge!, though the na"es
of the to grou%s sel!o" coinci!e, their functions "ust ha#e been "uch
alike, an! their origins certainly the sa"e. The Tuatha )e )anann ere
nature !i#inities of groth, light, agriculture&&their sy"bols an!
%ossessions suggesting fertility, e.g. the caul!ron. They ere
!i#inities of culture an! crafts, an! of ar. There "ust ha#e been "any
other go!s in 6relan! than those !escribe! here, hile so"e of those "ay
not ha#e been orshi%%e! all o#er 6relan!. Generally s%eaking, there
ere "any local go!s in Gaul ith si"ilar functions but !ifferent na"es,
an! this "ay ha#e been true of 6relan!. Perha%s the !ifferent na"es
gi#en to )ag!a, Manannan, an! others ere si"%ly na"es of si"ilar local
go!s, one of ho" beca"e %ro"inent, an! attracte! to hi"self the na"es
of the others. 5o, too, the i!entity of )anu an! Brigit "ight be
eI%laine!, or the fact that there ere three Brigits. ?e rea! also in
the teIts of the go! of Connaught, or of ;lster, an! these ere
a%%arently regional !i#inities, or of Bthe go! of )rui!is"B&&%erha%s a
go! orshi%%e! s%ecially by )rui!s..E+14 The re"ote origin of so"e of
these !i#inities "ay be sought in the %ri"iti#e cult of the /arth
%ersonifie! as a fertile being, an! in that of #egetation an!
corn&s%irits, an! the #ague s%irits of nature in all its as%ects. 5o"e
of these still continue! to be orshi%%e! hen the greater go!s ha! been
e#ol#e!. Though ani"al orshi% as not lacking in 6relan!, !i#inities
ho are anthro%o"or%hic for"s of earlier ani"al&go!s are less in
e#i!ence than on the Continent. The !i#inities of culture, crafts, an!
ar, an! of !e%art"ents of nature, "ust ha#e sloly assu"e! the !efinite
%ersonality assigne! the" in 6rish religion. But, !oubtless, they
alrea!y %ossesse! that before the Goi!els reache! 6relan!. 5trictly
s%eaking, the un!ergroun! !o"ain assigne! later to the Tuatha )e )anann
belongs only to such of the" as ere associate! ith fertility. But in
course of ti"e "ost of the grou%, as un!ergroun! !ellers, ere
connecte! ith groth an! increase. These coul! be blighte! by their
ene"ies, or they the"sel#es coul! ithhol! the" hen their orshi%%ers
offen!e! the"..E+-4
6rish "ythology %oints to the early %re&e"inence of go!!esses. As
agriculture an! "any of the arts ere first in the han!s of o"en,
go!!esses of fertility an! culture %rece!e! go!s, an! still hel! their
%lace hen go!s ere e#ol#e!. /#en ar&go!!esses are %ro"inent in
6relan!. Celtic go!s an! heroes are often calle! after their "others,
not their fathers, an! o"en loo" largely in the tales of 6rish
colonisation, hile in "any legen!s they %lay a "ost i"%ortant %art.
Go!!esses gi#e their na"e to !i#ine grou%s, an!, e#en here go!s are
%ro"inent, their actions are free, their %ersonalities still clearly
!efine!. The su%re"acy of the !i#ine o"en of 6rish tra!ition is once
"ore seen in the fact that they the"sel#es oo an! in heroesA hile
their ca%acity for lo#e, their %assion, their eternal youthfulness an!
beauty are suggesti#e of their early character as go!!esses of
e#er&s%ringing fertility..E+24
This su%re"acy of go!!esses is eI%laine! by Professor Rh.Jy4s as
non&Celtic, as borroe! by the Celts fro" the aborigines..E+34 But it is
too !ee%ly i"%resse! on the fabric of Celtic tra!ition to be other than
nati#e, an! e ha#e no reason to su%%ose that the Celts ha! not %asse!
through a stage in hich such a state of things as nor"al. Their innate
conser#atis" cause! the" to %reser#e it "ore than other races ho ha!
long outgron such a state of things.
988T<8T/5(
.*GG4 K:'K FGA 5tokes, KRCK Iii. *+G. )'Arbois, ii. *+-, eI%lains it as
B9olk of the go! hose "other is calle! )anu.B
.+,,4 KRCK Iii. 33. The usual 6rish or! for Bgo!B is K!iaKA other na"es
are K9ia!uK, KArtK, K)essK.
.+,*4 5ee Joyce, K566K. i. +-+, +2+A KP<K i. *FE.
.+,+4 K''K +1-KbK.
.+,E4 K''K **.
.+,14 K''K *+3. The "oun!s ere the se%ulchres of the euhe"erise! go!s.
.+,-4 KBook of 9er"oyK, fifteenth century.
.+,24 K''K **KbK.
.+,34 K6TK i. *1, 331A 5tokes, KT'K i. GG, E*1, E*G. K5i!K is a fairy
hill, the hill itself or the !elling ithin it. :ence those ho !ell
in it are KAesK or K9ir si!eK, B"en of the "oun!,B or Ksi!eK, fairy
folk. The %ri"iti#e for" is %robably Kse!osK, fro" Kse!K, Babo!eB or
BseatBA cf. Greek .Greek( e!os4 Ba te"%le.B Thurneysen suggests a
connection ith a or! eLui#alent to 'at. Ksi!usK, Bconstellation,B or
B!elling of the go!s.B
.+,F4 Joyce, K5:K i. +-+A 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K -,-.
.+,G4 BCision of 8engus,B KRCK iii. E11A K6TK i. *G3 f.
.+*,4 ?in!isch, K6r. Gra".K **FA 8'Curry, KMCK ii. 3*A see %. E2E,
KinfraK.
.+**4 ?in!isch, K6r. Gra".K **F, 5ec. 2A K6TK iii. 1,3A KRCK I#i. *EG.
.+*+4 5hore, KJA6K II. G.
.+*E4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +,E f. KPennocruciu"K occurs in the K6tineraryK of
Antoninus.
.+*14 =eating, 1E1.
.+*-4 Joyce, K5:K i. +-+.
.+*24 5ee %. ++F. 6n 5can!ina#ia the !ea! ere calle! el#es, an! li#e!
feasting in their barros or in hills. These beca"e the seat of
ancestral cults. The or! BelfB also "eans any !i#ine s%irit, later a
fairy. B/lfB an! Ksi!eK "ay thus, like the Belf&hoeB an! the Ksi!K or
"oun!, ha#e a %arallel history. 5ee Cigfusson&Poell, KCor%us Poet.
BorealeK, i. 1*E f.
.+*34 Tuan MacCairill >K';K *22@ calls the Tuatha )ea, B!ee ocus an!ee,B
an! gi#es the "eaning as B%oets an! husban!"en.B This %hrase, ith the
sa"e "eaning, is use! in BCoir An"annB >K6TK iii. E--@, but there e
fin! that it occurre! in a %agan for"ula of blessing&&BThe blessing of
go!s an! not&go!s be on thee.B But the riter goes on to say&&BThese
ere their go!s, the "agicians, an! their non&go!s, the husban!"en.B
This "ay refer to the %osition of %riest&kings an! "agicians as go!s.
Rh.Jy4s co"%ares 5anskrit K!e#aK an! Ka!e#aK >K:'K -F*@. Cf. the %hrase
in a ?elsh %oe" >5kene, i. E*E@, BTeulu 8eth et Anoeth,B translate! by
Rh.Jy4s as B:ousehol! of Poer an! <ot&PoerB >KC9'K ii. 2+,@, but the
"eaning is obscure. 5ee 'oth, i. *G3.
.+*F4 K''K *,KbK.
.+*G4 Cor"ac, 1. 5tokes >K;5K *+@ !eri#es Anu fro" K>%@anK, Bto
nourishBA cf. 'at. K%anisK.
.++,4 K'eicester County 9olk&loreK, 1. The KCoir An"annK says that Anu
as orshi%%e! as a go!!ess of %lenty >K6TK iii. +FG@.
.++*4 Rh.Jy4s, KTrans. Er! 6nter. Cong. :ist. of Rel.K ii. +*E. 5ee
Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K +-* ff., an! %. +3-, KinfraK.
.+++4 Rh.Jy4s, Kibi!.K ii. +*E. :e fin!s her na"e in the %lace&na"e
KBononiaK an! its !eri#ati#es.
.++E4 Cor"ac, +E.
.++14 Caesar, #i. *3A :ol!er, Ks.#.KA 5tokes, KT6GK EE.
.++-4 Giral!. Ca"br. KTo%. :ib.K ii. E1 f. Cengeance folloe! u%on rash
intrusion. 9or the breath tabu see 9raHer, K/arly :ist. of the
=ingshi%K, ++1.
.++24 Joyce, K5:K i. EE-.
.++34 P. 1*, Ksu%raK.
.++F4 Martin, **GA Ca"%bell, K?itchcraftK, +1F.
.++G4 9raHer, Ko%. cit.K ++-.
.+E,4 Joyce, KP<K i. *G-A 8'Gra!y, ii. *GFA ?oo!&Martin, i. E22A see %.
1+, Ksu%raK.
.+E*4 9itHgeral!, KRCK i#. *G,. Aine has no connection ith Anu, nor is
she a "oon&go!!ess, as is so"eti"es su%%ose!.
.+E+4 KRCK i#. *FG.
.+EE4 =eating, E*FA K6TK iii. E,-A KRCK Iiii. 1E-.
.+E14 8'Gra!y, ii. *G3.
.+E-4 KRCK Iii. *,G, IIii. +G-A Cor"ac, F3A 5tokes, KT6GK IIIiii.
.+E24 :ol!er, i. E1*A KC6'K #ii. *+G+A Caesar, ii. +E.
.+E34 K''K **KbKA Cor"ac, s.#. K<eitKA KRCK i#. E2A KArch. Re#.K i. +E*A
:ol!er, ii. 3*1, 3EF.
.+EF4 5tokes, KT6G, ''K **KaK.
.+EG4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K 1EA 5tokes, KRCK Iii. *+F.
.+1,4 KRCK Iii. G*, **,.
.+1*4 5ee %. *E*.
.+1+4 Petrie, KTaraK, *13A 5tokes, K;5K *3-A Meyer, KCath 9inntragaK,
8Ifor!, *FF-, 32 f.A KRCK I#i. -2, *2E, IIi. EG2.
.+1E4 KC6'K #ii. -,3A 5tokes, K;5K +**.
.+114 KRCK i. 1*, Iii. F1.
.+1-4 KRCK IIi. *-3, E*-A Miss :ull, +13. A KbaobhK >a co""on Gaelic
na"e for BitchB@ a%%ears to 8scar an! %ro%hesies his !eath in a 9ionn
balla! >Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK, EE@. 6n Brittany the Bnight&ashers,B
once ater&fairies, are no regar!e! as Kre#enantsK >'e BraH, i. -+@.
.+124 Joyce, K5:K i. +2*A Miss :ull, *F2A Meyer, KCath 9inntragaK, 2,
*EA K6TK i. *E*, F3*.
.+134 K''K *,KaK.
.+1F4 K''K *,KaK, E,KbK, *F3KcK.
.+1G4 KRCK II#i. *EA K''K *F3KcK.
.+-,4 Cf. the %ersonification of the three strains of )ag!a's har%
>'eahy, ii. +,-@.
.+-*4 5ee %. ++E, KinfraK.
.+-+4 )'Arbois, ii. E3+.
.+-E4 KRCK Iii. 33, FE.
.+-14 K''K **A KAtlantisK, 'on!on, *F-F&3,, i#. *-G.
.+--4 8')ono#an, KGra""arK, )ublin, *F1-, Il#ii.
.+-24 KRCK Iii. 33.
.+-34 'ucian, K:eraklesK.
.+-F4 KRCK Iii. FG. The na"e is foun! in Gaulish Gobannicnos, an! in
?elsh Aberga#enny.
.+-G4 K6TK i. -2A Ri""er, KGlossae :ibernicaeK, *FF*, +3,.
.+2,4 KAtlantisK, *F2,, iii. EFG.
.+2*4 KRCK Iii. FG.
.+2+4 K''K llKaK.
.+2E4 KRCK Iii. GE.
.+214 Connac, -2, an! KCoir An"annK >K6TK iii. E-3@ !i#i!e the na"e as
K!ia&na&cechtK an! eI%lain it as Bgo! of the %oers.B
.+2-4 KRCK Iii. 23. 9or si"ilar stories of %lants s%ringing fro" gra#es,
see "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, **-.
.+224 KRCK Iii, FG, G-.
.+234 KRCK #i. E2GA Cor"ac, +E.
.+2F4 Cor"ac, 13, *11A K6TK iii. E--, E-3.
.+2G4 K6TK iii. E--A )'Arbois, i. +,+.
.+3,4 K''K +12KaK.
.+3*4 K6rish M55. 5eriesK, i. 12A )'Arbois, ii. +32. 6n a M5. e!ite! by
)r. 5tirn, 8engus as )ag!a's son by /le"ar's ife, the a"our taking
%lace in her husban!'s absence. This inci!ent is a %arallel to the
birth&stories of Mongan an! Arthur, an! has also the 9atherless Chil!
the"e, since 8engus goes in tears to Mi!er because he has been taunte!
ith ha#ing no father or "other. 6n the sa"e M5. it is the )ag!a ho
instructs 8engus ho to obtain /le"ar's Ksi!K. 5ee KRCK II#ii. EE+,
II#iii. EE,.
.+3+4 K''K +1-KbK.
.+3E4 K6TK iii. E--.
.+314 8')ono#an, KBattle of Mag&RathK, )ublin, *F1+, -,A K''K +12KaK.
.+3-4 )'Arbois, #. 1+3, 11F.
.+324 The for"er is Rh.Jy4s's inter%retation >K:'K +,*@ connecting
KCruaichK ith KcruachK, Ba hea%BA the latter is that of )'Arbois >ii.
*,2@, !eri#ing KCruaichK fro" KcruK, Bbloo!.B The i!ea of the i"age
being bent or crooke! "ay ha#e been !ue to the fact that it long stoo!
rea!y to to%%le o#er, as a result of 5. Patrick's "iracle. 5ee %. +F2,
KinfraK.
.+334 Callancey, in KColl. !e Rebus :ib.K *3F2, i#. 1G-.
.+3F4 K''K +*EKbK. )'Arbois thinks Cro"" as a 9o"orian, the eLui#alent
of Taranis >ii. 2+@. But he is orshi%%e! by Gaels. KCrinK, Bithere!,B
%robably refers to the i!ol's %osition after 5. Patrick's "iracle, no
longer u%right but bent like an ol! "an. )r. :y!e, K'it. :ist. of
6relan!K, F3, ith eIaggerate! %atriotis", thinks the sacrificial
!etails are co%ie! by a Christian scribe fro" the 8l! Testa"ent, an! are
no %art of the ol! ritual.
.+3G4 KRCK I#i. E-, *2E.
.+F,4 9itHgeral!, KR'K i#. *3-.
.+F*4 KRCK II#i. *G.
.+F+4 KAnnals of the 9our MastersK, A.M. E1-,.
.+FE4 KRCK Iii. FE, F-A :y!e, Ko%. cit.K +FF.
.+F14 K';K G1.
.+F-4 KRCK Iii. 2-. /lsehere three su%re"e BignorancesB are ascribe! to
8engus >KR'K II#i. E*@.
.+F24 KRCK iii. E1+.
.+F34 K''K **KcKA K';K *+GA K6TK i. *E,. Cf. the glass house, %lace!
beteen sky an! "oon, to hich Tristan con!ucts the Lueen. Be!ier,
KTristan et 6seutK, +-+. 6n a frag"entary #ersion of the story 8engus is
/tain's ooer, but Mi!er is %referre! by her father, an! "arries her. 6n
the latter half of the story, 8engus !oes not a%%ear >see %. E2E,
KinfraK@. Mr. <utt >KRCK II#ii. EEG@ suggests that 8engus, not Mi!er,
as the real hero of the story, but that its Christian re!actors ga#e
Mi!er his %lace in the secon! %art. The frag"ents are e!ite! by 5tirn
>KRCPK #ol. #.@.
.+FF4 K:'K *12.
.+FG4 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, **1, *-E. The tale has so"e uniLue
features, as it alone a"ong ?estern KMaerchenK an! saga #ariants of the
BTrue Bri!eB !escribes the "alicious o"an as the ife of Mi!er. 6n
other or!s, the story i"%lies %olyga"y, rarely foun! in /uro%ean
folk&tales.
.+G,4 8'Gra!y, KT85K iii.
.+G*4 KRCK i. 1*.
.+G+4 8'Curry, KMCK i. 3*.
.+GE4 K''K **3KaK. 5ee %. EF*, KinfraK.
.+G14 Cu"ont, KRCK II#i. 13A )'Arbois, KRCK II#ii. *+3, notes the
!ifficulty of eI%laining the change of KeK to KiK in the na"es.
.+G-4 K:'K *+*.
.+G24 5ee Crooke, K9olk&'oreK, #iii. E1*. Cf. :ero!, ii. *E*.
.+G34 'oth, i. +2G.
.+GF4 K:'K -2E.
.+GG4 Train, K6sle of ManK, )ouglas, *F1-, ii. **FA Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K
ii. ch. +1A 9raHer, KGBKO+P ii. GG f.
.E,,4 Bathurst, KRo"an AntiLuities at 'y!ney ParkK, *F3GA :ol!er, Ks.#.K
B<o!ons.B
.E,*4 5ee Rh.Jy4s, K:'K *++A Cook, K9olk&'oreK, I#ii. E,.
.E,+4 5tokes, K;5K *G1&*G-A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K, *+F, K6TK i. 3*+.
.E,E4 'oth, ii. +E-, +G2. 5ee %. *2,, KinfraK.
.E,14 Joyce, K8CRK.
.E,-4 9or these four Manannans see Cor"ac **1, KRCK IIi#. +3,, K6TK iii.
E-3.
.E,24 8'Gra!y, ii.
.E,34 KBo!ley )in!senchasK, <o. *,, KRCK Iii. *,-A Joyce, K5:K i. +-GA
K8tia MerseianaK, ii. B5ong of the 5ea.B
.E,F4 K';K *EE.
.E,G4 Moore, 2.
.E*,4 Geoffrey, KCita MerliniK, E3A Rees, 1E-. 8ther saintly legen!s are
!eri#e! fro" "yths, e.g. that of 5. Barri in his boat "eeting 5.
5cuithne alking on the sea. 5cuithne "aintains he is alking on a
fiel!, an! %lucks a floer to %ro#e it, hile Barri confutes hi" by
%ulling a sal"on out of the sea. This rese"bles an e%iso!e in the
"eeting of Bran an! Manannan >5tokes, K9elireK, IIIiI.A <utt&Meyer, i.
EG@. 5aints are often sai! to assist "en just as the go!s !i!.
Colu"cille an! Brigit a%%eare! o#er the hosts of /rin assisting an!
encouraging the" K>RCK IIi#. 1,@.
.E**4 KRCK Iii. -G.
.E*+4 K9olk&'ore JournalK, #. 22A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K E*1.
.E*E4 'ar"inie, B=ian, son of =ontje.B
.E*14 Joyce, K8CRK E3.
.E*-4 )'Arbois, #i. **2, K'es CeltesK, EG, KRCK Iii. 3-, *,*, *+3, I#i.
33. 6s the !eface! inscri%tion at Geitershof, K)eo M ... 5a" ...K
>:ol!er, ii. *EE-@, a !e!ication to Mercury 5a"il!anachS An echo of
'ug's story is foun! in the 'ife of 5. :er#e, ho foun! a !e#il in his
"onastery in the for" of a "an ho sai! he as a goo! car%enter, "ason,
locks"ith, etc., but ho coul! not "ake the sign of the cross. Albert le
Gran!, K5aints !e la BretagneK, 1G, KRCK #ii. +E*.
.E*24 :ol!er, Ks.#.KA )'Arbois, K'es CeltesK, 11, KRCK #ii. 1,,.
.E*34 :ol!er, Ks.#.K B'ugus.B
.E*F4 5tokes, KT6GK *,E. Gai!oH contests the i!entification of the
'ugo#es an! of 'ug ith Mercury, an! to hi" the 'ugo#es are grou%e!
!i#inities like the KMatresK >KRCK #i. 1FG@.
.E*G4 K:'K 1+-.
.E+,4 5ee %. E1G, KinfraK.
.E+*4 5ee %. +3+, KinfraK.
.E++4 K:'K 1,G.
.E+E4 5ee 'oth, KRCK I. 1G,.
.E+14 'eahy, i. *EF, ii. -,, -+, K';K *+1KbK.
.E+-4 K''K +*-KaKA see %. 3F, Ksu%raK.
.E+24 5ee, further, %. EF-, KinfraK.
.E+34 KThe ?elsh Peo%leK, 2*. Professor Rh.Jy4s a!"its that the theory
of borroing Bcannot easily be %ro#e!.B
C:APT/R C6.
T:/ G8)5 89 T:/ BR$T:8<5
8ur knole!ge of the go!s of the Brythons, i.e. as far as ?ales is
concerne!, is !eri#e!, a%art fro" inscri%tions, fro" the KMabinogionK,
hich, though foun! in a fourteenth century M5., as co"%ose! "uch
earlier, an! contains ele"ents fro" a re"ote %ast. Besi!es this, the
KTria!sK, %robably of telfth&century origin, the KTaliesinK, an! other
%oe"s, though obscure an! artificial, the ork of "any a Bconfuse! bar!
!ri#ellingB >to cite the or!s of one of the"@, %reser#e echoes of the
ol! "ythology..E+F4 5o"e of the go!s "ay lurk behin! the %ersonages of
Geoffrey of Mon"outh's K:istoria Britonu"K an! of the Arthurian cycle,
though here great caution is reLuire!. The !i#inities ha#e beco"e heroes
an! heroines, kings an! %rincesses, an! if so"e of the e%iso!es are
base! on ancient "yths, they are treate! in a ro"antic s%irit. 8ther
e%iso!es are "ere KMaerchenK for"ulae. 'ike the reckage of so"e rich
galleon, the K!ebrisK of the ol! "ythology has been use! to construct a
ne fabric, an! the ol! !i#inities ha#e e#en less of the go!&like traits
of the %ersonages of the 6rish teIts.
5o"e of the %ersonages bear si"ilar na"es to the 6rish !i#inities, an!
in so"e cases there is a certain si"ilarity of inci!ents to those of the
6rish tales..E+G4 Are, then, the go!s !i"ly re#eale! in ?elsh literature
as "uch Goi!elic as BrythonicS Analysing the inci!ents of the
KMabinogionK, Professor Anyl has shon that they ha#e an entirely local
character, an! are "ainly associate! ith the !istricts of )yfe! an!
Gent, of Anglesey, an! of Gyne!!, of hich Pry!eri, Branen, an!
Gy!ion are res%ecti#ely the heroic characters..EE,4 These are the
!istricts here a strong Goi!elic ele"ent %re#aile!, hether these
Goi!els ere the original inhabitants of Britain, !ri#en there by
Brythons,.EE*4 or tribes ho ha! settle! there fro" 6relan!,.EE+4 or
%erha%s a "iIture of both. 6n any case they ha! been conLuere! by
Brythons an! ha! beco"e Brythonic in s%eech fro" the fifth century
onar!s. 8n account of this Goi!elic ele"ent, it has been clai"e! that
the %ersonages of the KMabinogionK are %urely Goi!elic. But eIa"ination
%ro#es that only a fe are !irectly %arallel in na"e ith 6rish
!i#inities, an! hile here there are fun!a"ental likenesses, the
Kinci!entsK ith 6rish %arallels "ay be !ue to "ere su%erficial
borroings, to that interchange of KMaerchenK an! "ythical K!onneesK
hich has e#eryhere occurre!. Many inci!ents ha#e no 6rish %arallels,
an! "ost of the characters are entirely !ifferent in na"e fro" 6rish
!i#inities. :ence any theory hich oul! account for the likenesses,
"ust also account for the !ifferences, an! "ust eI%lain hy, if the
KMabinogionK is !ue to 6rish Goi!els, there shoul! ha#e been fe or no
borroings in ?elsh literature fro" the %o%ular Cuchulainn an! 8ssianic
sagas,.EEE4 an! hy, at a ti"e hen Brythonic ele"ents ere u%%er"ost,
such care shoul! ha#e been taken to %reser#e Goi!elic "yths. 6f the
tales e"anate! fro" nati#e ?elsh Goi!els, the eI%lanation "ight be that
they, the kin!re! of the 6rish Goi!els, "ust ha#e ha! a certain
co""unity ith the" in !i#ine na"es an! "yths, hile others of their
go!s, "ore local in character, oul! !iffer in na"e. 8r if they are
Brythonic, the likenesses "ight be accounte! for by an early co""unity
in "yth an! cult a"ong the co""on ancestors of Brythons an!
Goi!els..EE14 But as the !ate of the co"%osition of the KMabinogionK is
co"%arati#ely late, at a ti"e hen Brythons ha! o#errun these Goi!elic
!istricts, "ore %robably the tales contain a "ingling of Goi!elic >6rish
or ?elsh@ an! Brythonic !i#inities, though so"e of these "ay be
sur#i#als of the co""on Celtic heritage..EE-4 Celtic !i#inities ere
"ainly of a local, tribal character. :ence so"e oul! be local Goi!elic
!i#inities, others, classe! ith these, local Brythonic !i#inities. This
oul! eI%lain the absence of !i#inities an! heroes of other local
Brythonic grou%s, e.g. Arthur, fro" the KMabinogionK. But ith the
groing i"%ortance of these, they attracte! to their legen! the folk of
the KMabinogionK an! other tales. These are associate! ith Arthur in
K=ulhychK, an! the )on grou% "ingles ith that of Taliesin in the
KTaliesinK %oe"s..EE24 :ence ?elsh literature, as far as concerns the
ol! religion, "ay be regar!e! as inclu!ing both local Goi!elic an!
Brythonic !i#inities, of ho" the "ore %urely Brythonic are Arthur,
Gynn, Taliesin, etc..EE34 They are regar!e! as kings an! Lueens, or as
fairies, or they ha#e "agical %oers. They are "ortal an! !ie, an! the
%lace of their burial is %ointe! out, or eIisting tu"uli are associate!
ith the", All this is %arallel to the history of the Tuatha )e )anann,
an! shos ho the sa"e %rocess of !egra!ation ha! been at ork in ?ales
as in 6relan!.
The story of the 'lyr grou% is tol! in the KMabinogionK of Branen an!
of Manay!!an. They are associate! ith the Pyll grou%, an! a%%arently
o%%ose! to that of )on. Branen is "arrie! to Matholych, king of
6relan!, but is ill&treate! by hi" on account of the insults of the
"ischie#ous /#nissyen, in s%ite of the fact that Bran ha! atone! for the
insult by "any gifts, inclu!ing that of a caul!ron of regeneration. <o
he crosses ith an ar"y to 6relan!, here /#nissyen thros Branen's
chil!, to ho" the king!o" is gi#en, on the fire. A fight ensuesA the
!ea! 6rish arriors are resuscitate! in the caul!ron, but /#nissyen, at
the cost of his life, !estroys it. Bran is slain, an! by his !irections
his hea! is cut off an! carrie! first to :arlech, then to Gales, here
it ill entertain its bearers for eighty years. At the en! of that ti"e
it is to be taken to 'on!on an! burie!. Branen, !e%arting ith the
bearers, !ies of a broken heart at Anglesey, an! "eanhile Casallyn,
son of Beli, seiHes the king!o"..EEF4 To of the bearers of the hea! are
Manay!!an an! Pry!eri, hose fortunes e follo in the KMabinogiK of
the for"er. Pry!eri gi#es his "other Rhiannon to Manay!!an as his ife,
along ith so"e lan! hich by "agic art is "a!e barren. After folloing
!ifferent crafts, they are le! by a boar to a strange castle, here
Rhiannon an! Pry!eri !isa%%ear along ith the buil!ing. Manay!!an, ith
Pry!eri's ife =ie#a, set out as shoe"akers, but are force! to aban!on
this craft on account of the en#y of the crafts"en. 9inally, e learn
ho Manay!!an o#erca"e the enchanter 'lyt, ho, because of an insult
offere! by Pry!eri's father to his frien! Gal, ha! "a!e Rhiannon an!
Pry!eri !isa%%ear. They are no restore!, an! 'lyt seeks no further
re#enge.
The story of Branen is si"ilar to a tale of hich there are #ariants in
Teutonic an! 5can!ina#ian sagas, but the rese"blance is closer to the
latter..EEG4 Possibly a si"ilar story ith their res%ecti#e !i#inities
or heroes for its characters eIiste! a"ong Celts, Teutons, an! <orse"en,
but "ore likely it as borroe! fro" <orse"en ho occu%ie! both si!es of
the 6rish 5ea in the ninth an! tenth century, an! then naturalise! by
furnishing it ith Celtic characters. But into this fra"eork "any
nati#e ele"ents ere set, an! e "ay therefore scrutinise the story for
Celtic "ythical ele"ents utilise! by its re!actor, ho %robably !i! not
stri% its Celtic %ersonages of their earlier !i#ine attributes. 6n the
to KMabinogiK these %ersonages are 'lyr, his sons Bran an! Manay!!an,
his !aughter Branen, their half&brothers <issyen an! /#nissyen, sons of
'lyr's ife Penar!i", !aughter of Beli, by a %re#ious "arriage ith
/urossy!.
'lyr is the eLui#alent of the 6rish 'er, the sea&go!, but to other
'lyrs, %robably !u%licates of hi"self, are knon to ?elsh story&&'lyr
Marini, an! the 'lyr, father of Cor!elia, of the chroniclers..E1,4 :e is
constantly confuse! ith 'lu!! 'laereint, e.g. both are !escribe! as
one of three notable %risoners of Britain, an! both are calle! fathers
of Cor!elia or Crei!!yla!..E1*4 Perha%s the to ere once i!entical, for
Manannan is so"eti"es calle! son of Alloi! >N 'lu!!@, in 6rish teIts, as
ell as son of 'er..E1+4 But the confusion "ay be acci!ental, nor is it
certain that <o!ons or 'lu!! as a sea&go!. 'lyr's %rison as that of
/urossy!,.E1E4 hose ife he "ay ha#e ab!ucte! an! hence suffere!
i"%rison"ent. 6n the KBlack Book of Caer"arthenK Bran is calle! son of $
?ery!! or B8cean,B accor!ing to M. 'oth's inter%retation of the na"e,
hich oul! thus %oint to 'lyr's %osition as a sea&go!. But this is
conteste! by Professor Rh.Jy4s ho "akes $erit ife of 'lyr, the na"e
being in his #ie a for" of the ?elsh or! for 6relan!. 6n Geoffrey an!
the chroniclers 'lyr beco"es a king of Britain hose history an! that of
his !aughters as i""ortalise! by 5hakes%eare. Geoffrey also refers to
'lyr's burial in a #ault built in honour of Janus..E114 8n this
Professor Rh.Jy4s buil!s a theory that 'lyr as a for" of the Celtic )is
ith to faces an! ruler of a orl! of !arkness..E1-4 But there is no
e#i!ence that the Celtic )is%ater as lor! of a gloo"y un!erorl!, an!
it is best to regar! 'lyr as a sea&!i#inity.
Manay!!an is not go!&like in these tales in the sense in hich the
"ajestic Manannan of 6rish story is, though elsehere e learn that
B!ee% as his counsel.B.E124 Though not a "agician, he baffles one of
the great iHar!s of ?elsh story, an! he is also a "aster crafts"an, ho
instructs Pry!eri in the arts of shoe&"aking, shiel!&"aking, an!
sa!!lery. 6n this he is akin to Manannan, the teacher of )iar"ai!.
6nci!ents of his career are reflecte! in the KTria!sK, an! his union
ith Rhiannon "ay %oint to an ol! "yth in hich they ere fro" the first
a !i#ine %air, %arents of Pry!eri. This oul! gi#e %oint to his
!eli#erance of Pry!eri an! Rhiannon fro" the hostile "agician..E134
Rhiannon rese"bles the 6rish /lysiu" go!!esses, an! Manay!!an, like
Manannan, is lor! of /lysiu" in a KTaliesinK %oe"..E1F4 :e is a
crafts"an an! follos agriculture, %erha%s a re"iniscence of the ol!
belief that fertility an! culture co"e fro" the go!'s lan!. Manay!!an,
like other !i#inities, as !ran into the Arthurian cycle, an! is one of
those ho ca%ture the fa"ous boar, the KTrch TrythK..E1G4
Bran, or Ben!igeit Cran >BBran the Blesse!B@, %robably an ol! %agan
title hich a%%ro%riately enough !enotes one ho figure! later in
Christian hagiology, is so huge that no house or shi% can hol! hi".
:ence he a!es o#er to 6relan!, an! as he !ras near is thought to be a
"ountain. This "ay be an archaic "etho! of eI%ressing his !i#inity&&a
gigantic non&natural "an like so"e of the Tuatha )ea an! 8ssianic
heroes. But Bran also a%%ears as the K;r!al BenK, or B<oble :ea!,B
hich "akes ti"e %ass to its bearers like a !rea", an! hen burie!
%rotects the lan! fro" in#asion. Both as a giant sLuatting on a rock an!
as a hea!, Bran is eLuate! by Professor Rh.Jy4s ith Cernunnos, the
sLuatting go!, re%resente! also as a hea!, an! also ith the ?elsh ;rien
hose attribute as a ra#en, the su%%ose! "eaning of Bran's na"e..E-,4
:e further eLuates hi" ith ;thr Ben, B?on!erful :ea!,B the su%erior
bar!, har%er an! %i%er of a KTaliesinK %oe"..E-*4 ;rien, Bran, an! ;thr
are three for"s of a go! orshi%%e! by bar!s, an! a B!arkB !i#inity,
hose a!ing o#er to 6relan! signifies crossing to :a!es, of hich he,
like $a"a, ho first crosse! the ra%i! aters to the lan! of !eath, is
the ruler..E-+4 But Bran is not a B!arkB go! in the sense i"%lie! here.
Cernunnos is go! of a ha%%y un!erorl!, an! there is nothing !ark or
e#il in hi" or in Bran an! his congeners. Professor Rh.Jy4s's B!arkB
!i#inities are so"eti"es, in his #ie, BlightB go!s, but they cannot be
both. The Celtic lor!s of the !ea! ha! no B!arkB character, an! as go!s
of fertility they ere, so to s%eak, in league ith the sun&go!, the
slayer of Bran, accor!ing to Professor Rh.Jy4s's ingenious theory. An!
although to !istracte! 6rish secretaries 6relan! "ay be :a!es, its
intro!uction into this KMabinogiK "erely %oints to the inter%retation of
a "ythico&historic connection beteen ?ales an! 6relan!. Thus if Bran is
Cernunnos, this is because he is a lor! of the un!erorl! of fertility,
the counter%art of hich is the !istant /lysiu", to hich Bran see"s
rather to belong. Thus, in %resence of his hea!, ti"e %asses as a !rea"
in feasting an! joy. This is a true /lysian note, an! the tabue! !oor of
the story is also suggesti#e of the tabus of /lysiu", hich hen broken
rob "en of ha%%iness..E-E4 As to the %oer of the hea! in %rotecting the
lan!, this %oints to actual custo" an! belief regar!ing the relics of
the !ea! an! the %oer of !i#ine i"ages or scul%ture! hea!s..E-14 The
go! Bran has beco"e a king an! la&gi#er in the KMabinogionK an! the
KTria!sK,.E--4 hile Geoffrey of Mon"outh !escribes ho Belinus an!
Brennus, in the ?elsh #ersion Beli an! Bran, !is%ute the cron of
Britain, are reconcile!, an! finally conLuer Gaul an! Ro"e..E-24 The
"ythic Bran is confuse! ith Brennus, lea!er of the Gauls against Ro"e
in EG, B.C., an! Belinus "ay be the go! Belenos, as ell as Beli, father
of 'lu!! an! Casallan. But Bran also figures as a Christian
"issionary. :e is !escribe! as hostage at Ro"e for his son Cara!ac,
returning thence as %reacher of Christianity to the Cy"ry&&a legen!
arising out of a "isun!erstan!ing of his e%ithet BBlesse!B an! a
confusing of his son ith the historic Caractacus..E-34 :ence Bran's
fa"ily is s%oken of as one of the three saintly fa"ilies of Pry!ein, an!
he is ancestor of "any saints..E-F4
Branen, B?hite Boso",B !aughter of a sea&go!, "ay be a sea&go!!ess,
BCenus of the northern sea,B.E-G4 unless ith Mr. <utt e connect her
ith the caul!ron !escribe! in her legen!,.E2,4 sy"bol of an orgiastic
cult, an! regar! her as a go!!ess of fertility. But the connection is
not clear in the story, though in so"e earlier "yth the caul!ron "ay
ha#e been her %ro%erty. As Brangaine, she rea%%ears in ro"ance, gi#ing
a lo#e&%otion to Tristra"&&%erha%s a re"iniscence of her for"er
functions as a go!!ess of lo#e, or earlier of fertility. 6n the
KMabinogionK she is burie! in Anglesey at $nys Bronen, here a cairn
ith bones !isco#ere! in *F*E as hel! to be the gra#e an! re"ains of
Branen..E2*4
The chil!ren of )on, the eLui#alent of )anu, an! %robably like her, a
go!!ess of fertility, are Gy!ion, Gil#aethy, A"aethon, Go#annon, an!
Arianrho!, ith her sons, )ylan an! 'le..E2+4 These corres%on!,
therefore, in %art to the Tuatha )ea, though the only "e"bers of the
grou% ho bear na"es si"ilar to the 6rish go!s are Go#annon >N Goibniu@
an! %ossibly 'le >N 'ug@. Gy!ion as a culture&go! corres%on!s to 8g"a.
6n the KTria!sK Beli is calle! father of Arianrho!,.E2E4 an! assu"ing
that this Arianrho! is i!entical ith the !aughter of )on, Professor
Rh.Jy4s regar!s Beli as husban! of )on. But the i!entification is far
fro" certain, an! the theory built u%on it that Beli is one ith the
6rish Bile, an! that both are lor!s of a !ark un!erorl!, has alrea!y
been foun! %recarious..E214 6n later belief )on as associate! ith the
stars, the constellation Cassio%eia being calle! her court. 5he is
!escribe! as BiseB in a KTaliesinK %oe"..E2-4
This grou% of !i#inities is "et ith "ainly in the KMabinogiK of Math,
hich turns u%on Gil#aethy's illicit lo#e of Math's Bfoot&hol!erB
Goein. To assist hi" in his Ka"ourK, Gy!ion, by a "agical trick,
%rocures for Math fro" the court of Pry!eri certain sine sent hi" by
Aran, king of Annfn. 6n the battle hich follos hen the trick is
!isco#ere!, Gy!ion slays Pry!eri by enchant"ent. Math no !isco#ers
that Gil#aethy has se!uce! Goein, an! transfor"s hi" an! Gy!ion
successi#ely into !eer, sine, an! ol#es. Restore! to hu"an for",
Gy!ion %ro%oses that Arianrho! shoul! be Math's foot&hol!er, but Math
by a "agic test !isco#ers that she is not a #irgin. 5he bears to sons,
)ylan, fostere! by Math, an! another ho" Gy!ion nurtures an! for ho"
he afterar!s by a trick obtains a na"e fro" Arianrho!, ho ha! sorn
ne#er to na"e hi". The na"e is 'le 'la Gyffes, B'ion of the 5ure
:an!.B By "agic, Math an! Gy!ion for" a ife for 'le out of floers.
5he is calle! Blo!eue!!, an! later, at the instigation of a lo#er,
Gron, she !isco#ers ho 'le can be kille!. Gron attacks an! oun!s
hi", an! he flies off as an eagle. Gy!ion seeks for 'le, !isco#ers
hi", an! retransfor"s hi" to hu"an sha%e. Then he changes Blo!eue!!
into an ol, an! slays Gron..E224 5e#eral in!e%en!ent tales ha#e gone
to the for"ation of this KMabinogiK, but e are concerne! here "erely
ith the light it "ay thro on the !i#ine characters ho figure in it.
Math or Math :en, Bthe Ancient,B.E234 is %robably an ol! !i#inity of
Gyne!, of hich he is calle! lor!. :e is a king an! a "agician,
%re&e"inent in iHar!ry, hich he teaches to Gy!ion, an! in a KTria!K
he is calle! one of the great "en of "agic an! "eta"or%hosis of
Britain..E2F4 More i"%ortant are his traits of goo!ness to the
suffering, an! justice ith no trace of #engeance to the rong&!oer.
?hether these are !eri#e! fro" his character as a go! or fro" the Celtic
kingly i!eal, it is i"%ossible to say, though the for"er is by no "eans
unlikely. Possibly his su%re"e "agical %oers "ake hi" the eLui#alent of
the 6rish Bgo! of )rui!is",B but this is uncertain, since all go!s ere
"ore or less !oere! ith these.
Gy!ion's "agical %oers are abun!antly illustrate! in the tale. At
Pry!eri's court he changes fungus into horses an! !ogs, an! afterar!s
slays Pry!eri by %oer of enchant"entsA he %ro!uces a fleet by "agic
before Arianrho!'s castleA ith Math's hel% he for"s Blo!eue!! out of
floersA he gi#es 'le his natural sha%e hen he fin!s hi" as a aste!
eagle on a tree, his flesh an! the or"s bree!ing in it !ro%%ing fro"
hi"A he transfor"s the faithless Blo!eue!! into an ol. 5o"e of these
an! other !ee!s are referre! to in the KTaliesinK %oe"s, hile Taliesin
!escribes hi"self as enchante! by Gy!ion..E2G4 6n the KTria!sK he is
one of the three great astrologers of Pry!ein, an! this e"%hasis lai! on
his %oers of !i#ination is significant hen it is consi!ere! that his
na"e "ay be !eri#e! fro" a root K#etK, gi#ing or!s "eaning BsayingB or
B%oetry,B hile cognate or!s are 6rish KfaithK, Ba %ro%hetB or B%oet,B
Ger"an KuthK, Brage,B an! the na"e of 8!inn..E3,4 The na"e is
suggesti#e of the ecstasy of ins%iration %ro!ucing %ro%hetic an! %oetic
utterance. 6n the KMabinogionK he is a "ighty bar!, an! in a %oe", he,
un!er the na"e of Geir, is i"%risone! in the 8ther&orl!, an! there
beco"es a bar!, thus recei#ing ins%iration fro" the go!s' lan!..E3*4 :e
is the i!eal KfaithK&&!i#iner, %ro%het, an! %oet, an! thus the go! of
those %rofessing these arts. 5trabo !escribes ho the Celtic K#atesK
>KfaithK@ as also a %hiloso%her, an! this character is gi#en in a %oe"
to 5eon >%robably N Gy!ion@, hose artists are %oets an!
"agicians..E3+4 But he is also a culture&go!, bringing sine to "en fro"
the go!s' lan!. 9or though Pry!eri is !escribe! as a "ortal ho has
hi"self recei#e! the sine fro" Annfn >/lysiu"@, there is no !oubt that
he hi"self as a lor! of Annfn, an! it as %robably on account of
Gy!ion's theft fro" Annfn that he, as Geir, as i"%risone! there
Bthrough the "essenger of Pyll an! Pry!eri.B.E3E4 A rai! is here "a!e
!irectly on the go!'s lan! for the benefit of "en, an! it is
unsuccessful, but in the KMabinogiK a !ifferent #ersion of the rai! is
tol!. Perha%s Gy!ion also brought kine fro" Annfn, since he is calle!
one of the three her!s of Britain,.E314 hile he hi"self "ay once ha#e
been an ani"al go!, then an anthro%o"or%hic !eity associate! ith
ani"als. Thus in the KMabinogiK, hen Gy!ion flees ith the sine, he
rests each night at a %lace one of the syllables of hich is KMochK,
BsineB&&an aetiological "yth eI%laining hy %laces hich ere once sites
of the cult of a sine&go!, afterar!s orshi%%e! as Gy!ion, ere so
calle!.
Gy!ion has also a tricky, frau!ulent character in the KMabinogiK, an!
although Bin his life there as counsel,B yet he ha! a B#icious
"use.B.E3-4 6t is also i"%lie! that he is lo#er of his sister Arianrho!
an! father of )ylan an! 'le&&the "ythic reflections of a ti"e hen such
unions, %erha%s only in royal houses, ere %er"issible. 6nstances occur
in 6rish tales, an! Arthur as also his sister's lo#er..E324 6n later
belief Gy!ion as associate! ith the starsA an! the Milky ?ay as
calle! Caer Gy!ion. Across it he ha! chase! the faithless
Blo!eue!!..E334 Professor Rh.Jy4s eLuates hi" ith 8!inn, an! regar!s
both as re%resenting an ol!er Celto&Teutonic hero, though "any of the
allege! si"ilarities in their res%ecti#e "ythologies are not too
ob#ious..E3F4
A"aethon the goo! is !escribe! in K=ulhychK as the only husban!"an ho
coul! till or !ress a certain %iece of lan!, though =ulhych ill not be
able to force hi" or to "ake hi" follo hi"..E3G4 This, together ith
the na"e A"aethon, fro" Cy"ric Ka"aethK, BlabourerB or B%lough"an,B thros
so"e light on his functions..EF,4 :e as a go! associate! ith
agriculture, either as one ho "a!e aste %laces fruitful, or %ossibly
as an anthro%o"or%hic corn !i#inity. But elsehere his taking a roebuck
an! a hel%, an! in a KTria!K, a la%ing fro" Aran, king of Annfn, le!
to the battle of Go!eu, in hich he fought Aran, ai!e! by Gy!ion, ho
#anLuishe! one of Aran's arriors, Bran, by !isco#ering his na"e..EF*4
A"aethon, ho brings useful ani"als fro" the go!s' lan!, %lays the sa"e
%art as Gy!ion, bringer of the sine. The !og an! !eer are freLuent
re%resentati#es of the corn&s%irit, of hich A"aethon "ay ha#e been an
anthro%o"or%hic for", or they, ith the la%ing, "ay ha#e been earlier
orshi%ful ani"als, associate! ith A"aethon as his sy"bols, hile later
"yth tol! ho he ha! %rocure! the" fro" Annfn.
The !i#ine functions of 'le 'la Gyffes are har!ly a%%arent in the
KMabinogiK. The inci!ent of Blo!eue!!'s unfaithfulness is si"%ly that
of the KMaerchenK for"ula of the treacherous ife ho !isco#ers the
secret of her husban!'s life, an! thus %uts hi" at her lo#er's
"ercy..EF+4 But since 'le is not slain, but changes to eagle for", this
unusual en!ing "ay "ean that he as once a bir! !i#inity, the eagle
later beco"ing his sy"bol. 5o"e "yth "ust ha#e tol! of his !eath, or he
as afterar!s regar!e! as a "ortal ho !ie!, for a %oe" "entions his
to"b, an! a!!s, Bhe as a "an ho ne#er ga#e justice to any one.B )r.
5kene suggests that truth, not justice, is here "eant, an! fin!s in this
a reference to 'le's !isguises..EFE4 Professor Rh.Jy4s, for reasons not
hel! con#incing by M. 'oth, hol!s that K'leK, Blion,B as a
"isa%%rehension for his true na"e K'leuK, inter%rete! by hi"
Blight.B.EF14 This "eaning he also gi#es to K'ugK, eLuating 'ug an!
'le, an! regar!ing both as sun&go!s. :e also eLuates K'la GyffesK,
Bstea!y KorK strong han!,B ith 'ug's e%ithet K'a" fa!aK, Blong han!,B
suggesting that KgyffesK "ay ha#e "eant Blong,B although it as 'le's
stea!iness of han! in shooting hich earne! hi" the title..EF-4 Again,
'le's ra%i! groth nee! not "ake hi" the sun, for this as a %ri#ilege
of "any heroes ho ha! no connection ith the sun. 'le's unfortunate
"atri"onial affairs are also regar!e! as a sun "yth. Blo!eue!! is a
!an go!!ess !i#i!ing her lo#e beteen the sun&go! an! the %rince of
!arkness. 'le as the sun is o#erco"e by the latter, but is restore! by
the culture&hero Gy!ion, ho slays the !ark ri#al. The transfor"ation
of Blo!eue!! into an ol "eans that the )an has beco"e the )usk..EF24
As e ha#e seen, all this is a KMaerchenK for"ula ith no "ythical
significance. /#i!ence of the %recariousness of such an inter%retation
is furnishe! fro" the si"ilar inter%retation of the story of Curoi's
ife, Blathnat, hose lo#er Cuchulainn sle Curoi..EF34 :ere a su%%ose!
sun&go! is the treacherous #illain ho kills a !ark !i#inity, husban! of
a !an go!!ess.
6f 'le is a sun&go!, the eLui#alent of 'ug, it is curious that he is
ne#er connecte! ith the August festi#al in ?ales hich corres%on!s to
'ugnasa! in 6relan!. There "ay be so"e su%%ort to the theory hich "akes
hi" a sun&go! in a KTria!K here he is one of the three Kru!!roacK ho
cause a year's sterility here#er they set their feet, though in this
Arthur eIcels the", for he causes se#en years' sterilityM.EFF4 )oes this
%oint to the scorching of #egetation by the su""er sunS The "ythologists
ha#e not "a!e use of this inci!ent. 8n the hole the e#i!ence for 'le
as a sun&go! is not con#incing. The strongest reason for i!entifying hi"
ith 'ug rests on the fact that both ha#e uncles ho are s"iths an! ha#e
si"ilar na"es&&Go#annon an! Ga#i!a >Goibniu@. 'ike A"aethon, Go#annon,
the artificer or s"ith >KgofK, Bs"ithB@, is "entione! in K=ulhychK as
one hose hel% "ust be gaine! to ait at the en! of the furros to
cleanse the iron of the %lough..EFG4 :ere he is brought into connection
ith the %lough, but the "yth to hich the or!s refer is lost. A
KTaliesinK %oe" associates hi" ith Math&&B6 ha#e been ith artificers,
ith the ol! Math an! ith Go#annon,B an! refers to his KCaerK or
castle..EG,4
Arianrho!, Bsil#er heel,B has a tofol! character. 5he %reten!s to be a
#irgin, an! !isclai"s all knole!ge of her son 'le, yet she is "istress
of Gy!ion. 6n the KTria!sK she a%%ears as one of the three blesse! >or
hite@ la!ies of Britain..EG*4 Perha%s these to as%ects of her
character "ay %oint to a !i#ergence beteen religion an! "ythology, the
cult of a #irgin go!!ess of ho" "yth tol! !iscre!itable things. More
likely she as an ol! /arth&go!!ess, at once a #irgin an! a fruitful
"other, like Arte"is, the #irgin go!!ess, yet neither chaste nor fair,
or like a Babylonian go!!ess a!!resse! as at once B"other, ife, an!
"ai!.B Arianrho!, Bbeauty fa"e! beyon! su""er's !an,B is "entione! in a
KTaliesinK %oe", an! she as later associate! ith the constellation
Corona Borealis..EG+4 Possibly her real na"e as forgotten, an! that of
Arianrho! !eri#e! fro" a %lace&na"e, BCaer Arianrho!,B associate! ith
her. The inter%retation hich "akes her a !an go!!ess, "other of light,
'leu, an! !arkness, )ylan, is far fro" ob#ious..EGE4 )ylan, after his
ba%tis", rushe! into the sea, the nature of hich beca"e his. <o a#e
e#er broke un!er hi"A he sa" like a fishA an! hence as calle! )ylan
/il Ton or Bson of the a#e.B Go#annon, his uncle, sle hi", an inci!ent
inter%rete! as the !efeat of !arkness, hich Bhies aay to lurk in the
sea.B )ylan, hoe#er, has no !ark traits an! is !escribe! as a blon!e.
The a#es la"ent his !eath, an!, as they !ash against the shore, seek to
a#enge it. :is gra#e is Bhere the a#e "akes a sullen soun!,B but
%o%ular belief i!entifies hi" ith the a#es, an! their noise as they
%ress into the Conay is his !ying groan. <ot only is he K/il TonK, Bson
of the a#e,B but also K/il MorK, Bson of the sea.B.EG14 :e is thus a
local sea&go!, an! like Manannan i!entifie! ith the a#es, an! yet
se%arate fro" the", since they "ourn his !eath. The KMabinogiK gi#es us
the K!ebrisK of "yths eI%laining ho an anthro%o"or%hic sea&go! as
connecte! ith the go!!ess Arianrho! an! slain by a go! Go#annon.
Another KMabinogionK grou% is that of Pyll, %rince of )y#e!, his ife
Rhiannon, an! their son Pry!eri..EG-4 Pyll agrees ith Aran, king of
Annfn >/lysiu"@, to reign o#er his king!o" for a year. At the en! of
that ti"e he slays Aran's ri#al :a#gan. Aran sen!s hi" gifts, an!
Pyll is no knon as Pen or :ea! of Annfn, a title shoing that he as
once a go!, belonging to the go!s' lan!, later i!entifie! ith the
Christian :a!es. Pyll no agrees ith Rhiannon,.EG24 ho a%%ears
"ysteriously on a "agic hillock, an! ho" he ca%tures, to ri! her of an
unelco"e suitor Gal. :e i"%risons hi" in a "agical bag, an! Rhiannon
e!s Pyll. The story thus resol#es itself into the for"ula of the 9airy
Bri!e, but it %a#es the ay for the #engeance taken on Pry!eri an!
Rhiannon by Gal's frien! 'lyt. Rhiannon has a son ho is stolen as
soon as born. 5he is accuse! of slaying hi" an! is !egra!e!, but Teyrnon
reco#ers the chil! fro" its su%er&hu"an robber an! calls hi" Gri. As he
gros u%, Teyrnon notices his rese"blance to Pyll, an! takes hi" to his
court. Rhiannon is reinstate!, an! because she cries that her anguish
>K%ry!eriK@ is gone, the boy is no calle! Pry!eri. :ere, again, e ha#e
KMaerchenK inci!ents, hich also a%%ear in the 9ionn saga..EG34
Though there is little that is "ythological here, it is e#i!ent that
Pyll is a go! an! Rhiannon a go!!ess, hose early i"%ortance, like that
of other Celtic go!!esses, a%%ears fro" her na"e, a corru%tion of
Rigantona, Bgreat Lueen.B /lsehere e hear of her "agic bir!s hose
song char"e! Bran's co"%anions for se#en years, an! of her "arriage to
Manay!!an&&an ol! "yth in hich Manay!!an "ay ha#e been Pry!eri's
father, hile %ossibly in so"e other "yth Pry!eri "ay ha#e been chil! of
Rigantona an! Teyrnon >NTigernonos, BkingB@..EGF4 ?e "ay %ostulate an
ol! Rhiannon saga, frag"ents of hich are to be foun! in the KMabinogiK,
an! there "ay ha#e been "ore than one go!!ess calle! Rigantona, later
fuse! into one. But in the tales she is "erely a Lueen of ol! ro"ance.
Pry!eri, as has been seen, as !es%oile! of his sine by Gy!ion. They
ere the gift of Aran, but in the KTria!sK they see" to ha#e been
brought fro" Annfn by Pyll, hile Pry!eri acte! as sineher!..EGG4
Both Pyll an! Pry!eri are thus connecte! ith those "yths hich tol! of
the bringing of !o"estic ani"als fro" the go!s' lan!. But since they are
certainly go!s, associate! ith the go!s' lan!, this is %erha%s the
result of "isun!erstan!ing. A %oe" s%eaks of the "agic caul!ron of Pen
Annfn, i.e. Pyll, an! this %oints to a "yth eI%laining his connection
ith Annfn in a !ifferent ay fro" the account in the KMabinogiK. The
%oe" also tells ho Geir as i"%risone! in Caer 5i!i >NAnnfn@ Bthrough
the "essenger of Pyll an! Pry!eri.B.1,,4 They are thus lor!s of Annfn,
hose sine Geir >Gy!ion@ tries to steal. /lsehere Caer 5i!i is
associate! ith Manay!!an an! Pry!eri, %erha%s a reference to their
connection as father an! son..1,*4 Thus Pry!eri an! Pyll belong to the
bright /lysiu", an! "ay once ha#e been go!s of fertility associate! ith
the un!er&earth region, hich as by no "eans a orl! of !arkness.
?hate#er be the "eaning of the !eath of Pry!eri at the han!s of Gy!ion,
it is connecte! ith later references to his gra#e..1,+4
A fourth grou% is that of Beli an! his sons, referre! to in the
KMabinogiK of Branen, here one of the", Casallan, usur%s the throne,
an! thus "akes Manay!!an, like MacGregor, lan!less. 6n the K)rea" of
MaIenK, the sons of Beli are 'lu!!, Casallan, <ynnya, an!
'le#elys..1,E4 Geoffrey calls Beli :eli, an! s%eaks of an earlier king
Belinus, at en"ity ith his brother Brennius..1,14 But %robably Beli or
:eli an! Belinus are one an! the sa"e, an! both re%resent the earlier
go! Belenos. Casellan beco"es Cassi#ellaunus, o%%onent of Caesar, but
in the KMabinogiK he is hostile to the race of 'lyr, an! this "ay be
connecte! ith hate#er un!erlies Geoffrey's account of the hostility of
Belinus an! Brennius >NBran, son of 'lyr@, %erha%s, like the en"ity of
the race of ).Jo4n to Pry!eri, a re"iniscence of the strife of ri#al
tribes or of Goi!el an! Brython..1,-4 As has been seen, the e#i!ence for
regar!ing Beli as ).Jo4n's consort or the eLui#alent of Bile is slen!er.
<or, if he is Belenos, the eLui#alent of A%ollo, is he in any sense a
B!arkB go!. :e is regar!e! as a #ictorious cha"%ion, %reser#er of his
Bhoney isleB an! of the stability of his king!o", in a KTaliesinK %oe"
an! in the KTria!sK..1,24
The %ersonality of Cassallan is lost in that of the historic
Cassi#ellaunus, but in a reference to hi" in the KTria!sK here, ith
Cara!ac an! Geiry!!, he bears the title Bar king,B e "ay see a
gli"%se of his !i#ine character, that of a go! of ar, in#isibly lea!ing
on ar"ies to battle, an! as such e"bo!ie! in great chiefs ho bore his
na"e..1,34 <ynnya a%%ears in Geoffrey's %ages as <ennius, ho !ies of
oun!s inflicte! by Caesar, to the great grief of Cassi#ellaunus..1,F4
The theory that 'lu!! 'la /reint or K'o!ens 'a"argentiosK re%resents
K<o!ensK ><ua!a@ K'.Na4"argentiosK, the change being the result of
alliteration, has been conteste!,.1,G4 hile if the ?elsh 'lu!! an! <u!!
ere i!entical it is strange that they shoul! ha#e beco"e !istinct
%ersonalities, Gyn, son of <u!!, being the lo#er of Crei!!yla!,
!aughter of 'lu!!,.1*,4 unless in so"e earlier "yth their lo#e as that
of brother an! sister. 'lu!! is also confuse! or is i!entical ith 'lyr,
just as the 6rish 'er is ith Alloi!. :e is %robably the son of Beli
ho, in the tale of K'lu!! an! 'le#elysK, by the a!#ice of 'le#elys ri!s
his country of three %lagues..1**4 These are, first, the Coranians ho
hear e#ery his%er, an! ho" he !estroys by throing o#er the" ater in
hich certain insects gi#en hi" by 'e#elys ha#e been bruise!. The secon!
is a shriek on May&e#e hich "akes lan! an! ater barren, an! is cause!
by a !ragon hich attacks the !ragon of the lan!. These 'lu!! ca%tures
an! i"%risons at )inas /"reis, here they afterar!s cause trouble to
Cortigern at the buil!ing of his castle. The thir! is that of the
!isa%%earance of a year's su%%ly of foo! by a "agician, ho lulls e#ery
one to slee% an! ho is ca%ture! by 'lu!!. Though the Coranians a%%ear
in the KTria!sK as a hostile tribe,.1*+4 they "ay ha#e been a
su%ernatural folk, since their na"e is %erha%s !eri#e! fro" KcorK,
B!arf,B an! they are no regar!e! as "ischie#ous fairies..1*E4 They "ay
thus be analogous to the 9o"orians, an! their story, like that of the
!ragon an! the "agician ho %ro!uce blight an! loss of foo!, "ay be
base! on ol!er "yth or ritual e"bo!ying the belief in %oers hostile to
fertility, though it is not clear hy those %oers shoul! be "ost acti#e
on May&!ay. But this "ay be a "isun!erstan!ing, an! the !ragons are
o#erco"e on May&e#e. The references in the tale to 'lu!!'s generosity
an! liberality in gi#ing foo! "ay reflect his function as a go! of
groth, but, like other euhe"erise! go!s, he is also calle! a "ighty
arrior, an! is sai! to ha#e rebuilt the alls of Caer 'u!! >'on!on@,
his na"e still sur#i#ing in B'u!gate :ill,B here he as burie!..1*14
This legen! !oubtless %oints to so"e ancient cult of 'lu!! at this s%ot.
<u!! alrea!y !iscusse! un!er his title <o!ons, is less %ro"inent than
his son Gyn, hose fight ith Gthur e ha#e eI%laine! as a "ythic
eI%lanation of ritual co"bats for the increase of fertility. :e also
a%%ears as a hunter an! as a great arrior,.1*-4 Bthe ho%e of ar"ies,B
an! thus he "ay be a go! of fertility ho beca"e a go! of ar an! the
chase. But legen! associate! hi" ith Annfn, an! regar!e! hi", like the
Tuatha )ea, as a king of fairylan!..1*24 6n the legen! of 5. Collen, the
saint tells to "en, ho" he o#erhears s%eaking of Gyn an! the fairies,
that these are !e"ons. BThou shalt recei#e a re%roof fro" Gyn,B sai!
one of the", an! soon after Collen as su""one! to "eet the king of
Annfn on Glastonbury Tor. :e cli"be! the hill ith a flask of holy
ater, an! sa on its to% a s%len!i! castle, ith cro!s of beautiful
an! youthful folk, hile the air resoun!e! ith "usic. :e as brought to
Gyn, ho %olitely offere! hi" foo!, but B6 ill not eat of the lea#es
of the tree,B crie! the saintA an! hen he as aske! to a!"ire the
!resses of the cro!, all he oul! say as that the re! signifie!
burning, the blue col!ness. Then he thre the holy ater o#er the", an!
nothing as left but the bare hillsi!e..1*34 Though Gyn's court on
Glastonbury is a local Celtic /lysiu", hich as actually locate! there,
the story "arks the hostility of the Church to the cult of Gyn, %erha%s
%ractise! on hillto%s, an! this is further seen in the belief that he
hunts souls of the icke! an! is connecte! ith Annfn in its later
sense of hell. But a "e!iant #ie is foun! in K=ulhychK, here it is
sai! of hi" that he restrains the !e"ons of hell lest they shoul!
!estroy the %eo%le of this orl!. 6n the KTria!sK he is, like other
go!s, a great "agician an! astrologer..1*F4
Another grou%, unknon to the KMabinogionK, sa#e that Taliesin is one of
the bearers of Bran's hea!, is foun! in the KBook of TaliesinK an! in
the late story of Taliesin. These, like the KArthurK cycle, often refer
to %ersonages of the KMabinogionKA hence e gather that local grou%s of
go!s, originally !istinct, ere later "ingle! in story, the references
in the %oe"s reflecting this "ingling. 'ate as is the K:anes TaliesinK
or story of Taliesin, an! eI%resse! as "uch of it is in a KMaerchenK
for"ula, it is base! on ol! "yths about Cerri!en an! Taliesin of hich
its co"%iler "a!e use, folloing an ol! tra!ition alrea!y stereoty%e! in
one of the %oe"s in the KMaerchenK for"ula of the Transfor"ation
Co"bat..1*G4 But the "ythical frag"ents are also "ingle! ith tra!itions
regar!ing the siIth century %oet Taliesin. The ol!er saga as %erha%s
!e#elo%e! in a !istrict south of the )yfi estuary..1+,4 6n 'ake Tegi!
!ell Tegi! Coel, Cerri!en, an! their chil!ren&&the fair "ai!en
Creiry, Mor#ran, an! the ugly A#ag!!u. To gi#e A#ag!!u knole!ge, his
"other %re%ares a caul!ron of ins%iration fro" hich three !ro%s of
ins%iration ill be %ro!uce!. These fall on the finger of Gion, ho"
she set to stir it. :e %ut the finger in his "outh, an! thus acLuire!
the ins%iration. :e fle!, an! Cerri!en %ursue!, the rest of the story
being acco""o!ate! to the Transfor"ation Co"bat for"ula. 9inally,
Cerri!en as a hen sallos Gion as a grain of heat, an! bears hi" as
a chil!, ho" she thros into the sea. /l%hin, ho rescues hi", calls
hi" Taliesin, an! brings hi" u% as a bar!..1+*4
The ater&orl! of Tegi! is a sub"arine /lysiu" ith the custo"ary
caul!ron of ins%iration, regeneration, an! fertility, like the caul!ron
associate! ith a ater&orl! in the KMabinogionK. B5hall not "y chair
be !efen!e! fro" the caul!ron of Cerri!en,B runs a line in a Taliesin
%oe", hile another s%eaks of her chair, hich as %robably in /lysiu"
like that of Taliesin hi"self in Caer 5i!i..1++4 9urther references to
her connection ith %oetry sho that she "ay ha#e been orshi%%e! by
bar!s, her caul!ron being the source of their ins%iration..1+E4 :er
anger at Gion "ay %oint to so"e for" of the Celtic "yth of the theft of
the ele"ents of culture fro" the go!s' lan!. But the caul!ron as first
of all associate! ith a fertility cult,.1+14 an! Cerri!en "ust
therefore once ha#e been a go!!ess of fertility, ho, like Brigit, as
later orshi%%e! by bar!s. 5he "ay also ha#e been a corn&go!!ess, since
she is calle! a go!!ess of grain, an! tra!ition associates the %ig&&a
co""on e"bo!i"ent of the corn&s%irit&&ith her..1+-4 6f the tra!ition is
correct, this oul! be an instance, like that of )e"eter an! the %ig, of
an ani"al e"bo!i"ent of the corn&s%irit being connecte! ith a later
anthro%o"or%hic corn&go!!ess.
Taliesin as %robably an ol! go! of %oetic ins%iration confuse! ith the
siIth century %oet of the sa"e na"e, %erha%s because this boastful %oet
i!entifie! hi"self or as i!entifie! by other bar!s ith the go!s. :e
s%eaks of his Bs%len!i! chair, ins%iration of fluent an! urgent songB in
Caer 5i!i or /lysiu", an!, s%eaking in the go!'s na"e or i!entifying
hi"self ith hi", !escribes his %resence ith 'le, Bran, Gy!ion, an!
others, as ell as his creation an! his enchant"ent before he beca"e
i""ortal..1+24 :e as %resent ith Arthur hen a caul!ron as stolen
fro" Aunfn, an! basing his #erses on the "ythic transfor"ations an!
rebirths of the go!s, recounts in highly inflate! language his on
nu"erous for"s an! rebirths..1+34 :is clai"s rese"ble those of the
K5ha"anK ho has the entree of the s%irit&orl! an! can transfor"
hi"self at ill. Taliesin's rebirth is connecte! ith his acLuiring of
ins%iration. These inci!ents a%%ear se%arately in the story of 9ionn,
ho acLuire! his ins%iration by an acci!ent, an! as also sai! to ha#e
been reborn as Mongan. They are "yths co""on to #arious branches of the
Celtic %eo%le, an! a%%lie! in !ifferent co"binations to outstan!ing go!s
or heroes..1+F4 The KTaliesinK %oe"s sho that there "ay ha#e been to
go!s or to "ythic as%ects of one go!, later co"bine! together. :e is
the son of the go!!ess an! !ells in the !i#ine lan!, but he is also a
culture&hero stealing fro" the !i#ine lan!. Perha%s the "yths reflect
the encroach"ent of the cult of a go! on that of a go!!ess, his
orshi%%ers regar!ing hi" as her son, her orshi%%ers reflecting their
hostility to the ne go! in a "yth of her en"ity to hi". 9inally, the
legen! of the rescue of Taliesin the %oet fro" the a#es beca"e a "yth
of the !i#ine outcast chil! rescue! by /l%hin, an! %ro#ing hi"self a
bar! hen nor"al infants are "erely babbling.
The occasional an! obscure references to the other "e"bers of this grou%
thro little light on their functions, sa#e that Mor#ran, Bsea&cro,B is
!escribe! in K=ulhychK as so ugly an! terrible that no one oul! strike
hi" at the battle of Ca"lan. :e "ay ha#e been a ar&go!, like the
scal!&cro go!!esses of 6relan!, an! he is also s%oken of in the
KTria!sK as an Bobstructor of slaughterB or Bsu%%ort of battle.B.1+G4
6ngenuity an! s%eculation ha#e busie! the"sel#es ith trying to %ro#e
that the %ersonages of the Arthurian cycle are the ol! go!s of the
Brythons, an! the inci!ents of the ro"ances frag"ents of the ol!
"ythology. ?hile so"e of these %ersonages&&those alrea!y %resent in
genuinely ol! ?elsh tales an! %oe"s or in Geoffrey's K:istoryK&&are
re"iniscent of the ol! go!s, the ro"antic %resent"ent of the" in the
cycle itself is so largely i"aginati#e, that nothing certain can be
gaine! fro" it for the un!erstan!ing of the ol! "ythology, "uch less the
ol! religion. 6nci!ents hich are the co""on stock of real life as ell
as of ro"ance are inter%rete! "ythologically, an! it is ne#er Luite
ob#ious hy the slaying of one hero by another shoul! signify the
conLuest of a !ark !i#inity by a solar hero, or hy the ca%ture of a
heroine by one knight hen she is belo#e! of another, shoul! "ake her a
!an&go!!ess sharing her fa#ours, no ith the sun&go!, no ith a
B!arkB !i#inity. 8r, e#en granting the truth of this "etho!, hat light
!oes it thro on Celtic religionS
?e "ay %ostulate a local Arthur saga fusing an ol! Brythonic go! ith
the historic siIth century Arthur. 9ro" this or fro" Geoffrey's han!ling
of it s%rang the great ro"antic cycle. 6n the ninth century <ennius
Arthur is the historic ar&chief, %ossibly Count of Britain, but in the
reference to his hunting the KPorcus TroitK >the KTrch TrythK@ the
"ythic Arthur "o"entarily a%%ears..1E,4 Geoffrey's Arthur !iffers fro"
the later Arthur of ro"ance, an! he "ay ha#e %artially rationalise! the
saga, hich as either of recent for"ation or else local an! obscure,
since there is no reference to Arthur in the KMabinogionK&&a fact hich
shos that Bin the legen!s of Gyne!! an! )yfe!! he ha! no %lace
hate#er,B.1E*4 an! also that Arthur the go! or "ythic hero as also
%urely local. 6n Geoffrey Arthur is the fruit of 6gerna's Ka"ourK ith
;ther, to ho" Merlin has gi#en her husban!'s sha%e. Arthur conLuers
"any hosts as ell as giants, an! his court is the resort of all
#alorous %ersons. But he is at last oun!e! by his ife's se!ucer, an!
carrie! to the 6sle of A#allon to be cure! of his oun!s, an! nothing
"ore is e#er hear! of hi"..1E+4 5o"e of these inci!ents occur also in
the stories of 9ionn an! Mongan, an! those of the "ysterious begetting
of a on!er chil! an! his final !isa%%earance into fairylan! are local
for"s of a tale co""on to all branches of the Celts..1EE4 This as
fitte! to the history of the local go! or hero Arthur, gi#ing rise to
the local saga, to hich as afterar!s a!!e! e#ents fro" the life of
the historic Arthur. This co"%leI saga "ust then ha#e acLuire! a i!er
fa"e long before the ro"antic cycle took its %lace, as is suggeste! by
the %urely ?elsh tales of K=ulhychK an! the K)rea" of RhonabyK, in the
for"er of hich the %ersonages >go!s@ of the KMabinogionK figure in
Arthur's train, though he is far fro" being the Arthur of the ro"ances.
5%ora!ic references to Arthur occur also in ?elsh literature, an! to the
earlier saga belongs the Arthur ho s%oils /lysiu" of its caul!ron in a
KTaliesinK %oe"..1E14 6n the KTria!sK there is a "ingling of the
historic, the saga, an! the later ro"ance Arthur, but %robably as a
result of the groing %o%ularity of the saga Arthur he is a!!e! to "any
Tria!s as a "ore re"arkable %erson than the three ho" they
!escribe..1E-4 Arthurian %lace&na"es o#er the Brythonic area are "ore
%robably the result of the %o%ularity of the saga than that of the later
ro"antic cycle, a %arallel instance being foun! in the eItent of
8ssianic %lace&na"es o#er the Goi!elic area as a result of the s%rea! of
the 9ionn saga.
The character of the ro"ance Arthur&&the floer of knighthoo! an! a
great arrior&&an! the blen!ing of the historic ar&lea!er Arthur ith
the "ythic Arthur, suggest that the latter as the i!eal hero of certain
Brythonic grou%s, as 9ionn an! Cuchulainn of certain Goi!elic grou%s. :e
"ay ha#e been the object of a cult as these heroes %erha%s ere, or he
"ay ha#e been a go! "ore an! "ore i!ealise! as a hero. 6f the earlier
for" of his na"e as Artor, Ba %lough"an,B but %erha%s ith a i!er
significance, an! ha#ing an eLui#alent in Artaius, a Gaulish go! eLuate!
ith Mercury,.1E24 he "ay ha#e been a go! of agriculture ho beca"e a
ar&go!. But he as also regar!e! as a culture&hero, stealing a caul!ron
an! also sine fro" the go!s' lan!, the last inci!ent euhe"erise! into
the tale of an unsuccessful theft fro" March, son of Meirchion,.1E34
hile, like other culture&heroes, he is a bar!. To his story as easily
fitte! that of the on!er&chil!, ho, ha#ing finally !isa%%eare! into
/lysiu" >later locate! at Glastonbury@, oul! rea%%ear one !ay, like
9ionn, as the 5a#iour of his %eo%le. The local Arthur finally attaine! a
fa"e far eIcee!ing that of any Brythonic go! or hero.
Merlin, or Myr!!in, a%%ears in the ro"ances as a great "agician ho is
finally o#erco"e by the 'a!y of the 'ake, an! is in Geoffrey son of a
"ysterious in#isible %ersonage ho #isits a o"an, an!, finally taking
hu"an sha%e, begets Merlin. As a son ho ne#er ha! a father he is chosen
as the foun!ation sacrifice for Cortigern's toer by his "agicians, but
he confutes the" an! shos hy the toer can ne#er be built, na"ely,
because of the !ragons in the %ool beneath it. Then follo his
%ro%hecies regar!ing the !ragons an! the future of the country, an! the
story of his re"o#al of the Giant's )ance, or 5tonehenge, fro" 6relan!
to its %resent site&&an aetiological "yth eI%laining the origin of the
great stone circle. :is !escri%tion of ho the giants use! the ater
ith hich they ashe! the stones for the cure of sickness or oun!s,
%robably %oints to so"e ritual for healing in connection ith these
"egaliths. 9inally, e hear of his transfor"ation of the lo#elorn ;ther
an! of his confi!ant ;lfin, as ell as of hi"self..1EF4 :ere he a%%ears
as little "ore than an i!eal "agician, %ossibly an ol! go!, like the
6rish Bgo! of )rui!is",B to hose legen! ha! been attache! a story of
su%ernatural conce%tion. Professor Rh.Jy4s regar!s hi" as a Celtic Reus
or as the sun, because late legen!s tell of his !isa%%earance in a glass
house into the sea. The glass house is the eI%anse of light tra#elling
ith the sun >Merlin@, hile the 'a!y of the 'ake ho co"es !aily to
solace Merlin in his enchante! %rison is a !an&go!!ess. 5tonehenge as
%robably a te"%le of this Celtic Reus Bhose late legen!ary self e ha#e
in Merlin.B.1EG4 5uch late ro"antic e%iso!es an! an aetiological "yth can
har!ly be regar!e! as affor!ing safe basis for these #ies, an! their
"ythological inter%retation is "ore than !oubtful. The sun is ne#er
%risoner of the !an as Merlin is of Ci#iane. Merlin an! his glass house
!isa%%ear for e#er, but the sun rea%%ears e#ery "orning. /#en the "ost
%oetic "ythology "ust confor" in so"e !egree to actual %heno"ena, but
this cannot be sai! of the syste"s of "ythological inter%retation. 6f
Merlin belongs to the %agan %erio! at all, he as %robably an i!eal
"agician or go! of "agicians, %ro"inent, %erha%s, in the Arthur saga as
in the later ro"ances, an! cre!ite! ith a "ysterious origin an! an
eLually "ysterious en!ing, the latter !escribe! in "any !ifferent ays.
The boastful =ei of the ro"ances a%%ears alrea!y in K=ulhychK, hile in
Geoffrey he is Arthur's seneschal..11,4 <obler traits are his in later
?elsh %oetryA he is a "ighty arrior, fighting e#en against a hun!re!,
though his %oers as a to%er are also great. :ere, too, his !eath is
la"ente!..11*4 :e "ay thus ha#e been a go! of ar, an! his battle&fury
"ay be %oetically !escribe! in a curious %assage referring to hi" in
K=ulhychK( B:is breath laste! nine !ays an! nine nights un!er ater. :e
coul! re"ain ithout slee% for the sa"e %erio!. <o %hysician coul! heal
a oun! inflicte! by his sor!. ?hen he %lease! he coul! "ake hi"self as
tall as the tallest tree in the oo!. An! hen it raine! har!est,
hate#er he carrie! re"aine! !ry abo#e an! belo his han! to the
!istance of a han!brea!th, so great as his natural heat. ?hen it as
col!est he as as gloing fuel to his co"%anions.B.11+4 This al"ost
eIactly rese"bles Cuchulainn's as%ect in his battle&fury. 6n a curious
%oe" Genhy#ar >Guine#ere@ eItols his %roess as a arrior abo#e that of
Arthur, an! in K=ulhychK an! elsehere there is en"ity beteen the
to..11E4 This "ay %oint to =ei's ha#ing been a go! of tribes hostile to
those of ho" Arthur as hero.
Mabon, one of Arthur's heroes in K=ulhychK an! the K)rea" of RhonabyK,
hose na"e, fro" K"abK >K"a%K@, "eans Ba youth,B "ay be one ith the go!
Ma%onos eLuate! ith A%ollo in Britain an! Gaul, %erha%s as a go! of
healing s%rings..1114 :is "other's na"e, Mo!ron, is a local for" of
KMatronaK, a ri#er&go!!ess an! %robably one of the "other&go!!esses as
her na"e i"%lies. 6n the KTria!sK Mabon is one of the three e"inent
%risoners of Pry!ein. To obtain his hel% in hunting the "agic boar his
%rison "ust be foun!, an! this is !one by ani"als, in accor!ance ith a
KMaerchenK for"ula, hile the or!s s%oken by the" sho the i""ense
!uration of his i"%rison"ent&&%erha%s a hint of his i""ortality..11-4
But he as also sai! to ha#e !ie! an! been burie! at <antlle,.1124
hich, like Gloucester, the %lace of his %rison, "ay ha#e been a site of
his i!ely eIten!e! cult..1134
7 7 7 7 7
Taken as a hole the #arious go!s an! heroes of the Brythons, so far as
they are knon to us, just as they rese"ble the 6rish !i#inities in
ha#ing been later regar!e! as "ortals, "agicians, an! fairies, so they
rese"ble the" in their functions, !i"ly as these are %ercei#e!. They are
associate! ith /lysiu", they are lor!s of fertility an! groth, of the
sea, of the arts of culture an! of ar. The %ro"inent %osition of
certain go!!esses "ay %oint to hat has alrea!y been !isco#ere! of the"
in Gaul an! 6relan!&&their %re&e"inence an! in!e%en!ence. But, like the
!i#inities of Gaul an! 6relan!, those of ?ales ere "ainly local in
character, an! only in a fe cases attaine! a i!er %o%ularity an! cult.
Certain British go!s "entione! on inscri%tions "ay be i!entifie! ith
so"e of those just consi!ere!&&<o!ons ith <u!! or 'lu!!, Belenos ith
Belinus or Beli, Ma%onos ith Mabon, Taranos >in continental
inscri%tions only@, ith a Taran "entione! in K=ulhychK..11F4 8thers
are referre! to in classical ritings&&An!rasta, a go!!ess of #ictory,
to ho" Bou!icca %raye!A.11G4 5ul, a go!!ess of hot s%rings, eLuate!
ith Miner#a at Bath..1-,4 6nscri%tions also "ention /%ona, the
horse&go!!essA Brigantia, %erha%s a for" of BrigitA Belisa"a >the Mersey
in Ptole"y@,.1-*4 a go!!ess in Gaulish inscri%tions. 8thers refer to the
grou% go!!esses, the KMatresK. 5o"e go!s are eLuate! ith Mars&&Ca"ulos,
knon also on the Continent an! %erha%s the sa"e as Cu"al, father of
9ionnA Belatuca!ros, Bco"ely in slaughterBA Coci!ius, Corotiacus,
BarreI, an! Totatis >%erha%s 'ucan's Teutates@. 8thers are eLuate! ith
A%ollo in his character as a go! of healing&&AneItio"arus, Grannos >at
Musselburgh an! in "any continental inscri%tions@, Ar#alus, Mogons, etc.
Most of these an! "any others foun! on isolate! inscri%tions ere
%robably local in character, though so"e, occurring also on the
Continent, ha! attaine! a i!er %o%ularity..1-+4 But so"e of the
inscri%tions referring to the latter "ay be !ue to Gaulish sol!iers
Luartere! in Britain.
C8MPARAT6C/ TAB'/ 89 )6C6<6T6/5 ?6T: 56M6'AR <AM/5 6< 6R/'A<), BR6TA6<,
A<) GA;'.
K6talics !enote na"es foun! in 6nscri%tions.K
6R/'A<). BR6TA6<. GA;'.
KAneItio"arusK KAneItio"arusK
Anu Anna >S@ KAnonire!iK, Bchariot of AnuB
Ba!b KBo!uaK
Beli, Belinus KBelenosK
Belisa"a KBelisa"aK
Brigit KBrigantiaK KBrigin!uK
Bron Bran Brennus >S@
Buanann KBuanuK
Cu"al KCa"ulosK KCa"ulosK
)anu )on
K/%onaK K/%onaK
Goibniu Go#annon
KGrannosK KGrannosK
'er 'lyr
'ug 'le or 'leu >S@ 'ugus, K'ugoresK
Mabon, KMa%onosK KMa%onosK
Manannan Manay!!an
KMatresK KMatresK
Mi!er KMe!rosK >S@
Mo!ron KMatronaK >S@
<e"on K<e"etonaK
<et K<etonK
<ua!a K<o!onsK, <u!!
:ael, 'lu!! >S@
8g"a 8g"ios
K5il#anusK K5il#anusK
Taran KTaranisK
KTotatis, TutatisK Teutates
988T<8T/5(
.E+F4 The teIt of the KMabinogionK has been e!ite! by Rh.Jy4s an! /#ans,
*FF3, an! it has been translate! into /nglish by 'a!y Guest, an! "ore
critically, into 9rench, by 'oth. Many of the KTria!sK ill be foun! in
'oth's secon! #olu"e. 9or the %oetry see 5kene, K9our Ancient Books of
?alesK.
.E+G4 These inci!ents are foun! "ainly in the story of Branen, e.g.
those of the caul!ron, a freLuent accessory in 6rish talesA the
regeneration of the arriors, also foun! in the story of Mag&ture!,
though no caul!ron is use!A the re!&hot house, occurring also in KMesca
;la!KA the !escri%tion of Bran %arallele! by that of MacCecht.
.EE,4 Anyl, KRCPK i. +33, ii. *+1, iii. *++.
.EE*4 B%. of 5. )a#i!s, KCestiges of the Gael in Gynne!K, *F-*A
Rh.Jy4s, KT5CK *FG1&*FG-, +*.
.EE+4 5kene, i. 1-A Meyer, KT5CK *FG-&*FG2, --.
.EEE4 Cf. John, KThe MabinogionK, *G,*, *G. Curoi a%%ears as =ubert, an!
Conchobar as =nychur in K=ulhychK >'oth, i. +,+@. A %oe" of KTaliesinK
has for subject the !eath of Corroi, son of )ayry >Curoi "ac )aire@,
5kene, i. +-1.
.EE14 'oth, KRCK I. E-2A John, Ko%. cit.K *GA <utt, KArch. Re#.K i. EE*.
.EE-4 The giant $s%%a!!en in K=ulhychK rese"bles Balor, but has no e#il
eye.
.EE24 Anyl, KRCPK ii. *+3&*+F, BThe "erging of the to legen!s .of )on
an! Taliesin4 "ay ha#e arisen through the fusion of Penllyn ith Ar!u!y
an! Ar#on.B
.EE34 Professor Rh.Jy4s thinks that the 'lyr fa"ily "ay be %re&Celtic,
KT5CK *FG1&*FG-, +G f.A KC9'K --+.
.EEF4 'oth, i. G3 f.A 'a!y Guest, iii. *1E f.
.EEG4 5ee <utt, K9olk&lore Recor!K, #. * f.
.E1,4 'oth, i. +GF, ii. +1E&+11A Geoffrey, K:ist. Brit.K ii. **.
.E1*4 'oth, i. ++1, +2-, ii. +*-, +11A Geoff. ii. **.
.E1+4 5kene, i. F*A Rh.Jy4s, KAca!e"yK, Jan. 3, *FF+.
.E1E4 KTria!sK, 'oth, ii. +GEA <utt, K9olk&lore Recor!K, #. G.
.E114 K:ist. Brit.K ii. **&*1.
.E1-4 KA'K *E*.
.E124 5kene, i. +2+.
.E134 5ee <utt&Meyer, ii. *3.
.E1F4 5kene, i. +32.
.E1G4 'oth, i. +,F, +F,A see also i. *G3, ii. +1-, +G1.
.E-,4 5ee 5kene i. E--. The ra#en is rather the bir! of %rey co"e to
!e#our ;rien than his Battribute.B
.E-*4 5kene, i. +GF.
.E-+4 9or these theories see Rh.Jy4s, K:'K G,KfK.A KA'K ch. **A KC9'K
--+.
.E-E4 5ee Ch. QQ6C.
.E-14 5ee %. +1+.
.E--4 'oth, i. 2-, ii. +F-.
.E-24 K:ist. Brit.K iii. *KfK. Geoffrey says that Billingsgate as
calle! after Belinus, an! that his ashes ere %reser#e! in the gate, a
tra!ition recalling so"e connection of the go! ith the gate.
.E-34 An early Cara!ac saga "ay ha#e beco"e "ingle! ith the story of
Caractacus.
.E-F4 Rees, 33.
.E-G4 5o /lton, +G*.
.E2,4 K9olk&lore Recor!K, #. +G.
.E2*4 'a!y Guest, iii. *E1.
.E2+4 )on is so"eti"es hel! to be "ale, but she is !istinctly calle!
sister of Math >'oth, i. *E1@, an! as the eLui#alent of )anu she "ust be
fe"ale.
.E2E4 'oth, ii. +,G.
.E214 5ee %. 2,, Ksu%raK, an! Rh.Jy4s, K:'K G,KfK.
.E2-4 'a!y Guest, iii. +--A 5kene, i. +G3, E-,.
.E224 9or this KMabinogiK see 'oth, i. **3f.A Guest, iii. *FGf.
.E234 5kene, i. +F2.
.E2F4 'oth, ii. ++G, +-3A an! for other references to Math, 5kene, i.
+F*, +2G, +GG.
.E2G4 5kene, i. +G2, +F*.
.E3,4 'oth, ii. +G3A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +32.
.E3*4 5kene, i. +21.
.E3+4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +3,. 5kene, i. 1E,, -E3, gi#es a !ifferent "eaning
to KseonK.
.E3E4 5kene, i. +21.
.E314 'oth, ii. +G2.
.E3-4 5kene, i. +GG, -E*.
.E324 5ee %. ++1, KinfraK.
.E334 Guest, iii. +--A Morris, KCeltic Re"ainsK, +E*.
.E3F4 K:'K +FE KfK. 5ee also Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K i. *E*.
.E3G4 'oth, i. +1,.
.EF,4 5tokes, K;5K E1.
.EF*4 KMy#yrian Archaeol.K i. *2FA 5kene, i. +3-, +3F f.A 'oth, ii. +-G.
.EF+4 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, *+3. 'le's #ulnerability !oes not
!e%en! on the !isco#ery of his se%arable soul, as is usual. The earliest
for" of this KMaerchenK is the /gy%tian story of the To Brothers, an!
that of 5a"son an! )elilah is another ol! for" of it.
.EFE4 5kene, i. E*1, ii. E1+.
.EF14 K:'K 1,FA KRCK I. 1G,.
.EF-4 K:'K +E3, E*G, EGF, 1,F.
.EF24 K:'K EF1.
.EF34 K:'K 131, 1+1.
.EFF4 'oth, ii. +E*.
.EFG4 'oth, i. +1,.
.EG,4 5kene, i, +F2&+F3.
.EG*4 'oth, ii. +2E.
.EG+4 5kene, ii. *-GA Rh.Jy4s, K:'K *-3A Guest, iii. +--.
.EGE4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K *2*, -22.
.EG14 5kene, i. +F+, +FF, E*,, -1E, ii. *1-A 'oth, i. *E-A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K
EF3.
.EG-4 'oth, i. +3 f.A Guest, iii. 3 f.
.EG24 Rhiannon is !aughter of :e#ei!! :en or Bthe Ancient,B %robably an
ol! !i#inity.
.EG34 6n the KMabinogiK an! in 9ionn tales a "ysterious han! snatches
aay nely&born chil!ren. Cf. KRCPK i. *-E.
.EGF4 Anyl, KRCPK i. +FF.
.EGG4 'oth, ii. +13.
.1,,4 5kene, i. +21.
.1,*4 6bi!. i. +32.
.1,+4 6bi!. i. E*,.
.1,E4 'oth, i. *22.
.1,14 K:ist. Brit.K ii. **, iii. *, +,, i#. E.
.1,-4 Cf. Anyl, KRCPK i. +F3.
.1,24 5kene, i. 1E*A 'oth, ii. +3F. 5o"e %hrases see" to connect Beli
ith the sea&&the a#es are his cattle, the brine his liLuor.
.1,34 'oth, ii. +,G, +1G, +2,, +FE.
.1,F4 Geoffrey, KBrit. :ist.K i#. E. 1.
.1,G4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K *+- f.A 'oth, i. +2-A MacBain, KCMK iI. 22.
.1*,4 5ee 'oth, i. +2GA an! 5kene, i. +GE.
.1**4 'oth, i. *3E f.
.1*+4 'oth, ii. +-2, +31.
.1*E4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K 2,2. Cf. the Breton fairies, the K=orrK an!
K=orriganK.
.1*14 Geoffrey, iii. +,.
.1*-4 'oth, i. +-E&+-1A 5kene, i. +GE.
.1*24 Guest, iii. E+E.
.1*34 6bi!. E+-.
.1*F4 'oth, i. +-E, ii. +G3.
.1*G4 5ee %. E-E, KinfraK.A 5kene, i. -E+.
.1+,4 Anyl, KRCPK i. +GE.
.1+*4 Guest, iii. E-2 f.
.1++4 5kene, i. +3-, +G2.
.1+E4 6bi!. i. 1GF, -,,.
.1+14 5ee %. EF+, KinfraK.
.1+-4 KMon. :ist. Brit.K i. 2GF, ii.A Tho"as, KRe#ue !e l'hist. !es
ReligionsK, III#iii. EEG.
.1+24 5kene, i. +2E, +31&+32, +3F, +F*&+F+, +F2&+F3. :is BchairB bestos
i""ortal youth an! free!o" fro" sickness.
.1+34 5kene, i. +21, E32 f., E,G, -E+. 5ee %. E-2, KinfraK.
.1+F4 5ee %%. E-,&*, KinfraK. 9ionn an! Taliesin are eIa"%les of the
KMaerchenK for"ula of a hero eI%elle! an! brought back to honour,
<utt&Meyer, ii. FF.
.1+G4 'oth, i. +,G, ii. +EFA 5kene, ii. 1-G.
.1E,4 <ennius, ch. -,, 3G.
.1E*4 Anyl, KRCPK i. +GE.
.1E+4 Geoffrey, #iii. G&Ii. E.
.1EE4 <utt&Meyer, ii. ++ f.
.1E14 5ee %. EF*, KinfraK.
.1E-4 'oth, ii. +E+, +1-.
.1E24 Rh.Jy4s, KA'K, EG f. 8thers !eri#e the na"e fro" Karto&sK, Bbear.B
MacBain, E-3.
.1E34 'oth. ii. +13A 5kene, ii. 1-G.
.1EF4 Geoffrey, #i. *3&*G, #ii. #iii. *, *,&*+, *G. 6n a %oe" >5kene, i.
13F@, Myr!!in is calle! Bthe "an ho s%eaks fro" the gra#eB&&a
conce%tion fa"iliar to the Celts, ho thought of the !ea! as li#ing on
in the gra#e. 5ee %. E1,, KinfraK.
.1EG4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K, *-1 f., *-F&*-G, *G1.
.11,4 Geoffrey, iI. *+, etc.
.11*4 5kene, ii. -*.
.11+4 'oth. i. ++-A cf. %. *E*, KinfraK. 9ro" this !escri%tion /lton
su%%oses =ei to ha#e been a go! of fire.
.11E4 KMy#. Arch.K i. *3-A 'oth, i. +2G. Rh.Jy4s, KA'K -G, thinks Merlin
"ay ha#e been Guine#ere's ra#isher.
.1114 :ol!er, i. 1*1.
.11-4 'oth i. +-,, +2, f., +F,, ii. +*-, +11.
.1124 5kene, i. E2E, ii. 1,2A KMy#. Arch.K i. 3F.
.1134 :u Ga!arn is "entione! in the KTria!sK as a lea!er of the Cy"ry
fro" the east an! their teacher in %loughing. :e !i#i!e! the" into
clans, an! in#ente! "usic an! song. The "onster Ka#ancK as !ran by hi"
fro" the lake hich ha! burst an! cause! the floo! >see %. +E*,
KinfraK@. Perha%s :u is an ol! culture&go! of so"e tribes, but the
KTria!sK referring to hi" are of late !ate >'oth, ii. +3*, +FG, +G,&+G*,
+GF&+GG@. 9or the ri!iculous <eo&)rui!ic s%eculations base! on :u, see
)a#ies, KCeltic ResearchesK an! KMythology an! Rites of the )rui!sK.
Gurgiunt, son of Belinus, in Geoffrey, iii. **, "ay be the 9rench
legen!ary Gargantua, %erha%s an ol! go!. 5ee the orks of 5ebillot an!
Gai!oH on KGargantuaK.
.11F4 'oth, i. +3,.
.11G4 )io Cassius, lIii. 2.
.1-,4 5olinus, IIii. *,. 5ee %. +, Ksu%raK.
.1-*4 Ptol. ii. E. +.
.1-+4 9or all these see :ol!er, Ks.#.K
C:APT/R C66.
T:/ C;C:;'A6<< C$C'/.
The e#ents of the Cuchulainn cycle are su%%ose! to !ate fro" the
beginning of the Christian era&&=ing Conchobar's !eath synchronising
ith the crucifiIion. But though so"e %ersonages ho are "entione! in
the Annals figure in the tales, on the hole they !eal ith %ersons ho
ne#er eIiste!. They belong to a orl! of ro"ance an! "yth, an! e"bo!y
the i!eals of Celtic %aganis", "o!ifie! by Christian influences an!
those of classical tales an! ro"antic sagas of other regions, "ainly
5can!ina#ian. The %resent for" of the tales as they eIist in the KBook
of the )un CoK an! the KBook of 'einsterK "ust ha#e been gi#en the" in
the se#enth or eighth century, but they e"bo!y "aterials of a far ol!er
!ate. At an early ti"e the saga "ay ha#e ha! a "ore or less !efinite
for", but ne tales ere being constantly a!!e! to it, an! so"e of the
longer tales are co"%ose! of inci!ents hich once ha! no connection ith
each other.
Cuchulainn is the central figure of the cycle, an! its central e%iso!e
is that of the KTain bo CuailgneK, or BCattle 5%oil of Cooley.B 8ther
%ersonages are Conchobar an! )echtire, Ailill an! Me!b, 9ergus, Conall
Cernach, Curoi, )eir!re, an! the sons of ;snach. 5o"e of these are of
!i#ine !escent, so"e are %erha%s euhe"erise! !i#initiesA Conchobar is
calle! K!ia tal"ai!eK, Ba terrestrial go!,B an! )echtire a go!!ess. The
cycle o%ens ith the birth of Conchobar, son of Cathba! an! of <essa,
!aughter of one of the Tuatha )e )anann, though in an ol!er rescension
of the tale he is <essa's son by the go! 'ug. )uring Conchobar's reign
o#er ;lster Cuchulainn as born. :e as son of )echtire, either by
5ualtai", or by her brother Conchobar, or by the go! 'ug, of ho" he "ay
also be a reincarnation..1-E4 'ike other heroes of saga, he %ossesses
great strength an! skill at a ten!er age, an!, setting out for
Conchobar's court, o#er%oers the king's Bboy cor%s,B an! then beco"es
their chief. :is neIt a!#enture is the slaying of the atch&!og of
Culann the s"ith, an! his a%%easing the anger of its oner by offering
to act as his atch&!og. Cathba! no announce! that his na"e oul!
henceforth be Cu Chulainn, BCulann's houn!.B.1-14 At the "ature age of
se#en he obtaine! Conchobar's s%ears, sor!, shiel!, an! chariot, an!
ith these he o#erca"e three "ighty cha"%ions, returning in the
!istortion of his Bbattle&furyB to /"ania. To %re#ent "ischief fro" his
rage, the o"en ent forth nake! to "eet hi". :e "o!estly co#ere! his
eyes, for it as one of his KgeasaK not to look on a o"an's breast.
Thus taken unaares, he as %lunge! into three successi#e #ats of col!
ater until his natural a%%earance as restore! to hi", although the
ater boile! an! hisse! fro" his heat..1--4
As Cuchulainn gre u%, his strength, skill, is!o", an! beauty ere
unsur%asse!. All o"en fell in lo#e ith hi", an! to forestall a series
of Kbonnes fortunesK, the "en of ;lster sought a ife for hi". But the
hero's heart as set on /"er, !aughter of 9orgall, ho" he ooe! in a
strange language hich none but she coul! un!erstan!. At last she
consente! to be his ife if he oul! slay a nu"ber of arriors. 9orgall
as o%%ose! to the "atch, an! ith a #ie to Cuchulainn's !estruction
suggeste! that he shoul! go to )onall in Alba to increase his skill, an!
to 5cathach if he oul! eIcel all other arriors. :e agree!, %ro#i!e!
that 9orgall oul! gi#e hi" hate#er he aske! for on his return. Arri#e!
in Alba, he refuse! the lo#e of )onall's !aughter, )ornolla, ho sore
to be a#enge!. Thence he ent to 5cathach, o#erco"ing all the !angers of
the ay, lea%ing in safety the gulf surroun!ing her islan!, after
essaying in #ain to cross a narro, singing bri!ge. 9ro" 5cathach he
learne! su%re"e skill in ar"s, an! o#erca"e her A"aHonian ri#al Aife. :e
begat a son by Aife, an! instructe! her to call hi" Conla, to gi#e hi"
his father's ring, to sen! hi" to seek Cuchulainn, an! to forbi! hi" to
re#eal his na"e. 6n the seLuel, Cuchulainn, unaare that Conla as his
son, sle hi" in single co"bat, too late !isco#ering his i!entity fro"
the ring hich he ore. This is the ell&knon saga for"ula of 5ohrab
an! Rustu", of Theseus an! :i%%olytus. 8n his return fro" 5cathach's
isle Cuchulainn !estroye! 9orgall's KrathK ith "any of its in"ates,
inclu!ing 9orgall, an! carrie! off /"er. To the ten years hich
folloe!, !uring hich he as the great cha"%ion of ;lster, belong "any
tales in hich he figures %ro"inently. 8ne of these is KThe )ebility of
the ;ltoniansK. This as cause! by Macha, ho, !uring her %regnancy, as
force! to run a race ith Conchobar's horses. 5he outran the", but ga#e
birth i""e!iately to tins, an!, in her %angs, curse! the "en of ;lster,
ith a curse that, in ti"e of o%%ression, they oul! be o#erco"e ith
the eakness of chil!birth. 9ro" this Cuchulainn as eIe"%t, for he as
not of ;lster, but a son of 'ug..1-24 Carious atte"%ts ha#e been "a!e to
eI%lain this B!ebility.B 6t "ay be a "yth eI%laining a Celtic use of the
Bcou#a!e,B though no eIa"%le of a si"ultaneous tribal cou#a!e is knon,
unless e ha#e here an instance of ?ester"arck's Bhu"an %airing season
in %ri"iti#e ti"es,B ith its conseLuent si"ultaneous birth&%erio! for
o"en an! cou#a!e for "en..1-34 8thers, ith less likelihoo!, eI%lain it
as a %erio! of tabu, ith cessation fro" ork an! arfare, at a funeral
or festi#al..1-F4 6n any case Macha's curse is a "yth eI%lanatory of the
origin of so"e eIisting custo", the !uration of hich is "uch
eIaggerate! by the narrator. To this %erio! belong also the tale of
Cuchulainn's #isit to /lysiu", an! others to be referre! to later.
Another story !escribes his attack u%on Morrigan because she oul!
neither yiel! u% the cos hich she as !ri#ing aay nor tell her true
na"e&&an instance of the ell&knon na"e tabu. Morrigan took the for" of
a bir!, an! as then recognise! by Cuchulainn, ho %oure! scorn u%on
her, hile she %ro"ise! to o%%ose hi" !uring the fight of the KTainK in
the for"s of an eel, a olf, an! a co, all of hich he #oe! to
!estroy..1-G4 'ike "any others in the saga, this story is intro!uctory
to the "ain e%iso!e of the KTainK. To this e no turn.
Me!b ha! been ife of Conchobar, but, lea#ing hi", ha! "arrie! in
succession to chiefs calle! Ailill, the secon! of ho" ha! a bull,
9in!bennach, the ?hite&horne!, hich she resol#e! to "atch by one in
e#ery ay its eLual. :a#ing been refuse! the Bron Bull of Cuailgne, she
su""one! all her forces to in#a!e ;lster. The "o"ent as inaus%icious
for ;lster, for all its "en ere suffering fro" their B!ebility.B
Cuchulainn, therefore, ent out to encounter the host, an! force! Me!b
to agree that a succession of her arriors shoul! engage hi" in single
co"bat. A"ong these as his ol! frien! 9er!ia, an! nothing is so
touching as his reluctance to fight hi" or so %athetic as his grief hen
9er!ia falls. The reluctance is %ri"arily !ue to the tie of
bloo!&brotherhoo! eIisting beteen the". 9inally, the ;lster"en rose in
force an! !efeate! Me!b, but not before she ha! alrea!y ca%ture! the
bull an! sent it into her on lan!. There it as fought by the
9in!bennach an! sle it, rushing back to ;lster ith the "angle! bo!y on
its horns. But in its frenHy a rock see"e! to be another bull, hich it
charge!A its brains ere !ashe! out, an! it fell !ea!.
The Morrigan ha! arne! the bull of the a%%roach of Me!b's ar"y, an! she
ha! also a%%eare! in the for" of a beautiful o"an to Cuchulainn
offering hi" her lo#e, only to be re%ulse!. :ence she turne! against
hi", an! !escribe! ho she oul! o%%ose hi" as an eel, a olf, an! a re!
heifer&&an inci!ent hich is %robably a #ariant of that alrea!y
!escribe!..12,4 6n each of these sha%es she as conLuere! an! oun!e! by
the hero, an! knoing that none ho" he hurt coul! be heale! sa#e by
hi"self, she a%%eare! to hi" as an ol! crone "ilking a co. At each
!raught of the "ilk hich he recei#e! fro" her he blesse! her ith Bthe
blessing of go!s an! not&go!s,B an! so her oun!s ere heale!..12*4 9or
this, at a later ti"e, she trie! to ar! off his !eath, but
unsuccessfully. )uring the %rogress of the KTainK, one of Cuchulainn's
Bfairy kins"en,B na"ely, 'ug, ho announce! hi"self as his father,
a%%eare! to ai! hi", hile others of the Tuatha )ea thre Bherbs of
healingB into the strea"s in hich his oun!s ere ashe!..12+4
)uring the KTainK, Cuchulainn slaughtere! the iHar! Calatin an! his
!aughters. But Calatin's ife bore three %osthu"ous sons an! three
!aughters, an! through their "eans the hero as at last slain.
/#erything as !one to kee% hi" back fro" the host hich no a!#ance!
against ;lster, but finally one of Calatin's !aughters took the for" of
<ia"h an! ba!e hi" go forth. As he %asse! to the fight, Calatin's
!aughters %ersua!e! hi" to eat the flesh of a !og&&a fatal !ee!, for it
as one of his KgeasaK ne#er to eat !og's flesh. 5o it as that in the
fight he as slain by 'ugai!,.12E4 an! his soul a%%eare! to the thrice
fifty Lueens ho ha! lo#e! hi", chanting a "ystic song of the co"ing of
Christ an! the !ay of !oo"&&an interesting eIa"%le of a %hantas"
coinci!ental ith !eath..1214 This an! other Christian touches sho that
the Christian re!actors of the saga felt ten!erly toar!s the ol! %agan
hero. This is e#en "ore "arke! in the story in hich he a%%ears to =ing
'oegaire an! 5. Patrick, begging the for"er to belie#e in Go! an! the
saint, an! %raying Patrick to Bbring "e ith thy faithful ones unto the
lan! of the li#ing.B.12-4 A si"ilar Christianising a%%ears in the story
of Conchobar's !eath, the result of his "a! frenHy on hearing fro" his
)rui! that an earthLuake is the result of the sha"eful crucifiIion of
Christ..1224
6n the saga, Cuchulainn a%%ears as the i!eal Celtic arrior, but, like
other i!eal arriors, he is a B"agnifie!, non&natural "an,B "any of his
!ee!s being "erely eIaggerations of those co""on a"ong barbaric folk.
/#en his B!istortionB or battle frenHy is but a "agnifying of the il!
frenHy of all il! fighters. To the %erson of this i!eal arrior, so"e
of hose traits "ay ha#e been !eri#e! fro" tra!itional stories of actual
heroes, KMaerchenK an! saga e%iso!es attache! the"sel#es. 8f e#ery i!eal
hero, Celtic, Greek, Babylonian, or Polynesian, certain things are
tol!&&his %heno"enal strength as a chil!A his #ictory o#er enor"ous
forcesA his #isits to the 8ther&orl!A his a"ours ith a go!!essA his
!i#ine !escent. These belong to the co""on stock of folk&tale e%iso!es,
an! accu"ulate roun! e#ery great na"e. :ence, sa#e in the colouring
gi#en to the" or the use "a!e of the" by any race, they !o not affor! a
key to the "ythic character of the hero. 5uch !ee!s are ascribe! to
Cuchulainn, as they !oubtless ere to the i!eal heroes of the Bun!i#i!e!
Aryans,B but though %arallels "ay be foun! beteen hi" an! the Greek
:eracles, they "ight just as easily be foun! in non&Aryan regions, e.g.
in Polynesia. Thus the %arallels beteen Cuchulainn an! :eracles thro
little light on the %ersonality of the for"er, though here an! there in
such %arallels e obser#e a %eculiarly Celtic touch. Thus, hile the
Greek hero rescues :esione fro" a !ragon, it is fro" three 9o"orians
that Cuchulainn rescues )e#orgilla, na"ely, fro" beings to ho" actual
hu"an sacrifice as %ai!. Thus a KMaerchenK for"ula of orl!&i!e
eIistence has been "oul!e! by Celtic religious belief an! ritual
%ractice..1234
6t as ine#itable that the B"ythological schoolB shoul! regar!
Cuchulainn as a solar hero. Thus Bhe reaches his full !e#elo%"ent at an
unusually early age,B as the sun !oes,.12F4 but also as !o "any other
heroes of saga an! KMaerchenK ho are not solar. The three colours of
Cuchulainn's hair, !ark near the skin, re! in the "i!!le, gol!en near
the to%, are clai"e! to be a !escri%tion of the sun's rays, or of the
three %arts into hich the Celts !i#i!e! the !ay..12G4 /lsehere his
tresses are yello, like Prince Charlie's in fact an! in song, yet he
as not a solar hero. Again, the se#en %u%ils of his eyes %erha%s
Breferre! to the !ays of the eek.B.13,4 Blin!ness befell all o"en ho
lo#e! hi", a reference to the !ifficulty of gaHing at the sun..13*4 This
is %rosaicM The blin!ness as a co"%li"ent %ai! to Cuchulainn the blin!,
by o"en ho "a!e the"sel#es blin! hile talking to hi", just as Conall
Cernach's "istresses sLuinte! as he !i!..13+4 Cuchulainn's blin!ness
arose fro" his habit of sinking one eye into his hea! an! %rotru!ing the
other&&a ell&knon solar traitM :is B!istortion,B !uring hich, besi!es
this Bblin!ness,B bloo! shot u%ar!s fro" his hea! an! for"e! a "agic
"ist, an! his anger cause! shoers of s%arks to "ount abo#e hi", %oints
to !an or sunset,.13E4 though the setting sun oul! rather suggest a
hero sinking cal"ly to rest than a "a! giant setting out to slaughter
frien! an! foe. The B!istortion,B as alrea!y %ointe! out, is the
eIaggerate! !escri%tion of the "a! arrior rage, just as the fear hich
%ro!uce! !eath to those ho sa hi" bran!ish his ea%ons, as also
%ro!uce! by Maori arrior "etho!s..1314 'ug, ho "ay be a sun&go!, has
no such B!istortion.B The cooling of the hero in three #ats, the aters
of hich boil o#er, an! his e"ergence fro" the" %inky re! in colour,
sy"bolise the sun sinking into the aters an! rea%%earing at !an..13-4
Might it not !escribe in an eIaggerate! ay the refreshing bath taken by
frenHie! arriors, the ater being su%%ose! to gro ar" fro" the heat
of their bo!iesS.1324 8ne of the hero's KgeasaK as not to see
Manannan's horses, the a#esA hich, being inter%rete!, "eans that the
sun is near its !eath as it a%%roaches the sea. $et 'ug, a sun&go!,
ri!es the stee! /nbarr, a %ersonification of the a#es, hile Cuchulainn
hi"self often crosse! the sea, an! also li#e! ith the sea&go!'s ife,
9an!, ithout co"ing to grief. Again, the "agic horses hich he !ri#es,
black an! grey in colour, are Bsy"bols of !ay an! night,B.1334 though it
is not ob#ious hy a grey horse shoul! sy"bolise !ay, hich is not
alays grey e#en in the isles of the est. ;nlike a solar hero, too,
Cuchulainn is "ost acti#e in inter, an! rests for a brief s%ace fro"
slaughtering at "i!!ay&&the ti"e of the sun's greatest acti#ity both in
su""er an! inter.
Another theory is that e#ery #isit of the hero to a strange lan!
signifies a !escent to :a!es, suggeste! by the sun sinking in the est.
5cathach's islan! "ay be :a!es, but it is "ore %robably /lysiu" ith
so"e traits borroe! fro" the Christian i!ea of hell. But /"er's lan!,
also #isite! by Cuchulainn, suggests neither :a!es nor /lysiu". /"er
calls herself Kingen rig richis gartaK, translate! by Professor Rh.Jy4s
as B!aughter of the coal&face! king,B i.e. she is !aughter of !arkness.
:ence she is a !an&"ai!en an! beco"es the sun&hero's ife..13F4 There
is nothing in the story to corroborate this theory, a%art fro" the fact
that it is not clear, e#en to the hy%othetical %ri"iti#e "in!, hy !an
an! sun shoul! be a !i#ine %air. /"er's or!s %robably "ean that she is
B!aughter of a kingB an! Ba fla"e of hos%italityB >Krichis gartaK.@.13G4
Cuchulainn, in #isiting her, ent fro" est to east, contrary to the
a%%arent course of the sun. The eItra#agance of the solar theory is
further seen in the hy%othesis that because Cuchulainn has other i#es,
the sun&go! "a!e lo#e to as "any !an&"ai!ens as there are !ays in the
year,.1F,4 like the king in 'ouys' ro"ance ith his E22 i#es, one for
each !ay of the year, lea%&year inclu!e!.
9urther eIa"%les of the solar theory nee! not be cite!. 6t is enough to
see in Cuchulainn the i!eal arrior, hose traits are bo"bastic an!
obscure eIaggerations of actual custo" an! arfare, or are borroe! fro"
folk&tale K"otifsK not eIclusi#ely Celtic. Possibly he "ay ha#e been a
ar&go!, since he is associate! ith Ba!b.1F*4 an! also ith Morrigan.
But he has also so"e traits of a culture hero. :e clai"s su%eriority in
is!o", in la, in %olitics, in the art of the K9ili!K, an! in )rui!is",
hile he brings #arious things fro" the orl! of the go!s.1F+4. 6n any
case the Celts %ai! !i#ine honours to heroes, li#ing or !ea!,.1FE4 an!
Cuchulainn, go! or i!eal hero, "ay ha#e been the subject of a cult. This
len!s %oint to the theory of M. )'Arbois that Cuchulainn an! Conall
Cernach are the eLui#alents of Castor an! PolluI, the )ioscuri, sai! by
)io!orus to be orshi%%e! a"ong the Celts near the 8cean..1F14
Cuchulainn, like PolluI, as son of a go!, an! as nurse!, accor!ing to
so"e accounts, by 9in!choe", "other of Conall,.1F-4 just as 'e!a as
"other of Castor as ell as of PolluI. But, on the other han!,
Cuchulainn, unlike PolluI, as "ortal. M. )'Arbois then i!entifies the
to %airs of heroes ith certain figures on an altar at Cluny. These are
Castor an! PolluIA Cernunnos an! 5"ertullos. :e eLuates Castor ith
Cernunnos, an! PolluI ith 5"ertullos. 5"ertullos is Cuchulainn, an! the
na"e is eI%laine! fro" an inci!ent in the KTainK, in hich the hero,
re%roache! for his youth, %uts on a false bear! before attacking
Morrigan in her for" as an eel. This is eI%resse! by Ks"erthainK, Bto
attachB, an! is thus connecte! ith an! ga#e rise to the na"e
5"ertullos. 8n the altar 5"ertullos is attacking an eel or ser%ent.
:ence PolluI is 5"ertullos&Cuchulainn..1F24 Again, the na"e Cernunnos
signifies Bthe horne! one,B fro" KcernuK, Bhorn,B a or! foun! in
Conall's e%ithet Cernach. But this as not gi#en hi" because he as
horne!, but because of the angular sha%e of his hea!, the angle >KcernK@
being the result of a blo..1F34 The e%ithet "ay "ean B#ictorious.B.1FF4
8n the hole, the theory is "ore ingenious than con#incing, an! e ha#e
no %roof that the figures of Castor an! PolluI on the altar ere
!u%licates of the Celtic %air. Cernunnos as an un!erorl! go!, an!
Conall has no trace of such a character.
M. )'Arbois also traces the saga in Gaul in the fact that on the "enhir
of =er#a!el Mercury is figure! ith a chil!, Mercury, in his o%inion,
being 'ug, an! the chil! Cuchulainn..1FG4 8n another altar are !e%icte!
>*@ a oo!"an, /sus, cutting !on a tree, an! >+@ a bull on hich are
%erche! three bir!s&&Tar#os Trigaranos. The to subjects, as M. Reinach
%oints out, are co"bine! on another altar at Tre#es, on hich a oo!"an
is cutting !on a tree in hich are %erche! three bir!s, hile a bull's
hea! a%%ears in the branches..1G,4 These re%resent, accor!ing to M.
)'Arbois, inci!ents of the KTainK&&the cutting !on of trees by
Cuchulainn an! %lacing the" in the ay of his ene"ies, an! the arning
of the bull by Morrigan in the bir! for" hich she share! ith her
sisters Ba!b an! Macha..1G*4 ?hy, then, is Cuchulainn calle! /susS
B/susB co"es fro" a root hich gi#es or!s "eaning Bra%i! "otion,B
Banger,B BstrengthB&&all shon by the hero..1G+4 The altars ere foun!
in the lan! of the Belgic Tre#eri, an! so"e Belgic tribes "ay ha#e
%asse! into Britain an! 6relan! carrying the /sus&Cuchulainn legen!
there in the secon! century B.C., e.g. the 5etantii, !elling by the
Mersey, an! bearing a na"e si"ilar to that of the hero in his
chil!hoo!&&5etanta >K5etantiosK@ as ell as the Mena%ii an! Brigantes,
locate! in 6relan! by Ptole"y..1GE4 6n other or!s, the !i#ine /sus,
ith his surna"e 5"ertullos, as calle! in 6relan! 5etanta, after the
5etantii, an! at a later !ate, Cuchulainn. The %rincely na"e )onnotaurus
rese"bles K)on! tarbK, the BBron BullB of the saga, an! also suggests
its %resence in Gaul, hile the na"e .Greek( !eiotaros4, %erha%s the
eLui#alent of K)e.Ju4io&taruosK, B)i#ine Bull,B is foun! in
Galatia..1G14 Thus the "ain ele"ents of the saga "ay ha#e been knon to
the continental Celts before it as localise! in 6relan!,.1G-4 an!, it
"ay be a!!e!, if it as brought there by Gallo&British tribes, this
"ight account for the greater %o%ularity of the nati#e, %ossibly
%re&Celtic, 9ionn saga a"ong the folk, as ell as for the finer literary
Luality of the Cuchulainn saga. But the i!entification of /sus ith
Cuchulainn rests on slight groun!sA the na"es /sus an! 5"ertullos are
not foun! in 6relan!, an! the Gaulish /sus, orshi%%e! ith hu"an
sacrifice, has little affinity ith the hero, unless his !ee!s of
slaughter are re"iniscent of such rites. 6t is %ossible, hoe#er, that
the e%iso!e of the KTainK ca"e fro" a "yth eI%laining ritual acts. This
"yth "ay ha#e been the subject of the bas&reliefs, carrie! to 6relan!,
an! there orke! into the saga.
The folk&#ersions of the saga, though rese"bling the literary #ersions,
are less elaborate an! generally il!er, an! %erha%s re%resent its
%ri"iti#e for"..1G24 The greatest !ifferences are foun! in #ersions of
the KTainK an! of Cuchulainn's !eath, hich, se%arate in the saga, are
%arts of one folk&tale, the !eath occurring !uring the fighting o#er the
bull. The bull is his %ro%erty, an! Me!b sen!s Garbh "ac 5tairn to take
it fro" hi". :e %reten!s to be a chil!, goes to be!, an! tricks Garbh,
ho goes off to get the bull. Cuchulainn arri#es before hi" an!
%ersonates the her!s"an. /ach seiHes a horn, an! the bull is torn in
to..1G34 )oes this re%resent the %ri"iti#e for" of the KTainK, an!,
further, ere the bull an! Cuchulainn once one an! the sa"e&&a bull, the
incarnation of a go! or #egetation s%irit, being later "a!e
anthro%o"or%hic&&a hero&go! hose %ro%erty or sy"bol as a bullS
6nstances of this %rocess are not unknon a"ong the Celts..1GF4 6n
6n!ia, 6n!ra as a bull an! a !i#ine youth, in Greece there as the
bull&)ionysos, an! a"ong the Celts the na"e of the !i#ine bull as borne
by kings..1GG4 6n the saga Morrigan is frien!ly to the bull, but fights
for Me!bA but she is no frien!ly, no hostile to Cuchulainn, finally,
hoe#er, trying to a#ert his !oo". 6f he ha! once been the bull, her
frien!liness oul! not be Luite forgotten, once he beca"e hu"an an!
se%arate fro" the bull. ?hen she first "et Cuchulainn she ha! a co on
ho" the Bron Bull as to beget a calf, an! she tol! the hero that B5o
long as the calf hich is in this co's bo!y is a yearling, it is u% to
that ti"e that thou art in lifeA an! it is this that ill lea! to the
KTainK.B.-,,4 This suggests that the hero as to !ie in the battle, but
it shos that the Bron Bull's calf is boun! u% his life. The Bull as a
reincarnation of a !i#ine sineher!, an! if, as in the case of
Cuchulainn, Bhis rebirth coul! only be of hi"self,B.-,*4 the calf as
si"%ly a !u%licate of the bull, an!, as it as boun! u% ith the hero's
life, bull an! hero "ay ell ha#e been one. The life or soul as in the
calf, an!, as in all such cases, the oner of the soul an! that in hich
it is hi!!en are %ractically i!entical. Cuchulainn's B!istortionB "ight
then be eI%laine! as re%resenting the bull's fury in fight, an! the
folk&tales oul! be %o%ular for"s of an ol! "yth eI%laining ritual in
hich a bull, the incarnation of a tree or #egetation s%irit, as slain,
an! the sacre! tree cut !on an! consu"e!, as in Celtic agricultural
ritual. This oul! be the "yth re%resente! on the bas&reliefs, an! in
the ritual the bull oul! be slain, rent, an! eaten by his orshi%%ers.
?hy, then, shoul! Cuchulainn ren! the bullS 6n the later stages of such
rites the ani"al as slain, not so "uch as a !i#ine incarnation as a
sacrifice to the go! once incarnate! in hi". An! hen a go! as thus
se%arate! fro" his ani"al for", "yths often arose telling ho he hi"self
ha! slain the ani"al..-,+4 6n the case of Cuchulainn an! the bull, the
go! re%resente! by the bull beca"e se%arate fro" it, beca"e
anthro%o"or%hic, an! in that for" as associate! ith or actually as
the hero Cuchulainn. Bull sacrifices ere co""on a"ong the Celts ith
ho" the bull ha! been a !i#ine ani"al..-,E4 Possibly a further echo of
this "yth an! ritual is to be foun! in the folk&belief that 5. Martin
as cut u% an! eaten in the for" of an oI&&the go! incarnate in the
ani"al being associate! ith a saint..-,14 Thus the literary #ersions of
the KTainK, !e%arting fro" the hy%othetical %ri"iti#e #ersions, ke%t the
bull as the central figure, but intro!uce! a ri#al bull, an! !escribe!
its !eath !ifferently, hile both bulls are sai! to be reincarnations of
!i#ine sine&her!s..-,-4 The i!ea of a fight for a bull is borroe! fro"
actual custo", an! thus the ol! for" of the story as further !istorte!.
The Cuchulainn saga is "ore coherent than the 9ionn saga, because it
%ossesses one central inci!ent. The BcanonB of the saga as close! at an
early !ate, hile that of 9ionn has %ractically ne#er been close!,
"ainly because it has been "ore a saga of the folk than that of
Cuchulainn. 6n so"e res%ects the to "ay ha#e been ri#als, for if the
Cuchulainn saga as intro!uce! by conLuerors fro" Britain or Gaul, it
oul! not be looke! on ith fa#our by the folk. 8r if it is the saga of
;lster as o%%ose! to that of 'einster, ri#alry oul! again ensue. The
9ionn saga li#es "ore in the hearts of the %eo%le, though it so"eti"es
borros fro" the other. This borroing, hoe#er, is less than so"e
critics, e.g. Ri""er, "aintain. Many of the likenesses are the result of
the fact that here#er a hero eIists a co""on stock of inci!ents beco"es
his. :ence there is "uch si"ilarity in all sagas here#er foun!.
988T<8T/5(
.1-E4 K6TK i. *E1A <utt&Meyer, ii. EF f.A ?in!isch, KTainK, E1+A '.
)u#au, B'a 'egen!e !e la Conce%tion !e Cuchulainn,B KRCK iI. * f.
.1-14 ?in!isch, KTainK, **F f. 9or a si"ilar reason 9inncha! as calle!
Cu Cerca, Bthe houn! of CercB >K6TK iii. E33@.
.1--4 9or the boyish eI%loits, see ?in!isch, KTainK, *,2 f.
.1-24 KRCK #ii. ++-A ?in!isch, KTainK, +,. Macha is a gran!!aughter of
'er, but elsehere she is calle! Mi!er's !aughter >KRCK I#i. 12@.
.1-34 Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K ii. 2-1A ?ester"arck, K:ist. of :u"an MarriageK,
ch. +.
.1-F4 Miss :ull, K9olk&'oreK, Iii. 2,, citing instances fro" Je#ons,
K:ist. of ReligionK, 2-.
.1-G4 ?in!isch, K6TK ii. +EG.
.12,4 ?in!isch, *F1, E*+, EE,A cf. K6TK iii. E--A Miss :ull, *21 f.A
Rh.Jy4s, K:'K 12F.
.12*4 K''K **GKaKA KRCK iii. *3-.
.12+4 ?in!isch, E1+.
.12E4 KRCK iii. *3- f.
.1214 6bi!. *F-.
.12-4 Croe, KJour. =ilkenny Arch. 5oc.K *F3,&*F3*, E3* f.
.1224 K''K 3GKaKA 8'Curry, KM5. MatK, 21,.
.1234 K''K *+-KaK. 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of fictionK, ch. *1.
.12F4 Miss :ull, lII#i.
.12G4 B)a )erga's :ostel,B KRCK IIii. +FEA Rh.Jy4s, K:'K 1EF.
.13,4 K''K 2FKaKA Rh.Jy4s, 1E3A 6ngcel the one&eye! has also "any %u%ils
>KRCK IIii. -F@.
.13*4 Miss :ull, lIiii.
.13+4 KRCK #iii. 1G.
.13E4 K''K 33KbKA Miss :ull, lIii.
.1314 8ther Celtic heroes un!ergo this !istortion, hich rese"bles the
5can!ina#ian arrior rage folloe! by languor, as in the case of
Cuchulainn.
.13-4 Miss :ull, %. lI#i.
.1324 6rish saints, stan!ing neck !ee% in freeHing ater, "a!e it hot.
.1334 K6TK i. +2FA )'Arbois, #. *,EA Miss :ull, lI#i.
.13F4 K:'K 11F.
.13G4 5ee Meyer, KRC IiK. 1E-A ?in!isch, K6TK i. -FG, 31,. Though
KrichisK "eans Bcharcoal,B it is also glosse! Bfla"e,B hence it coul!
only be gloing charcoal, ithout any i!ea of !arkness.
.1F,4 K:'K 1-F.
.1F*4 K6TK i. *,3.
.1F+4 KArch. Re#.K i. * f.A K6TK i. +*EA see %. EF*, KinfraK.
.1FE4 5ee %. *21, KinfraK.
.1F14 )io!. 5iculus, i#. -2.
.1F-4 K6TK iii. EGE.
.1F24 K'es CeltesK, -F f. 9or"erly M. )'Arbois i!entifie! 5"ertullos
ith 'ug, ii. +*3A :ol!er, i. 12, +2+. 9or the inci!ent of the bear!,
see ?in!isch, KTainK, E,F.
.1F34 K6TK iii. EG-.
.1FF4 K6TK i. 1+,.
.1FG4 KRCK II#ii. E*G f.
.1G,4 KRCK I#iii. +-2.
.1G*4 K'es CeltesK, 2EA KRCK IiI. +12.
.1G+4 )'Arbois, KRCK II. FG.
.1GE4 )'Arbois, KRCK II#ii. E+*A K'es CeltesK, 2-.
.1G14 K'es CeltesK, 1GA Caesar, #i. *1.
.1G-4 6n contra!iction to this, M. )'Arbois elsehere thinks that )rui!s
fro" Britain "ay ha#e taught the Cuchulainn legen! in Gaul >KRCK II#ii.
E*G@.
.1G24 5ee #ersions in KBook of the )ean of 'is"oreKA KCMK Iiii.A
Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK, 2 f.
.1G34 KCMK Iiii. E+3, -*1. The sa"e story is tol! of 9ionn, Kibi!.K -*+.
5ee also balla! #ersions in Ca"%bell, K'9K E f.
.1GF4 5ee %. +*+, KinfraK.
.1GG4 A Galatian king as calle! Brogitaros, %robably a for" of
KBrogitaruosK, Bbull of the %ro#ince,B a title borne by Conchobar, Ktarb
in choici!K >K6TK i. 3+@. This ith the e%ithets a%%lie! to heroes in
the KTria!sK, Bbull&%hanto",B B%rince bull of co"batB >'oth, ii. +E+,
+1E@, "ay be an a%%ellati#e !enoting great strength.
.-,,4 K6TK ii. +1* f.A )'Arbois, K'es )rui!esK, *2F.
.-,*4 Miss :ull, -F.
.-,+4 5ee %. +*+, KinfraK.
.-,E4 5ee %. +,F, KinfraK.
.-,14 9itHgeral!, KRCK #i. +-1.
.-,-4 5ee %. +1E, KinfraK.
C:APT/R C666.
T:/ 968<< 5AGA.
The "ost %ro"inent characters in the 9ionn saga, after the !eath of
9ionn's father Cu"al, are 9ionn, his son 8isin, his gran!son 8scar, his
ne%he )iar"ai! ith his Kball&seireK, or Bbeauty&s%ot,B hich no o"an
coul! resistA 9ergus fa"e! for is!o" an! eloLuenceA Caoilte "ac Ronan,
the siftA Conan, the co"ic character of the sagaA Goll "ac Morna, the
slayer of Cu"al, but later the !e#ote! frien! of 9ionn, besi!es a host
of less i"%ortant %ersonages. Their !oings, like those of the heroes of
saga an! e%os e#eryhere, are "ainly hunting, fighting, an! lo#e&"aking.
They e"bo!y "uch of the Celtic character&&#i#acity, #alour, kin!ness,
ten!erness, as ell as boastfulness an! fiery te"%er. Though !ating fro"
%agan ti"es, the saga thros little light u%on %agan beliefs, but
re#eals "uch concerning the "anners of the %erio!. :ere, as alays in
early Celt!o", o"an is "ore than a "ere chattel, an! occu%ies a
co"%arati#ely high %lace. The #arious %arts of the saga, like those of
the 9innish K=ale#alaK, alays eIiste! se%arately, ne#er as one co"%lete
e%os, though alays bearing a certain relation to each other. 'onnrot,
in 9inlan!, as able, by a!!ing a fe connecting links of his on, to
gi#e unity to the K=ale#alaK, an! ha! MacPherson been content to !o this
for the 9ionn saga, instea! of in#enting, transfor"ing, an! ser#ing u%
the hole in the "anner of the senti"ental eighteenth century, hat a
boon oul! he ha#e conferre! on Celtic literature. The #arious %arts of
the saga belong to !ifferent centuries an! co"e fro" !ifferent authors,
all, hoe#er, i"bue! ith the s%irit of the 9ionn tra!ition.
A !ate cannot be gi#en to the beginnings of the saga, an! a!!itions ha#e
been "a!e to it e#en !on to the eighteenth century, Michael Co"yn's
%oe" of 8isin in Tir na n&8g being as genuine a %art of it as any of the
earlier %ieces. 6ts contents are in %art ritten, but "uch "ore oral.
Much of it is in %rose, an! there is a large %oetic literature of the
balla! kin!, as ell as KMaerchenK of the uni#ersal stock "a!e %urely
Celtic, ith 9ionn an! the rest of the heroic ban! as %rotagonists. The
saga e"bo!ies Celtic i!eals an! ho%esA it as the literature of the
Celtic folk on hich as s%ent all the riches of the Celtic i"aginationA
a orl! of !rea" an! fancy into hich they coul! enter at all ti"es an!
!is%ort the"sel#es. $et, in s%ite of its i""ense #ariety, the saga
%reser#es a certain unity, an! it is %ro#i!e! ith a !efinite fra"eork,
recounting the origin of the heroes, the great e#ents in hich they ere
concerne!, their !eaths or final a%%earances, an! the breaking u% of the
9ionn ban!.
The historic #ie of the 9ians is taken by the annalists, by =eating,
8'Curry, )r. Joyce, an! )r. )ouglas :y!e..-,24 Accor!ing to this #ie,
they ere a s%ecies of "ilitia "aintaine! by the 6rish kings for the
su%%ort of the throne an! the !efence of the country. 9ro" 5a"hain to
Beltane they ere Luartere! on the %eo%le, an! fro" Beltane to 5a"hain
they li#e! by hunting. :o far the %eo%le elco"e! this billeting, e
are not tol!. Their "etho! of cooking the ga"e hich they hunte! as one
ell knon to all %ri"iti#e %eo%les. :oles ere !ug in the groun!A in
the" re!&hot stones ere %lace!, an! on the stones as lai! #enison
ra%%e! in se!ge. All as then co#ere! o#er, an! in !ue ti"e the "eat
as !one to a turn. Meanhile the heroes engage! in an elaborate
toilette before sitting !on to eat. Their be!s ere co"%ose! of
alternate layers of brushoo!, "oss, an! rushes. The 9ians ere !i#i!e!
into KCathaK of three thousan! "en, each ith its co""an!er, an!
officers to each hun!re!, each fifty, an! each nine, a syste" not unlike
that of the ancient Peru#ians. /ach can!i!ate for a!"ission to the ban!
ha! to un!ergo the "ost trying or!eals, ri#alling in se#erity those of
the A"erican 6n!ians, an! not i"%robably genuine though eIaggerate!
re"iniscences of actual tests of en!urance an! agility. 8nce a!"itte! he
ha! to obser#e certain KgeasaK or Btabus,B e.g. not to choose his ife
for her !ory like other Celts, but solely for her goo! "anners, not to
offer #iolence to a o"an, not to flee hen attacke! before less than
nine arriors, an! the like.
All this "ay re%resent so"e genuine tra!ition ith res%ect to a arrior
ban!, ith "any eIaggerations in !etails an! nu"bers. 5o"e of its
outstan!ing heroes "ay ha#e ha! na"es !eri#e! fro" or corres%on!ing to
those of the heroes of an eIisting saga. But as ti"e ent on they beca"e
as unhistorical as their i!eal %rototy%esA roun! their na"es
crystallise! floating "yths an! talesA things hich ha! been tol! of the
saga heroes ere tol! of the"A their na"es ere gi#en to the %ersonages
of eIisting folk&tales. This "ight eI%lain the great !i#ergence beteen
the BhistoricalB an! the ro"antic as%ects of the saga as it no eIists.
$et e cannot fail to see that hat is clai"e! as historical is full of
eIaggeration, an!, in s%ite of the %lea!ing of )r. :y!e an! other
%atriots, little historic fact can be foun! in it. /#en if this eIists,
it is the least i"%ortant %art of the saga. ?hat is i"%ortant is that
%art&&nine&tenths of the hole&&hich Bis not true because it cannot be
true.B 6t belongs to the region of the su%ernatural an! the unreal. But
%ersonages, nine&tenths of hose actions belong to this region, "ust
bear the sa"e character the"sel#es, an! for that reason are all the "ore
interesting, es%ecially hen e re"e"ber that the Celts fir"ly belie#e!
in the" an! in their eI%loits. A 9ionn "yth arose as all "yths !o,
increasing as ti"e ent on, an! the historical nucleus, if it e#er
eIiste!, as sa"%e! an! lost. Throughout the saga the 9ians are "ore
than "ere "ortals, e#en in those #ery %arts hich are clai"e! as
historical. They are giantsA their story Bbristles ith the
su%ernaturalBA they are the i!eal figures of Celtic legen! throing
their gigantic sha!os u%on the !i" an! "isty backgroun! of the %ast. ?e
"ust therefore be content to assu"e that hether %ersonages calle!
9ionn, 8isin, )iar"ai!, or Conan, e#er eIiste!, hat e kno of the" no
is %urely "ythical.
Bearing in "in! that they are the cherishe! heroes of %o%ular fancy in
6relan! an! the 5cottish :ighlan!s, e ha#e no to inLuire hether they
ere Celtic in origin. ?e ha#e seen that the Celts ere a conLuering
%eo%le in 6relan!, bringing ith the" their on religion an! "ythology,
their on sagas an! tales reflecte! no in the "ythological an!
Cuchulainn cycles, hich foun! a local habitation in 6relan!. Cuchulainn
as the hero of a saga hich flourishe! "ore a"ong the aristocratic an!
lettere! classes than a"ong the folk, an! there are fe %o%ular tales
about hi". But it is a"ong the folk that the 9ionn saga has alays been
%o%ular, an! for e#ery %easant ho coul! tell a story of Cuchulainn a
thousan! coul! tell one of 9ionn. ConLuerors often a!o%t beliefs,
tra!itions, an! custo"s of the aboriginal folk, after hostilities ha#e
cease!, an! if the %re&Celtic %eo%le ha! a %o%ular hero an! a saga
concerning hi", it is %ossible that in ti"e it as acce%te! by the Celts
or by the loer classes a"ong the". But in the %rocess it "ust ha#e been
co"%letely Celticise!, like the aborigines the"sel#esA to its heroes
ere gi#en Celtic na"es, or they "ay ha#e been associate! ith eIisting
Celtic %ersonages like Cu"al, an! the hole saga as in ti"e a!a%te! to
the conce%tions an! legen!ary history of the Celts. Thus e "ight
account for the fact that it has so largely re"aine! ithout a!"iIture
ith the "ythological an! Cuchulainn cycles, though its heroes are
brought into relation ith the ol!er go!s. Thus also e "ight account
for its %o%ularity as co"%are! ith the Cuchulainn saga a"ong the
%easantry in hose #eins "ust flo so "uch of the aboriginal bloo! both
in 6relan! an! the :ighlan!s. 6n other or!s, it as the saga of a
non&Celtic %eo%le occu%ying both 6relan! an! 5cotlan!. 6f Celts fro"
?estern /uro%e occu%ie! the est of 5cotlan! at an early !ate, they "ay
ha#e been so fe in nu"ber that their on saga or sagas !ie! out. 8r if
the Celtic occu%ation of the ?est :ighlan!s originate! first fro"
6relan!, the 6rish "ay ha#e been unable to i"%ose their Cuchulainn saga
there, or if they the"sel#es ha! alrea!y a!o%te! the 9ionn saga an!
foun! it again in the :ighlan!s, they oul! but be the "ore attache! to
hat as alrea!y localise! there. This oul! cut the groun! fro" the
theory that the 9ionn saga as brought to 5cotlan! fro" 6relan!, an! it
oul! account for its %o%ularity in the :ighlan!s, as ell as for the
fact that "any 9ionn stories are attache! to :ighlan! as ell as to
6rish localities, hile "any %lace&na"es in both countries ha#e a 9ian
origin. 9inally, the theory oul! eI%lain the eIistence of so "any
KMaerchenK about 9ionn an! his "en, so fe about Cuchulainn.
Returning to the theory of the historic as%ect of the 9ians, it shoul!
be note! that, hile, hen seen through the eyes of the annalists, the
saga belongs to a !efinite historical %erio!, hen #iee! by itself it
belongs to a "ythic age, an! though the 9ians are regar!e! as cha"%ions
of 6relan!, their foes are usually of a su%ernatural kin!, an! they
the"sel#es "o#e in a "agic at"os%here. They are also brought into
connection ith the unhistoric Tuatha )e )anannA they fight ith the" or
for the"A they ha#e a"ours ith or e! their o"enA an! so"e of the go!s
e#en beco"e "e"bers of the 9ian ban!. )iar"ai! as the !arling of the
go!s 8engus an! Manannan, an! in his !irest straits as assiste! by the
for"er. 6n all this e are in the on!erlan! of "yth, not the Kterra
fir"aK of history. There is a certain rese"blance beteen the Cuchulainn
an! 9ionn sagas, but no "ore than that hich obtains beteen all sagas
e#eryhere. Both contain si"ilar inci!ents, but these are the stock
e%iso!es of uni#ersal saga belief, fitte! to the %ersonages of
in!i#i!ual sagas. :ence e nee! not su%%ose ith Professor ?in!isch that
the "ythic inci!ents of the 9ionn saga are !eri#e! fro" the Cuchulainn
cycle.
The %ersonages against ho" 9ionn an! his "en fight sho the "ythic
nature of the saga. As cha"%ions of 'einster they fight the "en of
;lster an! Connaught, but they also ar against o#ersea in#a!ers&&the
'ochlanners. ?hile 'ochlann "ay "ean any lan! beyon! the sea, like the
?elsh K'lychlynK it %robably "eant Bthe fabulous lan! beneath the lakes
or the a#es of the sea,B or si"%ly the abo!e of hostile, su%ernatural
beings. 'ochlanners oul! thus be counter%arts of the 9o"orians, an! the
conflicts of the 9ians ith the" oul! reflect ol! "yths. But ith the
<orse in#asions, the <orse"en beca"e the true 'ochlanners, against ho"
9ionn an! his "en fight as Charle"agne fought Muha""a!ans&&a sheer
i"%ossibility. Professor Ri""er, hoe#er, su%%oses that the 9ionn saga
took sha%e !uring the <orse occu%ation fro" the ninth century onar!s.
9ionn is half <orse, half 6rish, an! eLui#alent to Caittil 9in!, ho
co""an!e! the a%ostate 6rish in the ninth century, hile 8isin an! 8scar
are the <orse As#in an! Asgeirr. But it is !ifficult to un!erstan! hy
one ho as half a <orse"an shoul! beco"e the chosen hero of the Celts
in the #ery age in hich <orse"en ere their bitter ene"ies, an! hy
9ionn, if of <orse origin, fights against 'ochlanners, i.e. <orse"en. 6t
"ay also be inLuire! hy the borroing shoul! ha#e affecte! the saga
only, not the "yths of the go!s. <o other Celtic scholar has gi#en the
slightest su%%ort to this brilliant but au!acious theory. 8n the other
han!, if the saga has <orse affinities, an! if it is, in origin,
%re&Celtic, these "ay be sought in an earlier connection of 6relan! ith
5can!ina#ia in the early BronHe Age. 6relan! ha! a flourishing
ci#ilisation then, an! eI%orte! beautiful gol! orna"ents to 5can!ina#ia,
here they are still foun! in BronHe Age !e%osits..-,34 This flourishing
ci#ilisation as o#erhel"e! by the in#asion of the Celtic barbarians.
But if the 5can!ina#ians borroe! gol! an! artistic !ecorations fro"
6relan!, an! if the 9ionn saga or %art of it as alrea!y in eIistence,
hy shoul! they not ha#e borroe! so"e of its inci!ents, or hy, on the
other han!, shoul! not so"e e%iso!es ha#e foun! their ay fro" the north
to 6relan!S ?e shoul! also consi!er, hoe#er, that si"ilar inci!ents "ay
ha#e been e#ol#e! in both countries on si"ilar lines an! Luite
in!e%en!ently.
The #arious contents of the saga can only be allu!e! to in the briefest
"anner. 9ionn's birth&story belongs to the ell&knon B/I%ulsion an!
ReturnB for"ula, a%%lie! to so "any heroes of saga an! folk&tale, but
highly elaborate! in his case at the han!s of the annalists. Thus his
father Cu"al, uncle of Conn the :un!re! 9ighter, *++&*-3 A.)., ishe! to
e! Muirne, !aughter of Conn's chief !rui!, Ta!g. Ta!g refuse!, knoing
that through this "arriage he oul! lose his ancestral seat. Cu"al
seiHe! Muirne an! "arrie! her, an! the king, on Ta!g's a%%eal, sent an
ar"y against hi". Cu"al as slainA Muirne fle! to his sister, an! ga#e
birth to )e"ni, afterar!s knon as 9ionn. Perha%s in accor!ance ith
ol! "atriarchal usage, 9ionn's !escent through his "other is e"%hasise!,
hile he is relate! to the ancient go!s, Ta!g being son of <ua!a. This
at once %oints to the "ythical as%ect of the saga. Cu"al "ay be
i!entical ith the go! Ca"ulos. 6n a short ti"e, 9ionn, no a "arau!er
an! an outla, a%%eare! at Conn's Court, an! that sa"e night sle one of
the Tuatha )ea, ho ca"e yearly an! !estroye! the %alace. 9or this he
recei#e! his rightful heritage&&the lea!ershi% of the 9ians, for"erly
co""an!e! by Cu"al..-,F4 Another inci!ent of 9ionn's youth tells ho he
obtaine! his Bthu"b of knole!ge.B The eating of certain Bsal"on of
knole!geB as belie#e! to gi#e ins%iration, an i!ea %erha%s !eri#e!
fro" earlier tote"istic beliefs. The bar! 9inneces, ha#ing caught one of
the co#ete! sal"on, set his %u%il 9ionn to cook it, forbi!!ing hi" to
taste it. But as he as turning the fish 9ionn burnt his thu"b an!
thrust it into his "outh, thus recei#ing the gift of ins%iration.
:ereafter he ha! only to suck his thu"b in or!er to obtain secret
infor"ation..-,G4 6n another story the ins%iration is alrea!y in his
thu"b, as 5a"son's strength as in his hair, but the %oer is also
%artly in his tooth, un!er hich, after ritual %re%aration, he has to
%lace his thu"b an! che it..-*,4
9ionn ha! "any i#es an! seethearts, one of the", 5aar, being "other of
8isin. 5aar as turne! into a fan by a )rui!, an! fle! fro" 9ionn's
house. 'ong after he foun! a beast&chil! in the forest an! recognise!
hi" as his son. :e nourishe! hi" until his beast nature !isa%%eare!, an!
calle! hi" 8isin, Blittle fan.B Roun! this birth legen! "any stories
s%rang u%&&a sure sign of its %o%ularity..-**4 8isin's fa"e as a %oet
far eIcelle! that of 9ionn, an! he beca"e the i!eal bar! of the Gaels.
By far the "ost %assionate an! tragic story of the saga is that of
)iar"ai! an! Grainne, to ho" 9ionn as betrothe!. Grainne %ut KgeasaK
u%on )iar"ai! to elo%e ith her, an! these he coul! not break. They
fle!, an! for "any !ays ere %ursue! by 9ionn, ho at last o#ertook
the", but as force! by the 9ians to %ar!on the belo#e! hero. Meanhile
9ionn aite! for his re#enge. =noing that it as one of )iar"ai!'s
KgeasaK ne#er to hunt a il! boar, he in#ite! hi" to the chase of the
boar of Gulban. )iar"ai! sle it, an! 9ionn then ba!e hi" "easure its
length ith his foot. A bristle %ierce! his heel, an! he fell !on in
agony, beseeching 9ionn to bring hi" ater in his han!, for if he !i!
this he oul! heal hi". 6n s%ite of re%eate! a%%eals, 9ionn, after
bringing the ater, let it !ri% fro" his han!s. )iar"ai!'s bra#e soul
%asse! aay, an! on 9ionn's character this !ire blot as fiIe! for
e#er..-*+4
8ther tales relate ho se#eral of the 9ians ere s%irite! aay to the
'an! beyon! the 5eas, ho they ere rescue!, ho )iar"ai! ent to 'an!
un!er ?a#es, an! ho 9ionn an! his "en ere entra%%e! in a 9airy Palace.
8f greater i"%ortance are those hich tell the en! of the 9ian ban!.
This, accor!ing to the annalists, as the result of their eIactions an!
!e"an!s. 9ionn as tol! by his ife, a ise o"an, ne#er to !rink out of
a horn, but co"ing one !ay thirsty to a ell, he forgot this tabu, an!
so brought the en! near. :e encountere! the sons of ;irgrenn, ho" he
ha! slain, an! in the fight ith the" he fell..-*E4 5oon after ere
fought se#eral battles, cul"inating in that of Gabhra in hich all but a
fe 9ians %erishe!. A"ong the sur#i#ors ere 8isin an! Caoilte, ho
lingere! on until the co"ing of 5. Patrick. Caoilte re"aine! on earth,
but 8isin, hose "other as of the Ksi!K folk, ent to fairylan! for a
ti"e, ulti"ately returning an! joining 5. Patrick's co"%any..-*14 But a
!ifferent #ersion is gi#en in the eighteenth century %oe" of Michael
Co"yn, un!oubte!ly base! on %o%ular tales. 8isin "et the Tueen of Tir na
n&8g an! ent ith her to fairylan!, here ti"e %asse! as a !rea" until
one !ay he stoo! on a stone against hich she ha! arne! hi". :e sa his
nati#e lan! an! as fille! ith ho"e&sickness. The Lueen trie! to
!issua!e hi", but in #ain. Then she ga#e hi" a horse, arning hi" not to
set foot on 6rish soil. :e ca"e to 6relan!A an! foun! it all change!.
5o"e %uny %eo%le ere trying in #ain to raise a great stone, an! begge!
the huge stranger to hel% the". :e s%rang fro" his horse an! flung the
stone fro" its resting&%lace. But hen he turne!, his horse as gone,
an! he ha! beco"e a !ecre%it ol! "an. 5oon after he "et 5. Patrick an!
relate! the tale to hi".
8f "ost of the tales %reser#e! in telfth to fifteenth century M55. it
"ay be sai! that in essence they co"e !on to us fro" a re"ote
antiLuity, like stars %ulsing their clear light out of the hi!!en !e%ths
of s%ace. Many of the" eIist as folk&tales, often il! an! eir! in
for", hile so"e folk&tales ha#e no literary %arallels. 5o"e are
KMaerchenK ith "e"bers of the 9ian ban! as heroes, an! of these there
are "any /uro%ean %arallels. But it is not unlikely that, as in the case
of the Cuchulainn cycle, the folk #ersions "ay be truer to the original
for"s of the saga than the roun!e! an! %olishe! literary #ersions.
?hate#er the 9ians ere in origin&&go!s, "ythic heroes, or actual
%ersonages&&it is %robable that a short K:el!ensageK as for"e! in early
ti"es. This sloly eI%an!e!, ne tales ere a!!e!, an! eIisting
KMaerchenK for"ulae ere freely "a!e use of by "aking their heroes the
heroes of the saga. Then ca"e the ti"e hen "any of the tales ere
ritten !on, hile later they ere a!a%te! to a sche"e of 6rish
history, the heroes beco"ing arriors of a !efinite historic %erio!, or
%erha%s connecte! ith such arriors. But these heroes belonge! to a
ti"eless orl!, hose "argins are Bthe shore of ol! ro"ance,B an! it as
as if they, ho ere not for an age but for all ti"e, scorne! to beco"e
the %u%%ets of the %age of history.
The earliest e#i!ence of the attitu!e of the ecclesiastical orl! to
these heroes is foun! in the KAgalla"h na 5enorachK, or BColloLuy of the
Ancients.B.-*-4 This "ay ha#e been co"%ose! in the thirteenth century,
an! its author kne scores of 9ionn legen!s. Making use of the tra!ition
that Caoilte an! 8isin ha! "et 5. Patrick, he "akes Caoilte relate "any
of the tales, usually in connection ith so"e %lace&na"e of 9ian origin.
The saint an! his folloers are a"aHe! at the huge stature of the 9ians,
but Patrick as%erges the" ith holy ater, an! hosts of !e"ons flee fro"
the". At each tale hich Caoilte tells, the saint says, B5uccess an!
bene!iction, Caoilte. All this is to us a recreation of s%irit an! of
"in!, ere it only not a !estruction of !e#otion an! a !ereliction of
%rayer.B But %resently his guar!ian angel a%%ears, an! bi!s hi" not only
listen to the tales but cause the" to be ritten !on. :e an! his
atten!ant clerics no len! a illing ear to the recital an! encourage
the narrator ith their a%%lause. 9inally, ba%tis" is a!"inistere! to
Caoilte an! his "en, an! by Patrick's intercessions Caoilte's relations
an! 9ionn hi"self are brought out of hell. 6n this ork the
re%resentati#es of %aganis" are shon to be on ter"s of frien!liness
ith the re%resentati#es of Christianity.
But in :ighlan! balla!s collecte! in the siIteenth century by the )ean
of 'is"ore, as ell as in 6rish balla!s foun! in M55. !ating fro" the
se#enteenth century onar!s, the saint is a sour an! intolerant cleric,
an! the 9ians are eLually intolerant an! blas%he"ous %agans. There is no
atte"%t at co"%ro"iseA the saint rejoices that the 9ian ban! are in
hell, an! 8isin thros conte"%t on the Go! of the sha#en %riests. But
so"eti"es this conte"%t is "ingle! ith hu"our an! %athos. ?ere the
heroes of 8isin's ban! no ali#e, scant ork oul! be "a!e of the "onks'
bells, books, an! %sal"&singing. 6t is true that the saint gi#es the
eary ol! "an hos%itality, but 8isin's eyes are blin!e! ith tears as he
thinks of the !e%arte! glories of the 9ians, an! his ears are tor"ente!
Bby jangling bells, !roning %sal"s, an! holing clerics.B These balla!s
%robably re%resent one "ain as%ect of the attitu!e of the Church to
Celtic %aganis". :o, then, !i! the "ore generous KColloLuyK co"e into
beingS ?e "ust note first that so"e of the balla!s ha#e a "il!er tone.
8isin is urge! to acce%t the faith, an! he %rays for sal#ation. Probably
these re%resent the beginning of a reaction in fa#our of the ol! heroes,
!ating fro" a ti"e hen the faith as ell establishe!. There as no
!anger of a %agan re#i#al, an!, %ro#i!e! the 9ians ere Christianise!,
it "ight be legiti"ate to re%resent the" as heroic an! noble. The
KColloLuyK oul! re%resent the high&ater "ark of this reaction a"ong
the lettere! classes, for a"ong the folk, to ju!ge by %o%ular tales, the
9ians ha! ne#er been regar!e! in other than a fa#ourable light. The
KColloLuyK re&establishe! the !ignity of the 9ian ban! in the eyes of
official Christianity. They are ba%tiHe! or release! fro" hell, an! in
their on nature they are #irtuous an! follo lofty i!eals. B?ho or hat
as it that "aintaine! you in lifeSB asks Patrick. An! Caoilte gi#es the
noble re%ly, BTruth that as in our hearts, an! strength in our ar"s,
an! fulfil"ent in our tongues.B Patrick says of 9ionn( B:e as a king, a
seer, a %oet, a lor! ith a "anifol! an! great trainA our "agician, our
knole!geable one, our soothsayerA all hatsoe#er he sai! as seet ith
hi". /Icessi#e, %erchance, as ye !ee" "y testi"ony of 9ionn, although ye
hol! that hich 6 say to be o#erstraine!, ne#ertheless, an! by the =ing
that is abo#e "e, he as three ti"es better still.B <ot only so, but
Caoilte "aintains that 9ionn an! his "en ere aare of the eIistence of
the true Go!. They %ossesse! the Kani"a naturaliter ChristianaK. The
groing a%%reciation of a i!er outlook on life, an! %ossibly
acLuaintance ith the ro"ances of chi#alry, "a!e the co"%osition of the
KColloLuyK %ossible, but, again, it "ay re%resent a "ore generous
conce%tion of %aganis" eIisting fro" the ti"e of the first encounter of
Christianity ith it in 6relan!.
The strife of cree!s in 6relan!, the ol! or!er changing, gi#ing %lace to
ne, ha! e#i!ently i"%resse! itself on the "in!s of Celtic %oets an!
ro"ancers. 6t suggeste! itself to the" as %ro#i!ing an eIcellent
BsituationBA hence e constantly hear of the "eeting of go!s, !e"igo!s,
or heroes ith the saints of the ne era. 9reLuently they bo before the
Cross, they are ba%tiHe! an! recei#e the Christian #erity, as in the
KColloLuyK an! in so"e !ocu"ents of the Cuchulainn cycle. Probably no
other /uro%ean folk&literature so takes a!#antage of just this
situation, this "eeting of cree!s, one ol! an! rea!y to #anish aay, the
other ith all the buoyant freshness of youth.
?as MacPherson's a genuine Celtic e%ic unearthe! by hi" an! by no one
elseS <o "ortal eye sa#e his has e#er seen the original, but no one ho
knos anything of the contents of the saga can !eny that "uch of his
ork is base! on "aterials collecte! by hi". :e kne so"e of the tales
an! balla!s current a"ong the folk, %ossibly also so"e of the 6rish M5.
#ersions. :e sa that there as a certain unity a"ong the", an! he sa
that it as %ossible to "ake it "ore e#i!ent still. :e fitte! the
floating inci!ents into an e%ic fra"eork, a!!ing, in#enting, altering,
an! "oul!ing the hole into an /nglish style of his on. 'ater he see"s
to ha#e translate! the hole into Gaelic. :e ga#e his #ersion to the
orl!, an! foun! hi"self fa"ous, but he ga#e it as the genuine
translation of a genuine Celtic e%ic. :ere as his craftA here he as
the Bcharlatan of genius.B :is genius lay in %ro!ucing an e%ic hich
%eo%le ere illing to rea!, an! in "aking the" belie#e it to be not his
ork but that of the Celtic heroic age. Any one can rite an e%ic, but
fe can rite one hich thousan!s ill rea!, hich "en like
Chateaubrian!, Goethe, <a%oleon, Byron, an! Coleri!ge ill a!"ire an!
lo#e, an! hich ill, as it ere, crystallise the as%irations of an age
eary ith classical for"alis". MacPherson intro!uce! his rea!ers to a
ne orl! of heroic !ee!s, ro"antic a!#enture, !eathless lo#e, eILuisite
senti"ents senti"entally eI%resse!. :e change! the rough arriors an!
beautiful but so"ehat unabashe! heroines of the saga into senti"ental
%ersonages, ho suite! the taste of an age %oise! beteen the beigge!
an! %o!ere! for"alis" of the eighteenth century, an! the outburst of
ne i!eals hich as to follo. :is K8ssianK is a cross beteen Po%e's
K:o"erK an! Byron's KChil!e :arol!K. :is heroes an! heroines are not on
their nati#e heath, an! are uncertain hether to "ince an! strut ith
Po%e or to follo nature ith Rousseau's noble sa#ages an! 5aint
Pierre's Paul an! Cirginia. The ti"e has gone hen it as heresy to cast
!oubt u%on the genuineness of MacPherson's e%ic, but if any one is still
!oubtful, let hi" rea! it an! then turn to the eIisting #ersions,
balla!s, an! tales. :e ill fin! hi"self in a totally !ifferent
at"os%here, an! ill recognise in the latter the true e%ic note&&the
arrior's rage an! the arrior's generosity, !ire cruelty yet infinite
ten!erness, il! lust yet also true lo#e, a orl! of "agic
su%ernaturalis", but an eIact co%y of things as they ere in that
far&off age. The barbaris" of the ti"e is in these ol! tales&&!ee!s
hich "ake one shi#er, custo"s regar!ing the relations of the seIes no
foun! only a"ong sa#ages, social an! !o"estic arrange"ents hich are
so"ehat luri! an! !isgusting. An! yet, ithal, the note of bra#ery, of
%assion, of authentic life is thereA e are hel! in the gri% of genuine
"anhoo! an! o"anhoo!. MacPherson gi#es a %icture of the 8ssianic age as
he concei#e! it, an age of Celtic history that Bne#er as on sea or
lan!.B /#en his ghosts are un&Celtic, "isty an! unsubstantial %hantas"s,
unlike the e"bo!ie! Kre#enantsK of the saga hich are in agree"ent ith
the Celtic belief that the soul assu"e! a bo!y in the other orl!.
MacPherson "akes 9ionn in#ariably successful, but in the saga tales he
is often !efeate!. :e "ingles the Cuchulainn an! 8ssianic cycles, but
these, sa#e in a fe casual instances, are Luite !istinct in the ol!
literature. $et ha! not his %oe" been so great as it is, though so
un&Celtic, it coul! not ha#e influence! all /uro%ean literature. But
those ho care for genuine Celtic literature, the %ro!uct of a %eo%le
ho lo#e! nature, ro"ance, !oughty !ee!s, the beauty of the orl!, the
"usic of the sea an! the bir!s, the "ountains, #alour in "en, beauty in
o"en, ill fin! all these in the saga, hether in its literary or its
%o%ular for"s. An! through it all soun!s the un!ertone of Celtic %athos
an! "elancholy, the !istant echo
B8f ol! unha%%y, far&off things
An! battles long ago.B
988T<8T/5(
.-,24 5ee Joyce, K8CRK 113.
.-,34 Montelius, K'es Te"%s PrehistoriLuesK, -3, *-*A Reinach, KRCK IIi.
F.
.-,F4 The %o%ular #ersions of this early %art of the saga !iffer "uch in
!etail, but follo the "ain outlines in "uch the sa"e ay. 5ee Curtin,
K:T6K +,1A Ca"%bell, K'9K EE f.A K?:TK iii. E1F.
.-,G4 6n a i!es%rea! grou% of tales su%ernatural knole!ge is obtaine!
by eating %art of so"e ani"al, usually a certain snake. 6n "any of these
tales the foo! is eaten by another %erson than he ho obtaine! it, as in
the case of 9ionn. Cf. the ?elsh story of Gion, %. **2, an! the
5can!ina#ian of 5igur!, an! other %arallels in Miss CoI, KCin!erellaK,
1G2A 9raHer, KArch. Re#.K i. *3+ f. The story is thus a folk&tale
for"ula a%%lie! to 9ionn, !oubtless because it har"onise! ith Celtic or
%re&Celtic tote"istic i!eas. But it is base! on ancient i!eas regar!ing
the su%ernatural knole!ge %ossesse! by re%tiles or fish, an! a"ong
A"erican 6n!ians, Maoris, 5olo"on 6slan!ers, an! others there are
figure! re%resentations of a "an hol!ing such an ani"al, its tongue
being attache! to his tongue. :e is a Ksha"anK, an! A"erican 6n!ians
belie#e that his ins%iration co"es fro" the tongue of a "ysterious ri#er
otter, caught by hi". 5ee )all, KBureau of /thnol.K Er! re%ortA an! Miss
Bucklan!, KJour. Anth. 6nst.K IIii. +G.
.-*,4 KT85K i#.A 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K EG2A Joyce, K8CRK *G1, EEG.
.-**4 9or balla! #ersions see Ca"%bell, K'9K *GF.
.-*+4 <u"erous balla! #ersions are gi#en in Ca"%bell K'9K *-+ f. The
tale is localise! in #arious %arts of 6relan! an! the :ighlan!s, "any
!ol"ens in 6relan! being knon as )iar"ai! an! Grainne's be!s.
.-*E4 9or an account !iffering fro" this annalistic #ersion, see KRCPK
i. 12-.
.-*14 8'Gra!y, ii. *,+. This, on the hole, agrees ith the :ighlan!
balla! #ersion, K'9K *GF.
.-*-4 K6TK i#.A 8'Gra!y, K5il#a Ga!.K teIt an! translation.
C:APT/R 6Q.
G8)5 A<) M/<.
Though "an usually "akes his go!s in his on i"age, they are unlike as
ell as like hi". 6nter"e!iate beteen the" an! "an are i!eal heroes
hose %arentage is %artly !i#ine, an! ho "ay the"sel#es ha#e been go!s.
8ne "ark of the Celtic go!s is their great stature. <o house coul!
contain Bran, an! certain !i#ine %eo%le of /lysiu" ho a%%eare! to 9ionn
ha! rings Bas thick as a three&oI goa!.B.-*24 /#en the 9ians are giants,
an! the skull of one of the" coul! contain se#eral "en. The go!s ha#e
also the attribute of in#isibility, an! are only seen by those to ho"
they ish to !isclose the"sel#es, or they ha#e the %oer of concealing
the"sel#es in a "agic "ist. ?hen they a%%ear to "ortals it is usually in
"ortal guise, so"eti"es in the for" of a %articular %erson, but they can
also transfor" the"sel#es into ani"al sha%es, often that of bir!s. The
ani"al na"es of certain !i#inities sho that they ha! once been ani"als
%ure an! si"%le, but hen they beca"e anthro%o"or%hic, "yths oul! arise
telling ho they ha! a%%eare! to "en in these ani"al sha%es. This, in
%art, accounts for these transfor"ation "yths. The go!s are also
i""ortal, though in "yth e hear of their !eaths. The Tuatha )e )anann
are Bunfa!ing,B their B!uration is %erennial.B.-*34 This i""ortality is
so"eti"es an inherent LualityA so"eti"es it is the result of eating
i""ortal foo!&&Manannan's sine, Goibniu's feast of age an! his i""ortal
ale, or the a%%les of /lysiu". The stories telling of the !eaths of the
go!s in the annalists "ay be base! on ol! "yths in hich they ere sai!
to !ie, these "yths being connecte! ith ritual acts in hich the hu"an
re%resentati#es of go!s ere slain. 5uch rites ere an inherent %art of
Celtic religion. /lsehere the ritual of go!s like 8siris or A!onis,
base! on their functions as go!s of #egetation, as connecte! ith
elaborate "yths telling of their !eath an! re#i#al. 5o"ething akin to
this "ay ha#e occurre! a"ong the Celts.
The !i#inities often unite! ith "ortals. Go!!esses sought the lo#e of
heroes ho ere then so"eti"es nu"bere! a"ong the go!s, an! go!s ha!
a"ours ith the !aughters of "en..-*F4 9reLuently the heroes of the
sagas are chil!ren of a go! or go!!ess an! a "ortal,.-*G4 an! this
!i#ine %arentage as fir"ly belie#e! in by the Celts, since %ersonal
na"es for"e! of a !i#ine na"e an! K&genosK or K&gnatosK, Bborn of,B Bson
of,B are foun! in inscri%tions o#er the hole Celtic area, or in Celtic
!ocu"ents&&Bo!uogenos, Ca"ulognata, etc. Those ho first bore these
na"es ere belie#e! to be of !i#ine !escent on one si!e. 5%irits of
nature or the ele"ents of nature %ersonifie! "ight also be %arents of
"ortals, as a na"e like Morgen, fro" KMorigenosK, B5on of the 5ea,B an!
"any others suggest. 9or this an! for other reasons the go!s freLuently
interfere in hu"an affairs, assisting their chil!ren or their
fa#ourites. 8r, again, they seek the ai! of "ortals or of the heroes of
the sagas in their conflicts or in ti"e of !istress, as hen Morrigan
besought healing fro" Cuchulainn.
As in the case of early Greek an! Ro"an kings, Celtic kings ho bore
!i#ine na"es ere %robably belie#e! to be re%resentati#es or
incarnations of go!s. Perha%s this eI%lains hy a chief of the Boii
calle! hi"self a go! an! as re#ere! after his !eath, an! hy the Gauls
so rea!ily acce%te! the !i#inity of Augustus. 6rish kings bear !i#ine
na"es, an! of these <ua!a occurs freLuently, one king, 6rel 9aith, being
i!entifie! ith <ua!a Airgetla", hile in one teIt Knua!atK is glosse!
Kin rigK, Bof the king,B as if K<ua!aK ha! co"e to be a title "eaning
Bking.B ?elsh kings bear the na"e <u!! ><o!ons@, an! both the actual an!
the "ythic lea!er Brennus took their na"e fro" the go! Bran. =ing
Conchobar is calle! K!ia tal"ai!eK, Ba terrestrial go!.B 6f kings ere
thought to be go!&"en like the Pharaohs, this "ight account for the
freLuency of tales about !i#ine fatherhoo! or reincarnation, hile it
oul! also eI%lain the nu"erous KgeasaK hich 6rish kings "ust obser#e,
unlike or!inary "ortals. Pros%erity as connecte! ith their obser#ance,
though this %ros%erity as later thought to !e%en! on the king's
goo!ness. The nature of the %ros%erity&&"il! seasons, abun!ant cro%s,
fruit, fish, an! cattle&&shos that the king as associate! ith
fertility, like the go!s of groth..-+,4 :ence they ha! %robably been
once regar!e! as incarnations of such go!s. ?here#er !i#ine kings are
foun!, fertility is boun! u% ith the" an! ith the !ue obser#ance of
their tabus. To %re#ent "isfortune to the lan!, they are slain before
they gro ol! an! eak, an! their #igour %asses on to their successors.
Their !eath benefits their %eo%le..-+*4 But freLuently the king "ight
reign as long as he coul! hol! his on against all co"ers, or, again, a
sla#e or cri"inal as for a ti"e treate! as a "ock king, an! slain as
the !i#ine king's substitute. 5cattere! hints in 6rish literature an! in
folk sur#i#als sho that so"e such course as this ha! been %ursue! by
the Celts ith regar! to their !i#ine kings, as it as also
elsehere..-++4 6t is not i"%ossible that so"e at least of the )rui!s
stoo! in a si"ilar relation to the go!s. =ings an! %riests ere %robably
at first not !ifferentiate!. 6n Galatia tel#e BtetrarchsB "et annually
ith three hun!re! assistants at )rune"eton as the great national
council..-+E4 This council at a consecrate! %lace >Kne"etonK@, its
likeness to the annual )rui!ic gathering in Gaul, an! the %ossibility
that K)ruK& has so"e connection ith the na"e B)rui!,B %oint to a
religious as ell as %olitical as%ect of this council. The BtetrarchsB
"ay ha#e been a kin! of %riest&kingsA they ha! the kingly %rerogati#e of
acting as ju!ges as ha! the )rui!s of Gaul. The ife of one of the" as
a %riestess,.-+14 the office being here!itary in her fa"ily, an! it "ay
ha#e been necessary that her husban! shoul! also be a %riest. 8ne
tetrarch, )eiotarus, B!i#ine bull,B as skille! in augury, an! the
%riest&kingshi% of Pessinus as conferre! on certain Celts in the secon!
century B.C., as if the !ouble office ere alrea!y a Celtic
institution..-+-4 Mythic Celtic kings consulte! the go!s ithout any
%riestly inter#ention, an! Tueen Bou!icca ha! %riestly functions..-+24
?ithout gi#ing these hints un!ue e"%hasis, e "ay su%%ose that the
!ifferentiation of the to offices oul! not be si"ultaneous o#er the
Celtic area. But hen it !i! take effect %riests oul! %robably lay
clai" to the %rerogati#es of the %riest&king as incarnate go!. =ings
ere not likely to gi#e these u%, an! here they retaine! the" %riests
oul! be content ith seeing that the tabus an! ritual an! the slaying
of the "ock king ere !uly obser#e!. 6rish kings ere %erha%s still
regar!e! as go!s, though certain )rui!s "ay ha#e been !i#ine %riests,
since they calle! the"sel#es creators of the uni#erse, an! both
continental an! 6rish )rui!s clai"e! su%eriority to kings. 9urther, the
na"e .Greek( se"notheoi4, a%%lie! along ith the na"e B)rui!sB to Celtic
%riests, though its "eaning is obscure, %oints to !i#ine %retensions on
their %art..-+34
The incarnate go! as %robably re%resentati#e of a go! or s%irit of
earth, groth, or #egetation, re%resente! also by a tree. A sy"bolic
branch of such a tree as borne by kings, an! %erha%s by )rui!s, ho
use! oak branches in their rites..-+F4 =ing an! tree oul! be connecte!,
the king's life being boun! u% ith that of the tree, an! %erha%s at one
ti"e both %erishe! together. But as kings ere re%resente! by a
substitute, so the sacre! tree, regar!e! as too sacre! to be cut !on,
"ay also ha#e ha! its Ksucce!aneu"K. The 6rish KbileK or sacre! tree,
connecte! ith the kings, "ust not be touche! by any i"%ious han!, an!
it as sacrilege to cut it !on..-+G4 Probably before cutting !on the
tree a branch or so"ething groing u%on it, e.g. "istletoe, ha! to be
cut, or the king's sy"bolic branch secure! before he coul! be slain.
This "ay eI%lain Pliny's account of the "istletoe rite. The "istletoe or
branch as the soul of the tree, an! also containe! the life of the
!i#ine re%resentati#e. 6t "ust be %lucke! before the tree coul! be cut
!on or the #icti" slain. :y%othetical as this "ay be, Pliny's account
is inco"%lete, or he is relating so"ething of hich all the !etails ere
not knon to hi". The rite "ust ha#e ha! so"e other %ur%ose than that of
the "agico&"e!ical use of the "istletoe hich he !escribes, an! though
he says nothing of cutting !on the tree or slaying a hu"an #icti", it
is not unlikely that, as hu"an sacrifice ha! been %rohibite! in his
ti"e, the oIen hich ere slain !uring the rite took the %lace of the
latter. 'ater ro"antic tales suggest that, before slaying so"e
%ersonage, the "ythico&ro"antic sur#i#or of a !i#ine %riest or king, a
branch carrie! by hi" ha! to be ca%ture! by his assailant, or %lucke!
fro" the tree hich he !efen!e!..-E,4 These "ay %oint to an ol! belief
in tree an! king as !i#ine re%resentati#es, an! to a ritual like that
associate! ith the Priest of <e"i. The !i#ine tree beca"e the "ystic
tree of /lysiu", ith gol! an! sil#er branches an! "ar#ellous fruits.
Ar"e! ith such a branch, the gift of one of its %eo%le, "ortals "ight
%enetrate unhin!ere! to the !i#ine lan!. Perha%s they "ay be regar!e! as
ro"antic for"s of the ol! !i#ine kings ith the branch of the !i#ine
tree.
6f in early ti"es the s%irit of #egetation as fe"inine, her
re%resentati#e oul! be a o"an, %robably slain at recurring festi#als
by the fe"ale orshi%%ers. This oul! eI%lain the slaying of one of
their nu"ber at a festi#al by <a"nite o"en. But hen "ale s%irits or
go!s su%erse!e! go!!esses, the !i#ine %riest&king oul! take the %lace
of the fe"ale re%resentati#e. 8n the other han!, just as the go!!ess
beca"e the consort of the go!, a fe"ale re%resentati#e oul! continue as
the !i#ine bri!e in the ritual of the sacre! "arriage, the May Tueen of
later folk&custo". 5%ora!ically, too, conser#atis" oul! retain fe"ale
cults ith fe"ale !i#ine incarnations, as is seen by the %resence of the
May Tueen alone in certain folk&sur#i#als, an! by "any Celtic rituals
fro" hich "en ere eIclu!e!..-E*4
988T<8T/5(
.-*24 8'Gra!y, ii. ++F.
.-*34 6bi!. ii. +,E. Cf. Caesar, #i. *1, Bthe i""ortal go!sB of Gaul.
.-*F4 Cf. Ch. QQ6C.A 8'Gra!y, ii. **,, *3+A <utt&Meyer, i. 1+.
.-*G4 'eahy, ii. 2.
.-+,4 K6TK iii. +,EA KTri%. 'ifeK, -,3A KAnnals of the 9our MastersK,
A.). *1A KRCK IIii. +F, *2F. Chiefs as ell as kings %robably influence!
fertility. A curious sur#i#al of this is foun! in the belief that
herrings aboun!e! in )un#egan 'och hen Mac'eo! arri#e! at his castle
there, an! in the !esire of the %eo%le in 5kye !uring the %otato fa"ine
that his fairy banner shoul! be a#e!.
.-+*4 An echo of this "ay un!erlie the or!s attribute! to =ing Ailill,
B6f 6 a" slain, it ill be the re!e"%tion of "anyB >8'Gra!y, ii. 1*2@.
.-++4 5ee 9raHer, K=ingshi%KA Cook, K9olk&'oreK, *G,2, BThe /uro%ean
5ky&Go!.B Mr. Cook gi#es a"%le e#i!ence for the eIistence of Celtic
incarnate go!s. ?ith his "ain conclusions 6 agree, though so"e of his
inferences see" far&fetche!. The !i#ine king as, in his #ie, a
sky&go!A he as "ore likely to ha#e been the re%resentati#e of a go! or
s%irit of groth or #egetation.
.-+E4 5trabo, Iii. -. +.
.-+14 Plutarch, K!e Cirt. Mul.K +,.
.-+-4 Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. *-, ii. E2A 5trabo, Iii. -. EA 5tachelin,
KGesch. !er =leinasiat. Galater.K
.-+24 'i#y, #. E1A )io Cass. lIii. 2.
.-+34 KAncient 'as of 6relan!K, i. ++A )iog. 'aert. i. %roe" *A see %.
E,*, KinfraK.
.-+F4 Pliny, I#i. G-.
.-+G4 P. +,*, KinfraK.
.-E,4 Cf. the tales of Gaain an! the Green =night ith his holly bough,
an! of Gaain's atte"%ting to %luck the bough of a tree guar!e! by
Gra"o%lanH >?eston, K'egen! of 5ir GaainK, ++, F2@. Cf. also the tale
of )iar"ai!'s attacking the !efen!er of a tree to obtain its fruit, an!
the subseLuent slaughter of each "an ho attacks the hero hi!!en in its
branches >KT85K #ol. iii.@. Cf. Cook, K9olk&'oreK, I#ii. 11*.
.-E*4 5ee Cha%. QC666.
C:APT/R Q.
T:/ C;'T 89 T:/ )/A).
The custo" of burying gra#e&goo!s ith the !ea!, or slaying ife or
sla#es on the to"b, !oes not necessarily %oint to a cult of the !ea!,
yet hen such %ractices sur#i#e o#er a long %erio! they assu"e the for"
of a cult. These custo"s flourishe! a"ong the Celts, an!, taken in
connection ith the re#erence for the se%ulchres of the !ea!, they %oint
to a orshi% of ancestral s%irits as ell as of great !e%arte! heroes.
:ea!s of the slain ere offere! to the Bstrong sha!esB&&the ghosts of
tribal heroes hose %raises ere sung by bar!s..-E+4 ?hen such hea!s
ere %lace! on houses, they "ay ha#e been !e#ote! to the fa"ily ghosts.
The honour in hich "ythic or real heroes ere hel! "ay %oint to an
actual cult, the hero being orshi%%e! hen !ea!, hile he still
continue! his guar!ianshi% of the tribe. ?e kno also that the to"b of
=ing Cottius in the Al%s as a sacre! %lace, that 6rish kings ere often
inaugurate! on ancestral burial cairns, an! that 6rish go!s ere
associate! ith barros of the !ea!..-EE4
The cult of the !ea! cul"inate! at the fa"ily hearth, aroun! hich the
!ea! ere e#en burie!, as a"ong the Ae!uiiA this latter custo" "ay ha#e
been general..-E14 6n any case the belief in the %resence of ancestral
ghosts aroun! the hearth as i!es%rea!, as eIisting su%erstitions sho.
6n Brittany the !ea! seek ar"th at the hearth by night, an! a feast is
s%rea! for the" on All 5ouls' e#e, or cru"bs are left for the" after a
fa"ily gathering..-E-4 But generally the fa"ily ghost has beco"e a
bronie, lutin, or %ooka, haunting the hearth an! !oing the househol!
ork..-E24 9airy corres%on!s in all res%ects to ol! ancestral ghost, an!
the one has succee!e! to the %lace of the other, hile the fairy is e#en
sai! to be the ghost of a !ea! %erson..-E34 Certain archaeological
re"ains ha#e also a connection ith this ancient cult. A"ong Celtic
re"ains in Gaul are foun! an!irons of clay, orna"ente! ith a ra"'s
hea!. M. )echelette sees in this Bthe sy"bol of sacrifice offere! to the
souls of ancestors on the altar of the hearth.B.-EF4 The ra" as alrea!y
associate! as a sacrificial ani"al ith the cult of fire on the hearth,
an! by an easy transition it as connecte! ith the cult of the !ea!
there. 6t is foun! as an e"ble" on ancient to"bs, an! the !o"estic 'ar
as %urifie! by the i""olation of a ra"..-EG4 9igurines of a ra" ha#e
been foun! in Gaulish to"bs, an! it is associate! ith the go! of the
un!erorl!..-1,4 The ra" of the an!irons as thus a %er"anent
re%resentati#e of the #icti" offere! in the cult of the !ea!. A
"utilate! inscri%tion on one of the" "ay stan! for K'aribus augustisK,
an! certain "arkings on others "ay re%resent the garlan!s tine! roun!
the #icti"..-1*4 5er%ents ith ra"s' hea!s occur on the "onu"ents of the
un!erorl! go!. The ser%ent as a chthonian go! or the e"ble" of such a
go!, an! it "ay ha#e been thought a%%ro%riate to gi#e it the hea! of an
ani"al associate! ith the cult of the !ea!.
The !ea! ere also fe! at the gra#e or in the house. Thus cu%s ere
%lace! in the recess of a ell in the churchyar! of =ilranelagh by those
interring a chil! un!er fi#e, an! the ghost of the chil! as su%%ose! to
su%%ly the other s%irits ith ater fro" these cu%s..-1+4 6n 6relan!,
after a !eath, foo! is %lace! out for the s%irits, or, at a burial, nuts
are %lace! in the coffin..-1E4 6n so"e %arts of 9rance, "ilk is %oure!
out on the gra#e, an! both in Brittany an! in 5cotlan! the !ea! are
su%%ose! to %artake of the funeral feast..-114 These are sur#i#als fro"
%agan ti"es an! corres%on! to the rites in use a"ong those ho still
orshi% ancestors. 6n Celtic !istricts a cairn or a cross is %lace! o#er
the s%ot here a #iolent or acci!ental !eath has occurre!, the %ur%ose
being to a%%ease the ghost, an! a stone is often a!!e! to the cairn by
all %assers&by..-1-4
9esti#als ere hel! in 6relan! on the anni#ersaries of the !eath of
kings or chiefs, an! these ere also utilise! for %ur%oses of tra!e,
%leasure, or %olitics. They so"eti"es occurre! on the great festi#als,
e.g. 'ugnasa! an! 5a"hain, an! ere occasionally hel! at the great
burial&%laces..-124 Thus the gathering at Taillti on 'ugnasa! as sai!
to ha#e been foun!e! by 'ug in "e"ory of his foster&"other, Tailtiu, an!
the 'einster"en "et at Car"an on the sa"e !ay to co""e"orate =ing
Gar"an, or in a #ariant account, a o"an calle! Car"an. 5he an! her sons
ha! trie! to blight the corn of the Tuatha )e )anann, but the sons ere
!ri#en off an! she !ie! of grief, begging that a fair shoul! alays be
hel! in her na"e, an! %ro"ising abun!ance of "ilk, fruit, an! fish for
its obser#ance..-134 These "ay be aetiological "yths eI%laining the
origin of these festi#als on the analogy of funeral festi#als, but "ore
likely, since 'ugnasa! as a har#est festi#al, they are connecte! ith
the custo" of slaying a re%resentati#e of the corn&s%irit. The festi#al
oul! beco"e a co""e"oration of all such #icti"s, but hen the custo"
itself ha! cease! it oul! be associate! ith one %articular %ersonage,
the corn&go!!ess regar!e! as a "ortal.
This oul! be the case here the #icti" as a o"an, but here a "ale
as slain, the analogy of the slaying of the !i#ine king or his
Ksucce!aneu"K oul! lea! to the festi#als being regar!e! as
co""e"orati#e of a king, e.g. Gar"an. This agrees ith the state"ent
that obser#ance of the festi#al %ro!uce! %lentyA non&obser#ance, !earth.
The #icti"s ere slain to obtain %lenty, an! the festi#al oul! also
co""e"orate those ho ha! !ie! for this goo! cause, hile it oul! also
a%%ease their ghosts shoul! these be angry at their #iolent !eaths.
Certain of the !ea! ere thus co""e"orate! at 'ugnasa!, a festi#al of
fertility. Both the corn&s%irit or !i#inity slain in the rea%ing of the
corn, an! the hu"an #icti"s, ere a%%ease! by its obser#ance..-1F4 The
legen! of Car"an "akes her hostile to the corn&&a curious ay of
regar!ing a corn&go!!ess. But e ha#e alrea!y seen that go!s of
fertility ere so"eti"es thought of as causing blight, an! in
folk&belief the corn&s%irit is occasionally belie#e! to be !angerous.
5uch in#ersions occur here#er re#olutions in religion take %lace.
The great co""e"oration of the !ea! as hel! on 5a"hain e#e, a festi#al
inten!e! to ai! the !ying %oers of #egetation, hose life, hoe#er, as
still "anifeste! in e#ergreen shrubs, in the "istletoe, in the sheaf of
corn fro" last har#est&&the abo!e of the corn&s%irit..-1G4 Probably,
also, hu"an re%resentati#es of the #egetation or corn&s%irit ere slain,
an! this "ay ha#e suggeste! the belief in the %resence of their ghosts
at this festi#al. 8r the festi#al being hel! at the ti"e of the !eath of
#egetation, the !ea! oul! naturally be co""e"orate! then. 8r, as in
5can!ina#ia, they "ay ha#e been hel! to ha#e an influence on fertility,
as an eItension of the belief that certain slain %ersons re%resente!
s%irits of fertility, or because trees an! %lants groing on the barros
of the !ea! ere thought to be tenante! by their s%irits..--,4 6n
5can!ina#ia, the !ea! ere associate! ith fe"ale s%irits or KfylgjurK,
i!entifie! ith the K!isirK, a kin! of earth&go!!esses, li#ing in hollo
hills..--*4 The nearest Celtic analogy to these is the KMatresK,
go!!esses of fertility. Be!e says that Christ"as e#e as calle!
KMo!ranichtK, BMothers' <ight,B.--+4 an! as "any of the rites of 5a"hain
ere transferre! to $ule, the for"er !ate of KMo!ranichtK "ay ha#e been
5a"hain, just as the 5can!ina#ian K)isablotK, hel! in <o#e"ber, as a
festi#al of the K!isirK an! of the !ea!..--E4 6t has been seen that the
Celtic /arth&go! as lor! of the !ea!, an! that he %robably took the
%lace of an /arth&go!!ess or go!!esses, to ho" the KMatresK certainly
corres%on!. :ence the connection of the !ea! ith fe"ale /arth&s%irits
oul! be eI%laine!. Mother /arth ha! recei#e! the !ea! before her %lace
as taken by the Celtic )is%ater. :ence the ti"e of /arth's !ecay as
the season hen the !ea!, her chil!ren, oul! be co""e"orate!. ?hate#er
be the reason, Celts, Teutons, an! others ha#e co""e"orate! the !ea! at
the beginning of inter, hich as the beginning of a ne year, hile a
si"ilar festi#al of the !ea! at <e $ear is hel! in "any other lan!s.
Both in 6relan! an! in Brittany, on <o#e"ber e#e foo! is lai! out for
the !ea! ho co"e to #isit the houses an! to ar" the"sel#es at the fire
in the stillness of the night, an! in Brittany a huge log burns on the
hearth. ?e ha#e here returne! to the cult of the !ea! at the
hearth..--14 Possibly the $ule log as once a log burne! on the
hearth&&the %lace of the fa"ily ghosts&&at 5a"hain, hen ne fire as
kin!le! in each house. 8n it libations ere %oure!, hich oul! then
ha#e been "eant for the !ea!. The $ule log an! the log of the Breton
%easants oul! thus be the !o"estic as%ect of the fire ritual, hich ha!
its %ublic as%ect in the 5a"hain bonfires.
All this has been in %art affecte! by the Christian feast of All 5ouls.
)r. 9raHer thinks that the feast of All 5aints ><o#e"ber *st@ as
inten!e! to take the %lace of the %agan cult of the !ea!. As it faile!
to !o this, All 5ouls, a festi#al of all the !ea!, as a!!e! on <o#e"ber
+n!..---4 To so"e eItent, but not entirely, it has neutralise! the %agan
rites, for the ol! i!eas connecte! ith 5a"hain still sur#i#e here an!
there. 6t is also to be note! that in so"e cases the frien!ly as%ect of
the !ea! has been lost sight of, an!, like the Ksi!K&folk, they are
%o%ularly connecte! ith e#il %oers hich are in the ascen!ant on
5a"hain e#e.
988T<8T/5(
.-E+4 5ilius 6talicus, #. 2-+A 'ucan, i. 113. Cf. %. +1*, KinfraK.
.-EE4 A""ian. Marcell. I#. *,. 3A Joyce, K5:K i. 1-.
.-E14 Bulliot, K9ouilles !u Mont Beu#rayK, Autun, *FGG, i. 32, EG2.
.-E-4 'e BraH, ii. 23A 5au#e, K9olk&lore !es :autes CosgesK, +G-A
Berenger&9erau!, K5u%erstitions et 5ur#i#ancesK, i. **.
.-E24 :earn, KAryan :ousehol!K, 1E f.A Berenger&9erau!, i. EEA KRe#. !es
Tra!.K i. *1+A Car"ichael, ii. E+GA CosLuin, KTra!. Po%. !e la
'orraineK, i. F+.
.-E34 =enne!y, *+2. The "ischie#ous bronie ho o#erturns furniture an!
s"ashes crockery is an eIact re%ro!uction of the Poltergeist.
.-EF4 )echelette, KRe#. Arch.K IIIiii, >*FGF@, 2E, +1-, +-+.
.-EG4 Cicero, K)e 'eg.K ii. ++.
.-1,4 )echelette, +-2A Reinach, KB9K *FG.
.-1*4 )echelette, +-3&+-F. 6n another instance the ra" is "arke! ith
crosses like those engra#e! on i"ages of the un!erorl! go! ith the
ha""er.
.-1+4 =enne!y, *F3.
.-1E4 'a!y ?il!e, **FA Curtin, KTalesK, -1.
.-114 'e BraH, i. ++GA Gregor, +*A Ca"bry, KCoyage !ans le 9inistereK,
i. ++G.
.-1-4 'e BraH, ii. 13A K9olk&'oreK, i#. E-3A MacCulloch, KMisty 6sle of
5kyeK, +-1A 5ebillot, i. +E-&+E2.
.-124 <a"es of %laces associate! ith the great festi#als are also those
of the chief %agan ce"eteries, Tara, Car"an, Taillti, etc. >8'Curry,
KMCK ii. -+E@.
.-134 KRennes )in!senchasK, KRCK I#. E*E&E*1.
.-1F4 Cf. 9raHer, KA!onisK, *E1.
.-1G4 Cf. Cha"bers, KMe!iae#al 5tageK, i. +-,, +-E.
.--,4 5ee Cigfusson&Poell, KCor%us Poet. BorealeK, i. 1,-, 1*G. Perha%s
for a si"ilar reason a cult of the !ea! "ay ha#e occurre! at the
Mi!su""er festi#al.
.--*4 Miss 9ara!ay, K9olk&'oreK, I#ii. EGF f.
.--+4 Be!e, K!e Te"%. Rat.K c. I#.
.--E4 Cigfusson&Poell, i. 1*G.
.--14 Curtin, KTalesK, *-3A :a!!on, K9olk&'oreK, i#. E-GA 'e BraH, ii.
**- Ket %assi".K
.---4 9raHer, KA!onisK, +-E f.
C:APT/R Q6.
PR6M6T6C/ <AT;R/ ?8R5:6P.
6n early thought e#erything as a %erson, in the loose "eaning then
%ossesse! by %ersonality, an! "any such B%ersonsB ere orshi%%e!&&
earth, sun, "oon, sea, in!, etc. This le! later to "ore co"%lete
%ersonification, an! the sun or earth !i#inity or s%irit as "ore or
less se%arate! fro" the sun or earth the"sel#es. 5o"e Celtic !i#inities
ere thus e#ol#e!, but there still continue! a #eneration of the objects
of nature in the"sel#es, as ell as a cult of nature s%irits or
secon!ary !i#inities ho %eo%le! e#ery %art of nature. B<or ill 6 call
out u%on the "ountains, fountains, or hills, or u%on the ri#ers, hich
are no subser#ient to the use of "an, but once ere an abo"ination an!
!estruction to the", an! to hich the blin! %eo%le %ai! !i#ine honours,B
cries Gil!as..--24 This as the true cult of the folk, the Bblin!
%eo%le,B e#en hen the greater go!s ere organise!, an! it has sur#i#e!
ith "o!ifications in out&of&the&ay %laces, in s%ite of the co"ing of
Christianity.
5. =entigern rebuke! the Ca"brians for orshi%%ing the ele"ents, hich
Go! "a!e for "an's use..--34 The Luestion of the !aughters of 'oegaire
also thros "uch light on Celtic nature orshi%. B:as your go! sons or
!aughtersS... :a#e "any fostere! his sonsS Are his !aughters !ear an!
beautiful to "enS 6s he in hea#en or on earth, in the sea, in the
ri#ers, in the "ountains, in the #alleysSB.--F4 The or!s suggest a
belief in !i#ine beings filling hea#en, earth, sea, air, hills, glens,
lochs, an! ri#ers, an! folloing hu"an custo"s. A nai#e faith, full of
beauty an! %oetry, e#en if it ha! its !ark an! gri" as%ectsM These
%oers or %ersonalities ha! been in#oke! fro" ti"e i""e"orial, but the
in#ocations ere soon stereoty%e! into !efinite for"ulas. 5uch a for"ula
is %ut into the "outh of A"airgen, the %oet of the Milesians, hen they
ere about to in#a!e /rin, an! it "ay ha#e been a "agical in#ocation of
the %oers of nature at the beginning of an un!ertaking or in ti"es of
!anger(
B6 in#oke the lan! of 6relan!M
5hining, shining seaM
9ertile, fertile "ountainM
?oo!e! #aleM
Abun!ant ri#er, abun!ant in atersM
9ish aboun!ing lakeM
9ish aboun!ing seaM
9ertile earthM
6rru%tion of fishM 9ish thereM
Bir! un!er a#eM Great fishM
Crab holeM 6rru%tion of fishM
9ish aboun!ing seaMB.--G4
A si"ilar for"ula as s%oken after the !estruction of )a )erga's :ostel
by MacCecht on his fin!ing ater. :e bathe! in it an! sang&&
BCol! fountainM 5urface of stran! ...
5ea of lake, ater of Gara, strea" of ri#erA
:igh s%ring ellA col! fountainMB.-2,4
The go!!ess Morrigan, after the !efeat of the 9o"orians, in#okes the
%oers of nature an! %roclai"s the #ictory to Bthe royal "ountains of
6relan!, to its chief aters, an! its ri#er "ouths.B.-2*4 6t as also
custo"ary to take oaths by the ele"ents&&hea#en, earth, sun, fire, "oon,
sea, lan!, !ay, night, etc., an! these %unishe! the breaker of the
oath..-2+4 /#en the go!s eIacte! such an oath of each other. Bres sore
by sun, "oon, sea, an! lan!, to fulfil the engage"ent i"%ose! on hi" by
'ug..-2E4 The for"ulae sur#i#e! into Christian ti"es, an! the faithful
ere forbi!!en to call the sun an! "oon go!s or to sear by the", hile
in Breton folk&custo" at the %resent !ay oaths by sun, "oon, or earth,
folloe! by %unish"ent of the oath&breaker by the "oon, are still in
use..-214 These oaths ha! originate! in a ti"e hen the ele"ents
the"sel#es ere thought to be !i#ine, an! si"ilar a!jurations ere use!
by Greeks an! 5can!ina#ians.
?hile the greater objects of nature ere orshi%%e! for the"sel#es
alone, the Celts also %eo%le! the earth ith s%irits, bene#olent or
"ale#olent, of rocks, hills, !ales, forests, lakes, an! strea"s,.-2-4
an! hile greater !i#inities of groth ha! been e#ol#e!, they still
belie#e! in lesser s%irits of #egetation, of the corn, an! of fertility,
connecte!, hoe#er, ith these go!s. 5o"e of these still sur#i#e as
fairies seen in "ea!os, oo!lan!s, or strea"s, or as !e"oniac beings
haunting lonely %laces. An! e#en no, in 9rench folk&belief, sun, "oon,
in!s, etc., are regar!e! as actual %ersonages. 5un an! "oon are husban!
an! ifeA the in!s ha#e i#esA they are a!!resse! by %ersonal na"es an!
re#erence!..-224 5o"e s%irits "ay alrea!y ha#e ha! a !e"oniac as%ect in
%agan ti"es. The Tuatha )ea conjure! u% K"eisiK, Bs%ectral bo!ies that
rise fro" the groun!,B against the Milesians, an! at their ser#ice ere
"alignant s%rites&&KurtrochtaK, an! Bfor"s, s%ectres, an! great LueensB
calle! Kgui!e"ainK >false !e"ons@. The )rui!s also sent forth
"ischie#ous s%irits calle! KsiabraK. 6n the KTainK there are references
to KbocanachsK, KbananaichsK, an! Kgeniti&glinniK, Bgoblins, el!ritch
beings, an! glen&folk.B.-234 These are tice calle! Tuatha )e )anann,
an! this suggests that they ere nature&s%irits akin to the greater
go!s..-2F4 The Kgeniti&glinniK oul! be s%irits haunting glen an!
#alley. They are frien!ly to Cuchulainn in the KTainK, but in the K9east
of BricriuK he an! other heroes fight an! !estroy the"..-2G4 6n "o!ern
6rish belief they are !e"ons of the air, %erha%s fallen angels..-3,4
Much of this is %robably %re&Celtic as ell as Celtic, but it hel! its
groun! because it as !ear to the Celts the"sel#es. They u%hel! the
aboriginal cults rese"bling those hich, in the lan!s hence they ca"e,
ha! been nati#e an! local ith the"sel#es. 5uch cults are as ol! as the
orl!, an! hen Christianity eI%elle! the orshi% of the greater go!s,
younger in groth, the ancient nature orshi%, !oere! ith i""ortal
youth,
Bboe! lo before the blast
6n %atient !ee% !is!ain,B
to rise again in #igour. Preachers, councils, an! las in#eighe! against
it. The ol! rites continue! to be %ractise!, or sur#i#e! un!er a
Christian !ress an! colouring. They are foun! in Breton #illages, in
:ighlan! glens, in ?elsh an! Cornish #alleys, in 6rish tonshi%s, an!
only the s%rea! of school&boar! e!ucation, ith its "aterialis" an!
unin#iting co""on sense, is forcing the" at last to yiel!.
The !enunciations of these cults thro so"e light u%on the". 8fferings
at trees, stones, fountains, an! cross&roa!s, the lighting of fires or
can!les there, an! #os or incantations a!!resse! to the", are
forbi!!en, as is also the orshi% of trees, gro#es, stones, ri#ers, an!
ells. The sun an! "oon are not to be calle! lor!s. ?iHar!ry, an!
!i#ination, an! the lea%ings an! !ancings, songs an! choruses of the
%agans, i.e. their orgiastic cults, are not to be %ractise!.
Te"%est&raisers are not to %ly their !iabolical craft..-3*4 These
!enunciations, of course, ere not ithout their effect, an! legen! tol!
ho the s%irits of nature ere hear! beailing the %oer of the
Christian saints, their "ournful cries echoing in oo!e! hollos,
seclu!e! #alleys, an! shores of lake an! ri#er..-3+4 Their %oer, though
li"ite!, as not annihilate!, but the secrecy in hich the ol! cults
often continue! to be %ractise! ga#e the" a !arker colour. They ere
i!entifie! ith the orks of the !e#il, an! the s%irits of %aganis" ith
!ark an! grisly !e"ons..-3E4 This cul"inate! in the "e!iae#al itch
%ersecutions, for itchcraft as in %art the ol! %aganis" in a ne
guise. $et e#en that !i! not annihilate su%erstition, hich still li#es
an! flourishes a"ong the folk, though the actual orshi% of
nature&s%irits has no !isa%%eare!.
7 7 7 7 7
Perha%s the "ost i"%ortant object in nature to the early Celts as to
"ost %ri"iti#e folk as the "oon. The %hases of the "oon ere a%%arent
before "en obser#e! the solstices an! eLuinoIes, an! they for"e! an easy
"etho! of "easuring ti"e. The Celtic year as at first lunar&&Pliny
s%eaks of the Celtic "etho! of counting the beginning of "onths an!
years by the "oon&&an! night as su%%ose! to %rece!e !ay..-314 The
festi#als of groth began, not at sunrise, but on the %re#ious e#ening
ith the rising of the "oon, an! the na"e K'a 'una!eK is still gi#en to
the Mi!su""er festi#al in %arts of 9rance..-3-4 At Callon !e la 5uille a
oo! on the slo%e here the festi#al is hel! is calle! KBois !e la
'uneKA an! in 6relan!, here the festi#al begins on the %re#ious
e#ening, in the !istrict here an ascent of Cnoc Aine is "a!e, the
%osition of the "oon "ust be obser#e!. A si"ilar co"bination of sun an!
"oon cults is foun! in an inscri%tion at 'ausanne&&KTo the genius of the
sun an! "oon.K.-324
Possibly sun festi#als took the %lace of those of the "oon. Traces of
the connection of the "oon ith agriculture occur in !ifferent regions,
the connection being establishe! through the %ri"iti#e la of
sy"%athetic "agic. The "oon aIes an! anes, therefore it "ust affect
all %rocesses of groth or !ecay. )r. 9raHer has cite! "any instances of
this belief, an! has shon that the "oon ha! a %riority to the sun in
orshi%, e.g. in /gy%t an! Babylon..-334 5oing is !one ith a aIing
"oon, so that, through sy"%athy, there "ay be a large increase. But
har#esting, cutting ti"ber, etc., shoul! be !one ith a aning "oon,
because "oisture being cause! by a aIing "oon, it as necessary to
a#oi! cutting such things as oul! s%oil by "oisture at that ti"e.
5i"ilar beliefs are foun! a"ong the Celts. Mistletoe an! other "agical
%lants ere culle! ith a aIing "oon, %robably because their %oer
oul! thus be greater. )r. Johnson note! the fact that the :ighlan!ers
soe! their see! ith a aIing "oon, in the eI%ectation of a better
har#est. 9or si"ilar occult reasons, it is thought in Brittany that
conce%tion !uring a aIing "oon %ro!uces a "ale chil!, !uring a aning
"oon a fe"ale, hile Kaccouche"entsK at the latter ti"e are !angerous.
5hee% an! cos shoul! be kille! at the ne "oon, else their flesh ill
shrink, but %eats shoul! be cut in the last Luarter, otherise they ill
re"ain "oist an! gi#e out Ba %oer of s"oke.B.-3F4
These i!eas take us back to a ti"e hen it as hel! that the "oon as
not "erely the "easurer of ti"e, but ha! %oerful effects on the
%rocesses of groth an! !ecay. Arte"is an! )iana, "oon&go!!esses, ha!
%oer o#er all groing things, an! as so"e Celtic go!!esses ere eLuate!
ith )iana, they "ay ha#e been connecte! ith the "oon, "ore es%ecially
as Gallo&Ro"an i"ages of )iana ha#e the hea! a!orne! ith a crescent
"oon. 6n so"e cases festi#als of the "oon re"aine! intact, as a"ong the
Celtiberians an! other %eo%les to the north of the", ho at the ti"e of
full "oon celebrate! the festi#al of a na"eless go!, !ancing all night
before the !oors of their houses..-3G4 The na"eless go! "ay ha#e been
the "oon, orshi%%e! at the ti"e of her intensest light. Moonlight
!ances roun! a great stone, ith singing, on the first !ay of the year,
occurre! in the :ighlan!s in the eighteenth century..-F,4 8ther
sur#i#als of cult are seen in the %ractices of boing or baring the hea!
at ne "oon, or a!!ressing it ith or!s of a!oration or su%%lication.
6n 6relan!, Ca"!en foun! the custo" at ne "oon of saying the 'or!'s
Prayer ith the a!!ition of the or!s, B'ea#e us hole an! soun! as Thou
hast foun! us.B 5i"ilar custo"s eIist in Brittany, here girls %ray to
the "oon to grant the" !rea"s of their future husban!s..-F*4 'ike other
races, the Celts thought that ecli%ses ere cause! by a "onster
attacking the "oon, hile it coul! be !ri#en off ith cries an! shouts.
6n +*F B.C. the Celtic allies of Attalus ere frightene! by an ecli%se,
an! "uch later Christian legislation forba!e the %eo%le to asse"ble at
an ecli%se an! shout, KCince, 'unaMK.-F+4 5uch a %ractice as obser#e!
in 6relan! in the se#enteenth century. At an earlier ti"e, 6rish %oets
a!!resse! sun an! "oon as !i#inities, an! they ere re%resente! on
altars e#en in Christian ti"es..-FE4
?hile the Celts belie#e! in sea&go!s&&Manannan, Morgen, )ylan&&the sea
itself as still %ersonifie! an! regar!e! as !i#ine. 6t as thought to
be a hostile being, an! high ti!es ere "et by Celtic arriors, ho
a!#ance! against the" ith sor! an! s%ear, often %erishing in the
rushing aters rather than retreat. The ancients regar!e! this as
bra#a!o. M. Jullian sees in it a sacrifice by #oluntary suici!eA M.
)'Arbois, a tranLuil aiting for !eath an! the intro!uction to another
life..-F14 But the %assages gi#e the sense of an actual attack on the
a#es&&li#ing things hich "en "ight terrify, an! %erha%s ith this as
co"bine! the belief that no one coul! !ie !uring a rising ti!e.
5i"ilarly 9rench fisher"en threaten to cut a fog in to ith a knife,
hile the legen! of 5. 'unaire tells ho he thre a knife at a fog, thus
causing its !isa%%earance..-F-4 9ighting the a#es is also referre! to
in 6rish teIts. Thus Tuirbe Trag"ar oul! Bhurl a cast of his aIe in the
face of the floo!&ti!e, so that he forba!e the sea, hich then oul! not
co"e o#er the aIe.B Cuchulainn, in one of his fits of anger, fought the
a#es for se#en !ays, an! 9ionn fought an! conLuere! the Muireartach, a
%ersonification of the il! estern sea..-F24 8n the 9rench coast
fisher"en thro har%oons at certain har"ful a#es calle! the Three ?itch
?a#es, thus !raing their bloo! an! causing the" to subsi!e..-F34 6n
so"e cases hu"an #icti"s "ay ha#e been offere! to the rising aters,
since certain tales s%eak of a chil! set floating on the a#es, an!
this, re%eate! e#ery se#en years, ke%t the" in their %lace..-FF4
The sea ha! also its beneficent as%ects. The shore as Ba %lace of
re#elation of science,B an! the sea sy"%athise! ith hu"an griefs. At
the Battle of Centry Bthe sea chattere!, telling the losses, an! the
a#es raise! a hea#y, oeful great "oan in ailing the".B.-FG4 6n other
cases in 6relan!, by a s%ell %ut on the a#es, or by the intuiti#e
knole!ge of the listener, it as re#eale! that they ere ailing for a
!eath or !escribing so"e !istant e#ent..-G,4 6n the beautiful song sung
by the ife of Cael, Bthe a#e ails against the shore for his !eath,B
an! in ?elsh "yth the a#es beaile! the !eath of )ylan, Bson of the
a#e,B an! ere eager to a#enge it. The noise of the a#es rushing into
the #ale of Cony ere his !ying groans..-G*4 6n 6relan! the roaring of
the sea as thought to be %ro%hetic of a king's !eath or the co"ing of
i"%ortant nesA an! there, too, certain great a#es ere celebrate! in
story&&Cli!na's, Tuaithe's, an! Ru!hrai!he's..-G+4 <ine a#es, or the
ninth a#e, %artly because of the sacre! nature of the nu"ber nine,
%artly because of the beneficent character of the a#es, ha! a great
i"%ortance. They for"e! a barrier against in#asion, !anger, or
%estilence, or they ha! a healing effect..-GE4
The in! as also regar!e! as a li#ing being hose %oer as to be
!rea!e!. 6t %unishe! =ing 'oegaire for breaking his oath. But it as
also %ersonifie! as a go! Cintius, eLuate! ith PolluI an! orshi%%e! by
Celtic sailors, or ith Mars, the ar&go! ho, in his !estructi#e
as%ect, as %erha%s regar!e! as the nearest analogue to a go! of stor"y
in!s..-G14 )rui!s an! Celtic %riestesses clai"e! the %oer of
controlling the in!s, as !i! iHar!s an! itches in later !ays. This
they !i!, accor!ing to Christian riters, by the ai! of !e"ons, %erha%s
the ol! !i#inities of the air. Bisho% Agobar! !escribes ho the
Kte"%estariiK raise! te"%ests hich !estroye! the fruits of the earth,
an! !re Baerial shi%sB fro" Magonia, hither the shi%s carrie! these
fruits..-G-4 Magonia "ay be the u%%er air rule! o#er by a sky go!
Magounos or Mogounos, eLuate! ith A%ollo..-G24 The in!s "ay ha#e been
his ser#ants, rule! also by earthly "agicians. 'ike $aheh, as concei#e!
by :ebre %oets, he Bbringeth the in!s out of his treasures,B an!
B"aketh lightnings ith rain.B
988T<8T/5(
.--24 Gil!as ii. 1.
.--34 Jocelyn, KCila =entig.K c. IIIii.
.--F4 KTri%. 'ifeK, E*-.
.--G4 K''K *+KbK. The translation is fro" )'Arbois, ii. +-, fA cf.
8'Curry, KMCK ii. *G,.
.-2,4 KRCK IIii. 1,,.
.-2*4 KRCK Iii. *,G.
.-2+4 Petrie, KTaraK, E1A KRCK #i. *2FA K';K **F.
.-2E4 Joyce, K8CRK -,.
.-214 )'Achery, K5%icelegiu"K, #. +*2A 5ebillot, i. *2 f., -2, +**.
.-2-4 Gregory of Tours, K:ist.K ii. *,, s%eaks of the current belief in
the !i#inity of aters, bir!s, an! beasts.
.-224 5ebillot, i. G, E-, 3-, +13, etc.
.-234 Joyce, K5:K ii. +3EA Cor"ac, F3A 5tokes, KT6GK IIIiii., KRCK I#.
E,3.
.-2F4 Miss :ull, *3,, *F3, *GEA K6TK i. +*1A 'eahy, i. *+2.
.-2G4 K6TK i. +F3.
.-3,4 :en!erson, K6rish TeItsK, ii. +*,.
.-3*4 KCa%it. =aroli MagniK, i. 2+A K'eges 'uit%ran!.K ii. EFA Canon +E,
+n! Coun. of Arles, :efele, KCouncilsK, iii. 13*A )'Achery, #. +*-. 5o"e
of these attacks ere "a!e against Teutonic su%erstitions, but si"ilar
su%erstitions eIiste! a"ong the Celts.
.-3+4 5ee Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K ii. 1GF.
.-3E4 A "ore tolerant note is hear!, e.g., in an 6rish teIt hich says
that the s%irits hich a%%eare! of ol! ere !i#ine "inistrants not
!e"oniacal, hile angels hel%e! the ancients because they folloe!
natural truth. BCor"ac's 5or!,B K6TK iii. ++,&++*. Cf. %. *-+, Ksu%raK.
.-314 Caesar, #i. *FA Pliny IIii. *1. Pliny s%eaks of culling "istletoe
on the siIth !ay of the "oon, hich is to the" the beginning of "onths
an! years >KseIta luna, Luae %rinci%iaK, etc.@. This see"s to "ake the
siIth, not the first, !ay of the "oon that fro" hich the calculation
as "a!e. But the "eaning is that "istletoe as culle! on the siIth !ay
of the "oon, an! that the "oon as that by hich "onths an! years ere
"easure!. K'unaK, not KseIta lunaK, is in a%%osition ith KLuaeK. Traces
of the "etho! of counting by nights or by the "oon sur#i#e locally in
9rance, an! the usage is freLuent in 6rish an! ?elsh literature. 5ee "y
article BCalen!arB >Celtic@ in :astings' K/ncyclo%. of Religion an!
/thicsK, iii. 3F f.
.-3-4 )elocke, B'a Procession !ite 'a 'una!e,B KRCK iI. 1+-.
.-324 Monnier, *31, +++A 9itHgeral!, KRCK i#. *FG.
.-334 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P, ii. *-1 f.
.-3F4 Pliny, I#i. 1-A Johnson, KJourneyK, *FEA Ra"say, K5cotlan! in the
/ighteenth CenturyK, ii. 11GA 5ebillot, i. 1* f.A MacCulloch, KMisty
6sle of 5kyeK, +E2. 6n Brittany it is thought that girls "ay concei#e by
the "oon's %oer >KRCK iii. 1-+@.
.-3G4 5trabo, iii. 1. *2.
.-F,4 Bran!, Ks.#.K B<e $ear's )ay.B
.-F*4 Cha"bers, KPo%ular Rhy"esK, E-A 5ebillot, i. 12, -3 f.
.-F+4 Polybius, #. 3FA KCita 5. /ligiiK, ii. *-.
.-FE4 8sborne, KA!#ice to his 5onK >*2-2@, 3GA KRCK II. 1*G, 1+F.
.-F14 Aristotle, K<ic. /th.K iii. 33A K/u!. /th.K iii. *. +-A 5tobaeus,
#ii. 1,A A/lian, Iii. ++A Jullian, -1A )'Arbois, #i. +*F.
.-F-4 5ebillot, i. **G. The custo" of throing so"ething at a Bfairy
e!!y,B i.e. a !ust stor", is ell knon on Celtic groun! an! elsehere.
.-F24 K9olk&'ore,K i#. 1FFA Curtin, K:T6K E+1A Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK,
*-F. 9ian arriors attacke! the sea hen tol! it as laughing at the".
.-F34 KMelusineK, ii. +,,.
.-FF4 5ebillot, ii. *3,.
.-FG4 Meyer, KCath. 9inntragaK, 1,.
.-G,4 KRCK I#i. GA K'BK E+KbK, --.
.-G*4 Meyer, Ko%. cit.K --A 5kene, i. +F+, +FF, -1EA Rh.Jy4s, K:'K EF3.
.-G+4 Meyer, -*A Joyce, KP<K i. *G-, ii. +-3A KRCK I#. 1EF.
.-GE4 5ee %. --, Ksu%raKA K6TK i. FEF, iii. +,3A KRCK ii. +,*, iI. **F.
.-G14 :ol!er, Ks.#.K BCintius.B
.-G-4 Agobar!, i. *12.
.-G24 5ee 5tokes, KRCK #i. +23.
C:APT/R Q66.
R6C/R A<) ?/'' ?8R5:6P.
A"ong the Celts the testi"ony of conte"%orary itnesses, inscri%tions,
#oti#e offerings, an! sur#i#als, shos the i"%ortance of the cult of
aters an! of ater !i#inities. Mr. Go""e argues that Celtic
ater&orshi% as !eri#e! fro" the %re&Celtic aborigines,.-G34 but if
so, the Celts "ust ha#e ha! a %eculiar a%titu!e for it, since they ere
so enthusiastic in its obser#ance. ?hat %robably ha%%ene! as that the
Celts, alrea!y orshi%%ers of the aters, freely a!o%te! local cults of
ater here#er they ca"e. 5o"e ri#ers or ri#er&go!!esses in Celtic
regions see" to %osses %re&Celtic na"es..-GF4
Treasures ere flung into a sacre! lake near Toulouse to cause a
%estilence to cease. Cae%ion, ho afterar!s fishe! u% this treasure,
fell soon after in battle&&a %unish"ent for cu%i!ity, an! Kauru"
Tolosanu"K no beca"e an eI%ression for goo!s !ishonestly acLuire!..-GG4
A yearly festi#al, lasting three !ays, took %lace at 'ake Ge#au!an.
Gar"ents, foo!, an! aI ere thron into the aters, an! ani"als ere
sacrifice!. 8n the fourth !ay, it is sai!, there ne#er faile! to s%ring
u% a te"%est of rain, thun!er, an! lightning&&a strange rear! for this
orshi% of the lake..2,,4 5. Colu"ba route! the s%irits of a 5cottish
fountain hich as orshi%%e! as a go!, an! the ell no beca"e sacre!,
%erha%s to the saint hi"self, ho ashe! in it an! blesse! it so that it
cure! !iseases..2,*4
8n inscri%tions a ri#er na"e is %refiIe! by so"e !i#ine e%ithet&&K!eaK,
KaugustaK, an! the orshi%%er recor!s his gratitu!e for benefits
recei#e! fro" the !i#inity or the ri#er itself. Bor"anus, Bor"o or
Bor#o, )anu#ius >the )anube@, an! 'uIo#ius are foun! on inscri%tions as
na"es of ri#er or fountain go!s, but go!!esses are "ore
nu"erous&&Acionna, A#entia, Bor"ana, BriIia, Car%un!ia, Clutoi!a,
)i#ona, 5irona, ;ra&&ell&ny"%hsA an! 6cauna >the $onne@, Matrona, an!
5eLuana >the 5eine@&&ri#er&go!!esses..2,+4 <o inscri%tion to the go!!ess
of a lake has yet been foun!. 5o"e %ersonal na"es like )ubrogenos >son
of the )ubron@, /nigenus >son of the Aenus@, an! the belief of
Cir!u"arus that one of his ancestors as the Rhine,.2,E4 %oint to the
i!ea that ri#er&!i#inities "ight ha#e a"ours ith "ortals an! beget
%rogeny calle! by their na"es. 6n 6relan!, Conchobar as so na"e! fro"
the ri#er hence his "other <essa !re ater, %erha%s because he as a
chil! of the ri#er&go!..2,14
The na"e of the ater&!i#inity as so"eti"es gi#en to the %lace of his
or her cult, or to the tons hich s%rang u% on the banks of ri#ers&&the
!i#inity thus beco"ing a tutelary go!. Many tons >e.g. )i#onne or
)yonne, etc.@ ha#e na"es !eri#e! fro" a co""on Celtic ri#er na"e )euona,
B!i#ine.B This na"e in #arious for"s is foun! all o#er the Celtic
area,.2,-4 an! there is little !oubt that the Celts, in their onar!
%rogress, na"e! ri#er after ri#er by the na"e of the sa"e !i#inity,
belie#ing that each ne ri#er as a %art of his or her king!o". The na"e
as %robably first an a%%ellati#e, then a %ersonal na"e, the !i#ine
ri#er beco"ing a !i#inity. )eus <e"ausus occurs on #oti#e tablets at
<i"es, the na"e <e"ausus being that of the clear an! abun!ant s%ring
there hence floe! the ri#er of the sa"e na"e. A si"ilar na"e occurs in
other regions&&<e"esa, a tributary of the MoselleA <e"h, the source of
the Tara an! the for"er na"e of the BlackaterA an! <i"is, a 5%anish
ri#er "entione! by A%%ian. Another grou% inclu!es the Matrona >Marne@,
the Mo!er, the Ma!!er, the Maronne an! Maronna, an! others, %robably
!eri#e! fro" a or! signifying B"other.B.2,24 The "other&ri#er as that
hich atere! a hole region, just as in the :in!u sacre! books the
aters are "others, sources of fertility. The Celtic "other&ri#ers ere
%robably go!!esses, akin to the KMatresK, gi#ers of %lenty an!
fertility. 6n Gaul, 5irona, a ri#er&go!!ess, is re%resente! like the
KMatresK. 5he as associate! ith Grannos, %erha%s as his "other, an!
Professor Rh.Jy4s eLuates the %air ith the ?elsh Mo!ron an! MabonA
Mo!ron is %robably connecte! ith Matrona..2,34 6n any case the Celts
regar!e! ri#ers as bestoers of life, health, an! %lenty, an! offere!
the" rich gifts an! sacrifices..2,F4
Go!s like Grannos, Bor#o, an! others, eLuate! ith A%ollo, %resi!e! o#er
healing s%rings, an! they are usually associate! ith go!!esses, as
their husban!s or sons. But as the go!!esses are "ore nu"erous, an! as
"ost Celtic ri#er na"es are fe"inine, fe"ale !i#inities of ri#ers an!
s%rings !oubtless ha! the earlier an! fore"ost %lace, es%ecially as
their cult as connecte! ith fertility. The go!s, feer in nu"ber, ere
all eLuate! ith A%ollo, but the go!!esses ere not "erge! by the Ro"ans
into the %ersonality of one go!!ess, since they the"sel#es ha! their
grou%s of ri#er&go!!esses, <y"%hs an! <aia!s. Before the Ro"an conLuest
the cult of ater&!i#inities, frien!s of "ankin!, "ust ha#e for"e! a
large %art of the %o%ular religion of Gaul, an! their na"es "ay be
counte! by hun!re!s. Ther"al s%rings ha! also their genii, an! they ere
a%%ro%riate! by the Ro"ans, so that the local go!s no share! their
healing %oers ith A%ollo, A/scula%ius, an! the <y"%hs. Thus e#ery
s%ring, e#ery oo!lan! brook, e#ery ri#er in glen or #alley, the roaring
cataract, an! the lake ere haunte! by !i#ine beings, "ainly thought of
as beautiful fe"ales ith ho" the KMatresK ere un!oubte!ly associate!.
There they re#eale! the"sel#es to their orshi%%ers, an! hen %aganis"
ha! %asse! aay, they re"aine! as KfeesK or fairies haunting s%ring, or
ell, or ri#er..2,G4 5cores of fairy ells still eIist, an! by the"
"e!iae#al knights ha! "any a fable! a"our ith those beautiful beings
still seen by the BignorantB but ro"antic %easant.
5anctuaries ere erecte! at these s%rings by grateful orshi%%ers, an!
at so"e of the" festi#als ere hel!, or they ere the resort of
%ilgri"s. As sources of fertility they ha! a %lace in the ritual of the
great festi#als, an! sacre! ells ere #isite! on Mi!su""er !ay, hen
also the ri#er&go!s clai"e! their hu"an #icti"s. 5o"e of the go!!esses
ere re%resente! by statues or busts in Gallo&Ro"an ti"es, if not
earlier, an! other i"ages of the" hich ha#e been foun! ere of the
nature of KeI #otosK, %resente! by orshi%%ers in gratitu!e for the
go!!ess's healing gifts. Money, ingots of gol! or sil#er, an! "o!els of
li"bs or other %arts of the bo!y hich ha! been or ere !esire! to be
heale!, ere also %resente!. Gregory of Tours says of the Gauls that
they Bre%resent in oo! or bronHe the "e"bers in hich they suffer, an!
hose healing they !esire, an! %lace the" in a te"%le.B.2*,4 Contact of
the "o!el ith the !i#inity brought healing to the actual li"bs on the
%rinci%le of sy"%athetic "agic. Many such "o!els ha#e been !isco#ere!.
Thus in the shrine of )ea 5eLuana as foun! a #ase ith o#er a hun!re!A
another containe! o#er eight hun!re!. 6nscri%tions ere engra#e! on
%laLues hich ere fastene! to the alls of te"%les, or %lace! in
s%rings..2**4 'ea!en tablets ith inscri%tions ere %lace! in s%rings by
those ho !esire! healing or hen the aters ere lo, an! on so"e the
actual aters are har!ly !iscri"inate! fro" the !i#inities. The latter
are aske! to heal or flo or sell&&or!s hich a%%ly "ore to the aters
than to the", hile the tablets, ith their frank ani"is", also sho
that, in so"e cases, there ere "any ele"ental s%irits of a ell, only
so"e of ho" ere rising to the rank of a go!!ess. They are calle!
collecti#ely K<iskasK&&the <iIies of later tra!ition, but so"e ha#e
%ersonal na"es&&'erano, )ibona, )ea&&shoing that they ere ten!ing to
beco"e se%arate !i#ine %ersonalities. The Peisgi are also a%%eale! to,
%erha%s the later Piskies, unless the or! is a corru%t for" of a Celtic
K%eiskosK, or the 'atin K%iscusK, Bfish.B.2*+4 This is unlikely, as fish
coul! not eIist in a ar" sul%hurous s%ring, though the Celts belie#e!
in the sacre! fish of ells or strea"s. The fairies no associate! ith
ells or ith a ater&orl! beneath the", are usually na"eless, an! only
in a fe cases ha#e a !efinite na"e. They, like the ol!er s%irits of the
ells, ha#e generally a beneficent character..2*E4 Thus in the fountains
of 'ogres !elt !a"sels ho fe! the ayfarer ith "eat an! brea!, until
grie#ous rong as !one the", hen they !isa%%eare! an! the lan! beca"e
aste..2*14 8ccasionally, hoe#er, they ha#e a "ore "ale#olent
character..2*-4
The s%irit of the aters as often e"bo!ie! in an ani"al, usually a
fish. /#en no in Brittany the fairy !eller in a s%ring has the for" of
an eel, hile in the se#enteenth century :ighlan! ells containe! fish
so sacre! that no one !are! to catch the"..2*24 6n ?ales 5. Cybi's ell
containe! a huge eel in hose #irtues the #illagers belie#e!, an! terror
%re#aile! hen any one !are! to take it fro" the ater. To sacre! fish
still eIist in a holy ell at <ant Peris, an! are re%lace! by others
hen they !ie, the !ea! fish being burie!..2*34 This latter act,
sole"nly %erfor"e!, is a true sign of the !i#ine or sacre! character of
the ani"al. Many ells ith sacre! fish eIist in 6relan!, an! the fish
ha#e usually so"e su%ernatural Luality&&they ne#er alter in siHe, they
beco"e in#isible, or they take the for" of beautiful o"en..2*F4 Any one
!estroying such fish as regar!e! as a sacrilegious %erson, an!
so"eti"es a hostile tribe kille! an! ate the sacre! fish of a !istrict
in#a!e! by the", just as /gy%tians of one no"e insulte! those of another
by killing their sacre! ani"als..2*G4 6n ol! 6rish beliefs the sal"on
as the fish of knole!ge. Thus hoe#er ate the sal"on of Connla's ell
as !oere! ith the is!o" hich ha! co"e to the" through eating nuts
fro" the haHels of knole!ge aroun! the ell. 6n this case the sacre!
fish as eaten, but %robably by certain %ersons only&&those ho ha! the
right to !o so. 5inen!, ho ent to seek ins%iration fro" the ell,
%robably by eating one of its sal"on, as o#erhel"e! by its aters. The
legen! of the sal"on is %erha%s base! on ol! ritual %ractices of the
occasional eating of a !i#ine ani"al. 6n other cases, legen!s of a
"iraculous su%%ly of fish fro" sacre! ells are %erha%s later Christian
tra!itions of for"er %agan beliefs or custo"s concerning "agical "etho!s
of increasing a sacre! or tote" ani"al s%ecies, like those use! in
Central Australia an! <e Guinea..2+,4 The frog is so"eti"es the sacre!
ani"al, an! this recalls the KMaerchenK of the 9rog Bri!egroo" li#ing in
a ell, ho insiste! on "arrying the girl ho !re its aters. Though
this tale is not %eculiar to the Celts, it is not i"%robable that the
!i#ine ani"al guar!ian of a ell "ay ha#e beco"e the hero of a
folk&tale, es%ecially as such ells ere so"eti"es tabu to o"en..2+*4 A
fly as the guar!ian s%irit of 5. Michael's ell in Banffshire. Auguries
regar!ing health ere !ran fro" its "o#e"ents, an! it as belie#e! that
the fly, hen it gre ol!, trans"igrate! into another..2++4
5uch beliefs ere not %eculiarly Celtic. They are foun! in all /uro%ean
folk&lore, an! they are still ali#e a"ong sa#ages&&the ani"al being
itself !i#ine or the %ersonification of a !i#inity. A huge sacre! eel
as orshi%%e! by the 9ijiansA in <orth A"erica an! elsehere there ere
ser%ent guar!ians of the atersA an! the 5e"ites orshi%%e! the fish of
sacre! ells as incarnations or sy"bols of a go!.
'ater Celtic folk&belief associate! "onstrous an! "ale#olent beings ith
ri#ers an! lakes. These "ay be the ol!er !i#inities to ho" a !e"oniac
for" has been gi#en, but e#en in %agan ti"es such "onstrous beings "ay
ha#e been belie#e! in, or they "ay be sur#i#als of the "ore %ri"iti#e
"onstrous guar!ians of the aters. The last ere !ragons or ser%ents,
con#entional for"s of the re%tiles hich once !elt in atery %laces,
attacking all ho ca"e near. This ol! i!ea certainly sur#i#e! in 6rish
an! :ighlan! belief, for the 9ians conLuere! huge !ragons or ser%ents in
lochs, or saints chaine! the" to the botto" of the aters. :ence the
co""on %lace&na"e of 'och na %iast, B'och of the Monster.B 6n other
tales they e"erge an! !e#our the i"%ious or feast on the !ea!..2+E4 The
K)racsK of 9rench su%erstition&&ri#er "onsters ho assu"e hu"an for" an!
!rag !on #icti"s to the !e%ths, here they !e#our the"&&rese"ble these.
The K/ach ;isgeK, or B?ater&horse,B a horse ith staring eyes, ebbe!
feet, an! a sli"y coat, is still !rea!e!. :e assu"es !ifferent for"s an!
lures the unary to !estruction, or he "akes lo#e in hu"an sha%e to
o"en, so"e of ho" !isco#er his true nature by seeing a %iece of
ater&ee! in his hair, an! only esca%e ith !ifficulty. 5uch a
ater&horse as force! to !rag the chariot of 5. 9echin of 9ore, an!
un!er his influence beca"e Bgentler than any other horse.B.2+14 Many
:ighlan! lochs are still haunte! by this !rea!e! being, an! he is also
knon in 6relan! an! 9rance, here, hoe#er, he has "ore of a tricky an!
less of a !e"oniac nature..2+-4 :is horse for" is %erha%s connecte! ith
the si"ilar for" ascribe! to Celtic ater&!i#inities. Manannan's horses
ere the a#es, an! he as in#ariably associate! ith a horse. /%ona,
the horse&go!!ess, as %erha%s originally go!!ess of a s%ring, an!, like
the KMatresK, she is so"eti"es connecte! ith the aters..2+24 :orses
ere also sacrifice! to ri#er&!i#inities..2+34 But the beneficent
ater&!i#inities in their horse for" ha#e un!ergone a curious
!istortion, %erha%s as the result of later Christian influences. The
na"e of one branch of the 9o"orians, the Goborchinn, "eans the
B:orse&hea!e!,B an! one of their kings as /ochai! /chchenn, or
B:orse&hea!.B.2+F4 ?hether these ha#e any connection ith the
ater&horse is uncertain.
The foa"ing aters "ay ha#e suggeste! another ani"al %ersonification,
since the na"e of the Boyne in Ptole"y, .Greek( bououin!a4, is !eri#e!
fro" a %ri"iti#e Kbou&sK, BoI,B an! K#in!o&sK, Bhite,B in 6rish Kbo
fin!K, Bhite co.B.2+G4 But it is not certain that this or the Celtic
cult of the bull as connecte! ith the belief in the KTarbh ;isgeK, or
B?ater&bull,B hich ha! no ears an! coul! assu"e other sha%es. 6t !ells
in lochs an! is generally frien!ly to "an, occasionally e"erging to "ate
ith or!inary cos. 6n the 6sle of Man the KTarroo ;shteyK, hoe#er,
begets "onsters..2E,4 These Celtic ater&"onsters ha#e a curious
rese"blance to the Australian KBunyi%K.
The K;ruisgK, often confuse! ith the bronie, haunts lonely %laces an!
aterfalls, an!, accor!ing to his "oo!, hel%s or har"s the ayfarer. :is
a%%earance is that of a "an ith shaggy hair an! bear!..2E*4 6n ?ales
the KafancK is a ater&"onster, though the or! first "eant B!arf,B
then Bater&!arf,B of ho" "any kin!s eIiste!. They corres%on! to the
6rish ater&!arfs, the K'uchor%ainK, !escen!e! ith the 9o"orians an!
Goborchinn fro" :a"..2E+4
6n other cases the ol! ater beings ha#e a "ore %leasing for", like the
syrens an! other fairy beings ho haunt 9rench ri#ers, or the "er"ai!s
of 6rish estuaries..2EE4 6n Celtic 9rance an! Britain lake fairies are
connecte! ith a ater&orl! like that of /lysiu" tales, the region of
earlier !i#inities..2E14 They unite ith "ortals, ho, as in the
5an&"ai!en tales, lose their fairy bri!es through breaking a tabu. 6n
"any ?elsh tales the bri!e is obtaine! by throing brea! an! cheese on
the aters, hen she a%%ears ith an ol! "an ho has all the strength of
youth. :e %resents his !aughter an! a nu"ber of fairy ani"als to the
"ortal. ?hen she !isa%%ears into the aters after the breaking of the
tabu, the lake is so"eti"es !raine! in or!er to reco#er herA the father
then a%%ears an! threatens to sub"erge the hole !istrict. 9ather an!
!aughters are earlier lake !i#inities, an! in the brea! an! cheese e
"ay see a relic of the offerings to these..2E-4
:u"an sacrifice to ater&!i#inities is suggeste! by the belief that
ater&"onsters !e#our hu"an beings, an! by the tra!ition that a ri#er
clai"s its toll of #icti"s e#ery year. 6n %o%ular rhy"es the annual
character of the sacrifice is hinte! at, an! ?elsh legen! tells of a
#oice hear! once a year fro" ri#ers or lakes, crying, BThe hour is co"e,
but the "an is not.B.2E24 :ere there is the trace of an aban!one! custo"
of sacrifice an! of the tra!itional i!ea of the anger of the !i#inity at
being neglecte!. 5uch s%irits or go!s, like the ater&"onsters, oul! be
e#er on the atch to ca%ture those ho tres%asse! on their !o"ain. 6n
so"e cases the #icti" is su%%ose! to be clai"e! on Mi!su""er e#e, the
ti"e of the sacrifice in the %agan %erio!..2E34 The s%irits of ells ha!
also a har"ful as%ect to those, at least, ho shoe! irre#erence in
a%%roaching the". This is seen in legen!s about the !anger of looking
rashly into a ell or neglecting to co#er it, or in the belief that one
"ust not look back after #isiting the ell. 5%irits of ells ere also
besought to !o har" to ene"ies.
'egen!s telling of the !anger of re"o#ing or altering a ell, or of the
ell "o#ing elsehere because a o"an ashe! her han!s in it, %oint to
ol! tabus concerning ells. Boan!, ife of <echtain, ent to the fairy
ell hich he an! his cu%&bearers alone "ight #isit, an! hen she shoe!
her conte"%t for it, the aters rose an! !estroye! her. They no flo as
the ri#er Boyne. 5inen! "et ith a si"ilar fate for intru!ing on
Connla's ell, in this case the %ursuing aters beca"e the 5hannon..2EF4
These are #ariants of a story hich "ight be use! to eI%lain the origin
of any ri#er, but the legen!s suggest that certain ells ere tabu to
o"en because certain branches of knole!ge, taught by the ell, "ust be
reser#e! for "en..2EG4 The legen!s sai! in effect, B5ee hat ca"e of
o"en obtru!ing beyon! their %ro%er s%here.B 5a#age B"ysteriesB are
usually tabu to o"en, ho also eIclu!e "en fro" their sacre! rites. 8n
the other han!, as all tribal lore as once in the han!s of the ise
o"an, such tabus an! legen!s "ay ha#e arisen hen "en began to clai"
such lore. 6n other legen!s o"en are connecte! ith ells, as the
guar!ians ho "ust kee% the" locke! u% sa#e hen ater as !ran. ?hen
the o"an neglecte! to re%lace the co#er, the aters burst forth,
o#erhel"ing her, an! for"e! a loch..21,4 The o"an is the %riestess of
the ell ho, neglecting %art of its ritual, is %unishe!. /#en in recent
ti"es e fin! sacre! ells in charge of a o"an ho instructs the
#isitors in the !ue ritual to be %erfor"e!..21*4 6f such legen!s an!
sur#i#als thus %oint to for"er Celtic %riestesses of ells, these are
%arallele! by the <orse :orgabru!ar, guar!ians of ells, no el#es
li#ing in the aters..21+4 That such legen!s are base! on the ritual of
ell&orshi% is suggeste! by Boan!'s alking three ti"es Ki!!ershinsK
roun! the ell, instea! of the custo"ary K!eiseilK. The !ue ritual "ust
be obser#e!, an! the stories are a arning against its neglect.
6n s%ite of tenty centuries of Christianity an! the anathe"as of saints
an! councils, the ol! %agan %ractices at healing ells ha#e sur#i#e!&&a
striking instance of hu"an conser#atis". 5. Patrick foun! the %agans of
his !ay orshi%%ing a ell calle! K5lanK, Bhealth&gi#ing,B an! offering
sacrifices to it,.21E4 an! the 6rish %easant to&!ay has no !oubt that
there is so"ething !i#ine about his holy ells. The Celts brought the
belief in the !i#inity of s%rings an! ells ith the", but oul!
naturally a!o%t local cults here#er they foun! the". Afterar!s the
Church %lace! the ol! %agan ells un!er the %rotection of saints, but
%art of the ritual often re"aine! unchange!. :ence "any ells ha#e been
#enerate! for ages by !ifferent races an! through changes in religion
an! %olity. Thus at the ther"al s%rings of Cicarello offerings ha#e been
foun! hich sho that their cult has continue! fro" the 5tone Age,
through the BronHe Age, to the !ays of Ro"an ci#ilisation, an! so into
"o!ern ti"esA nor is this a solitary instance..2114 But it ser#es to
sho that all races, high an! lo, %reser#e the great outlines of
%ri"iti#e nature religion unchange!. 6n all %robability the ritual of
the healing ells has also re"aine! in great %art unaltere!, an!
here#er it is foun! it follos the sa"e general ty%e. The %atient
%era"bulate! the ell three ti"es K!eiseilK or sun&ise, taking care not
to utter a or!. Then he knelt at the ell an! %raye! to the !i#inity
for his healing. 6n "o!ern ti"es the saint, but occasionally the ell
itself, is %raye! to..21-4 Then he !rank of the aters, bathe! in the",
or la#e! his li"bs or sores, %robably atten!e! by the %riestess of the
ell. :a#ing %ai! her !ues, he "a!e an offering to the !i#inity of the
ell, an! affiIe! the ban!age or %art of his clothing to the ell or a
tree near by, that through it he "ight be in continuous Kra%%ortK ith
the healing influences. Ritual for"ulae %robably acco"%anie! these acts,
but otherise no or! as s%oken, an! the %atient "ust not look back on
lea#ing the ell. 5%ecial ti"es, Beltane, Mi!su""er, or August *st, ere
fa#ourable for such #isits,.2124 an! here a %atient as too ill to
%resent hi"self at the ell, another "ight %erfor" the ritual for
hi"..2134
The rag or clothing hung on the tree see"s to connect the s%irit of the
tree ith that of the ell, an! tree an! ell are often foun! together.
But so"eti"es it is thron into the ell, just as the Gaulish #illagers
of 5. Gregory's !ay thre offerings of cloth an! ool into a sacre!
lake..21F4 The rag is e#en no regar!e! in the light of an offering, an!
such offerings, #arying fro" #aluable articles of clothing to "ere rags,
are still hung on sacre! trees by the folk. 6t thus %robably has alays
ha! a sacrificial as%ect in the ritual of the ell, but as "agic an!
religion constantly blen!, it ha! also its "agical as%ect. The rag, once
in contact ith the %atient, transferre! his !isease to the tree, or,
being still subtly connecte! ith hi", through it the healing %ro%erties
%asse! o#er to hi".
The offering thron into the ell&&a %in, coin, etc., "ay also ha#e this
!ouble as%ect. The sore is often %ricke! or rubbe! ith the %in as if to
transfer the !isease to the ell, an! if %icke! u% by another %erson,
the !isease "ay %ass to hi". This is also true of the coin..21G4 But
other eIa"%les sho the sacrificial nature of the %in or other trifle,
hich is %robably sy"bolic or a sur#i#al of a "ore costly offering. 6n
so"e cases it is thought that those ho !o not lea#e it at the ell fro"
hich they ha#e !runk ill !ie of thirst, an! here a coin is offere! it
is often su%%ose! to !isa%%ear, being taken by the s%irit of the
ell..2-,4 The coin has clearly the nature of an offering, an! so"eti"es
it "ust be of gol! or sil#er, hile the antiLuity of the custo" on
Celtic groun! is seen by the classical !escri%tions of the coins
glittering in the %ool of Clitu"nus an! of the Bgol! of ToulouseB hi! in
sacre! tanks..2-*4 6t is also an ol! an! i!es%rea! belief that all
ater belongs to so"e !i#ine or "onstrous guar!ian, ho ill not %art
ith any of it ithout a KLui! %ro LuoK. 6n "any cases the to rites of
rag an! %in are not both use!, an! this "ay sho that originally they
ha! the sa"e %ur%ose&&"agical or sacrificial, or %erha%s both. 8ther
sacrifices ere also "a!e&&an ani"al, foo!, or an KeI #otoK, the last
occurring e#en in late sur#i#als as at 5. Thene's ?ell, Glasgo, here
e#en in the eighteenth century tin cut to re%resent the !isease! "e"ber
as %lace! on the tree, or at 5. ?inifre!'s ?ell in ?ales, here
crutches ere left.
Certain aters ha! the %oer of ejecting the !e"on of "a!ness. Besi!es
!rinking, the %atient as thron into the aters, the shock being
inten!e! to !ri#e the !e"on aay, as elsehere !e"ons are eIorcise! by
flagellation or beating. The !i#inity of the aters ai!e! the %rocess,
an! an offering as usually "a!e to hi". 6n other cases the sacre!
aters ere su%%ose! to ar! off !isease fro" the !istrict or fro" those
ho !rank of the". 8r, again, they ha! the %oer of conferring
fertility. ?o"en "a!e %ilgri"ages to ells, !rank or bathe! in the
aters, i"%lore! the s%irit or saint to grant the" offs%ring, an! "a!e a
!ue offering..2-+4 5%irit or saint, by a transfer of his %oer, %ro!uce!
fruitfulness, but the i!ea as in har"ony ith the recognise! %oer of
ater to %urify, strengthen, an! heal. ?o"en, for a si"ilar reason,
!rank or ashe! in the aters or ore so"e articles !i%%e! in the", in
or!er to ha#e an easy !eli#ery or abun!ance of "ilk..2-E4
The aters also ga#e oracles, their "etho! of floing, the a"ount of
ater in the ell, the a%%earance or non&a%%earance of bubbles at the
surface hen an offering as thron in, the sinking or floating of
#arious articles, all in!icating hether a cure as likely to occur,
hether fortune or "isfortune aaite! the inLuirer, or, in the case of
girls, hether their lo#ers oul! be faithful. The "o#e"ents of the
ani"al guar!ian of the ell ere also o"inous to the #isitor..2-14
Ri#ers or ri#er !i#inities ere also a%%eale! to. 6n cases of sus%ecte!
fi!elity the Celts !elling by the Rhine %lace! the nely&born chil! in
a shiel! on the aters. 6f it floate! the "other as innocentA if it
sank it as alloe! to !ron, an! she as %ut to !eath..2--4 Girls hose
%urity as sus%ecte! ere si"ilarly teste!, an! 5. Gregory of Tours
tells ho a o"an accuse! of a!ultery as %ro#e! by being thron into
the 5aone..2-24 The "e!iae#al itch or!eal by ater is connecte! ith
this custo", hich is, hoe#er, i!es%rea!..2-34
The "ale#olent as%ect of the s%irit of the ell is seen in the Bcursing
ellsB of hich it as thought that hen so"e article inscribe! ith an
ene"y's na"e as thron into the" ith the acco"%ani"ent of a curse, the
s%irit of the ell oul! cause his !eath. 6n so"e cases the curse as
inscribe! on a lea!en tablet thron into the aters, just as, in other
cases, a %rayer for the offerer's benefit as engra#e! on it. 8r, again,
objects o#er hich a char" ha! been sai! ere %lace! in a ell that the
#icti" ho !re ater "ight be injure!. An eIcellent instance of a
cursing&ell is that of 9ynnon /lian in )enbigh, hich "ust once ha#e
ha! a guar!ian %riestess, for in *F*- an ol! o"an ho ha! charge of it
%resi!e! at the cere"ony. 5he rote the na"e of the #icti" in a book,
recei#ing a gift at the sa"e ti"e. A %in as !ro%%e! into the ell in
the na"e of the #icti", an! through it an! through knole!ge of his
na"e, the s%irit of the ell acte! u%on hi" to his hurt..2-F4 8b#iously
rites like these, in hich "agic an! religion "ingle, are not %urely
Celtic, but it is of interest to note their eIistence in Celtic lan!s
an! a"ong Celtic folk.
988T<8T/5(
.-G34 K/thnol. in 9olkloreK, *,1 f.
.-GF4 )'Arbois, KP:K ii. *E+, *2GA )ottin, +1,.
.-GG4 Justin, IIIii. EA 5trabo, i#. *. *E.
.2,,4 5. Gregory, K6n Glor. Conf.K ch. +. Perha%s the feast an!
offerings ere inten!e! to cause rain in ti"e of !rought. 5ee %. E+*,
KinfraK.
.2,*4 A!a""an, KCita Colu".K ii. *,.
.2,+4 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.2,E4 )'Arbois, KRCK I. *2F, Ii#. E33A KC6'K Iii. EEA Pro%ertius, i#.
*,. 1*.
.2,14 5ee %. E1G, KinfraK.
.2,-4 Cf. Ptole"y's .Greek( )eouana4 an! .Greek( )eouna4 >ii. E. *G, **.
+G@A the 5cots an! /nglish )eeA the )i#y in ?alesA )e#e, )i#e, an!
)i#ette in 9ranceA )e#on in /nglan!A )e#a in 5%ain >Ptole"y's .Greek(
)eoua4, ii. 2. F@. The 5hannon is surna"e! e#en in the se#enth century
Bthe go!!essB >KTri%. 'ifeK, E*E@.
.2,24 :ol!er, Ks.#.KA )'Arbois, KP:K ii. **G, thinks KMatronaK is
'igurian. But it see"s to ha#e strong Celtic affinities.
.2,34 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +3&+G, KRCK i#. *E3.
.2,F4 8n the hole subject see Pictet, BTuelLues no"s celtiLues !e
ri#ieres,B KRCK ii. * f. 8rosius, #. *-. 2, !escribes the sacrifices of
gol!, sil#er, an! horses, "a!e to the Rhone.
.2,G4 Maury, *F. By eItension of this belief any !i#inity "ight a%%ear
by the haunte! s%ring. 5. Patrick an! his syno! of bisho%s at an 6rish
ell ere su%%ose! to be Ksi!K or go!s >%. 21, Ksu%raK.@ By a fairy ell
Jeanne !'Arc ha! her first #ision.
.2*,4 Greg. Tours, KCita Patr.K c. 2.
.2**4 5ee Reinach, KCatal. 5o""aireK, +E, **-A Bau!ot, KRa%%ort sur les
fouilles faits auI sources !e la 5eineK, ii. *+,A KRCK ii. +2.
.2*+4 9or these tablets see <icolson, K=eltic 5tu!iesK, *E* f.A Jullian,
KRCK *FGF.
.2*E4 5ebillot, ii. *G-.
.2*14 Prologue to Chrestien's KConte !u GraalK.
.2*-4 5ebillot, ii. +,+ f.
.2*24 6bi!. *G2&*G3A Martin, *1,&*1*A )alyell, 1**.
.2*34 Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. E22A K9olk&'oreK, #iii. +F*. 6f the fish
a%%eare! hen an in#ali! !rank of the ell, this as a goo! o"en. 9or
the custo" of burying sacre! ani"als, see :ero!, ii. 31A A/lian, Iiii.
+2.
.2*F4 Go""e, K/thnol. in 9olkloreK, G+.
.2*G4 KTri%. 'ifeK, **EA Tigernach, KAnnalsK, A.). *,2*.
.2+,4 Mackinley, *F1.
.2+*4 Burne, K5hro%shire 9olk&'oreK, 1*2A Ca"%bell, K?:TK ii. *1-.
.2++4 K8l! 5tat. AccountK, Iii. 12-.
.2+E4 5. Patrick, hen he cleare! 6relan! of ser%ents, !ealt in this ay
ith the orst s%eci"ens. 5. Colu"ba Luelle! a "onster hich terrifie!
the !ellers by the <ess. Joyce, KP<K i. *G3A A!a"nan, KCita Colu"b.K
ii. +FA =enne!y, *+, F+, +12A KRCK i#. *3+, *F2.
.2+14 KRCK Iii. E13.
.2+-4 9or the ater&horse, see Ca"%bell, K?:TK i#. E,3A Mac!ongall, +G1A
Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, +,EA an! for the ManI KGlashtynK, a kin! of
ater&horse, see Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. +F-. 9or 9rench cognates, see
Berenger&9erau!, K5u%erstitions et 5ur#i#ancesK, i. E1G f.
.2+24 Reinach, KCMRK i. 2E.
.2+34 8rosius, #. *-. 2.
.2+F4 K';K +KaK. 8f /ochai! is tol! a #ariant of the Mi!as story&&the
!isco#ery of his horse's ears. This is also tol! of 'abrai! 'ore >KRCK
ii. GFA =enne!y, +-2@ an! of =ing Marc'h in Brittany an! in ?ales >'e
BraH, ii. G2A Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K +EE@. 8ther #ariants are foun! in
non&Celtic regions, so the story has no "ythological significance on
Celtic groun!.
.2+G4 Ptol. ii. +. 3.
.2E,4 Ca"%bell, K?:TK i#. E,, f.A Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. +F1A ?al!ron, K6sle
of ManK, *13.
.2E*4 Mac!ougall, +G2A Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, *G-. 9or the ;ruisg as
Bronie, see K?:TK ii. GA Graha", K5cenery of PerthshireK, *G.
.2E+4 Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K ii. 1E*, 12G, K:'K, -G+A KBook of TaliesinK, #ii.
*E-.
.2EE4 5ebillot, ii. E1,A K''K *2-A K6TK i. 2GG.
.2E14 5ebillot, ii. 1,G.
.2E-4 5ee Pughe, KThe Physicians of My!!faiK, *F2* >these ere
!escen!ants of a ater&fairy@A Rh.Jy4s, K$ Cy""ro!orK, i#. *21A
:artlan!, KArch. Re#.K i. +,+. 5uch ater&go!s ith lo#ely !aughters are
knon in "ost "ythologies&&the Greek <ereus an! the <erei!s, the
5la#onic ?ater&king, an! the Ja%anese go! 8cean&Possessor >Ralston,
K5ongs of the Russian Peo%leK, *1FA Cha"berlain, K=o&ji&kiK, *+,@.
Manannan ha! nine !aughters >?oo!&Martin, i. *E-@.
.2E24 5ebillot, ii. EEF, E11A Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. +1EA :en!erson,
K9olk&'ore of the <. CountiesK, +2+. Cf. the rhy"es, B''Arguenon #eut
chaLue annee son %oisson,B the BfishB being a hu"an #icti", an!
BBloo!&thirsty )ee
/ach year nee!s three,
But bonny )on,
5he nee!s none.B
.2E34 5ebillot, ii. EEG.
.2EF4 KRen!es )in!senchasK, KRCK I#. E*-, 1-3. 8ther instances of
%unish"ent folloing "isuse of a ell are gi#en in 5ebillot, ii. *G+A
Rees, -+,, -+E. An 6rish lake no longer heale! after a hunter sa" his
"angy houn!s through it >Joyce, KP<K ii. G,@. A si"ilar legen! occurs
ith the Cotiaks, one of hose sacre! lakes as re"o#e! to its %resent
%osition because a o"an ashe! !irty clothes in it >K''Anthro%ologieK,
I#. *,3@.
.2EG4 Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. EG+.
.21,4 Giral!. Ca"br. K6tin. :ib.K ii. GA Joyce, K8CRK G3A =enne!y, +F*A
8'Gra!y, i. +EEA 5kene, ii. -GA Ca"%bell, K?:TK ii. *13. The aters
often sub"erge a ton, no seen belo the a#es&&the ton of 6s in
Ar"orica >'e BraH, i. %. IIIiI@, or the toers un!er 'ough <eagh. 6n
so"e ?elsh instances a "an is the cul%rit >Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. E3G@. 6n
the case of 'ough <eagh the kee%er of the ell as 'iban, ho li#e! on
in the aters as a "er"ai!. 'ater she as caught an! recei#e! the
ba%tis"al na"e of Muirghenn, Bsea&birth.B :ere the "yth of a
ater&go!!ess, sai! to ha#e been ba%tiHe!, is attache! to the legen! of
the careless guar!ian of a s%ring, ith ho" she is i!entifie! >8'Gra!y,
ii. *F1, +2-@.
.21*4 Roberts, KCa"brian Po%. AntiL.K +12A :unt, KPo%ular Ro"ancesK,
+G*A K<e 5tat. AccountK, I. E*E.
.21+4 Thor%e, K<orthern Myth.K ii. 3F.
.21E4 Joyce, KP<K ii. F1. K5lanK occurs in "any na"es of ells.
?ell&orshi% is !enounce! in the canons of the 9ourth Council of Arles.
.2114 Cartailhac, K''Age !e PierreK, 31A Bulliot et Thiollier, KMission
!e 5. MartinK, 2,.
.21-4 5ebillot, ii. +F1.
.2124 )alyell, 3G&F,A 5ebillot, ii. +F+, E31A see %. +22, KinfraK.
.2134 6 ha#e co"%ile! this account of the ritual fro" notices of the
"o!ern usages in #arious orks. 5ee, e.g., Moore, K9olk&'oreK, #. +*+A
Mackinley, K%assi"KA :o%e, K:oly ?ellsKA Rh.Jy4s, KC9'KA 5ebillot, *3-
f.A )iIon, KGairlochK, *-, f.
.21F4 Bran!, ii. 2FA Greg. K6n Glor. Conf.K c. +.
.21G4 5ebillot, ii. +GE, +G2A K9olk&'oreK, i#. --.
.2-,4 Mackinley, *G1A 5ebillot, ii. +G2.
.2-*4 K9olk&'oreK, iii. 23A KAthenaeu"K, *FGE, 1*-A Pliny, K/%.K #iii. FA
5trabo, i#. +F3A )io!. 5ic. #. G.
.2-+4 ?alker, KProc. 5oc. Ant. 5cot.K #ol. #.A 5ebillot, ii. +E+. 6n
so"e early 6rish instances a or" salloe! ith the aters by a o"an
causes %regnancy. 5ee %. E-+, KinfraK.
.2-E4 5ebillot, ii. +E-&+E2.
.2-14 5ee 'e BraH, i. 2*A K9olk&'oreK, #. +*1A Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. E21A
)alyell, -,2&-,3A 5cott, KMinstrelsyK, 6ntro!. IliiiA Martin, 3A
5ebillot, ii. +1+ f.A KRCK ii. 1F2.
.2--4 Jullian, K/%. to MaIi"inK, *2. The %ractice "ay ha#e been
connecte! ith that note! by Aristotle, of %lunging the nely&born into
a ri#er, to strengthen it, as he says >KPol.K #ii. *-. +@, but "ore
%robably as a ba%tis"al or %urificatory rite. 5ee %. E,G, KinfraK.
.2-24 'efe#re, K'es GauloisK, *,GA Michelet, K8rigines !u !roit
francaisK, +2F.
.2-34 5ee eIa"%les of its use in Post, KGrun!riss !er /thnol.
Juris%ru!enHK, ii. 1-G f.
.2-F4 Roberts, KCa"brian Po%ular AntiLuitiesK, +12.
C:APT/R Q666.
TR// A<) P'A<T ?8R5:6P.
The Celts ha! their on cult of trees, but they a!o%te! local
cults&&'igurian, 6berian, an! others. The K9agus )eusK >the !i#ine
beech@, the K5eI arborK or K5eI arboresK of Pyrenean inscri%tions, an!
an anony"ous go! re%resente! by a conifer on an altar at Toulouse,
%robably %oint to local 'igurian tree cults continue! by the Celts into
Ro"an ti"es..2-G4 9orests ere also %ersonifie! or rule! by a single
go!!ess, like K)ea Ar!uinnaK of the Ar!ennes an! K)ea AbnobaK of the
Black 9orest..22,4 But "ore %ri"iti#e i!eas %re#aile!, like that hich
assigne! a hole class of tree&!i#inities to a forest, e.g. the K9atae
)er#onesK, s%irits of the oak&oo!s of <orthern 6taly..22*4 Grou%s of
trees like K5eI arboresK ere #enerate!, %erha%s for their height,
isolation, or so"e other %eculiarity.
The Celts "a!e their sacre! %laces in !ark gro#es, the trees being hung
ith offerings or ith the hea!s of #icti"s. :u"an sacrifices ere hung
or i"%ale! on trees, e.g. by the arriors of Bou!icca..22+4 These, like
the offerings still %lace! by the folk on sacre! trees, ere attache! to
the" because the trees ere the abo!e of s%irits or !i#inities ho in
"any cases ha! %oer o#er #egetation.
Pliny sai! of the Celts( BThey estee" nothing "ore sacre! than the
"istletoe an! the tree on hich it gros. But a%art fro" this they
choose oak&oo!s for their sacre! gro#es, an! %erfor" no sacre! rite
ithout using oak branches.B.22E4 MaIi"us of Tyre also s%eaks of the
Celtic >S Ger"an@ i"age of Reus as a lofty oak, an! an ol! 6rish
glossary gi#es K!aurK, Boak,B as an early 6rish na"e for Bgo!,B an!
glosses it by K!iaK, Bgo!.B.2214 The sacre! nee!&fire "ay ha#e been
obtaine! by friction fro" oak&oo!, an! it is because of the ol!
sacre!ness of the oak that a %iece of its oo! is still use! as a
talis"an in Brittany..22-4 8ther Aryan folk besi!es the Celts regar!e!
the oak as the sy"bol of a high go!, of the sun or the sky,.2224 but
%robably this as not its earliest significance. 8ak forests ere once
"ore eItensi#e o#er /uro%e than they are no, an! the ol! tra!ition that
"en once li#e! on acorns has been shon to be ell&foun!e! by the
itness of archaeological fin!s, e.g. in <orthern 6taly..2234 A %eo%le
li#ing in an oak region an! subsisting in %art on acorns "ight easily
take the oak as a re%resentati#e of the s%irit of #egetation or groth.
6t as long&li#e!, its foliage as a %rotection, it su%%lie! foo!, its
oo! as use! as fuel, an! it as thus clearly the frien! of "an. 9or
these reasons, an! because it as the "ost abi!ing an! li#ing thing "en
kne, it beca"e the e"bo!i"ent of the s%irits of life an! groth.
9olk&lore sur#i#als sho that the s%irit of #egetation in the sha%e of
his re%resentati#e as annually slain hile yet in full #igour, that his
life "ight benefit all things an! be %asse! on un!i"inishe! to his
successor..22F4 :ence the oak or a hu"an being re%resenting the s%irit
of #egetation, or both together, ere burne! in the Mi!su""er fires.
:o, then, !i! the oak co"e to sy"bolise a go! eLuate! ith Reus. Though
the eLuation "ay be orthless, it is %ossible that the connection lay in
the fact that Reus an! Ju%%iter ha! agricultural functions, or that,
hen the eLuation as "a!e, the earlier s%irit of #egetation ha! beco"e
a !i#inity ith functions rese"bling those of Reus. The fires ere
kin!le! to recruit the sun's lifeA they ere fe! ith oak&oo!, an! in
the" an oak or a hu"an #icti" re%resenting the s%irit e"bo!ie! in the
oak as burne!. :ence it "ay ha#e been thought that the sun as
strengthene! by the fire resi!ing in the sacre! oakA it as thus Bthe
original storehouse or reser#oir of the fire hich as fro" ti"e to ti"e
!ran out to fee! the sun.B.22G4 The oak thus beca"e the sy"bol of a
bright go! also connecte! ith groth. But, to ju!ge by folk sur#i#als,
the ol!er conce%tion still re"aine! %otent, an! tree or hu"an #icti"
affecte! for goo! all #egetable groth as ell as "an's life, hile at
the sa"e ti"e the fire strengthene! the sun.
)r. /#ans argues that Bthe original holy object ithin the central
triliths of 5tonehenge as a sacre! tree,B an oak, i"age of the Celtic
Reus. The tree an! the stones, once associate! ith ancestor orshi%,
ha! beco"e sy"bols of Ba "ore celestial 5%irit or 5%irits than those of
!e%arte! hu"an beings.B.23,4 But 5tonehenge has no been %ro#e! to ha#e
been in eIistence before the arri#al of the Celts, hence such a cult
"ust ha#e been %re&Celtic, though it "ay Luite ell ha#e been a!o%te! by
the Celts. ?hether this hy%othetical cult as %ractise! by a tribe, a
grou% of tribes, or by the hole %eo%le, "ust re"ain obscure, an!,
in!ee!, it "ay ell be Luestione! hether 5tonehenge as e#er "ore than
the scene of so"e ancestral rites.
8ther trees&&the ye, the cy%ress, the al!er, an! the ash, ere
#enerate!, to ju!ge by hat 'ucan relates of the sacre! gro#e at
Marseilles. The 6rish )rui!s attribute! s%ecial #irtues to the haHel,
roan, an! ye, the oo! of hich as use! in "agical cere"onies
!escribe! in 6rish teIts..23*4 9ires of roan ere lit by the )rui!s of
ri#al ar"ies, an! incantations sai! o#er the" in or!er to !isco"fit the
o%%osing host,.23+4 an! the oo! of all these trees is still belie#e! to
be efficacious against fairies an! itches.
The 6rish KbileK as a sacre! tree, of great age, groing o#er a holy
ell or fort. 9i#e of the" are !escribe! in the K)in!senchasK, an! one
as an oak, hich not only yiel!e! acorns, but nuts an! a%%les..23E4 The
"ythic trees of /lysiu" ha! the sa"e #arie! fruitage, an! the reason in
both cases is %erha%s the fact that hen the culti#ate! a%%le took the
%lace of acorns an! nuts as a foo! sta%le, or!s signifying BnutB or
BacornB ere transferre! to the a%%le. A "yth of trees on hich all
these fruits gre "ight then easily arise. Another 6rish KbileK as a
ye !escribe! in a %oe" as Ba fir" strong go!,B hile such %hrases in
this %oe" as Bor!&%ure "an,B Bju!g"ent of origin,B Bs%ell of
knole!ge,B "ay ha#e so"e reference to the custo" of riting !i#inations
in ogha" on ro!s of ye. The other KbileK ere ash&trees, an! fro" one
of the" the K9ir BileK, B"en of the tree,B ere na"e!&&%erha%s a
tote"&clan..2314 The li#es of kings an! chiefs a%%ear to ha#e been
connecte! ith these trees, %robably as re%resentati#es of the s%irit of
#egetation e"bo!ie! in the tree, an! un!er their sha!o they ere
inaugurate!. But as a substitute for the king as slain, so !oubtless
these %re&e"inent sacre! trees ere too sacre!, too "uch charge! ith
su%ernatural force, to be cut !on an! burne!, an! the yearly ritual
oul! be %erfor"e! ith another tree. But in ti"e of feu! one tribe
glorie! in !estroying the KbileK of anotherA an! e#en in the tenth
century, hen the Kbile "aighe A!airK as !estroye! by Maelocohlen the
act as regar!e! ith horror. BBut, 8 rea!er, this !ee! !i! not %ass
un%unishe!.B.23-4 8f another KbileK, that of Borrisokane, it as sai!
that any house in hich a frag"ent of it as burne! oul! itself be
!estroye! by fire..2324
Tribal an! %ersonal na"es %oint to belief in !escent fro" tree go!s or
s%irits an! %erha%s to tote"is". The /burones ere the ye&tree tribe
>KeburosK@A the Bituriges %erha%s ha! the "istletoe for their sy"bol,
an! their surna"e Ci#isci i"%lies that they ere calle! BMistletoe
"en.B.2334 6f KbileK >tree@ is connecte! ith the na"e Bile, that of the
ancestor of the Milesians, this "ay %oint to so"e "yth of !escent fro" a
sacre! tree, as in the case of the K9ir BileK, or B"en of the
tree.B.23F4 8ther na"es like Gui!gen >KCi!uo&genosK, Bson of the treeB@,
)ergen >K)er#o&genosK, Bson of the oakB@, Guerngen >KCerno&genosK, Bson
of the al!erB@, i"%ly filiation to a tree. Though these na"es beca"e
con#entional, they eI%ress hat ha! once been a li#ing belief. <a"es
borroe! !irectly fro" trees are also foun!&&&/buros or /bur, Bye,B
)erua or )eruacus, Boak,B etc.
The #eneration of trees groing besi!e burial "oun!s or "egalithic
"onu"ents as %robably a %re&Celtic cult continue! by the Celts. The
tree e"bo!ie! the ghost of the %erson burie! un!er it, but such a ghost
coul! then har!ly be !ifferentiate! fro" a tree s%irit or !i#inity. /#en
no in Celtic !istricts eItre"e #eneration eIists for trees groing in
ce"eteries an! in other %laces. 6t is !angerous to cut the" !on or to
%luck a leaf or branch fro" the", hile in Breton churchyar!s the ye is
thought to s%rea! a root to the "outh of each cor%se..23G4 The story of
the gra#e of Cy%erissa, !aughter of a Celtic king in the )anube region,
fro" hich first s%rang the B"ournful cy%ress,B.2F,4 is connecte! ith
uni#ersal legen!s of trees groing fro" the gra#es of lo#ers until their
branches intertine. These e"bo!y the belief that the s%irit of the !ea!
is in the tree, hich as thus in all likelihoo! the object of a cult.
6nstances of these legen!s occur in Celtic story. $e&stakes !ri#en
through the bo!ies of <aisi an! )eir!re to kee% the" a%art, beca"e
ye&trees the to%s of hich e"brace! o#er Ar"agh Cathe!ral. A ye s%rang
fro" the gra#e of Baile Mac Buain, an! an a%%le&tree fro" that of his
lo#er Aillinn, an! the to% of each ha! the for" of their hea!s..2F*4 The
i!entification of tree an! ghost is here co"%lete.
The el!er, roan, an! thorn are still %lante! roun! houses to kee% off
itches, or s%rigs of roan are %lace! o#er !oorays&&a sur#i#al fro"
the ti"e hen they ere belie#e! to be tenante! by a beneficent s%irit
hostile to e#il influences. 6n 6relan! an! the 6sle of Man the thorn is
thought to be the resort of fairies, an! they, like the oo!lan! fairies
or Boo! "enB are %robably re%resentati#es of the ol!er tree s%irits an!
go!s of gro#es an! forests..2F+4
Tree&orshi% as roote! in the ol!est nature orshi%, an! the Church ha!
the ut"ost !ifficulty in su%%ressing it. Councils ful"inate! against the
cult of trees, against offerings to the" or the %lacing of lights before
the" an! before ells or stones, an! against the belief that certain
trees ere too sacre! to be cut !on or burne!. :ea#y fines ere le#ie!
against those ho %ractise! these rites, yet still they continue!..2FE4
A"ator, Bisho% of AuIerre, trie! to sto% the orshi% of a large
%ear&tree stan!ing in the centre of the ton an! on hich the
se"i&Christian inhabitants hung ani"als' hea!s ith "uch ribal!ry. At
last 5. Ger"anus !estroye! it, but at the risk of his life. 5. Martin of
Tours as alloe! to !estroy a te"%le, but the %eo%le oul! not %er"it
hi" to attack a "uch #enerate! %ine&tree hich stoo! besi!e it&&an
eIcellent eIa"%le of the ay in hich the "ore official %aganis" fell
before Christianity, hile the ol!er religion of the soil, fro" hich it
s%rang, coul! not be entirely era!icate!..2F14 The Church often effecte!
a co"%ro"ise. 6"ages of the go!s affiIe! to trees ere re%lace! by those
of the Cirgin, but ith curious results. 'egen!s arose telling ho the
faithful ha! been le! to such trees an! there !isco#ere! the i"age of
the Ma!onna "iraculously %lace! a"ong the branches..2F-4 These are
analogous to the legen!s of the !isco#ery of i"ages of the Cirgin in the
earth, such i"ages being really those of the KMatresK.
Re%resentations of sacre! trees are occasionally "et ith on coins,
altars, an! KeI #otosK..2F24 6f the inter%retation be correct hich sees
a re%resentation of %art of the Cuchulainn legen! on the Paris an!
Tre#es altars, the trees figure! there oul! not necessarily be sacre!.
But otherise they "ay !e%ict sacre! trees.
?e no turn to Pliny's account of the "istletoe rite. The )rui!s hel!
nothing "ore sacre! than this %lant an! the tree on hich it gre,
%robably an oak. 8f it gro#es ere for"e!, hile branches of the oak
ere use! in all religious rites. /#erything groing on the oak ha! been
sent fro" hea#en, an! the %resence of the "istletoe shoe! that Go! ha!
selecte! the tree for es%ecial fa#our. Rare as it as, hen foun! the
"istletoe as the object of a careful ritual. 8n the siIth !ay of the
"oon it as culle!. Pre%arations for a sacrifice an! feast ere "a!e
beneath the tree, an! to hite bulls hose horns ha! ne#er been boun!
ere brought there. A )rui!, cla! in hite, ascen!e! the tree an! cut
the "istletoe ith a gol!en sickle. As it fell it as caught in a hite
clothA the bulls ere then sacrifice!, an! %rayer as "a!e that Go!
oul! "ake :is gift %ros%erous to those on ho" :e ha! bestoe! it. The
"istletoe as calle! Bthe uni#ersal healer,B an! a %otion "a!e fro" it
cause! barren ani"als to be fruitful. 6t as also a re"e!y against all
%oisons..2F34 ?e can har!ly belie#e that such an elaborate ritual "erely
le! u% to the "e!ico&"agical use of the "istletoe. Possibly, of course,
the rite as an attenuate! sur#i#al of so"ething hich ha! once been
"ore i"%ortant, but it is "ore likely that Pliny gi#es only a fe
%icturesLue !etails an! %asses by the KrationaleK of the ritual. :e !oes
not tell us ho the BGo!B of ho" he s%eaks as, %erha%s the sun&go! or
the go! of #egetation. As to the Bgift,B it as %robably in his "in! the
"istletoe, but it "ay Luite ell ha#e "eant the gift of groth in fiel!
an! fol!. The tree as %erha%s cut !on an! burne!A the oIen "ay ha#e
been incarnations of a go! of #egetation, as the tree also "ay ha#e
been. ?e nee! not here re%eat the "eaning hich has been gi#en to the
ritual,.2FF4 but it "ay be a!!e! that if this "eaning is correct, the
rite %robably took %lace at the ti"e of the Mi!su""er festi#al, a
festi#al of groth an! fertility. Mistletoe is still gathere! on
Mi!su""er e#e an! use! as an anti!ote to %oisons or for the cure of
oun!s. 6ts )rui!ic na"e is still %reser#e! in Celtic s%eech in or!s
signifying Ball&healer,B hile it is also calle! Ksugh an !araichK, Bsa%
of the oak,B an! K)rui!h lusK, B)rui!'s ee!.B.2FG4
Pliny !escribes other Celtic herbs of grace. K5elagoK as culle! ithout
use of iron after a sacrifice of brea! an! ine&&%robably to the s%irit
of the %lant. The %erson gathering it ore a hite robe, an! ent ith
unsho! feet after ashing the". Accor!ing to the )rui!s, K5elagoK
%reser#e! one fro" acci!ent, an! its s"oke hen burne! heale! "ala!ies
of the eye..2G,4 K5a"olusK as %lace! in !rinking troughs as a re"e!y
against !isease in cattle. 6t as culle! by a %erson fasting, ith the
left han!A it "ust be holly u%roote!, an! the gatherer "ust not look
behin! hi"..2G*4 KCer#ainK as gathere! at sunrise after a sacrifice to
the earth as an eI%iation&&%erha%s because its surface as about to be
!isturbe!. ?hen it as rubbe! on the bo!y all ishes ere gratifie!A it
!is%elle! fe#ers an! other "ala!iesA it as an anti!ote against
ser%entsA an! it conciliate! hearts. A branch of the !rie! herb use! to
as%erge a banLuet&hall "a!e the guests "ore con#i#ial.2G+4
The ritual use! in gathering these %lants&&silence, #arious tabus,
ritual %urity, sacrifice&&is foun! here#er %lants are culle! hose
#irtue lies in this that they are %ossesse! by a s%irit. 8ther %lants
are still use! as char"s by "o!ern Celtic %easants, an!, in so"e cases,
the ritual of gathering the" rese"bles that !escribe! by Pliny..2GE4 6n
6rish sagas %lants ha#e "agical %oers. B9airy herbsB %lace! in a bath
restore! beauty to o"en bathing therein..2G14 )uring the KTainK
Cuchulainn's oun!s ere heale! ith Bbalsa"s an! healing herbs of fairy
%otency,B an! )iancecht use! si"ilar herbs to restore the !ea! at the
battle of Mag&ture!..2G-4
988T<8T/5(
.2-G4 5acaHe, K6nscr. !es Pyren.K +--A :irschfel!, K5itHungsberichteK
>Berlin, *FG2@, 11F.
.22,4 KC6'K #i. 12A KC6RK *2-1, *2FE.
.22*4 )'Arbois, K'es CeltesK, -+.
.22+4 'ucan, KPhar.K ;sener's e!., E+A 8rosius, #. *2. 2A )io Cass.
lIii. 2.
.22E4 Pliny, I#i. 11. The 5choliast on 'ucan says that the )rui!s
!i#ine! ith acorns >;sener, EE@.
.2214 MaI. Tyr. K)iss.K #iii. FA 5tokes, KRCK i. +-G.
.22-4 'e BraH, ii. *F.
.2224 Mr. Cha!ick >KJour. Anth. 6nst.K III. +2@ connects this high go!
ith thun!er, an! regar!s the Celtic Reus >Taranis, in his o%inion@ as a
thun!er&go!. The oak as associate! ith this go! because his
orshi%%ers !elt un!er oaks.
.2234 :elbig, K)ie 6taliker in !er PoebeneK, *2 f.
.22F4 Mannhar!t, KBau"kultusKA 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P iii. *GF.
.22G4 9raHer, Kloc. cit.K
.23,4 /#ans, KArch. Re#.K i. E+3 f.
.23*4 Joyce, K5:K i. +E2.
.23+4 8'Curry, KMCK i. +*E.
.23E4 K''K *GGKbKA KRennes )in!senchasK, KRCK I#. 1+,.
.2314 KRCK I#. 1--, I#i. +3GA :ennessey, KChron. 5cot.K 32.
.23-4 =eating, --2A Joyce, KP<K i. 1GG.
.2324 ?oo!&Martin, ii. *-G.
.2334 )'Arbois, K'es CeltesK, -*A Jullian, 1*.
.23F4 Cook, K9olk&'oreK, I#ii. 2,.
.23G4 5ee 5ebillot, i. +GEA 'e BraH, i. +-GA K9olk&'ore JournalK, #.
+*FA K9olk&'ore Recor!K, *FF+.
.2F,4 Cal. Probus, KCo"". in GeorgicaK, ii. F1.
.2F*4 Miss :ull, -EA 8'8urry, KM5. Mat.K 12-. ?riting tablets, "a!e fro"
each of the trees hen they ere cut !on, s%rang together an! coul! not
be se%arate!.
.2F+4 K5tat. AccountK, iii. +3A Moore, *-*A 5ebillot, i. +2+, +3,.
.2FE4 )o" Martin, i. *+1A KCita 5. /ligiiK, ii. *2.
.2F14 KActa 5anct.K >Bollan!.@, July E*A 5ul%. 5e#er. KCita 5. Mart.K
1-3.
.2F-4 Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K 32A Maury, *E, +GG. The story of beautiful
o"en foun! in trees "ay be connecte! ith the custo" of %lacing i"ages
in trees, or ith the belief that a go!!ess "ight be seen e"erging fro"
the tree in hich she !elt.
.2F24 )e la Tour, KAtlas !es Monnaies GaulK, +2,, +F2A Reinach, KCatal.
5o""aireK, +G.
.2F34 Pliny, K:<K I#i. 11.
.2FF4 5ee %. *2+, Ksu%raK.
.2FG4 5ee Ca"eron, KGaelic <a"es of PlantsK, 1-. 6n Gregoire !e Rostren,
K)ict. francois&celt.K *3E+, "istletoe is translate! by K!our&!eroK,
Boak&ater,B an! is sai! to be goo! for se#eral e#ils.
.2G,4 Pliny, IIi#. **.
.2G*4 6bi!.
.2G+4 6bi!. II#. G.
.2GE4 5ee Car"ichael, KCar"ina Ga!elicaKA )e <ore, KCoutu"es ... !es
Pro#inces !e 9ranceK, *-, f.A 5au#e, KRCK #i. 23, KCMK iI. EE*.
.2G14 8'Gra!y, ii. *+2.
.2G-4 Miss :ull, *3+A see %. 33, Ksu%raK.
C:APT/R Q6C.
A<6MA' ?8R5:6P.
Ani"al orshi% %ure an! si"%le ha! !ecline! a"ong the Celts of historic
ti"es, an! ani"als ere no regar!e! "ainly as sy"bols or attributes of
!i#inities. The ol!er cult ha! been connecte! ith the %astoral stage in
hich the ani"als ere !i#ine, or ith the agricultural stage in hich
they re%resente! the corn&s%irit, an! %erha%s ith tote"is". ?e shall
stu!y here >*@ traces of the ol!er ani"al cultsA >+@ the transfor"ation
of ani"al go!s into sy"bolsA an! >E@ traces of tote"is".
*.
The %resence of a bull ith three cranes >KTar#os TrigaranosK@ on the
Paris altar, along ith the go!s /sus, Ju%%iter, an! Culcan, suggests
that it as a !i#ine ani"al, or the subject of a !i#ine "yth. As has
been seen, this bull "ay be the bull of the KTain bo CuailgneK. Both it
an! its o%%onent ere reincarnations of the sine&her!s of to go!s. 6n
the 6rish sagas reincarnation is only attribute! to go!s or heroes, an!
this "ay %oint to the !i#inity of the bulls. ?e ha#e seen that this an!
another altar "ay !e%ict so"e "yth in hich the bull as the incarnation
of a tree or #egetation s%irit. The !i#ine nature of the bull is
atteste! by its %resence on Gaulish coins as a religious sy"bol, an! by
i"ages of the ani"al ith three horns&&an ob#ious sy"bol of
!i#inity..2G24 8n such an i"age in bronHe the Ci"bri, Celticise!
Ger"ans, sore. The i"ages are %re&Ro"an, since they are foun! at
:allsta!t an! 'a Tene. Personal na"es like )onnotaurus >the eLui#alent
of the K)onn TaruosK of the KTainK@ or )eiotaros >B!i#ine bullB@, sho
that "en ere calle! after the !i#ine ani"al..2G34 5i"ilarly "any
%lace&na"es in hich the or! KtaruosK occurs, in <orthern 6taly, the
Pyrenees, 5cotlan!, 6relan!, an! elsehere, suggest that the %laces
bearing these na"es ere sites of a bull cult or that so"e "yth, like
that elaborate! in the KTainK, ha! been there localise!..2GF4 But, as
%ossibly in the case of Cuchulainn an! the bull, the ani"al ten!e! to
beco"e the sy"bol of a go!, a ten!ency %erha%s ai!e! by the s%rea! of
Mithrais" ith its sy"bolic bull. A go! Me!ros leaning on a bull is
re%resente! at :aguenau, %ossibly a for" of Mi!er or of Me!uris, a
surna"e of Toutatis, unless Me!ros is si"%ly Mithras..2GG4 /choes of the
cult of the bull or co are hear! in 6rish tales of these ani"als
brought fro" the Ksi!K, or of "agic bulls or of cos hich %ro!uce!
enor"ous su%%lies of "ilk, or in saintly legen!s of oIen lea!ing a saint
to the site of his future church..3,,4 These legen!s are also tol! of
the sine,.3,*4 an! they %erha%s arose hen a Christian church took the
%lace of the site of a local ani"al cult, legen! fusing the ol! an! the
ne cult by "aking the once !i#ine ani"al %oint out the site of the
church. A late relic of a bull cult "ay be foun! in the carni#al
%rocession of the KBoeuf GrasK at Paris.
A cult of a sine&go! Moccus has been referre! to. The boar as a !i#ine
sy"bol on stan!ar!s, coins, an! altars, an! "any bronHe i"ages of the
ani"al ha#e been foun!. These ere te"%le treasures, an! in one case the
boar is three&horne!..3,+4 But it as beco"ing the sy"bol of a go!!ess,
as is seen by the altars on hich it acco"%anies a go!!ess, %erha%s of
fertility, an! by a bronHe i"age of a go!!ess seate! on a boar. The
altars occur in Britain, of hich the ani"al "ay be the e"ble"&&the
BCale!onian "onsterB of Clau!ian's %oe"..3,E4 The Galatian Celts
abstaine! fro" eating the sine, an! there has alays been a %reju!ice
against its flesh in the :ighlan!s. This has a tote"ic a%%earance..3,14
But the sine is estee"e! in 6relan!, an! in the teIts "onstrous sine
are the sta%le article of fa"ous feasts..3,-4 These "ay ha#e been
legen!ary for"s of ol! sine&go!s, the feasts recalling sacrificial
feasts on their flesh. Magic sine ere also the i""ortal foo! of the
go!s. But the boar as tabu to certain %ersons, e.g. )iar"ai!, though
hether this is the attenuate! "e"ory of a clan tote" restriction is
uncertain. 6n ?elsh story the sine co"es fro" /lysiu"&&a "yth
eI%laining the origin of its !o"estication, hile !o"estication
certainly i"%lies an earlier cult of the ani"al. ?hen ani"als co"e to be
!o"esticate!, the ol! cult restrictions, e.g. against eating the",
usually %ass aay. 9or this reason, %erha%s, the Gauls, ho orshi%%e!
an anthro%o"or%hic sine&go!, trafficke! in the ani"al an! "ay ha#e
eaten it..3,24 ?elsh story also tells of the "agic boar, the KTrch
TrythK, hunte! by Arthur, %ossibly a folk&tale re"iniscence of a boar
!i#inity..3,34 Place&na"es also %oint to a cult of the sine, an! a
recollection of its !i#inity "ay un!erlie the nu"erous 6rish tales of
"agical sine..3,F4 The "agic sine hich issue! fro" the ca#e of
Cruachan an! !estroye! the young cro%s are suggesti#e of the
therio"or%hic corn&s%irit in its occasional !estructi#e as%ect..3,G4
Bones of the sine, so"eti"es cre"ate!, ha#e been foun! in Celtic gra#es
in Britain an! at :allsta!t, an! in one case the ani"al as burie! alone
in a tu"ulus at :allsta!t, just as sacre! ani"als ere burie! in /gy%t,
Greece, an! elsehere..3*,4 ?hen the ani"al as burie! ith the !ea!, it
"ay ha#e been as a sacrifice to the ghost or to the go! of the
un!erorl!.
The !i#inity of the ser%ent is %ro#e! by the occurrence of a horne!
ser%ent ith tel#e Ro"an go!s on a Gallo&Ro"an altar..3**4 6n other
cases a horne! or ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent a%%ears as the attribute of a
go!, an! e ha#e seen that the ra"'s&hea!e! ser%ent "ay be a fusion of
the ser%ent as a chthonian ani"al ith the ra", sacrifice! to the !ea!.
6n Greece )ionysus ha! the for" both of a bull an! a horne! ser%ent, the
horn being %erha%s !eri#e! fro" the bull sy"bol. M. Reinach clai"s that
the %ri"iti#e ele"ents of the 8r%hic "yth of the Thracian
)ionysos&Ragreus&&!i#ine ser%ents %ro!ucing an egg hence ca"e the
horne! snake Ragreus, occur in !islocate! for" in Gaul. There enlacing
ser%ents ere belie#e! to %ro!uce a "agic egg, an! there a horne!
ser%ent as orshi%%e!, but as not connecte! ith the egg. But they "ay
once ha#e been connecte!, an! if so, there "ay be a co""on foun!ation
both for the Greek an! the Celtic conce%tions in a Celtic ele"ent in
Thrace..3*+4 The rese"blances, hoe#er, "ay be "ere coinci!ences, an!
horne! ser%ents are knon in other "ythologies&&the horn being %erha%s a
sy"bol of !i#inity. The horne! ser%ent so"eti"es acco"%anies a go! ho
has horns, %ossibly Cernunnos, the un!erorl! go!, in accor!ance ith
the chthonian character of the ser%ent..3*E4 6n the Cuchulainn cycle
'oeg on his #isit to the 8ther&orl! sa to&hea!e! ser%ents&&%erha%s a
further hint of this as%ect of the ani"al..3*14
6n all these instances of ani"al cults eIa"%les of the ten!ency to "ake
the !i#ine ani"al anthro%o"or%hic ha#e been seen. ?e ha#e no to
consi!er so"e instances of the co"%lete anthro%o"or%hic %rocess.
+.
An ol! bear cult ga#e %lace to the cult of a bear go!!ess an! %robably
of a go!. At Berne&&an ol! Celtic %lace&na"e "eaning BbearB&&as foun! a
bronHe grou% of a go!!ess hol!ing a %atera ith fruit, an! a bear
a%%roaching her as if to be fe!. The inscri%tion runs, K)eae Artioni
'icinia 5abinillaK..3*-4 A local bear&cult ha! once eIiste! at Berne,
an! is still recalle! in the %resence of the fa"ous bears there, but the
!i#ine bear ha! gi#en %lace to a go!!ess hose na"e an! sy"bol ere
ursine. 9ro" an ol! Celtic KArtosK, fe". KArtaK, Bbear,B ere !eri#e!
#arious !i#ine na"es. 8f these K)ea Artio>n@K "eans Bbear go!!ess,B an!
KArtaiosK, eLuate! ith Mercury, is %erha%s a bear go!..3*24 Another
bear go!!ess, An!arta, as honoure! at )ie >)ro"e@, the or! %erha%s
"eaning Bstrong bearB&&KAn!K& being an aug"enti#e..3*34 <u"erous
%lace&na"es !eri#e! fro" KArtosK %erha%s itness to a i!es%rea! cult of
the bear, an! the or! also occurs in ?elsh, an! 6rish %ersonal
na"es&&Arth"ael, Arthbiu, an! %ossibly Arthur, an! the nu"erous Arts of
6rish teIts. )escent fro" the !i#ine bear is also signifie! in na"es
like ?elsh KArthgenK, 6rish KArtiganK, fro" KArtigenosK, Bson of the
bear.B Another Celtic na"e for BbearB as the Gaulish K"atuK, 6rish
K"athK, foun! in KMatugenosK, Bson of the bear,B an! in MacMahon, hich
is a corru%t for" of KMac&"ath&gha"hainK, Bson of the bear's son,B or
Bof the bear.B.3*F4
5i"ilarly a cult of the stag see"s to ha#e gi#en %lace to that of a go!
ith stag's horns, re%resente! on "any bas&reliefs, an! %robably
connecte! ith the un!erorl!..3*G4 The stag, as a grain&eater, "ay ha#e
been regar!e! as the e"bo!i"ent of the corn&s%irit, an! then associate!
ith the un!er&earth region hence the corn s%rang, by one of those
in#ersions of thought so co""on in the stage of transition fro" ani"al
go!s to go!s ith ani"al sy"bols. The elk "ay ha#e been orshi%%e! in
6relan!, an! a three antlere! stag is the subject of a story in the
9ionn saga..3+,4 6ts thir! antler, like the thir! horn of bull or boar,
"ay be a sign of !i#inity.
The horse ha! also been orshi%%e!, but a go!!ess /%ona >Gaul. Ke%o&sK,
BhorseB@, %rotectress of horses an! asses, took its %lace, an! ha! a
far&s%rea! cult. 5he ri!es a horse or "are ith its foal, or is seate!
a"ong horses, or fee!s horses. A re%resentation of a "are suckling a
foal&&a !esign analogous to those in hich /%ona fee!s foals&&shos that
her %ri"iti#e eLuine nature ha! not been forgotten..3+*4 The Gauls ere
horse&rearers, an! /%ona as the go!!ess of the craftA but, as in other
cases, a cult of the horse "ust ha#e %rece!e! its !o"estication, an! its
flesh "ay not ha#e been eaten, or, if so, only sacra"entally..3++4
9inally, the !i#ine horse beca"e the anthro%o"or%hic horse&go!!ess. :er
i"ages ere %lace! in stables, an! se#eral inscri%tions an! statuettes
ha#e been foun! in such buil!ings or in ca#alry barracks..3+E4 The
re"ains of the cult ha#e been foun! in the )anube an! Rhine #alleys, in
/astern Gaul, an! in <orthern 6taly, all Celtic regions, but it as
carrie! e#eryhere by Ro"an ca#alry recruite! fro" the Celtic
tribes..3+14 /%ona is associate! ith, an! often has, the sy"bols of the
KMatresK, an! one inscri%tion rea!s K/%onabusK, as if there ere a grou%
of go!!esses calle! /%ona..3+-4 A go!!ess ho %ro"ote! the fertility of
"ares oul! easily be associate! ith go!!esses of fertility. /%ona "ay
also ha#e been confuse! ith a ri#er&go!!ess concei#e! of as a s%irite!
stee!. ?ater&s%irits took that sha%e, an! the KMatresK ere also
ri#er&go!!esses.
A statuette of a horse, ith a !e!ication to a go! Ru!iobus, otherise
unknon, "ay ha#e been carrie! %rocessionally, hile a "ule has a
!e!ication to 5ego"o, eLuate! elsehere ith Mars. A "ule go! Mullo,
also eLuate! ith Mars, is "entione! on se#eral inscri%tions..3+24 The
connection ith Mars "ay ha#e been foun! in the fact that the 8ctober
horse as sacrifice! to hi" for fertility, hile the horse as %robably
associate! ith fertility a"ong the Celts. The horse as sacrifice! both
by Celts an! Teutons at the Mi!su""er festi#al, un!oubte!ly as a !i#ine
ani"al. Traces of the Celtic custo" sur#i#e in local legen!s, an! "ay be
inter%rete! in the fuller light of the Teutonic accounts. 6n 6relan! a
"an earing a horse's hea! rushe! through the fire, an! as su%%ose! to
re%resent all cattleA in other or!s, he as a surrogate for the". The
legen! of /ach 'abra, a horse hich li#e! in a "oun! an! issue! fro" it
e#ery Mi!su""er e#e to gi#e oracles for the co"ing year, is %robably
connecte! ith the Mi!su""er sacrifice of the horse..3+34 A"ong the
Teutons the horse as a !i#ine sacrificial ani"al, an! as also sacre!
to 9reyr, the go! of fertility, hile in Teutonic sur#i#als a horse's
hea! as %lace! in the Mi!su""er fire..3+F4 The horse as s%ora!ically
the re%resentati#e of the corn&s%irit, an! at Ro"e the 8ctober horse as
sacrifice! in that ca%acity an! for fertility..3+G4 A"ong the Celts, the
horse sacrifice! at Mi!su""er "ay ha#e re%resente! the #egetation&s%irit
an! benefite! all !o"estic ani"als&&the ol! rite sur#i#ing in an
attenuate! for", as !escribe! abo#e.
Perha%s the go!!ess )a"ona as an ani"al !i#inity, if her na"e is
!eri#e! fro" K!a"atosK, Bshee%,B cognate to ?elsh K!afa!K, Bshee%,B an!
Gaelic K!a"hK, BoI.B 8ther !i#ine ani"als, as has been seen, ere
associate! ith the aters, an! the use of beasts an! bir!s in
!i#ination !oubtless %oints to their !i#ine character. A cult of
bir!&go!s "ay lurk behin! the !i#ine na"e Bran, Bra#en,B an! the
reference to the "agic bir!s of Rhiannon in the KTria!sK.
E.
Ani"al orshi% is connecte! ith tote"is", an! certain things %oint to
its eIistence a"ong the Celts, or to the eIistence of con!itions out of
hich tote"is" as elsehere !e#elo%e!. These are !escent fro" ani"als,
ani"al tabus, the sacra"ental eating of an ani"al, an! eIoga"y.
>*@ K)escent fro" ani"als.K&&Celtic na"es i"%lying !escent fro" ani"als
or %lants are of to classes, clan an! %ersonal na"es. 6f the latter are
tote"istic, they "ust be !eri#e! fro" the for"er, since tote"is" is an
affair of the clan, hile the so&calle! B%ersonal tote",B eIe"%lifie! by
the A"erican 6n!ian K"anitouK, is the guar!ian but ne#er the ancestor of
a "an. 5o"e clan na"es ha#e alrea!y been referre! to. 8thers are the
Bibroci of south&east Britain, %robably a bea#er clan >KbebrosK@, an!
the /burones, a ye&tree clan >KeburosK@..3E,4 6rish clans bore ani"al
na"es( so"e grou%s ere calle! Bcal#es,B others Bgriffins,B others Bre!
!eer,B an! a %lant na"e is seen in K9ir BileK, B"en of the tree.B.3E*4
5uch clan tote"is" %erha%s un!erlies the stories of the B!escen!ants of
the olfB at 8ssory, ho beca"e ol#es for a ti"e as the result of a
saintly curse. 8ther instances of lycanthro%y ere associate! ith
certain fa"ilies..3E+4 The belief in lycanthro%y "ight easily attach
itself to eIisting olf&clans, the transfor"ation being then eI%laine!
as the result of a curse. The stories of Cor"ac "ac Art, suckle! by a
she&olf, of 'ughai! "ac Con, Bson of a olf&!og,B suckle! by that
ani"al, an! of 8isin, hose "other as a fan, an! ho oul! not eat
#enison, are %erha%s tote"istic, hile to tote"is" or to a cult of
ani"als "ay be ascribe! hat early tra#ellers in 6relan! say of the
%eo%le taking ol#es as go!&fathers an! %raying to the" to !o the" no
ill..3EE4 6n ?ales ban!s of arriors at the battle of Cattraeth are
!escribe! in 8neurin's KGo!o!inK as !ogs, ol#es, bears, an! ra#ens,
hile 8ein's ban! of ra#ens hich fought against Arthur, "ay ha#e been
a ra#en clan, later "isun!erstoo! as actual ra#ens..3E14 Certain grou%s
of )alria! 5cots bore ani"al na"es&&Cinel Gabran, B'ittle goat clan,B
an! Cinel 'oarn, B9oI clan.B Possibly the custo" of !enoting :ighlan!
clans by ani"al or %lant ba!ges "ay be connecte! ith a belief in
!escent fro" %lants or ani"als. 8n "any coins an ani"al is re%resente!
on horseback, %erha%s lea!ing a clan, as bir!s le! the Celts to the
)anube area, an! these "ay !e%ict "yths telling ho the clan tote"
ani"al le! the clan to its %resent territory..3E-4 5uch "yths "ay
sur#i#e in legen!s relating ho an ani"al le! a saint to the site of his
church..3E24 Celtic arriors ore hel"ets ith horns, an! 6rish story
s%eaks of "en ith cat, !og, or goat hea!s..3E34 These "ay ha#e been "en
earing a hea!&gear for"e! of the skin or hea! of the clan tote", hence
re"e"bere! at a later ti"e as "onstrous beings, hile the horne! hel"ets
oul! be relate! to the sa"e custo". 5olinus !escribes the Britons as
earing ani"al skins before going into battle..3EF4 ?ere these skins of
tote" ani"als un!er hose %rotection they thus %lace! the"sel#esS The
Bfor"s of beasts, bir!s, an! fishesB hich the Cruithne or Picts
tattooe! on their bo!ies "ay ha#e been tote" "arks, hile the %ainting
of their bo!ies ith oa! a"ong the southern Britons "ay ha#e been of
the sa"e character, though Caesar's or!s har!ly !enote this. Certain
"arks on faces figure! on Gaulish coins see" to be tattoo "arks..3EG4
6t is not i"%ossible that an early olf&tote" "ay ha#e been associate!,
because of the ani"al's nocturnal an!erings in forests, ith the
un!erorl! hence, accor!ing to Celtic belief, "en s%rang an! hither
they returne!, an! hence all #egetation ca"e forth. The Gallo&Ro"an
5il#anus, %robably an un!erorl! go!, ears a olf&skin, an! "ay thus be
a olf&go!. There ere #arious ty%es of un!erorl! go!s, an! this
olf&ty%e&&%erha%s a local olf&tote" ancestor assi"ilate! to a local
B)is%aterB&&"ay ha#e been the go! of a clan ho i"%ose! its "ythic olf
origin on other clans. 5o"e Celtic bronHes sho a olf salloing a "an
ho offers no resistance, %robably because he is !ea!. The olf is "uch
bigger than the "an, an! hence "ay be a go!..31,4 These bronHes oul!
thus re%resent a belief setting forth the return of "en to their tote"
ancestor after !eath, or to the un!erorl! go! connecte! ith the tote"
ancestor, by saying that he !e#oure! the !ea!, like certain Polynesian
!i#inities an! the Greek /uryno"os.
6n "any in!i#i!ual na"es the first %art is the na"e of an ani"al or
%lant, the secon! is usually KgenosK, Bborn fro",B or Bson of,B e.g.
Artigenos, Matugenos, Bson of the bearB >KartosK, K"atuK&@A ;rogenos,
occurring as ;rogenertos, Bhe ho has the strength of the son of the
urusBA Brannogenos, Bson of the ra#enBA Cunogenos, Bson of the
!og.B.31*4 These na"es "ay be !eri#e! fro" clan tote" na"es, but they
!ate back to a ti"e hen ani"als, trees, an! "en ere on a co""on
footing, an! the %ossibility of hu"an !escent fro" a tree or an ani"al
as belie#e! in. Professor Rh.Jy4s has argue! fro" the freLuency of
%ersonal na"es in 6relan!, like Curoi, B:oun! of Roi,B Cu Corb, BCorb's
:oun!,B Mac Con, B:oun!'s 5on,B an! Maelchon, B:oun!'s 5la#e,B that
there eIiste! a !og tote" or go!, not of the Celts, but of a %re&Celtic
race..31+4 This assu"es that tote"is" as non&Celtic, an assu"%tion
base! on %reconcei#e! notions of hat Celtic institutions ought to ha#e
been. The na"es, it shoul! be obser#e!, are %ersonal, not clan na"es.
>+@ KAni"al tabus.K&&Besi!es the !islike of sine's flesh alrea!y note!
a"ong certain Celtic grou%s, the killing an! eating of the hare, hen,
an! goose ere forbi!!en a"ong the Britons. Caesar says they bre! these
ani"als for a"use"ent, but this reason assigne! by hi" is !ran fro" his
knole!ge of the bree!ing of rare ani"als by rich Ro"ans as a %asti"e,
since he ha! no knole!ge of the bree!ing of sacre! ani"als hich ere
not eaten&&a co""on tote"ic or ani"al cult custo"..31E4 The hare as
use! for !i#ination by Bou!icca,.3114 !oubtless as a sacre! ani"al, an!
it has been foun! that a sacre! character still attaches to these
ani"als in ?ales. A cock or hen as cere"onially kille! an! eaten on
5hro#e Tues!ay, either as a for"er tote"ic ani"al, or, less likely, as a
re%resentati#e of the corn&s%irit. The hare is not kille! in certain
!istricts, but occasionally it is cere"onially hunte! an! slain
annually, hile at yearly fairs the goose is sol! eIclusi#ely an!
eaten..31-4 /lsehere, e.g. in )e#on, a ra" or la"b is cere"onially
slain an! eaten, the eating being belie#e! to confer luck..3124 The
ill&luck su%%ose! to follo the killing of certain ani"als "ay also be
re"iniscent of tote"ic tabus. 9ish ere not eaten by the Pictish Meatae
an! Cale!onii, an! a !islike of eating certain fresh&ater fish as
obser#e! a"ong certain eighteenth century :ighlan!ers..3134 6t has been
alrea!y seen that certain fish li#ing in sacre! ells ere tabu, an!
ere belie#e! to gi#e oracles. :eron's flesh as !islike! in 6relan!,
an! it as consi!ere! unlucky to kill a san in the :ebri!es..31F4 9atal
results folloing u%on the killing or eating of an ani"al ith hich the
eater as connecte! by na"e or !escent are foun! in the 6rish sagas.
Conaire as son of a o"an an! a bir! hich coul! take hu"an sha%e, an!
it as forbi!!en to hi" to hunt bir!s. 8n one occasion he !i! so, an!
for this as ell as the breaking of other tabus, he lost his life..31G4
6t as tabu to Cuchulainn, Bthe houn! of Culann,B to eat !og's flesh,
an!, ha#ing been %ersua!e! to !o this, his strength ent fro" hi", an!
he %erishe!. )iar"ai!, ha#ing been forbi!!en to hunt a boar ith hich
his life as connecte!, as in!uce! by 9ionn to break this tabu, an! in
conseLuence he lost his life by one of the boar's bristles entering his
foot, or >in a #ariant@ by the boar's killing hi". Another instance is
foun! in a tale of certain "en transfor"e! to ba!gers. They ere slain
by Cor"ac, an! brought to his father Ta!g to eat. Ta!g unaccountably
loathe! the", because they ere transfor"e! "en an! his cousins..3-,4 6n
this tale, hich "ay contain the K!ebrisK of tote"ic usage, the loathing
arises fro" the fact that the ba!gers are "en&&a co""on for" of "yths
eI%lanatory of "isun!erstoo! tote"ic custo"s, but the ol! i!ea of the
relation beteen a "an an! his tote" is not lost sight of. The other
tales "ay also be re"iniscent of a clan tote" tabu, later centre! in a
"ythic hero. Perha%s the belief in lucky or unlucky ani"als, or in o"ens
!ran fro" their a%%earance, "ay be base! on ol! tote" beliefs or in
beliefs in the !i#inity of the ani"als.
>E@ K5acra"ental eating of an ani"al.K&&The custo" of Bhunting the
ren,B foun! o#er the hole Celtic area, is connecte! ith ani"al
orshi% an! "ay be tote"istic in origin. 6n s%ite of its s"all siHe, the
ren as knon as the king of bir!s, an! in the 6sle of Man it as
hunte! an! kille! on Christ"as or 5. 5te%hen's !ay. The bir! as carrie!
in %rocession fro" !oor to !oor, to the acco"%ani"ent of a chant, an!
as then sole"nly burie!, !irges being sung. 6n so"e cases a feather as
left at each house an! carefully treasure!, an! there are traces of a
custo" of boiling an! eating the bir!..3-*4 6n 6relan!, the hunt an!
%rocession ere folloe! by a feast, the "aterials of hich ere
collecte! fro" house to house, an! a si"ilar usage obtaine! in 9rance,
here the youth ho kille! the bir! as calle! Bking.B.3-+4 6n "ost of
these !istricts it as consi!ere! unlucky or !angerous to kill the bir!
at any other ti"e, yet it "ight be cere"onially kille! once a year, the
!ea! ani"al conferre! luck, an! as sole"nly eaten or burie! ith signs
of "ourning. 5i"ilar custo"s ith ani"als hich are actually orshi%%e!
are foun! elsehere,.3-E4 an! they len! su%%ort to the i!ea that the
Celts regar!e! the ren as a !i#ine ani"al, or %erha%s a tote" ani"al,
that it as necessary to slay it ritually, an! to carry it roun! the
houses of the co""unity to obtain its !i#ine influence, to eat it
sacra"entally or to bury it. Probably like custo"s ere folloe! in the
case of other ani"als,.3-14 an! these "ay ha#e gi#en rise to such
stories as that of the eating of Mac)atho's on!erful boar, as ell as
to "yths hich regar!e! certain ani"als, e.g. the sine, as the i""ortal
foo! of the go!s. 8ther eIa"%les of ritual sur#i#als of such sacra"ental
eating ha#e alrea!y been note!, an! it is not i"%robable that the eating
of a sacre! %astoral ani"al occurre! at 5a"hain.
>1@ K/Ioga"y.K&&/Ioga"y an! the counting of !escent through the "other
are closely connecte! ith tote"is", an! so"e traces of both are foun!
a"ong the Celts. A"ong the Picts, ho ere, %erha%s, a Celtic grou% of
the Brythonic stock, these custo"s sur#i#e! in the royal house. The
kingshi% %asse! to a brother of the king by the sa"e "other, or to a
sister's son, hile the king's father as ne#er king an! as freLuently
a Bforeigner.B 5i"ilar rules of succession %re#aile! in early Aryan
royal houses&&Greek an! Ro"an,&&an! "ay, as )r. 5tokes thought, ha#e
eIiste! at Tara in 6relan!, hile in a 9ian tale of 8isin he "arries the
!aughter of the king of Tir na n&8g, an! succee!s hi" as king %artly for
that reason, an! %artly because he ha! beaten hi" in the annual race for
the kingshi%..3--4 5uch an athletic contest for the kingshi% as knon
in early Greece, an! this tale "ay su%%ort the theory of the Celtic
%riest&kingshi%, the hol!er of the office retaining it as long as he as
not !efeate! or slain. Traces of succession through a sister's son are
foun! in the KMabinogionK, an! 'i#y !escribes ho the "ythic Celtic king
A"bicatus sent not his on but his sister's sons to foun! ne
king!o"s..3-24 6rish an! ?elsh !i#ine an! heroic grou%s are na"e! after
the "other, not the father&&the chil!ren of )anu an! of )on, an! the "en
of )o"nu. Anu is "other of the go!s, Buanann of heroes. The e%ony"ous
ancestor of the 5cots is a o"an, 5cota, an! the earliest colonisers of
6relan! are o"en, not "en. 6n the sagas go!s an! heroes ha#e freLuently
a "atrony"ic, an! the father's na"e is o"itte!&&'ug "ac /thnen!,
Conchobar "ac <essa, 6n!ech, son of )e )o"nann, Cor%re, son of /tain,
an! others. Perha%s %arallel to this is the custo" of calling "en after
their i#es&&e.g. the son of 9ergus is 9er Tlachtga, Tlachtga's
husban!..3-34 6n the sagas, fe"ales >go!!esses an! heroines@ ha#e a high
%lace accor!e! to the", an! freLuently choose their on lo#ers or
husban!s&&custo"s suggesti#e of the "atriarchate. Thus hat as once a
general %ractice as later confine! to the royal house or tol! of !i#ine
or heroic %ersonages. Possibly certain cases of incest "ay really be
eIaggerate! accounts of "isun!erstoo! unions once %er"issible by tote"ic
la. Caesar s%eaks of British %olyan!ry, brothers, sons, an! fathers
sharing a ife in co""on..3-F4 5trabo s%eaks of 6rish unions ith
"others an! sisters, %erha%s referring not to actual %ractice but to
re%orts of saga tales of incest..3-G4 )io Cassius s%eaks of co""unity of
i#es a"ong the Cale!onians an! Meatae, an! Jero"e says "uch the sa"e of
the 5coti an! Atecotti..32,4 These notices, ith the eIce%tion of
Caesar's, are #ague, yet they refer to "arriage custo"s !ifferent fro"
those knon to their re%orters. 6n 6rish sagas incest legen!s circle
roun! the !escen!ants of /tain&&fathers unite ith !aughters, a son ith
his "other, a o"an has a son by her three brothers >just as /cne as
son of Brian, 6uchar, an! 6ucharba@, an! is also "other of Cri"than by
that son..32*4 Brother an! sister unions occur both in 6rish an! ?elsh
story..32+4
6n these cases incest ith a "other cannot be eI%laine! by tote"ic
usage, but the cases "ay be !istorte! re"iniscences of hat "ight occur
un!er tote"is", na"ely, a son taking the i#es of his father other than
his on "other, hen those ere of a !ifferent tote" fro" his on. ;n!er
tote"is", brothers an! sisters by !ifferent "others ha#ing !ifferent
tote"s, "ight %ossibly unite, an! such unions are foun! in "any
"ythologies. 'ater, hen tote"is" %asse! aay, the unions, regar!e! ith
horror, oul! be su%%ose! to take %lace beteen chil!ren by the sa"e
"other. Accor!ing to tote" la, a father "ight unite ith his !aughter,
since she as of her "other's tote", but in %ractice this as frone!
u%on. Polyga"y also "ay co&eIist ith tote"is", an! of course in#ol#es
the counting of !escent through the "other as a rule. 6f, as is
suggeste! by the B!ebilityB of the ;ltonians, an! by other e#i!ence, the
cou#a!e as a Celtic institution, this oul! also %oint to the eIistence
of the "atriarchate ith the Celts. To eI%lain all this as %re&Aryan, or
to say that the classical notices refer to non&Aryan tribes an! that the
e#i!ence in the 6rish sagas only shos that the Celts ha! been
influence! by the custo"s of aboriginal tribes a"ong ho" they
li#e!,.32E4 is to neglect the fact that the custo"s are closely boun! u%
ith Celtic life, hile it lea#es uneI%laine! the influence of such
custo"s u%on a %eo%le hose on custo"s, accor!ing to this theory, ere
so totally !ifferent. The e#i!ence, taken as a hole, %oints to the
eIistence of tote"is" a"ong the early Celts, or, at all e#ents, of the
ele"ents hich elsehere co"%ose it.
7 7 7 7 7
Celtic ani"al orshi% !ates back to the %ri"iti#e hunting an! %astoral
%erio!, hen "en orshi%%e! the ani"als hich they hunte! or reare!.
They "ay ha#e a%ologise! to the ani"al hunte! an! slain&&a for" of
orshi%, or, here ani"als ere not hunte! or ere reare! an!
orshi%%e!, one of the" "ay ha#e been slain annually an! eaten to obtain
its !i#ine %oer. Care as taken to %reser#e certain sacre! ani"als
hich ere not hunte!, an! this le! to !o"estication, the abstinence of
earlier generations lea!ing to an increase! foo! su%%ly at a later ti"e,
hen !o"esticate! ani"als ere freely slain. But the earlier sacra"ental
slaying of such ani"als sur#i#e! in the religious as%ect of their
slaughter at the beginning of inter..3214 The cult of ani"als as also
connecte! ith tote"ic usage, though at a later stage this cult as
re%lace! by that of anthro%o"or%hic !i#inities, ith the ol!er !i#ine
ani"als as their sy"bols, sacrificial #icti"s, an! the like. This
e#olution no le! to the re"o#al of restrictions u%on slaying an! eating
the ani"als. 8n the other han!, the "ore %ri"iti#e ani"al cults "ay ha#e
re"aine! here an! there. Ani"al cults ere, %erha%s, largely confine! to
"en. ?ith the rise of agriculture "ainly as an art in the han!s of
o"en, an! the conseLuent cult of the /arth&"other, of fertility an!
corn&s%irits %robably regar!e! as fe"ale, the sacra"ental eating of the
!i#ine ani"al "ay ha#e le! to the slaying an! eating of a hu"an or
ani"al #icti" su%%ose! to e"bo!y such a s%irit. 'ater the to cults ere
boun! to coalesce, an! the !i#ine ani"al an! the ani"al e"bo!i"ent of
the #egetation s%irit oul! not be !ifferentiate!. 8n the other han!,
hen "en began to take %art in o"en's fertility cults, the fact that
such s%irits ere fe"ale or ere %erha%s co"ing to be regar!e! as
go!!esses, "ay ha#e le! "en to en#isage certain of the anthro%o"or%hic
ani"al !i#inities as go!!esses, since so"e of these, e.g. /%ona an!
)a"ona, are fe"ale. But ith the increasing %artici%ation of "en in
agriculture, the s%irits or go!!esses of fertility oul! ten! to beco"e
"ale, or the consorts or "others of go!s of fertility, though the
earlier as%ect as ne#er lost sight of, itness the Corn&Mother. The
e#olution of !i#ine %riest&kings oul! cause the" to take the %lace of
the earlier %riestesses of these cults, one of ho" "ay ha#e been the
!i#ine #icti". $et in local sur#i#als certain cults ere still confine!
to o"en, an! still ha! their %riestesses..32-4
988T<8T/5(
.2G24 Reinach, KB9K 22, +11. The bull an! three cranes "ay be a rebus on
the na"e of the bull, KTar#os TrikarenosK, Bthe three&hea!e!,B or
%erha%s KTrikerasK, Bthree&horne!.B
.2G34 Plutarch, KMariusK, +EA Caesar, #ii. 2-A )'Arbois, K'es CeltesK,
1G.
.2GF4 :ol!er, Ks.#.K KTarbaK, KTarouannaK, KTar#isiu"K, etc.A )'Arbois,
K'es )rui!esK, *--A 5. Greg. K6n Glor. Conf.K 1F.
.2GG4 KC6'K Iiii. 2,*3A KRCK II#. 13A :ol!er, ii. -+F.
.3,,4 'eahy, ii. *,- f.A Curtin, KM96K +21, E*FA Joyce, KP<K i. *31A
Rees, 1-E. Cf. Ailre!, K'ife of 5. <inianK, c. F.
.3,*4 Jocelyn, KCita 5. =entig.K c. +1A Rees, +GE, E+E.
.3,+4 Tacitus, KGer".K Il#.A Blanchet, i. *2+, *2-A Reinach, KB9K +--
f., KCMRK i. *2FA Bertran!, KArch. Celt.K 1*G.
.3,E4 Pennant, KTour in 5cotlan!K, +2FA Reinach, KRCK IIii. *-F, KCMRK
i. 23.
.3,14 Pausan, #ii. *3, *FA Johnson, KJourneyK, *E2.
.3,-4 Joyce, K5:K ii. *+3A K6TK i. GG, +-2 >Bricriu's feast an! the tale
of Mac!atho's sine@.
.3,24 5trabo, i#. 1. E, says these sine attacke! strangers. Carro, K!e
Re RusticaK, ii. 1, a!"ires their #ast siHe. Cf. Polyb. ii. 1.
.3,34 The hunt is first "entione! in <ennius, c. 3G, an! then a%%ears as
a full&blon folk&tale in K=ulhychK, 'oth, i. *F- f. :ere the boar is a
transfor"e! %rince.
.3,F4 6 ha#e alrea!y suggeste!, %. *,2, Ksu%raK, that the %laces here
Gy!ion halte! ith the sine of /lysiu" ere sites of a sine&cult.
.3,G4 KRCK Iiii. 1-*. Cf. also KT85K #i. BThe /nchante! Pigs of 8engus,B
an! Ca"%bell, K'9K -E.
.3*,4 K''Anthro%ologieK, #i. -F1A Greenell, KBritish BarrosK, +31,
+FE, 1-1A KArch. Re#.K ii. *+,.
.3**4 KRe#. Arch.K *FG3, E*E.
.3*+4 Reinach, BRagreus le ser%ent cornu,B KRe#. ArchK. III#. +*,.
.3*E4 Reinach, KB9K *F-A Bertran!, E*2.
.3*14 BCuchulainn's 5ick&be!,B )'Arbois, #. +,+.
.3*-4 5ee Reinach, KCMRK i. -3.
.3*24 KC6'K Iiii. -*2,, Iii. +*GG. Rh.Jy4s, hoe#er, !eri#es Artaios
fro" KarK, B%loughe! lan!,B an! eLuates the go! ith Mercurius Cultor.
.3*34 KC6'K Iii. *--2&*--FA )'Arbois, KRCK I. *2-.
.3*F4 9or all these %lace an! %ersonal na"es, see :ol!er an! )'Arbois,
Ko%. cit. 'es CeltesK, 13 f., K'es )rui!esK, *-3 f.
.3*G4 5ee %. E+, Ksu%raKA Reinach, KCMRK i. 3+, KRe#. Arch.K ii. *+E.
.3+,4 8'Gra!y, ii. *+E.
.3+*4 /%ona is fully !iscusse! by Reinach in his K/%onaK, *FG-, an! in
articles >illustrate!@ in KRe#. Arch.K #ols. +2, EE, E-, 1,, etc. 5ee
also ii. .*FGF4, *G,.
.3++4 Reinach suggests that this "ay eI%lain hy CercingetoriI, in #ie
of siege by the Ro"ans, sent aay his horses. They ere too sacre! to be
eaten. Caesar, #ii. 3*A Reinach, KRCK II#ii. * f.
.3+E4 Ju#enal, #iii. *-1A A%ul. KMeta".K iii. +3A Min. 9eliI, K8cta#.K
II#ii. 3.
.3+14 9or the inscri%tions, see :ol!er, Ks.#.K B/%ona.B
.3+-4 KC6'K iii. 3G,1.
.3+24 KC6'K Iiii. E,3*A Reinach, KB9K +-E, KCMRK i. 21, KRe%ert. !e la
5tat.K ii. 31-A :ol!er, ii. 2-*&2-+.
.3+34 Granger, K?orshi% of the Ro"ansK, **EA =enne!y, *E-.
.3+F4 Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K 1G, 2*G, 2-3, 22*&221.
.3+G4 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P, ii. +F*, E*-.
.3E,4 Caesar, #. +*, +3. Possibly the )ea Bibracte of the Ae!uans as a
bea#er go!!ess.
.3E*4 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +,3A /lton, +GF.
.3E+4 Giral!. Ca"br. KTo%. :ib.K ii. *G, KRCK ii. +,+A K9olk&'oreK, #.
E*,A K6TK iii. E32.
.3EE4 8'Gra!y, ii. +F2, -EFA Ca"%bell, KThe 9iansK, 3FA Thiers, KTraite
!es 5u%erstitionsK, ii. F2.
.3E14 'a!y Guest, ii. 1,G f.
.3E-4 Blanchet, i. *22, +G-, E+2, EG,.
.3E24 5ee %. +,G, Ksu%raK.
.3E34 )io!. 5ic. #. E,A K6TK iii. EF-A KRCK II#i. *EGA Rh.Jy4s, K:'K
-GE.
.3EF4 KMan. :ist. Brit.K %. I.
.3EG4 :ero!ian, iii. *1, FA )ual! Mac9irbis in 6rish K<enniusK, %. #iiA
Caesar, #. *,A KRCPK iii. EE*.
.31,4 5ee Reinach, B'es Carnassiers an!ro%hages !ans l'art
gallo&ro"ain,B KCMRK i. +3G.
.31*4 5ee :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.31+4 Rh.Jy4s, KCBKO1P +23.
.31E4 Caesar, #. *+.
.3114 )io Cassius, lIii. +.
.31-4 5ee a #aluable %a%er by <.?. Tho"as, B5ur#i#ance !u Culte !es
Ani"auI !ans le Pays !e Galles,B in KRe#. !e l':ist. !es ReligionsK,
III#iii. +G- f., an! a si"ilar %a%er by Go""e, KArch. Re#.K *FFG, +*3 f.
Both riters see" to regar! these cults as %re&Celtic.
.3124 Go""e, K/thnol. in 9olkloreK, E,, KCillage Co""unityK, **E.
.3134 )io Cass. lIIii. +*A 'ogan, K5cottish GaelK, ii. *+.
.31F4 Joyce, K5:K ii. -+GA Martin, 3*.
.31G4 KRCK IIii. +,, +1, EG,&*.
.3-,4 K6TK iii. EF-.
.3-*4 ?al!ron, K6sle of ManK, 1GA Train, KAccount of the 6sle of ManK,
ii. *+1.
.3-+4 Callancey, KColl. !e Reb. :ib.K i#. <o. *EA Cle"ent, K9etesK, 122.
9or /nglish custo"s, see :en!erson, K9olklore of the <orthern CountiesK,
*+-.
.3-E4 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P, ii. EF,, 11*, 112.
.3-14 9or other ?elsh instances of the !anger of killing certain bir!s,
see Tho"as, Ko%. cit.K III#iii. E,2.
.3--4 9raHer, K=ingshi%K, +2*A 5tokes, KRCK I#i. 1*FA 'ar"inie, KMyths
an! 9olk&talesK, E+3.
.3-24 5ee Rh.Jy4s, K?elsh Peo%leK, 11A 'i#y, #. E1.
.3-34 Cf. K6TK iii. 1,3, 1,G.
.3-F4 Caesar, #. *1.
.3-G4 5trabo, i#. -. 1.
.32,4 )io Cass. lII#i. *+A Jero"e, KA!#. Jo#in.K ii. 3. Giral!us has
"uch to say of incest in ?ales, %robably actual breaches of "oral la
a"ong a barbarous %eo%le >K)escr. ?alesK, ii. 2@.
.32*4 KRCK Iii. +E-, +EF, I#. +G*, I#i. *1GA K''K +EKaK, *+1KbK. 6n
#arious 6rish teIts a chil! is sai! to ha#e three fathers&&%robably a
re"iniscence of %olyan!ry. 5ee %. 31, Ksu%raK, an! KRCK IIiii. EEE.
.32+4 K6TK i. *E2A 'oth, i. *E1 f.A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K E,F.
.32E4 Ri""er, BMatriarchy a"ong the Picts,B in :en!erson, K'eabhar nan
GleannK.
.3214 5ee %. +-G, KinfraK.
.32-4 5ee %. +31, KinfraK.
C:APT/R QC.
C85M8G8<$.
?hether the early Celts regar!e! :ea#en an! /arth as husban! an! ife is
uncertain. 5uch a conce%tion is orl!&i!e, an! "yth freLuently eI%lains
in !ifferent ays the reason of the se%aration of the to. A"ong the
Polynesians the chil!ren of hea#en an! earth&&the in!s, forests, an!
seas %ersonifie!&&angry at being crushe! beteen their %arents in
!arkness, rose u% an! se%arate! the". This is in effect the Greek "yth
of ;ranus, or :ea#en, an! Gaea, or /arth, !i#orce! by their son =ronos,
just as in :in!u "yth )yaus, or 5ky, an! Prithi#i, or /arth, ere
se%arate! by 6n!ra. ;ranus in Greece ga#e %lace to Reus, an!, in 6n!ia,
)yaus beca"e subor!inate to 6n!ra. Thus the %ri"iti#e :ea#en %ersonifie!
rece!es, an! his %lace is taken by a "ore in!i#i!ualise! go!. But
generally Mother /arth re"ains a constant Luantity. /arth as nearer "an
an! as "ore unchanging than the inconstant sky, hile as the %ro!ucer
of the fruits of the earth, she as regar!e! as the source of all
things, an! freLuently re"aine! as an i"%ortant !i#inity hen a cro! of
other !i#inities beca"e %ro"inent. This is es%ecially true of
agricultural %eo%les, ho %ro%itiate /arth ith sacrifice, orshi% her
ith orgiastic rites, or assist her %rocesses by "agic. ?ith a!#ancing
ci#ilisation such a go!!ess is still re"e"bere! as the frien! of "an,
an!, as in the /leusinia, is re%resente! sorroing an! rejoicing like
"an hi"self. 8r here a higher religion ousts the ol!er one, the ritual
is still retaine! a"ong the folk, though its "eaning "ay be forgotten.
The Celts "ay thus ha#e %ossesse! the :ea#en an! /arth "yth, but all
trace of it has %erishe!. There are, hoe#er, re"nants of "yths shoing
ho the sky is su%%orte! by trees, a "ountain, or by %illars. A high
"ountain near the sources of the Rhone as calle! Bthe colu"n of the
sun,B an! as so lofty as to hi!e the sun fro" the %eo%le of the
south..3224 6t "ay ha#e been regar!e! as su%%orting the sky, hile the
sun "o#e! roun! it. 6n an ol! 6rish hy"n an! its gloss, Brigit an!
Patrick are co"%are! to the to %illars of the orl!, %robably allu!ing
to so"e ol! "yth of sky or earth resting on %illars..3234 Traces of this
also eIist in folk&belief, as in the accounts of islan!s resting on four
%illars, or as in the legen! of the church of =ernitou hich rests on
four %illars on a congeale! sea an! hich ill be sub"erge! hen the sea
liLuefies&&a co"bination of the cos"ogonic "yth ith that of a great
inun!ation..32F4 6n so"e "ythologies a bri!ge or la!!er connects hea#en
an! earth. There "ay be a sur#i#al of so"e such "yth in an 6rish %oe"
hich s%eaks of the K!rochet betha!K, or Bbri!ge of life,B or in the
K!rochai! na flaitheanasK, or Bbri!ge of hea#en,B of :ebri!ean
folk&lore..32G4
Those go!s ho ere connecte! ith the sky "ay ha#e been hel! to !ell
there or on the "ountain su%%orting it. 8thers, like the Celtic
)is%ater, !elt un!ergroun!. 5o"e ere connecte! ith "oun!s an! hills,
or ere su%%ose! to ha#e taken u% their abo!e in the". 8thers, again,
!elt in a !istant region, the Celtic /lysiu", hich, once the Celts
reache! the sea, beca"e a far&off islan!. Those !i#inities orshi%%e! in
gro#es ere belie#e! to !ell there an! to "anifest the"sel#es at "i!!ay
or "i!night, hile such objects of nature as ri#ers, ells, an! trees
ere hel! to be the abo!e of go!s or s%irits. Thus it is !oubtful
hether the Celts e#er thought of their go!s as !elling in one 8ly"%us.
The Tuatha )e )anann are sai! to ha#e co"e fro" hea#en, but this "ay be
the "ere assertion of so"e scribe ho kne not hat to "ake of this
grou% of beings.
6n Celtic belief "en ere not so "uch create! by go!s as !escen!e! fro"
the". BAll the Gauls assert that they are !escen!e! fro" )is%ater, an!
this, they say, has been han!e! !on to the" by the )rui!s.B.33,4
)is%ater as a Celtic un!erorl! go! of fertility, an! the state"ent
%robably %resu%%oses a "yth, like that foun! a"ong "any %ri"iti#e
%eo%les, telling ho "en once li#e! un!ergroun! an! thence ca"e to the
surface of the earth. But it also %oints to their !escent fro" the go!
of the un!erorl!. Thither the !ea! returne! to hi" ho as ancestor of
the li#ing as ell as lor! of the !ea!..33*4 8n the other han!, if the
earth ha! originally been thought of as a fe"ale, she as /arth&"other
oul! be ancestress of "en. But her %lace in the "yth oul! easily be
taken by the /arth or ;n!er&earth go!, %erha%s regar!e! as her son or
her consort. 6n other cases, clans, fa"ilies, or in!i#i!uals often
trace! their !escent to go!s or !i#ine ani"als or %lants. Classical
riters occasionally s%eak of the origin of branches of the Celtic race
fro" e%ony"ous foun!ers, %erha%s fro" their knole!ge of eIisting Celtic
"yths..33+4 A""ianus Marcellinus also re%orts a )rui!ic tra!ition to the
effect that so"e Gauls ere in!igenous, so"e ha! co"e fro" !istant
islan!s, an! others fro" beyon! the Rhine..33E4 But this is not so "uch
a "yth of origins, as an eI%lanation of the %resence of !ifferent
%eo%les in Gaul&&the aborigines, the Celtae, an! the Belgic Gauls. M.
)'Arbois assu"es that B!istant islan!sB "eans the Celtic /lysiu", hich
he regar!s as the lan! of the !ea!,.3314 but the %hrase is %robably no
"ore than a !istorte! re"iniscence of the far&off lan!s hence early
grou%s of Celts ha! reache! Gaul.
8f the creation of the orl! no co"%lete "yth has sur#i#e!, though fro"
a gloss to the K5enchus MorK e learn that the )rui!s, like the
Br.Na4h"ans, boaste! that they ha! "a!e sun, "oon, earth, an! sea&&a
boast in kee%ing ith their su%%ose! %oers o#er the ele"ents..33-4
Certain folk&beliefs, regar!ing the origin of !ifferent %arts of nature,
bear a close rese"blance to %ri"iti#e cos"ogonic "yths, an! they "ay be
taken as K!isjecta "e"braK of si"ilar "yths hel! by the Celts an!
%erha%s taught by the )rui!s. Thus sea, ri#ers, or s%rings arose fro"
the "icturition of a giant, fairy, or saint, or fro" their seat or
bloo!. 6slan!s are rocks cast by giants, an! "ountains are the "aterial
thron u% by the" as they ere orking on the earth. ?ells s%rang u%
fro" the bloo! of a "artyr or fro" the touch of a saint's or a fairy's
staff..3324 The sea originate! fro" a "agic cask gi#en by Go! to a
o"an. The s%igot, hen o%ene!, coul! not be close! again, an! the cask
ne#er cease! running until the aters co#ere! the earth&&a tale ith
sa#age %arallels..3334 6n all these cases, giant, saint, or fairy has
!oubtless taken the %lace of a go!, since the stories ha#e a #ery
%ri"iti#e KfaciesK. The giant is freLuently Gargantua, %robably hi"self
once a !i#inity. 8ther references in 6rish teIts %oint to the co""on
cos"ogonic "yth of the earth ha#ing gra!ually assu"e! its %resent for".
Thus "any ne lakes an! %lains are sai! to ha#e been for"e! in 6relan!
!uring the ti"e of Partholan an! <e"e!, the %lains being a%%arently
built u% out of eIisting "aterials..33F4 6n so"e cases the for"ation of
a lake as the result of !igging the gra#e of so"e %ersonage after ho"
the lake as then na"e!..33G4 :ere e co"e u%on the fa"iliar i!ea of the
!anger of encroaching on the !o"ain of a !eity, e.g. that of the
/arth&go!, by !igging the earth, ith the conseLuent %unish"ent by a
floo!. The sa"e conce%tion is foun! in Celtic stories of a lake or ri#er
for"e! fro" the o#erfloing of a sacre! ell through hu"an carelessness
or curiosity, hich le! to the anger of the !i#inity of the ell..3F,4
8r, again, a ton or castle is sub"erge! on account of the icke!ness of
its inhabitants, the aters being %ro!uce! by the curse of Go! or a
saint >re%lacing a %agan go!@ an! for"ing a lake..3F*4 These "ay be
regar!e! as for"s of a Celtic !eluge&"yth, hich in one case, that of
the ?elsh story of the shi% of <e#y!, hich sa#e! )y#an an! )yfach an!
a %air of all kin!s of ani"als hen 'ake 'lion o#erfloe!, has
a%%arently borroe! fro" the Biblical story..3F+4 6n other cases lakes
are for"e! fro" the tears of a go!, e.g. Manannan, hose tears at the
!eath of his son for"e! three lochs in /rin..3FE4 A%ollonius re%orts
that the aters of /ri!anus originate! fro" the tears of A%ollo hen
!ri#en fro" hea#en by his father..3F14 This story, hich he says is
Celtic, has been clothe! by hi" in a Greek for", an! the go! in Luestion
"ay ha#e been Belenos, eLuate! ith A%ollo. 5o"eti"es the for"ation of
strea"s as ascribe! to great hail&stor"s&&an e#i!ent "ythic ren!ering
of the !a"age !one by actual s%ates, hile the 6rish "yths of
Billi"itable sea&bursts,B of hich three %articular instances are often
"entione!, ere !oubtless the result of the eI%erience of ti!al a#es.
Although no co"%lete account of the en! of all things, like that of the
5can!ina#ian Ragnarok, has sur#i#e!, scattere! hints tell of its for"er
eIistence. 5trabo says that the )rui!s taught that Bfire an! ater "ust
one !ay %re#ailB&&an e#i!ent belief in so"e final cataclys"..3F-4 This
is also hinte! at in the or!s of certain Gauls to AleIan!er, telling
hi" that hat they feare! "ost of all as the fall of the hea#ens u%on
their hea!s..3F24 6n other or!s, they feare! hat oul! be the signal
of the en! of all things. 8n 6rish groun! the or!s of Conchobar "ay
refer to this. :e announce! that he oul! rescue the ca%ti#es an! s%oil
taken by Me!b, unless the hea#ens fell, an! the earth burst o%en, an!
the sea engul%he! all things..3F34 5uch a "yth "ingle! ith Christian
beliefs "ay un!erlie the %ro%hecy of Ba!b after Mag&ture! regar!ing the
e#ils to co"e an! the en! of the orl!, an! that of 9ercertne in the
KColloLuy of the To 5agesK..3FF4 Both ha#e a curious rese"blance to the
5ybil's %ro%hecy of !oo" in the Colus%a. 6f the go!s the"sel#es ere
in#ol#e! in such a catastro%he, it oul! not be sur%rising, since in
so"e as%ects their i""ortality !e%en!e! on their eating an! !rinking
i""ortal foo! an! !rink..3FG4
988T<8T/5(
.3224 A#ienus, K8ra Mariti"aK, 211 f.
.3234 K6TK i. +-A Gai!oH, KRCPK i. +3.
.32F4 KAnnales !e BretagneK, I. 1*1.
.32G4 K6TK i. -,, cf. *F1A K9olk&'oreK, #i. *3,.
.33,4 Caesar, #i. *F.
.33*4 5ee %. E1*, KinfraK.
.33+4 )io!. 5ic. #. +1A A%%ian, K6llyricaK, +.
.33E4 A"". Marcel, I#. G.
.3314 )'Arbois, ii. +2+, Iii. ++,.
.33-4 KAntient 'as of 6relan!K, i. +E. 6n one M5. A!a" is sai! to ha#e
been create! thus&&his bo!y of earth, his bloo! of the sea, his face of
the sun, his breath of the in!, etc. This is also foun! in a 9risian
tale >Cigfusson&Poell, KCor%us Poet. Bor.K i. 13G@, an! both stories
%resent an in#ersion of ell&knon "yths about the creation of the
uni#erse fro" the "e"bers of a giant.
.3324 5ebillot, i. +*E f., ii. 2, 3, 3+, G3, *32, E+3&E+F. Cf. KRCK I#.
1F+, I#i. *-+.
.3334 5ebillot, ii. 2.
.33F4 K''K -2A =eating, **3, *+E.
.33G4 KRCK I#. 1+G, I#i. +33.
.3F,4 5ee %. *G*, Ksu%raK.
.3F*4 5ebillot, ii. 1* f., EG*, EG3A see %. E3+, KinfraK.
.3F+4 KTria!sK in 'oth, ii. +F,, +GGA Rh.Jy4s, K:'K -FE, 22E.
.3FE4 KRCK I#i. -,, *12.
.3F14 A%oll. i#. 2,G f.
.3F-4 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.
.3F24 Arrian, KAnab.K i. 1. 3A 5trabo, #ii. E. F. Cf. Jullian, F-.
.3F34 K''K G1A Miss :ull, +,-.
.3FF4 KRCK Iii. ***, II#i. EE.
.3FG4 A %ossible sur#i#al of a orl!&ser%ent "yth "ay be foun! in B)a
)erga's :ostelB >KRCK IIii. -1@, here e hear of 'e#iathan that
surroun!s the globe an! strikes ith his tail to o#erhel" the orl!.
But this "ay be a reflection of <orse "yths of the Mi!gar! ser%ent,
so"eti"es eLuate! ith 'e#iathan.
C:APT/R QC6.
5ACR696C/, PRA$/R, A<) )6C6<AT68<.
The 5e"ites are often consi!ere! the orst offen!ers in the "atter of
hu"an sacrifice, but in this, accor!ing to classical e#i!ence, they ere
closely ri#alle! by the Celts of Gaul. They offere! hu"an #icti"s on the
%rinci%le of a life for a life, or to %ro%itiate the go!s, or in or!er
to !i#ine the future fro" the entrails of the #icti". ?e shall eIa"ine
the Celtic custo" of hu"an sacrifice fro" these %oints of #ie first.
Caesar says that those afflicte! ith !isease or engage! in battle or
!anger offer hu"an #icti"s or #o to !o so, because unless "an's life be
gi#en for "an's life, the !i#inity of the go!s cannot be a%%ease!..3G,4
The theory a%%ears to ha#e been that the go!s sent !isease or ills hen
they !esire! a hu"an life, but that any life oul! !oA hence one in
!anger "ight esca%e by offering another in his stea!. 6n so"e cases the
#icti"s "ay ha#e been offere! to !isease !e"ons or !iseases %ersonifie!,
such as Celtic i"agination still belie#es in,.3G*4 rather than to go!s,
or, again, they "ay ha#e been offere! to nati#e go!s of healing. Co"ing
!anger coul! also be a#erte! on the sa"e %rinci%le, an! though the
#icti"s ere usually sla#es, in ti"es of great %eril i#es an! chil!ren
ere sacrifice!..3G+4 After a !efeat, hich shoe! that the go!s ere
still i"%lacable, the oun!e! an! feeble ere slain, or a great lea!er
oul! offer hi"self..3GE4 8r in such a case the Celts oul! turn their
ea%ons against the"sel#es, "aking of suici!e a kin! of sacrifice,
ho%ing to bring #ictory to the sur#i#ors..3G14
The i!ea of the #icti" being offere! on the %rinci%le of a life for a
life is illustrate! by a custo" at Marseilles in ti"e of %estilence. 8ne
of the %oorer classes offere! hi"self to be ke%t at the %ublic eI%ense
for so"e ti"e. :e as then le! in %rocession, cla! in sacre! boughs, an!
sole"nly curse!, an! %rayer as "a!e that on hi" "ight fall the e#ils of
the co""unity. Then he as cast hea!long !on. :ere the #icti" stoo! for
the li#es of the city an! as a kin! of sca%e&#icti", like those at the
Thargelia..3G-4
:u"an #icti"s ere also offere! by ay of thanksgi#ing after #ictory,
an! #os ere often "a!e before a battle, %ro"ising these as ell as
%art of the s%oil. 9or this reason the Celts oul! ne#er ranso" their
ca%ti#es, but offere! the" in sacrifice, ani"als ca%ture! being
i""olate! along ith the"..3G24 The "etho! of sacrifice as slaughter by
sor! or s%ear, hanging, i"%aling, !is"e"bering, an! !roning. 5o"e go!s
ere %ro%itiate! by one %articular "o!e of sacrifice&&Taranis by
burning, Teutates by suffocation, /sus >%erha%s a tree&go!@ by hanging
on a tree. )roning "eant !e#oting the #icti" to ater&!i#inities..3G34
8ther %ro%itiatory sacrifices took %lace at inter#als, an! ha! a general
or tribal character, the #icti"s being cri"inals or sla#es or e#en
"e"bers of the tribe. The sacrificial %ile ha! the ru!e outline of a
hu"an for", the li"bs of osier, enclosing hu"an as ell as so"e ani"al
#icti"s, ho %erishe! by fire. )io!orus says that the #icti"s ere
"alefactors ho ha! been ke%t in %rison for fi#e years, an! that so"e of
the" ere i"%ale!..3GF4 This nee! not "ean that the holocausts ere
LuinLuennial, for they "ay ha#e been offere! yearly, at Mi!su""er, to
ju!ge by the ritual of "o!ern sur#i#als..3GG4 The #icti"s %erishe! in
that ele"ent by hich the sun&go! chiefly "anifeste! hi"self, an! by the
sacrifice his %oers ere aug"ente!, an! thus groth an! fertility ere
%ro"ote!. These holocausts ere %robably eItensions of an earlier
slaying of a #icti" re%resenting the s%irit of #egetation, though their
#alue in ai!ing fertility oul! be still in e#i!ence. This is suggeste!
by 5trabo's or!s that the greater the nu"ber of "ur!ers the greater
oul! be the fertility of the lan!, %robably "eaning that there oul!
then be "ore cri"inals as sacrificial #icti"s..F,,4 Carro also s%eaks of
hu"an sacrifice to a go! eLuate! ith 5aturn, offere! because of all
see!s the hu"an race is the best, i.e. hu"an #icti"s are "ost %ro!ucti#e
of fertility..F,*4 Thus, looke! at in one ay, the later rite as a
%ro%itiatory sacrifice, in another it as an act of "agico&religious
ritual s%ringing fro" the ol! rite of the !i#ine #icti". But fro" both
%oints of #ie the intention as the sa"e&&the %ro"otion of fertility in
fiel! an! fol!.
)i#ination ith the bo!ies of hu"an #icti"s is atteste! by Tacitus, ho
says that Bthe )rui!s consult the go!s in the %al%itating entrails of
"en,B an! by 5trabo, ho !escribes the striking !on of the #icti" by
the sor! an! the %re!icting of the future fro" his con#ulsi#e
"o#e"ents..F,+4 To this e shall return.
:u"an sacrifice in Gaul as %ut !on by the Ro"ans, ho ere a"aHe! at
its eItent, 5uetonius su""ing u% the hole religion in a
%hrase&&K!rui!aru" religione" !irae i""anitatisK..F,E4 By the year 1,
A.). it ha! cease!, though #icti"s ere offere! sy"bolically, the )rui!s
%reten!ing to strike the" an! !raing a little bloo! fro" the"..F,14
8nly the %ressure of a higher ci#ilisation force! the so&calle!
%hiloso%hic )rui!s to aban!on their re#olting custo"s. A"ong the Celts
of Britain hu"an sacrifice still %re#aile! in 33 A.)..F,-4 )io Cassius
!escribes the refine"ents of cruelty %ractise! on fe"ale #icti"s
>%risoners of ar@ in honour of the go!!ess An!rasta&&their breasts cut
off an! %lace! o#er their "ouths, an! a stake !ri#en through their
bo!ies, hich ere then hung in the sacre! gro#e..F,24 Tacitus s%eaks of
the altars in Mona >Anglesey@ la#e! ith hu"an bloo!. As to the 6rish
Celts, %atriotic riters ha#e refuse! to belie#e the" guilty of such
%ractices,.F,34 but there is no Ka %rioriK reason hich nee! set the"
a%art fro" other races on the sa"e le#el of ci#ilisation in this custo".
The 6rish teIts no !oubt eIaggerate the nu"ber of the #icti"s, but they
certainly attest the eIistence of the %ractice. 9ro" the K)in!senchasK,
hich !escribes "any archaic usages, e learn that Bthe firstlings of
e#ery issue an! the chief scions of e#ery clanB ere offere! to Cro""
Cruaich&&a sacrifice of the first&born,&&an! that at one festi#al the
%rostrations of the orshi%%ers ere so #iolent that three&fourths of
the" %erishe!, not i"%robably an eIaggerate! "e"ory of orgiastic
rites..F,F4 )r. Joyce thinks that these notices are as incre!ible as the
"ythic tales in the K)in!senchasK. $et the tales ere !oubtless Luite
cre!ible to the %agan 6rish, an! the ritual notices are certainly
foun!e! on fact. )r. Joyce a!"its the eIistence of foun!ation sacrifices
in 6relan!, an! it is !ifficult to un!erstan! hy hu"an #icti"s "ay not
ha#e been offere! on other occasions also.
The %ur%ose of the sacrifice, na"ely, fertility, is in!icate! in the
%oetical #ersion of the cult of Cro""&&
BMilk an! corn
They oul! ask fro" hi" s%ee!ily,
6n return for one&thir! of their healthy issue.B.F,G4
The <e"e!ian sacrifice to the 9o"orians is sai! to ha#e been to&thir!s
of their chil!ren an! of the year's su%%ly of corn an! "ilk.F*,4&&an
ob#ious "isun!erstan!ing, the #icti"s really being offere! to obtain
corn an! "ilk. The nu"bers are eIaggerate!,.F**4 but there can be no
!oubt as to the nature of the sacrifice&&the offering of an agricultural
folk to the !i#inities ho hel%e! or retar!e! groth. Possibly %art of
the flesh of the #icti"s, at one ti"e i!entifie! ith the go!, as
burie! in the fiel!s or "iIe! ith the see!&corn, in or!er to %ro"ote
fertility. The bloo! as s%rinkle! on the i"age of the go!. 5uch
%ractices ere as obnoIious to Christian "issionaries as they ha! been
to the Ro"an Go#ern"ent, an! e learn that 5. Patrick %reache! against
Bthe slaying of yoke oIen an! "ilch cos an! the burning of the
first&born %rogenyB at the 9air of Taillte..F*+4 As has been seen, the
6rish #ersion of the Perseus an! An!ro"e!a story, in hich the #icti" is
offere! not to a !ragon, but to the 9o"orians, "ay ha#e recei#e! this
for" fro" actual ritual in hich hu"an #icti"s ere sacrifice! to the
9o"orians..F*E4 6n a Ja%anese #ersion of the sa"e story the "ai!en is
offere! to the sea&go!s. Another tale suggests the offering of hu"an
#icti"s to re"o#e blight. 6n this case the lan! suffers fro" blight
because the a!ulteress Becu"a, "arrie! to the king of /rin, has
%reten!e! to be a #irgin. The )rui!s announce! that the re"e!y as to
slay the son of an un!efile! cou%le an! s%rinkle the !oor%osts an! the
lan! ith his bloo!. 5uch a youth as foun!, but at his "other's reLuest
a to&bellie! co, in hich to bir!s ere foun!, as offere! in his
stea!..F*14 6n another instance in the K)in!senchasK, hostages,
inclu!ing the son of a ca%ti#e %rince, are offere! to re"o#e %lagues&&an
eLui#alent to the custo" of the Gauls..F*-4
:u"an sacrifices ere also offere! hen the foun!ation of a ne buil!ing
as lai!. 5uch sacrifices are uni#ersal, an! are offere! to %ro%itiate
the /arth s%irits or to %ro#i!e a ghostly guar!ian for the buil!ing. A
Celtic legen! attaches such a sacrifice to the foun!ing of the "onastery
at 6ona. 5. 8ran agrees to a!o%t 5. Colu"ba's a!#ice Bto go un!er the
clay of this islan! to hallo it,B an! as a rear! he goes straight to
hea#en..F*24 The legen! is a se"i&Christian for" of the "e"ory of an ol!
%agan custo", an! it is attache! to 8ran %robably because he as the
first to be burie! in the islan!. 6n another #ersion, nothing is sai! of
the sacrifice. The to saints are !is%uting about the other orl!, an!
8ran agrees to go for three !ays into the gra#e to settle the %oint at
issue. At the en! of that ti"e the gra#e is o%ene!, an! the triu"%hant
8ran announces that hea#en an! hell are not such as they are allege! to
be. 5hocke! at his latitu!inarian senti"ents, Colu"ba or!ere! earth to
be %ile! o#er hi", lest he cause a scan!al to the faith, an! 8ran as
accor!ingly burie! ali#e..F*34 6n a ?elsh instance, Cortigern's castle
cannot be built, for the stones !isa%%ear as soon as they are lai!. ?ise
"en, %robably )rui!s, or!er the sacrifice of a chil! born ithout a
father, an! the s%rinkling of the site ith his bloo!..F*F4 BGroaning
hostagesB ere %lace! un!er a fort in 6relan!, an! the foun!ation of the
%alace of /"ain Macha as also lai! ith a hu"an #icti"..F*G4 Many
si"ilar legen!s are connecte! ith buil!ings all o#er the Celtic area,
an! %ro#e the %o%ularity of the %agan custo". The sacrifice of hu"an
#icti"s on the funeral %ile ill be !iscusse! in a later cha%ter.
8f all these #arieties of hu"an sacrifice, those offere! for fertility,
%robably at Beltane or Mi!su""er, ere the "ost i"%ortant. Their
%ro%itiatory nature is of later origin, an! their real intention as to
strengthen the !i#inity by ho" the %rocesses of groth ere !irecte!.
5till earlier, one #icti" re%resente! the !i#inity, slain that his life
"ight be re#i#e! in #igour. The earth as s%rinkle! ith his bloo! an!
fe! ith his flesh in or!er to fertilise it, an! %ossibly the
orshi%%ers %artook sacra"entally of the flesh. Pro%itiatory holocausts
of hu"an #icti"s ha! taken the %lace of the slain re%resentati#e of a
go!, but their #alue in %ro"oting fertility as not forgotten. The
sacra"ental as%ect of the rite is %erha%s to be foun! in Pliny's or!s
regar!ing Bthe slaying of a hu"an being as a "ost religious act an!
eating the flesh as a holeso"e re"e!yB a"ong the Britons..F+,4 This "ay
"erely refer to B"e!icinal cannibalis",B such as still sur#i#es in
6taly, but the %assage rather suggests sacra"ental cannibalis", the
eating of %art of a !i#ine #icti", such as eIiste! in MeIico an!
elsehere. 8ther acts of cannibalis" are referre! to by classical
riters. )io!orus says the 6rish ate their ene"ies, an! Pausanias
!escribes the eating the flesh an! !rinking the bloo! of chil!ren a"ong
the Galatian Celts. )rinking out of a skull the bloo! of slain
>sacrificial@ ene"ies is "entione! by A""ianus an! 'i#y, an! 5olinus
!escribes the 6rish custo" of bathing the face in the bloo! of the slain
an! !rinking it..F+*4 6n so"e of these cases the intention "ay si"%ly
ha#e been to obtain the !ea! ene"y's strength, but here a sacrificial
#icti" as concerne!, the intention %robably ent further than this. The
bloo! of !ea! relati#es as also !runk in or!er to obtain their #irtues,
or to be brought into closer Kra%%ortK ith the"..F++4 This is analogous
to the custo" of bloo! brotherhoo!, hich also eIiste! a"ong the Celts
an! continue! as a sur#i#al in the ?estern 6sles until a late !ate..F+E4
8ne grou% of Celtic hu"an sacrifices as thus connecte! ith %ri"iti#e
agricultural ritual, but the arlike energies of the Celts eIten!e! the
%ractice. Cicti"s ere easily obtaine!, an! offere! to the go!s of ar.
$et e#en these sacrifices %reser#e! so"e trace of the ol!er rite, in
hich the #icti" re%resente! a !i#inity or s%irit.
:ea!&hunting, !escribe! in classical ritings an! in 6rish teIts, ha!
also a sacrificial as%ect. The hea!s of ene"ies ere hung at the
sa!!le&bo or fiIe! on s%ears, as the conLuerors returne! ho"e ith
songs of #ictory..F+14 This grueso"e %icture often recurs in the teIts.
Thus, after the !eath of Cuchulainn, Conall Cernach returne! to /"er
ith the hea!s of his slayers strung on a ithy. :e %lace! each on a
stake an! tol! /"er the na"e of the oner. A Celtic Ko%%i!u"K or a
king's %alace "ust ha#e been as grueso"e as a )ayak or 5olo"on 6slan!
#illage. /#eryhere ere stakes crone! ith hea!s, an! the alls of
houses ere a!orne! ith the". Posei!onius tells ho he sickene! at such
a sight, but gra!ually beca"e "ore accusto"e! to it..F+-4 A roo" in the
%alace as so"eti"es a store for such hea!s, or they ere %reser#e! in
ce!ar&oo! oil or in coffers. They ere %rou!ly shon to strangers as a
recor! of conLuest, but they coul! not be sol! for their eight in
gol!..F+24 After a battle a %ile of hea!s as "a!e an! the nu"ber of the
slain as counte!, an! at annual festi#als arriors %ro!uce! the tongues
of ene"ies as a recor! of their %roess..F+34
These custo"s ha! a religious as%ect. 6n cutting off a hea! the Celt
salute! the go!s, an! the hea! as offere! to the" or to ancestral
s%irits, an! so"eti"es ke%t in gro#e or te"%le..F+F4 The na"e gi#en to
the hea!s of the slain in 6relan!, the B"ast of Macha,B shos that they
ere !e!icate! to her, just as skulls foun! un!er an altar ha! been
!e#ote! to the Celtic Mars..F+G4 Probably, as a"ong )ayaks, A"erican
6n!ians, an! others, %ossession of a hea! as a guarantee that the ghost
of its oner oul! be subser#ient to its Celtic %ossessor, either in
this orl! or in the neIt, since they are so"eti"es foun! burie! in
gra#es along ith the !ea!..FE,4 8r, sus%en!e! in te"%les, they beca"e
an actual an! sy"bolical offering of the life of their oners, if, as is
%robable, the life or soul as thought to be in the hea!. :ence, too,
the custo" of !rinking fro" the skull of the slain ha! the intention of
transferring his %oers !irectly to the !rinker..FE*4 Milk !runk fro"
the skull of Conall Cernach restore! to enfeeble! arriors their
%ristine strength,.FE+4 an! a folk&sur#i#al in the :ighlan!s&&that of
!rinking fro" the skull of a suici!e >here taking the %lace of the slain
ene"y@ in or!er to restore health&&shos the sa"e i!ea at ork. All
these %ractices ha! thus one en!, that of the transference of s%irit
force&&to the go!s, to the #ictor ho sus%en!e! the hea! fro" his house,
an! to all ho !rank fro" the skull. Re%resente! in bas&relief on houses
or car#e! on !agger&han!les, the hea! "ay still ha#e been thought to
%ossess talis"anic %ro%erties, gi#ing %oer to house or ea%on. Possibly
this cult of hu"an hea!s "ay ha#e gi#en rise to the i!ea of a !i#ine
hea! like those figure! on Gaulish i"ages, or !escribe!, e.g., in the
story of Bran. :is hea! %reser#e! the lan! fro" in#asion, until Arthur
!isinterre! it,.FEE4 the story being base! on the belief that hea!s or
bo!ies of great arriors still ha! a %oerful influence..FE14 The
re%resentation of the hea! of a go!, like his hole i"age, oul! be
thought to %ossess the sa"e %reser#ati#e %oer.
A %ossible sur#i#al of the sacrifice of the age! "ay be foun! in a
Breton custo" of a%%lying a hea#y club to the hea! of ol! %ersons to
lighten their !eath agonies, the clubs ha#ing been for"erly use! to kill
the". They are ke%t in cha%els, an! are regar!e! ith ae..FE-4
Ani"al #icti"s ere also freLuently offere!. The Galatian Celts "a!e a
yearly sacrifice to their Arte"is of a shee%, goat, or calf, %urchase!
ith "oney lai! by for each ani"al caught in the chase. Their !ogs ere
feaste! an! crone! ith floers..FE24 9urther !etails of this ritual
are unfortunately lacking. Ani"als ca%ture! in ar ere sacrifice! to
the ar&go!s by the Gauls, or to a ri#er&go!, as hen the horses of the
!efeate! host ere thron into the Rhine by the Gaulish conLuerors of
Mallius..FE34 ?e ha#e seen that the hite oIen sacrifice! at the
"istletoe ritual "ay once ha#e been re%resentati#es of the
#egetation&s%irit, hich also ani"ate! the oak an! the "istletoe. A"ong
the insular Celts ani"al sacrifices are scarcely "entione! in the teIts,
%robably through su%%ression by later scribes, but the li#es of 6rish
saints contain a fe notices of the custo", e.g. that of 5. Patrick,
hich !escribes the gathering of %rinces, chiefs, an! )rui!s at Tara to
sacrifice #icti"s to i!ols..FEF4 6n 6relan! the %easantry still kill a
shee% or heifer for 5. Martin on his festi#al, an! ill&luck is thought
to follo the non&obser#ance of the rite..FEG4 5i"ilar sacrifices on
saints' !ays in 5cotlan! an! ?ales occurre! in Christian ti"es..F1,4 An
eIcellent instance is that of the sacrifice of bulls at Gairloch for the
cure of lunatics on 5. Maelrubha's !ay >August +-th@. 'ibations of "ilk
ere also %oure! out on the hills, ruine! cha%els ere %era"bulate!,
ells an! stones orshi%%e!, an! !i#ination %ractise!. These rites,
occurring in the se#enteenth century, ere con!e"ne! by the Presbytery
of )ingall, but ith little effect, an! so"e of the" still
sur#i#e..F1*4 6n all these cases the saint has succee!e! to the ritual
of an earlier go!. Mr. Cook sur"ises that 5. Maelrubha as the successor
of a !i#ine king connecte! ith an oak an! sacre! ell, the go! or
s%irit of hich as incarnate in hi". These !i#ine kings "ay at one ti"e
ha#e been slain, or a bull, si"ilarly incarnating the go! or s%irit, "ay
ha#e been kille! as a surrogate. This slaying as at a later ti"e
regar!e! as a sacrifice an! connecte! ith the cure of "a!ness..F1+4 The
rite oul! thus be on a %arallel ith the slaying of the oIen at the
"istletoe gathering, as alrea!y inter%rete!. /ilean Maree >Maelrubha@,
here the tree an! ell still eIist, as once knon as /ilean "o righ
>Bthe islan! of "y kingB@, or /ilean a Mhor Righ >Bof the great kingB@,
the king ha#ing been orshi%%e! as a go!. This %iece of corroborati#e
e#i!ence as gi#en by the ol!est inhabitant to 5ir Arthur Mitchell..F1E4
The %eo%le also s%oke of the go! Mourie.
8ther sur#i#als of ani"al sacrifice are foun! in cases of cattle&%lague,
as in Morayshire siIty years ago, in ?ales, )e#on, an! the 6sle of Man.
The #icti" as burne! an! its ashes s%rinkle! on the her!, or it as
thron into the sea or o#er a %reci%ice..F114 Perha%s it as both a
%ro%itiatory sacrifice an! a sca%e&ani"al, carrying aay the !isease,
though the rite "ay be connecte! ith the for"er slaying of a !i#ine
ani"al hose !eath benefite! all the cattle of the !istrict. 6n the
:ebri!es the s%irits of earth an! air ere %ro%itiate! e#ery Luarter by
throing outsi!e the !oor a cock, hen, !uck, or cat, hich as su%%ose!
to be seiHe! by the". 6f the rite as neglecte!, "isfortune as sure to
follo. The ani"al carrie! aay e#ils fro" the house, an! as also a
%ro%itiatory sacrifice.
The bloo! of #icti"s as s%rinkle! on altars, i"ages, an! trees, or, as
a"ong the Boii, it as %lace! in a skull a!orne! ith gol!..F1-4 8ther
libations are knon "ainly fro" folk&sur#i#als. Thus Breton fisher"en
salute reefs an! jutting %ro"ontories, say %rayers, an! %our a glass of
ine or thro a biscuit or an ol! gar"ent into the sea..F124 6n the
:ebri!es a curious rite as %erfor"e! on Maun!y Thurs!ay. After "i!night
a "an alke! into the sea, an! %oure! ale or gruel on the aters, at the
sa"e ti"e singing(
B8 Go! of the sea,
Put ee! in the !raing a#e,
To enrich the groun!,
To shoer on us foo!.B
Those on shore took u% the strain in chorus..F134 Thus the rite as
!escribe! by one ho took %art in it a century ago, but Martin, riting
in the se#enteenth century, gi#es other !etails. The cu% of ale as
offere! ith the or!s, B5hony, 6 gi#e you this cu% of ale, ho%ing that
you ill be so kin! as to sen! %lenty of seaee! for enriching our
groun! for the ensuing year.B All then ent in silence to the church an!
re"aine! there for a ti"e, after hich they in!ulge! in an orgy
out&of&!oors. This orgiastic rite "ay once ha#e inclu!e! the intercourse
of the seIes&&a %oerful char" for fertility. B5honyB as so"e ol!
sea&go!, an! another !i#inity of the sea, Brianniul, as so"eti"es
in#oke! for the sa"e %ur%ose..F1F4 ;ntil recently "ilk as %oure! on
BGruagach stonesB in the :ebri!es, as an offering to the Gruagach, a
bronie ho atche! o#er her!s, an! ho ha! taken the %lace of a
go!..F1G4
PRA$/R.
Prayer acco"%anie! "ost rites, an! %robably consiste! of tra!itional
for"ulae, on the eIact recital of hich !e%en!e! their #alue. The )rui!s
in#oke! a go! !uring the "istletoe rite, an! at a Galatian sacrifice,
offere! to bring bir!s to !estroy grassho%%ers, %rayer as "a!e to the
bir!s the"sel#es..F-,4 6n Mona, at the Ro"an in#asion, the )rui!s raise!
their ar"s an! uttere! %rayers for !eli#erance, at the sa"e ti"e cursing
the in#a!ers, an! Bou!icca in#oke! the %rotection of the go!!ess
An!rasta in a si"ilar "anner..F-*4 Chants ere sung by the B%riestessesB
of 5ena to raise stor"s, an! they ere also sung by arriors both before
an! after a battle, to the acco"%ani"ent of a "easure! !ance an! the
clashing of ar"s..F-+4 These arrior chants ere co"%ose! by bar!s, an!
%robably inclu!e! in#ocations of the ar&go!s an! the recital of fa"ous
!ee!s. They "ay also ha#e been of the nature of s%ells ensuring the hel%
of the go!s, like the ar&cries uttere! by a hole ar"y to the soun! of
tru"%ets..F-E4 These consiste! of the na"e of a go!, of a tribe or clan,
or of so"e ell&knon %hrase. As the recital of a !i#ine na"e is often
su%%ose! to force the go! to hel%, these cries ha! thus a "agical
as%ect, hile they also struck terror into the foe..F-14 ?arriors also
a!#ance! !ancing to the fray, an! they are !e%icte! on coins !ancing on
horseback or before a sor!, hich as orshi%%e! by the Celts..F--4 The
Celtiberian festi#al at the full "oon consiste! entirely of !ancing. The
!ance is a %ri"iti#e "etho! of eI%ressing religious e"otion, an! here
it i"itates certain actions, it is inten!e! by "agical influence to
cron the actions the"sel#es ith success. 6t is thus a kin! of acte!
%rayer ith "agical results.
)6C6<AT68<.
A s%ecial class of !i#iners eIiste! a"ong the Celts, but the )rui!s
%ractise! !i#ination, as !i! also the unofficial lay"an. Classical
riters s%eak of the Celts as of all nations the "ost !e#ote! to, an!
the "ost eI%erience! in, the science of !i#ination. )i#ination ith a
hu"an #icti" is !escribe! by )io!orus. 'ibations ere %oure! o#er hi",
an! he as then slain, auguries being !ran fro" the "etho! of his fall,
the "o#e"ents of his li"bs, an! the floing of his bloo!. )i#ination
ith the entrails as use! in Galatia, Gaul, an! Britain..F-24 Beasts
an! bir!s also %ro#i!e! o"ens. The course taken by a hare let loose ga#e
an o"en of success to the Britons, an! in 6relan! !i#ination as use!
ith a sacrificial ani"al..F-34 A"ong bir!s the cro as %re&e"inent,
an! to cros are re%resente! s%eaking into the ears of a "an on a
bas&relief at Co"%iegne. The Celts belie#e! that the cro ha! shon
here tons shoul! be foun!e!, or ha! furnishe! a re"e!y against %oison,
an! it as also an arbiter of !is%utes..F-F4 Arte"i!orus !escribes ho,
at a certain %lace, there ere to cros. Persons ha#ing a !is%ute set
out to hea%s of seet"eats, one for each !is%utant. The bir!s soo%e!
!on u%on the", eating one an! !is%ersing the other. :e hose hea% ha!
been scattere! on the case..F-G4 Bir!s ere belie#e! to ha#e gui!e! the
"igrating Celts, an! their flight furnishe! auguries, because, as
)eiotaurus gra#ely sai!, bir!s ne#er lie. )i#ination by the #oices of
bir!s as use! by the 6rish )rui!s..F2,4
8"ens ere !ran fro" the !irection of the s"oke an! fla"es of sacre!
fires an! fro" the con!ition of the clou!s..F2*4 ?an!s of ye ere
carrie! by )rui!s&&Bthe an! of )rui!is"B of "any folk&tales&&an! ere
use! %erha%s as !i#ining&ro!s. 8ga"s ere also engra#e! on ro!s of yes,
an! fro" these )rui!s !i#ine! hi!!en things. By this "eans the )rui!
)alan !isco#ere! here /tain ha! been hi!!en by the go! Mi!er. The
"etho! use! "ay ha#e been that of !raing one of the ro!s by lot an!
then !i#ining fro" the "arks u%on it. A si"ilar "etho! as use! to
!isco#er the route to be taken by in#a!ers, the result being su%%ose! to
!e%en! on !i#ine inter%osition..F2+4 The knole!ge of astrono"y ascribe!
by Caesar to the )rui!s as %robably of a si"%le kin!, an! "uch "iIe!
ith astrology, an! though it furnishe! the !ata for co"%uting a si"%le
calen!ar, its use as largely "agical..F2E4 6rish !i#iners forecast the
ti"e to buil! a house by the stars, an! the !ate at hich 5. Colu"ba's
e!ucation shoul! begin, as si"ilarly !isco#ere!..F214
The K6"bas 9orosnaiK, Billu"ination beteen the han!s,B as use! by the
K9ileK to !isco#er hi!!en things. :e chee! a %iece of ra flesh an!
%lace! it as an offering to the i"ages of the go!s ho" he !esire! to
hel% hi". 6f enlighten"ent !i! not co"e by the neIt !ay, he %ronounce!
incantations on his %al"s, hich he then %lace! on his cheeks before
falling aslee%. The re#elation folloe! in a !rea", or so"eti"es after
aaking..F2-4 Perha%s the ani"al hose flesh as eaten as a sacre! one.
Another "etho! as that of the KTein" 'aeghaK. The K9ileK "a!e a #erse
an! re%eate! it o#er so"e %erson or thing regar!ing hich he sought
infor"ation, or he %lace! his staff on the %erson's bo!y an! so obtaine!
hat he sought. The rite as also %rece!e! by sacrificeA hence 5.
Patrick %rohibite! both it an! the K6"bas 9orosnaiK..F224 Another
incantation, the KCetna!K, as sung through the fist to !isco#er the
track of stolen cattle or of the thief. 6f this !i! not bring
enlighten"ent, the K9ileK ent to slee% an! obtaine! the knole!ge
through a !rea"..F234 Another KCetna!K for obtaining infor"ation
regar!ing length of life as a!!resse! to the se#en !aughters of the
sea. Perha%s the incantation as re%eate! "echanically until the seer
fell into a kin! of trance. )i#ination by !rea"s as also use! by the
continental Celts..F2F4
8ther "etho!s rese"ble Btrance&utterance.B BA great obnubilation as
conjure! u% for the bar! so that he sle%t a hea#y slee%, an! things
"agic&begotten ere shen to hi" to enunciate,B a%%arently in his slee%.
This as calle! Billu"ination by rhy"es,B an! a si"ilar "etho! as use!
in ?ales. ?hen consulte!, the seer roare! #iolently until he as besi!e
hi"self, an! out of his ra#ings the !esire! infor"ation as gathere!.
?hen arouse! fro" this ecstatic con!ition, he ha! no re"e"brance of hat
he ha! uttere!. Giral!us re%orts this, an! thinks, ith the "o!ern
s%iritualist, that the utterance as cause! by s%irits..F2G4 The
rese"blance to "o!ern trance&utterance an! to si"ilar "etho!s use! by
sa#ages is re"arkable, an! %sychological science sees in it the
%ro"%tings of the subli"inal self in slee%.
The Ktaghair"K of the :ighlan!ers as a sur#i#al fro" %agan ti"es. The
seer as usually boun! in a co's hi!e&&the ani"al, it "ay be
conjecture!, ha#ing been sacrifice! in earlier ti"es. :e as left in a
!esolate %lace, an! hile he sle%t s%irits ere su%%ose! to ins%ire his
!rea"s..F3,4 Clothing in the skin of a sacrificial ani"al, by hich the
%erson thus clothe! is brought into contact ith it an! hence ith the
!i#inity to hich it is offere!, or ith the !i#ine ani"al itself here
the #icti" is so regar!e!, is a i!es%rea! custo". :ence, in this Celtic
usage, contact ith !i#inity through the hi!e oul! be eI%ecte! to
%ro!uce enlighten"ent. 9or a like reason the 6rish sacrifice! a shee%
for the reco#ery of the sick, an! clothe! the %atient in its skin..F3*4
Bin!ing the li"bs of the seer is also a i!es%rea! custo", %erha%s to
restrain his con#ulsions or to concentrate the %sychic force.
Both a"ong the continental an! 6rish Celts those ho sought hi!!en
knole!ge sle%t on gra#es, ho%ing to be ins%ire! by the s%irits of the
!ea!..F3+4 'egen! tol! ho, the full #ersion of the KTainK ha#ing been
lost, Murgan the K9ileK sang an incantation o#er the gra#e of 9ergus "ac
Roig. A clou! hi! hi" for three !ays, an! !uring that ti"e the !ea! "an
a%%eare! an! recite! the saga to hi".
6n 6relan! an! the :ighlan!s, !i#ination by looking into the
shoul!er&bla!e of a shee% as use! to !isco#er future e#ents or things
ha%%ening at a !istance, a sur#i#al fro" %agan ti"es..F3E4 The scholiast
on 'ucan !escribes the )rui!ic "etho! of cheing acorns an! then
%ro%hesying, just as, in 6relan!, eating nuts fro" the sacre! haHels
roun! Connla's ell ga#e ins%iration..F314 The B%riestessesB of 5ena an!
the B)rui!essesB of the thir! century ha! the gift of %ro%hecy, an! it
as also ascribe! freely to the K9ili!K, the )rui!s, an! to Christian
saints. )rui!s are sai! to ha#e %ro%hesie! the co"ing of 5. Patrick, an!
si"ilar %ro%hecies are %ut in the "ouths of 9ionn an! others, just as
MonteHu"a's %riests foretol! the co"ing of the 5%aniar!s..F3-4 The or!
use! for such %ro%hecies&&KbaileK, "eans Becstasy,B an! it suggests that
the %ro%het orke! hi"self into a frenHy an! then fell into a trance, in
hich he uttere! his forecast. Pro%hecies ere also "a!e at the birth of
a chil!, !escribing its future career..F324 Careful attention as gi#en
to the utterances of )rui!ic %ro%hets, e.g. Me!b's arriors %ost%one!
their eI%e!ition for fifteen !ays, because the )rui!s tol! the" they
oul! not succee! if they set out sooner..F334
Mythical %ersonages or !i#inities are sai! in the 6rish teIts to ha#e
stoo! on one leg, ith one ar" eIten!e!, an! one eye close!, hen
uttering %ro%hecies or incantations, an! this as !oubtless an attitu!e
use! by the seer..F3F4 A si"ilar "etho! is knon elsehere, an! it "ay
ha#e been inten!e! to %ro!uce greater force. 9ro" this attitu!e "ay ha#e
originate! "yths of beings ith one ar", one leg, an! one eye, like so"e
9o"orians or the K9achanK hose eir! %icture Ca"%bell of 6slay !re
fro" #erbal !escri%tions..F3G4
/arly Celtic saints occasionally !escribe la%ses into heathenis" in
6relan!, not characterise! by Bi!olatry,B but by iHar!ry, !ealing in
char"s, an! Kfi!lannaK, %erha%s a kin! of !i#ination ith %ieces of
oo!..FF,4 But it is "uch "ore likely that these ha! ne#er really been
aban!one!. They belong to the %ri"iti#e ele"ent of religion an! "agic
hich %eo%le cling to long after they ha#e gi#en u% Bi!olatry.B
988T<8T/5(
.3G,4 Caesar, #i. *2.
.3G*4 Rh.Jy4s, KCBKO1P 2F.
.3G+4 Justin, II#i. +A Po"%. Mela, iii. +.
.3GE4 )io!. 5ic. IIii. G.
.3G14 5ee Jullian, -E.
.3G-4 5er#ius on KA/nei!K, iii. -3.
.3G24 Caesar, #i. *2A 'i#y, III#iii. 13A )io!. 5ic. #. E+, IIIi. *EA
Athenaeus, i#. -*A )io Cass., lIii. 3.
.3G34 )io!. 5ic, IIIi#. *EA 5trabo, i#. 1A 8rosius, #. *2A 5chol. on
'ucan, ;sener's e!. E+.
.3GF4 Caesar, #i. *2A 5trabo, i#. 1A )io!. 5ic. #. E+A 'i#y, III#iii. 13.
.3GG4 Mannhar!t, KBau"kultusK, -+G f.
.F,,4 5trabo, Kibi!.K 1. 1.
.F,*4 5. Aug. K!e Ci#. )eiK, #ii. *G.
.F,+4 Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E,A 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.
.F,E4 5uet. KClau!.K +-.
.F,14 Po"%. Mela, iii. +. *F.
.F,-4 Pliny, K:<K III. 1. *E.
.F,24 )io. Cass. lIii. 2.
.F,34 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +++A Joyce, K5:K i. ch. G.
.F,F4 KRCK I#i. E-.
.F,G4 K''K +*EKbK.
.F*,4 5ee %. -+, Ksu%raK.
.F**4 5ee, hoe#er, accounts of reckless chil! sacrifices in /llis,
KPolynesian ResearchesK, i. +-+, an! ?ester"arck, KMoral 6!easK, i. EG3.
.F*+4 8'Curry, KMCK 6ntro, !cIli.
.F*E4 K';K *+2KaK. A folk&#ersion is gi#en by 'ar"inie, K?est 6rish
9olk&TalesK, *EG.
.F*14 KBook of 9er"oyK, FGKaK.
.F*-4 8'Curry, KMCK 6ntro. !cIl, ii. +++.
.F*24 A!a"nan, KCita 5. Col.K Ree#e's e!. +FF.
.F*34 Car"ichael, KCar"ina Ga!elicaK, ii. E*3.
.F*F4 <ennius, K:ist. Brit.K 1,.
.F*G4 5tokes, KT6GK Ili.A 8'Curry, KMCK ii. G.
.F+,4 Pliny, K:<K III. *. The fee!ing of /thni, !aughter of Cri"thann,
on hu"an flesh that she "ight sooner attain "aturity "ay be an instance
of B"e!icinal cannibalis"B >K6TK iii. E2E@. The eating of %arents a"ong
the 6rish, !escribe! by 5trabo >i#. -@, as an eIa"%le of Bhonorific
cannibalis".B 5ee "y article BCannibalis"B in :astings' K/ncycl. of Rel.
an! /thicsK, iii, *G1.
.F+*4 )io!. 5ic. #i. *+A Paus. I. ++. EA A"". Marc. II#ii. 1A 'i#y,
IIiii. +1A 5olin. IIii. E.
.F++4 This custo" continue! in 6relan! until 5%enser's ti"e.
.F+E4 'eahy, i. *-FA Giral!us, KTo%. :ib.K iii. ++A Martin, *,G.
.F+14 5il. 6tal. i#. +*EA )io!. 5ic. Ii#. **-A 'i#y, I. +2A 5trabo, i#.
1. -A Miss :ull, G+.
.F+-4 )io!. 5ic. #. +GA 5trabo, i#. 1. -.
.F+24 )'Arbois, #. **A )io!. 5ic. #. +GA 5trabo, Kloc. cit.K
.F+34 KAnnals of the 9our MastersK, F21A K6TK i. +,-.
.F+F4 5il. 6tal. i#. +*-, #. 2-+A 'ucan, KPhar.K i. 113A 'i#y, IIiii.
+1.
.F+G4 5ee %. 3*, Ksu%raKA KC6'K Iii. *,33. A !i" "e"ory of hea!&taking
sur#i#e! in the se#enteenth century in /igg, here hea!less skeletons
ere foun!, of hich the islan!ers sai! that an ene"y ha! cut off their
hea!s >Martin, +33@.
.FE,4 Belloguet, K/thnol. Gaul.K iii. *,,.
.FE*4 5il. 6tal. Iiii. 1F+A 'i#y, IIiii. +1A 9lorus, i. EG.
.FE+4 KRCPK i. *,2.
.FEE4 'oth, i. G, f., ii. +*F&+*G. 5o"eti"es the ea%ons of a great
arrior ha! the sa"e effect. The bos of Gerthe#yr ere hi!!en in
!ifferent %arts of Pry!ein an! %reser#e! the lan! fro" 5aIon in#asion,
until Grtheyrn, for lo#e of a o"an, !ug the" u% >'oth, ii. +*F&+*G@.
.FE14 5ee %. EEF, KinfraK. 6n 6relan!, the brain of an ene"y as taken
fro" the hea!, "iIe! ith li"e, an! "a!e into a ball. This as alloe!
to har!en, an! as then %lace! in the tribal ar"oury as a tro%hy.
.FE-4 K''Anthro%ologieK, Iii. +,2, 3**. Cf. the /nglish tra!ition of the
B:oly Male,B sai! to ha#e been use! for the sa"e %ur%ose. Thorns,
KAnec!otes an! Tra!itionsK, F1.
.FE24 Arrian, KCyneg.K IIIiii.
.FE34 Caesar, #i. *3A 8rosius, #. *2. 2.
.FEF4 )'Arbois, i. *--.
.FEG4 Curtin, KTales of the 9airiesK, 3+A K9olk&'oreK, #ii. *3F&*3G.
.F1,4 Mitchell, KPast in the PresentK, +3-.
.F1*4 Mitchell, Ko%. cit.K +3* f.
.F1+4 Cook, K9olk&'oreK, I#ii. EE+.
.F1E4 Mitchell, Kloc. cit.K *13. The corru%tion of BMaelrubhaB to
BMareeB "ay ha#e been ai!e! by confusing the na"e ith K"oK or K"hor
righK.
.F114 Mitchell, Kloc. cit.KA Moore, G+, *1-A Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. E,-A
?orth, K:ist. of )e#onshireK, EEGA )alyell, K%assi"K.
.F1-4 'i#y, IIiii. +1.
.F124 5ebillot, ii. *22&*23A K''Anthro%.K I#. 3+G.
.F134 Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!.K i. *2E.
.F1F4 Martin, +F. A scribe calle! B5oni!,B hich "ight be the eLui#alent
of B5hony,B is "entione! in the 5toe "issal >K9olk&'oreK, *FG-@.
.F1G4 Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, *F1 fA K?aifs an! 5trays of Celtic
Tra!.K ii. 1--.
.F-,4 Aelian, I#ii. *G.
.F-*4 Tacitus, KAnn.K Ii#. E,A )io Cass. lIii. 2.
.F-+4 A%%ian, KCelticaK, FA 'i#y, IIi. +F, III#iii. *3, I. +2.
.F-E4 'i#y, #. EF, #ii. +EA Polybius, ii. +G. Cf. ?atte#ille, K'e cri !e
guerre cheH les !ifferents %eu%lesK, Paris, *FFG.
.F-14 'i#y, #. EF.
.F--4 A%%ian, #i. -EA Muret et Chabouillet, KCatalogue !es "onnaies
gauloisesK, 2,EE f., 2G1* f.
.F-24 )io!. #. E*A Justin, II#i. +, 1A Cicero, K!e )i#.K ii. E2, 32A
Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E,A 5trabo, iii. E. 2.
.F-34 )io Cass. lIii. 2.
.F-F4 Reinach, KCatal. 5o""aireK, E*A Pseu!o&Plutarch, K!e 9lu#iisK, #i.
1A KMirab. Auscult.K F2.
.F-G4 5trabo, i#. 1. 2.
.F2,4 Justin, IIi#, 1A Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. *-. +2. >Cf. the to "agic
cros hich announce! the co"ing of Cuchulainn to the other orl!
>)'Arbois, #. +,E@A 6rish K<enniusK, *1-A 8'Curry, KMCK ii. ++1A cf. for
a ?elsh instance, 5kene, i. 1EE.@
.F2*4 Joyce, K5:K i. ++GA 8'Curry, KMCK ii. ++1, KM5 Mat.K +F1.
.F2+4 K6TK i. *+GA 'i#y, #. E1A 'oth, KRCK I#i. E*1. The 6rish for
consulting a lot is Kcrann&churK, Bthe act of casting oo!.B
.F2E4 Caesar, #i. *1.
.F214 8'Curry, KMCK ii. 12, ++1A 5tokes, KThree 6rish :o"iliesK, *,E.
.F2-4 Cor"ac, G1. 9ionn's !i#ination by cheing his thu"b is calle!
K6"bas 9orosnaiK >KRCK II#. E13@.
.F224 KAntient 'as of 6relan!K, i. 1-.
.F234 :y!e, K'it. :ist. of 6relan!K, +1*.
.F2F4 Justin, Iliii. -.
.F2G4 8'Gra!y, ii. E2+A Giral!us, K)escr. Ca"b.K i. **.
.F3,4 Pennant, KTour in 5cotlan!K, i. E**A Martin, ***.
.F3*4 Richar!son, K9olly of Pilgri"agesK, 3,.
.F3+4 Tertullian, K!e Ani"aK, -3A KColl. !e Reb. :ib.K iii. EE1.
.F3E4 Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, +2EA Curtin, KTalesK, F1.
.F314 'ucan, e!. ;sener, EE.
.F3-4 5ee eIa"%les in 8'Curry, KM5 Mat.K EFE f.
.F324 Miss :ull, *G, +,, +E.
.F334 K';K --.
.F3F4 KRCK Iii. GF, IIi. *-2, IIii. 2*.
.F3G4 KRCK I#. 1E+A KAnnals of the 9our MastersK, A.M. +-E,A Ca"%bell,
K?:TK i#. +GF.
.FF,4 5ee BA!a"nan's 5econ! Cision.B KRCK Iii. 11*.
C:APT/R QC66.
TAB;.
The 6rish KgeisK, %l. KgeasaK, hich "ay be ren!ere! by Tabu, ha! to
senses. 6t "eant so"ething hich "ust not be !one for fear of !isastrous
conseLuences, an! also an obligation to !o so"ething co""an!e! by
another.
As a tabu the KgeisK ha! a large %lace in 6rish life, an! as %robably
knon to other branches of the Celts..FF*4 6t folloe! the general
course of tabu here#er foun!. 5o"eti"es it as i"%ose! before birth, or
it as here!itary, or connecte! ith tote"is". 'egen!s, hoe#er, often
arose gi#ing a !ifferent eI%lanation to KgeasaK, long after the custo"s
in hich they originate! ha! been forgotten. 6t as one of )iar"ai!'s
KgeasaK not to hunt the boar of Ben Gulban, an! this as %robably
tote"ic in origin. But legen! tol! ho his father kille! a chil!, the
cor%se being change! into a boar by the chil!'s father, ho sai! its
s%an of life oul! be the sa"e as )iar"ai!'s, an! that he oul! be slain
by it. 8engus %ut KgeasaK on )iar"ai! not to hunt it, but at 9ionn's
!esire he broke these, an! as kille!..FF+4 8ther KgeasaK&&those of
Cuchulainn not to eat !og's flesh, an! of Conaire ne#er to chase
bir!s&&also %oint to tote"is".
6n so"e cases KgeasaK ere base! on i!eas of right an! rong, honour or
!ishonour, or ere inten!e! to cause a#oi!ance of unlucky !ays. 8thers
are unintelligible to us. The largest nu"ber of KgeasaK concerne! kings
an! chiefs, an! are !escribe!, along ith their corres%on!ing
%ri#ileges, in the KBook of RightsK. 5o"e of the KgeasaK of the king of
Connaught ere not to go to an asse"bly of o"en at 'eaghair, not to sit
in autu"n on the se%ulchral "oun! of the ife of Maine, not to go in a
grey&s%eckle! gar"ent on a grey&s%eckle! horse to the heath of Cruachan,
an! the like..FFE4 The "eaning of these is obscure, but other eIa"%les
are "ore ob#ious an! sho that all alike corres%on!e! to the tabus
a%%lying to kings in %ri"iti#e societies, ho are often "agicians,
%riests, or e#en !i#ine re%resentati#es. 8n the" the elfare of the
tribe an! the "aking of rain or sunshine, an! the %rocesses of groth
!e%en!. They "ust therefore be careful of their actions, an! hence they
are he!ge! about ith tabus hich, hoe#er un"eaning, ha#e a !irect
connection ith their %oers. 8ut of such conce%tions the 6rish kingly
KgeasaK arose. Their obser#ance "a!e the earth fruitful, %ro!uce!
abun!ance an! %ros%erity, an! ke%t both the king an! his lan! fro"
"isfortune. 6n later ti"es these ere su%%ose! to be !e%en!ent on the
Bgoo!nessB or the re#erse of the king, but this as a !e%arture fro" the
ol!er i!ea, hich is clearly state! in the KBook of RightsK..FF14 The
kings ere !i#inities on ho" !e%en!e! fruitfulness an! %lenty, an! ho
"ust therefore sub"it to obey their KgeasaK. 5o"e of their %rerogati#es
see" also to be connecte! ith this state of things. Thus they "ight eat
of certain foo!s or go to certain %laces on %articular !ays..FF-4 6n
%ri"iti#e societies kings an! %riests often %rohibit or!inary "ortals
fro" eating things hich they !esire for the"sel#es by "aking the"
KtabuK, an! in other cases the fruits of the earth can only be eaten
after king or %riest has %artaken of the" cere"onially. This "ay ha#e
been the case in 6relan!. The %ri#ilege relating to %laces "ay ha#e
"eant that these ere sacre! an! only to be entere! by the king at
certain ti"es an! in his sacre! ca%acity.
As a reflection fro" this state of things, the heroes of the sagas,
Cuchulainn an! 9ionn, ha! nu"erous KgeasaK a%%licable to the"sel#es,
so"e of the" religious, so"e "agical, others base! on %ri"iti#e i!eas of
honour, others %erha%s the in#ention of the narrators..FF24
KGeasaK, hether in the sense of tabus or of obligations, coul! be
i"%ose! by any one, an! "ust be obeye!, for !isobe!ience %ro!uce!
!isastrous effects. Probably the obligation as fra"e! as an incantation
or s%ell, an! the %oer of the s%ell being fully belie#e! in, obe!ience
oul! follo as a "atter of course..FF34 /Ia"%les of such KgeasaK are
nu"erous in 6rish literature. Cuchulainn's father&in&la %ut KgeasaK on
hi" that he shoul! kno no rest until he foun! out the cause of the
eIile of the sons of )oel. An! Grainne %ut KgeasaK on )iar"ai! that he
shoul! elo%e ith her, an! this he !i!, though the act as re%ugnant to
hi".
A"ong sa#ages the %unish"ent hich is su%%ose! to follo tabu&breaking
is often %ro!uce! through auto&suggestion hen a tabu has been
unconsciously infringe! an! this has afterar!s been !isco#ere!. 9ear
%ro!uces the result hich is feare!. The result is belie#e!, hoe#er, to
be the orking of !i#ine #engeance. 6n the case of 6rish KgeasaK,
!estruction an! !eath usually folloe! their infringe"ent, as in the
case of )iar"ai! an! Cuchulainn. But the best instance is foun! in the
tale of KThe )estruction of )a )erga's :ostelK, in hich the Ksi!K&folk
a#enge the"sel#es for /ochai!'s action by causing the !estruction of his
!escen!ant Conaire, ho is force! to break his KgeasaK. These are first
"inutely !etaile!A then it is shon ho, al"ost in s%ite of hi"self,
Conaire as le! on to break the", an! ho, in the seLuel, his tragic
!eath occurre!..FFF4 Ciee! in this light as the orking of !i#ine
#engeance to a re"ote !escen!ant of the offen!er by forcing hi" to break
his tabus, the story is one of the "ost terrible in the hole range of
6rish literature.
988T<8T/5(
.FF*4 The religious inter!ictions "entione! by Caesar >#i. *E@ "ay be
regar!e! as tabus, hile the s%oils of ar %lace! in a consecrate! %lace
>#i. *F@, an! certain ani"als a"ong the Britons >#. *+@, ere clearly
un!er tabu.
.FF+4 Joyce, K8CRK EE+ f.
.FFE4 KBook of RightsK, e!. 8')ono#an, -.
.FF14 KBook of RightsK, 3.
.FF-4 6bi!. E f.
.FF24 K''K *,3A 8'Gra!y, ii. *3-.
.FF34 6n :ighlan! tales KgeasaK is translate! Bs%ells.B
.FFF4 KRCK IIii. +3 f. The story of K)a Choca's :ostelK has for its
subject the !estruction of Cor"ac through breaking his KgeasaK >KRCK
IIi. *1G f.@.
C:APT/R QC666.
9/5T6CA'5.
The Celtic year as not at first regulate! by the solstices an!
eLuinoIes, but by so"e "etho! connecte! ith agriculture or ith the
seasons. 'ater, the year as a lunar one, an! there is so"e e#i!ence of
atte"%ts at synchronising solar an! lunar ti"e. But ti"e as "ainly
"easure! by the "oon, hile in all calculations night %rece!e! !ay..FFG4
Thus Koi!hche 5a"hainK as the night %rece!ing 5a"hain ><o#e"ber *st@,
not the folloing night. The usage sur#i#es in our BsennightB an!
Bfortnight.B 6n early ti"es the year ha! to, %ossibly three !i#isions,
"arking %erio!s in %astoral or agricultural life, but it as afterar!s
!i#i!e! into four %erio!s, hile the year began ith the inter
!i#ision, o%ening at 5a"hain. A tofol!, sub!i#i!e! into a fourfol!
!i#ision is foun! in 6rish teIts,.FG,4 an! "ay be tabulate! as
follos(&&
*st Luarter, KGei"re!hK, beginning ith the
KAK. Gei"re!h festi#al of K5a"hainK, <o#e"ber *st.
>inter half@
+n! Luarter, K/arrachK, beginning 9ebruary
*st >so"eti"es calle! K8i"elcK@.
Er! Luarter, K5a"ra!hK, beginning ith the
KBK. 5a"hra!h festi#al of KBeltaneK, May *st >calle! also
>su""er half@ KCet&so"anK or KCet&sa"ainK, *st !ay of
K5a"ono&sKA cf. ?elsh KCyntefynK@.
1th Luarter, K9ogha"harK, beginning ith
the festi#al of K'ugnasa!hK, August *st
>so"eti"es calle! KBrontroghainK@.
These !i#isions began ith festi#als, an! clear traces of three of the"
occur o#er the hole Celtic area, but the fourth has no been "erge! in
5. Brigit's !ay. Beltane an! 5a"hain "arke! the beginning of the to
great !i#isions, an! ere %erha%s at first "o#able festi#als, accor!ing
as the signs of su""er or inter a%%eare! earlier or later. ?ith the
a!o%tion of the Ro"an calen!ar so"e of the festi#als ere !is%lace!,
e.g. in Gaul, here the Calen!s of January took the %lace of 5a"hain,
the ritual being also transferre!.
<one of the four festi#als is connecte! ith the ti"es of eLuinoI an!
solstice. This %oints to the fact that originally the Celtic year as
in!e%en!ent of these. But Mi!su""er !ay as also obser#e! not only by
the Celts, but by "ost /uro%ean folk, the ritual rese"bling that of
Beltane. 6t has been hel!, an! an ol! tra!ition in 6relan! gi#es so"e
su%%ort to the theory, that un!er Christian influences the ol! %agan
feast of Beltane as "erge! in that of 5. John Ba%tist on Mi!su""er
!ay..FG*4 But, though there are Christian ele"ents in the Mi!su""er
ritual, !enoting a !esire to bring it un!er Church influence, the %agan
ele"ents in folk&custo" are strongly "arke!, an! the festi#al is !ee%ly
roote! in an earlier %aganis" all o#er /uro%e. ?ithout "uch acLuaintance
ith astrono"y, "en "ust ha#e note! the %erio! of the sun's longest
course fro" early ti"es, an! it oul! %robably be obser#e! ritually. The
festi#als of Beltane an! Mi!su""er "ay ha#e arisen in!e%en!ently, an!
entere! into co"%etition ith each other. 8r Beltane "ay ha#e been an
early %astoral festi#al "arking the beginning of su""er hen the her!s
ent out to %asture, an! Mi!su""er a "ore %urely agricultural festi#al.
An! since their ritual as%ect an! %ur%ose as seen in folk&custo" are
si"ilar, they "ay e#entually ha#e borroe! each fro" the other. 8r they
"ay be later se%arate fiIe! !ates of an earlier "o#able su""er festi#al.
9or our %ur%ose e "ay here consi!er the" as tin hal#es of such a
festi#al. ?here Mi!su""er as alrea!y obser#e!, the influence of the
Ro"an calen!ar oul! confir" that obser#ance. The festi#als of the
Christian year also affecte! the ol!er obser#ances. 5o"e of the ritual
as transferre! to saints' !ays ithin the range of the %agan festi#al
!ays, thus the 5a"hain ritual is foun! obser#e! on 5. Martin's !ay. 6n
other cases, holy !ays took the %lace of the ol! festi#als&&All 5aints'
an! All 5ouls' that of 5a"hain, 5. Brigit's !ay that of 9ebruary *st, 5.
John Ba%tist's !ay that of Mi!su""er, 'a""as that of 'ugnasa!, an! so"e
atte"%t as "a!e to hallo, if not to oust, the ol!er ritual.
The Celtic festi#als being %ri"arily connecte! ith agricultural an!
%astoral life, e fin! in their ritual sur#i#als traces not only of a
religious but of a "agical #ie of things, of acts !esigne! to assist
the %oers of life an! groth. The %roof of this ill be foun! in a
!etaile! eIa"ination of the sur#i#ing custo"s connecte! ith the".
5AM:A6<.
5a"hain,.FG+4 beginning the Celtic year, as an i"%ortant social an!
religious occasion. The %oers of blight ere beginning their
ascen!ancy, yet the future triu"%h of the %oers of groth as not
forgotten. Probably 5a"hain ha! gathere! u% into itself other feasts
occurring earlier or later. Thus it bears traces of being a har#est
festi#al, the ritual of the earlier har#est feast being transferre! to
the inter feast, as the Celts foun! the"sel#es in lan!s here har#est
is not gathere! before late autu"n. The har#est rites "ay, hoe#er, ha#e
been associate! ith threshing rather than ingathering. 5a"hain also
contains in its ritual so"e of the ol! %astoral cults, hile as a <e
$ear feast its ritual is in great %art that of all festi#als of
beginnings.
<e fire as brought into each house at 5a"hain fro" the sacre!
bonfire,.FGE4 itself %robably kin!le! fro" the nee!&fire by the friction
of %ieces of oo!. This %reser#e! its %urity, the %urity necessary to a
festi#al of beginnings..FG14 The %utting aay of the ol! fires as
%robably connecte! ith #arious rites for the eI%ulsion of e#ils, hich
usually occur a"ong "any %eo%les at the <e $ear festi#al. By that
%rocess of !islocation hich scattere! the 5a"hain ritual o#er a i!er
%erio! an! ga#e so"e of it to Christ"as, the kin!ling of the $ule log
"ay ha#e been originally connecte! ith this festi#al.
)i#ination an! forecasting the fate of the inLuirer for the co"ing year
also took %lace. 5o"eti"es these ere connecte! ith the bonfire, stones
%lace! in it shoing by their a%%earance the fortune or "isfortune
aaiting their oners..FG-4 8thers, like those !escribe! by Burns in his
B:alloe'en,B ere unconnecte! ith the bonfire an! ere of an erotic
nature..FG24
The slaughter of ani"als for inter consu"%tion hich took %lace at
5a"hain, or, as no, at Martin"as, though connecte! ith econo"ic
reasons, ha! a !istinctly religious as%ect, as it ha! a"ong the Teutons.
6n recent ti"es in 6relan! one of the ani"als as offere! to 5. Martin,
ho "ay ha#e taken the %lace of a go!, an! ill&luck folloe! the
non&obser#ance of the custo"..FG34 The slaughter as folloe! by general
feasting. This later slaughter "ay be trace! back to the %astoral stage,
in hich the ani"als ere regar!e! as !i#ine, an! one as slain annually
an! eaten sacra"entally. 8r, if the slaughter as "ore general, the
ani"als oul! be %ro%itiate!. But hen the ani"als cease! to be
orshi%%e!, the slaughter oul! certainly be "ore general, though still
%reser#ing traces of its original character. The %astoral sacra"ent "ay
also ha#e been connecte! ith the slaying an! eating of an ani"al
re%resenting the corn&s%irit at har#est ti"e. 6n one legen! 5. Martin is
associate! ith the ani"al slain at Martin"as, an! is sai! to ha#e been
cut u% an! eaten in the for" of an oI,.FGF4 as if a for"er !i#ine ani"al
ha! beco"e an anthro%o"or%hic !i#inity, the latter being "erge! in the
%ersonality of a Christian saint.
8ther rites, connecte! ith the Calen!s of January as a result of
!islocation, %oint also in this !irection. 6n Gaul an! Ger"any riotous
%rocessions took %lace ith "en !resse! in the hea!s an! skins of
ani"als..FGG4 This rite is sai! by Tille to ha#e been intro!uce! fro"
6taly, but it is "ore likely to ha#e been a nati#e custo"..G,,4 As the
%eo%le ate the flesh of the slain ani"als sacra"entally, so they clothe!
the"sel#es in the skins to %ro"ote further contact ith their !i#inity.
Pera"bulating the tonshi% sunise !resse! in the skin of a co took
%lace until recently in the :ebri!es at <e $ear, in or!er to kee% off
"isfortune, a %iece of the hi!e being burne! an! the s"oke inhale! by
each %erson an! ani"al in the tonshi%..G,*4 5i"ilar custo"s ha#e been
foun! in other Celtic !istricts, an! these ani"al !isguises can har!ly
be se%arate! fro" the sacra"ental slaughter at 5a"hain..G,+4
/#ils ha#ing been or being about to be cast off in the <e $ear ritual,
a fe "ore a!!e! to the nu"ber can "ake little !ifference. :ence a"ong
%ri"iti#e %eo%les <e $ear is often characterise! by orgiastic rites.
These took %lace at the Calen!s in Gaul, an! ere !enounce! by councils
an! %reachers..G,E4 6n 6relan! the "erri"ent at 5a"hain is often
"entione! in the teIts,.G,14 an! si"ilar orgiastic rites lurk behin! the
:alloe'en custo"s in 5cotlan! an! in the licence still %er"itte! to
youths in the Luietest tonshi%s of the ?est :ighlan!s at 5a"hain e#e.
5a"hain, as has been seen, as also a festi#al of the !ea!, hose ghosts
ere fe! at this ti"e..G,-4
As the %oers of groth ere in !anger an! in ecli%se in inter, "en
thought it necessary to assist the". As a "agical ai! the 5a"hain
bonfire as chief, an! it is still lit in the :ighlan!s. Bran!s ere
carrie! roun!, an! fro" it the ne fire as lit in each house. 6n <orth
?ales %eo%le ju"%e! through the fire, an! hen it as eItinct, rushe!
aay to esca%e the Bblack soB ho oul! take the hin!"ost..G,24 The
bonfire re%resente! the sun, an! as inten!e! to strengthen it. But
re%resenting the sun, it ha! all the sun's force, hence those ho ju"%e!
through it ere strengthene! an! %urifie!. The ?elsh reference to the
hin!"ost an! to the black so "ay %oint to a for"er hu"an sacrifice,
%erha%s of any one ho stu"ble! in ju"%ing through the fire. =eating
s%eaks of a )rui!ic sacrifice in the bonfire, hether of "an or beast is
not s%ecifie!..G,34 Probably the #icti", like the sca%egoat, as la!en
ith the accu"ulate! e#ils of the year, as in si"ilar <e $ear custo"s
elsehere. 'ater belief regar!e! the sacrifice, if sacrifice there as,
as offere! to the %oers of e#il&&the black so, unless this ani"al is a
re"iniscence of the corn&s%irit in its har"ful as%ect. /arlier %oers,
hether of groth or of blight, ca"e to be associate! ith 5a"hain as
!e"oniac beings&&the B"alignant bir! flocksB hich blighte! cro%s an!
kille! ani"als, the Ksa"hanachK hich steals chil!ren, an! Mongfin! the
banshee, to ho" Bo"en an! the rabbleB "ake %etitions on 5a"hain
e#e..G,F4 ?itches, e#il&intentione! fairies, an! the !ea! ere
%articularly acti#e then.
Though the sacrificial #icti" ha! co"e to be regar!e! as an offering to
the %oers of blight, he "ay once ha#e re%resente! a !i#inity of groth
or, in earlier ti"es, the corn&s%irit. 5uch a #icti" as slain at
har#est, an! har#est is often late in northern Celtic regions, hile the
slaying as so"eti"es connecte! not ith the har#est fiel!, but ith the
later threshing. This oul! bring it near the 5a"hain festi#al. The
slaying of the corn&s%irit as !eri#e! fro" the earlier slaying of a
tree or #egetation&s%irit e"bo!ie! in a tree an! also in a hu"an or
ani"al #icti". The corn&s%irit as e"bo!ie! in the last sheaf cut as
ell as in an ani"al or hu"an being..G,G4 This hu"an #icti" "ay ha#e
been regar!e! as a king, since in late %o%ular custo" a "ock king is
chosen at inter festi#als..G*,4 6n other cases the effigy of a saint is
hung u% an! carrie! roun! the !ifferent houses, %art of the !ress being
left at each. The saint has %robably succee!e! to the tra!itional ritual
of the !i#ine #icti"..G**4 The %ri"iti#e %erio! in hich the corn&s%irit
as regar!e! as fe"ale, ith a o"an as her hu"an re%resentati#e, is
also recalle! in folk&custo". The last sheaf is calle! the Mai!en or the
Mother, hile, as in <ortha"%tonshire, girls choose a Lueen on 5.
Catharine's !ay, <o#e"ber +2th, an! in so"e Christ"as %ageants B$ule's
ife,B as ell as $ule, is %resent, corres%on!ing to the May Lueen of
the su""er festi#al..G*+4 Men also "asLuera!e! as o"en at the Calen!s.
The !ates of these sur#i#als "ay be eI%laine! by that !islocation of the
5a"hain festi#al alrea!y %ointe! out. This #ie of the 5a"hain hu"an
sacrifices is su%%orte! by the 6rish offerings to the 9o"orians&&go!s of
groth, later regar!e! as go!s of blight, an! to Cro"" Cruaich, in both
cases at 5a"hain..G*E4 ?ith the e#olution of religious thought, the
slain #icti" ca"e to be regar!e! as an offering to e#il %oers.
This as%ect of 5a"hain, as a festi#al to %ro"ote an! assist festi#ity,
is further seen in the belief in the increase! acti#ity of fairies at
that ti"e. 6n 6relan!, fairies are connecte! ith the Tuatha )e )anann,
the !i#inities of groth, an! in "any folk&tales they are associate!
ith agricultural %rocesses. The use of e#ergreens at Christ"as is
%erha%s also connecte! ith the carrying of the" roun! the fiel!s in
ol!er ti"es, as an e#i!ence that the life of nature as not
eItinct..G*14
5a"hain "ay thus be regar!e! as, in origin, an ol! %astoral an!
agricultural festi#al, hich in ti"e ca"e to be looke! u%on as affor!ing
assistance to the %oers of groth in their conflict ith the %oers of
blight. Perha%s so"e "yth !escribing this co"bat "ay lurk behin! the
story of the battle of Mag&ture! fought on 5a"hain beteen the Tuatha )e
)anann an! the 9o"orians. ?hile the %oers of blight are triu"%hant in
inter, the Tuatha )ea are re%resente! as the #ictors, though they
suffer loss an! !eath. Perha%s this enshrines the belief in the
continual triu"%h of life an! groth o#er blight an! !ecay, or it "ay
arise fro" the fact that 5a"hain as both a ti"e of rejoicing for the
ingathere! har#est, an! of ailing for the co"ing su%re"acy of inter
an! the reign of the %oers of blight.
B/'TA</.
6n Cor"ac's KGlossaryK an! other teIts, BBeltaneB is !eri#e! fro"
Kbel&teneK, Ba goo!ly fire,B or fro" Kbel&!ineK, because nely&born
>K!ineK@ cattle ere offere! to Bel, an i!ol&go!..G*-4 The latter is
folloe! by those ho belie#e in a Celtic Belus, connecte! ith Baal. <o
such go! is knon, hoe#er, an! the go! Belenos is in no ay connecte!
ith the 5e"itic !i#inity. M. )'Arbois assu"es an unknon go! of !eath,
Beltene >fro" KbeltuK, Bto !ieB@, hose festi#al Beltane as..G*24 But
Beltane as a festi#al of life, of the sun shining in his strength. )r.
5tokes gi#es a "ore acce%table eI%lanation of the or!. 6ts %ri"iti#e
for" as Kbelo&teK.K%K4KniaK, fro" Kbelo&sK, Bclear,B Bshining,B the
root of the na"es Belenos an! Belisa"a, an! KteK.K%K4KnosK, Bfire.B Thus
the or! oul! "ean so"ething like Bbright fire,B %erha%s the sun or the
bonfire, or both..G*34
The folk&sur#i#als of the Beltane an! Mi!su""er festi#als sho that both
ere inten!e! to %ro"ote fertility.
8ne of the chief ritual acts at Beltane as the kin!ling of bonfires,
often on hills. The house&fires in the !istrict ere often eItinguishe!,
the bonfire being lit by friction fro" a rotating heel&&the Ger"an
Bnee!&fire.B.G*F4 The fire ke%t off !isease an! e#il, hence cattle ere
!ri#en through it, or, accor!ing to Cor"ac, beteen to fires lit by
)rui!s, in or!er to kee% the" in health !uring the year..G*G4 5o"eti"es
the fire as lit beneath a sacre! tree, or a %ole co#ere! ith greenery
as surroun!e! by the fuel, or a tree as burne! in the fire..G+,4 These
trees sur#i#e in the May%ole of later custo", an! they re%resente! the
#egetation&s%irit, to ho" also the orshi%%ers assi"ilate! the"sel#es
by !ressing in lea#es. They !ance! sunise roun! the fire or ran through
the fiel!s ith blaHing branches or is%s of stra, i"itating the course
of the sun, an! thus benefiting the fiel!s..G+*4 9or the sa"e reason the
tree itself as %robably borne through the fiel!s. :ouses ere !ecke!
ith boughs an! thus %rotecte! by the s%irit of #egetation..G++4
An ani"al re%resenting the s%irit of #egetation "ay ha#e been slain. 6n
late sur#i#als of Beltane at )ublin, a horse's skull an! bones ere
thron into the fire,.G+E4 the attenuate! for" of an earlier sacrifice
or slaying of a !i#ine #icti", by ho" strength as transferre! to all
the ani"als hich %asse! through the fire. 6n so"e cases a hu"an #icti"
"ay ha#e been slain. This is suggeste! by custo"s sur#i#ing in
Perthshire in the eighteenth century, hen a cake as broken u% an!
!istribute!, an! the %erson ho recei#e! a certain blackene! %ortion as
calle! the BBeltane carlineB or B!e#ote!.B A %retence as "a!e of
throing hi" into the fire, or he ha! to lea% three ti"es through it,
an! !uring the festi#al he as s%oken of as B!ea!.B.G+14 Martin says
that "alefactors ere burne! in the fire,.G+-4 an! though he cites no
authority, this agrees ith the Celtic use of cri"inals as #icti"s.
Perha%s the #icti" as at one ti"e a hu"an re%resentati#e of the
#egetation&s%irit.
Beltane cakes or bannocks, %erha%s "a!e of the grain of the sacre! last
sheaf fro" the %re#ious har#est, an! therefore sacra"ental in character,
ere also use! in !ifferent ays in folk&sur#i#als. They ere rolle!
!on a slo%e&&a "agical i"itati#e act, sy"bolising an! ai!ing the course
of the sun. The cake ha! also a !i#inatory character. 6f it broke on
reaching the foot of the slo%e this in!icate! the a%%roaching !eath of
its oner. 6n another custo" in Perthshire, %art of a cake as thron
o#er the shoul!er ith the or!s, BThis 6 gi#e to thee, %reser#e thou "y
horsesA this to thee, %reser#e thou "y shee%A this to thee, 8 foI,
%reser#e thou "y la"bsA this to thee, 8 hoo!e! croA this to thee, 8
eagle.B :ere there is an a%%eal to beneficial an! noIious %oers,
hether this as the original intention of the rite..G+24 But if the
cakes ere "a!e of the last sheaf, they ere %robably at one ti"e eaten
sacra"entally, their sacrificial use e"erging later.
The bonfire as a sun&char", re%resenting an! assisting the sun.
Rain&char"s ere also use! at Beltane. 5acre! ells ere #isite! an! the
cere"ony %erfor"e! ith their aters, these %erha%s being s%rinkle! o#er
the tree or the fiel!s to %ro"ote a co%ious rainfall for the benefit of
#egetation. The use of such rites at Beltane an! at other festi#als "ay
ha#e gi#en rise to the belief that ells ere es%ecially efficacious
then for %ur%oses of healing. The custo" of rolling in the grass to
benefit by May !e as %robably connecte! ith "agical rites in hich
"oisture %laye! an i"%ortant %art..G+34
The i!ea that the %oers of groth ha! successfully co"bate! those of
blight "ay ha#e been ritually re%resente!. This is suggeste! by the
"i"ic co"bats of 5u""er an! ?inter at this ti"e, to hich reference has
alrea!y been "a!e. Again, the May king an! Lueen re%resent earlier
%ersonages ho ere regar!e! as e"bo!ying the s%irits of #egetation an!
fertility at this festi#al, an! hose "arriage or union "agically
assiste! groth an! fertility, as in nu"erous eIa"%les of this ritual
"arriage elsehere..G+F4 6t "ay be assu"e! that a consi!erable a"ount of
seIual licence also took %lace ith the sa"e "agical %ur%ose. 5acre!
"arriage an! festi#al orgy ere an a%%eal to the forces of nature to
co"%lete their beneficial ork, as ell as a "agical ai! to the" in that
ork. Analogy lea!s to the su%%osition that the king of the May as
originally a %riest&king, the incarnation of the s%irit of #egetation.
:e or his surrogate as slain, hile his bo!ily force as unabate!, in
or!er that it "ight be %asse! on un!i"inishe! to his successor. But the
%ersistent %lace gi#en to the May Lueen rather than to the king suggests
the earlier %ro"inence of o"en an! of fe"ale s%irits of fertility or of
a great Mother&go!!ess in such rites. 6t is also significant that in the
Perthshire ritual the "an chosen as still calle! the KBeltane carlaneK
or KcailleachK >Bol! o"anB@. An! if, as Professor Pearson "aintains,
itch orgies are sur#i#als of ol! seI&festi#als, then the %o%ular belief
in the acti#ity of itches on Beltane e#e, also shos that the festi#al
ha! once been "ainly one in hich o"en took %art. 5uch orgies often
took %lace on hills hich ha! been the sites of a cult in for"er
ti"es..G+G4
M6)5;MM/R.
The ritual of the Mi!su""er festi#al !i! not "aterially !iffer fro" that
of Beltane, an! as folk&sur#i#als sho, it as %ractise! not only by the
Celts, but by "any other /uro%ean %eo%les. 6t as, in fact, a %ri"iti#e
nature festi#al such as oul! rea!ily be obser#e! by all un!er si"ilar
%sychic con!itions an! in like surroun!ings. A bonfire as again the
central rite of this festi#al, the co""unal nature of hich is seen in
the fact that all "ust contribute "aterials to it. 6n local sur#i#als,
"ayor an! %riest, re%resenting the earlier local chief an! %riest, ere
%resent, hile a ser#ice in church %rece!e! the %rocession to the scene
of the bonfire. )ancing sunise roun! the fire to the acco"%ani"ent of
songs hich %robably took the %lace of hy"ns or tunes in honour of the
5un&go!, co""only occurre!, an! by i"itating the sun's action, "ay ha#e
been inten!e! to "ake it "ore %oerful. The li#elier the !ance the
better oul! be the har#est..GE,4 As the fire re%resente! the sun, it
%ossesse! the %urifying an! in#igorating %oers of the sunA hence
lea%ing through the fire %reser#e! fro" !isease, brought %ros%erity, or
re"o#e! barrenness. :ence also cattle ere !ri#en through the fire. But
if any one stu"ble! as he lea%e!, ill&luck as su%%ose! to follo hi".
:e as !e#ote! to the Kfa!etsK or s%irits,.GE*4 an! %erha%s, like the
B!e#ote!B Beltane #icti", he "ay for"erly ha#e been sacrifice!. Ani"al
sacrifices are certainly foun! in "any sur#i#als, the #icti"s being
often %lace! in osier baskets an! thron into the fire. 6n other
!istricts great hu"an effigies of osier ere carrie! in %rocession an!
burne!..GE+4
The connection of such sacrifices ith the %erio!ical slaying of a
re%resentati#e of the #egetation&s%irit has been "aintaine! by Mannhar!t
an! )r. 9raHer..GEE4 As has been seen, %erio!ic sacrifices for the
fertility of the lan! are "entione! by Caesar, 5trabo, an! )io!orus,
hu"an #icti"s an! ani"als being enclose! in an osier i"age an!
burne!..GE14 These i"ages sur#i#e in the osier effigies just referre!
to, hile they "ay also be connecte! ith the custo" of !ecking the
hu"an re%resentati#es of the s%irit of #egetation in greenery. The
holocausts "ay be regar!e! as eItensions of the earlier custo" of
slaying one #icti", the incarnation of a #egetation&s%irit. This slaying
as gra!ually regar!e! as sacrificial, but as the beneficial effect of
the sacrifice on groth as still belie#e! in, it oul! naturally be
thought that still better effects oul! be %ro!uce! if "any #icti"s ere
offere!. The #icti"s ere burne! in a fire re%resenting the sun, an!
#egetation as thus !oubly benefite!, by the #icti"s an! by the sun&go!.
The ol!est conce%tion of the #egetation&s%irit as that of a tree&s%irit
hich ha! %oer o#er rain, sunshine, an! e#ery s%ecies of fruitfulness.
9or this reason a tree ha! a %ro"inent %lace both in the Beltane an!
Mi!su""er feasts. 6t as carrie! in %rocession, i"%arting its benefits
to each house or fiel!. Branches of it ere attache! to each house for
the sa"e %ur%ose. 6t as then burne!, or it as set u% to %rocure
benefits to #egetation !uring the year an! burne! at the neIt Mi!su""er
festi#al..GE-4 The sacre! tree as %robably an oak, an!, as has been
seen, the "istletoe rite %robably took %lace on Mi!su""er e#e, as a
%reli"inary to cutting !on the sacre! tree an! in or!er to secure the
life or soul of the tree, hich "ust first be secure! before the tree
coul! be cut !on. The life of the tree as in the "istletoe, still
ali#e in inter hen the tree itself see"e! to be !ea!. 5uch beliefs as
this concerning the !etachable soul or life sur#i#e in KMaerchenK, an!
are still ali#e a"ong sa#ages..GE24
9olk&sur#i#als sho that a hu"an or an ani"al re%resentati#e of the
#egetation&s%irit, brought into connection ith the tree, as also slain
or burne! along ith the tree..GE34 Thus the cutting of the "istletoe
oul! be regar!e! as a %reli"inary to the slaying of the hu"an #icti",
ho, like the tree, as the re%resentati#e of the s%irit of #egetation.
The bonfire re%resenting the sun, an! the #icti"s, like the tree,
re%resenting the s%irit of #egetation, it is ob#ious hy the fire ha!
healing an! fertilising %oers, an! hy its ashes an! the ashes or the
flesh of the #icti"s %ossesse! the sa"e %oers. Bran!s fro" the fire
ere carrie! through the fiel!s or #illages, as the tree ha! been, or
%lace! on the fiel!s or in houses, here they ere carefully %reser#e!
for a year. All this ai!e! groth an! %ros%erity, just as the s"oke of
the fire, !rifting o#er the fiel!s, %ro!uce! fertility. Ashes fro" the
fire, an! %robably the calcine! bones or e#en the flesh of the #icti"s,
ere scattere! on the fiel!s or %reser#e! an! "iIe! ith the see! corn.
Again, %art of the flesh "ay ha#e been eaten sacra"entally, since, as
has been seen, Pliny refers to the belief of the Celts in the eating of
hu"an flesh as "ost holeso"e.
6n the 5tone Age, as ith "any sa#ages, a circle ty%ifie! the sun, an!
as soon as the heel as in#ente! its rolling "otion at once suggeste!
that of the sun. 6n the K/!!aK the sun is Bthe beautiful, the shining
heel,B an! si"ilar eI%ressions occur in the KCe!asK. A"ong the Celts
the heel of the sun as a fa#ourite %iece of sy"bolis", an! this is
seen in #arious custo"s at the Mi!su""er festi#al. A burning heel as
rolle! !on a slo%e or trun!le! through the fiel!s, or burning bran!s
ere hirle! roun! so as to gi#e the i"%ression of a fiery heel. The
intention as %ri"arily to i"itate the course of the sun through the
hea#ens, an! so, on the %rinci%le of i"itati#e "agic, to strengthen it.
But also, as the heel as rolle! through the fiel!s, so it as ho%e!
that the !irect beneficial action of the sun u%on the" oul! follo.
5i"ilar rites "ight be %erfor"e! not only at Mi!su""er, but at other
ti"es, to %rocure blessing or to ar! off e#il, e.g. carrying fire roun!
houses or fiel!s or cattle or roun! a chil! K!eiseilK or sunise,.GEF4
an!, by a further eItension of thought, the blaHing heel, or the
re"ains of the burning bran!s thron to the in!s, ha! also the effect
of carrying off accu"ulate! e#ils..GEG4
Beltane an! Mi!su""er thus a%%ear as tin hal#es of a s%ring or early
su""er festi#al, the intention of hich as to %ro"ote fertility an!
health. This as !one by slaying the s%irit of #egetation in his
re%resentati#e&&tree, ani"al, or "an. :is !eath Luickene! the energies
of earth an! "an. The fire also "agically assiste! the course of the
sun. 5ur#i#al of the ancient rites are or ere recently foun! in all
Celtic regions, an! ha#e been constantly co"bate! by the Church. But
though they ere continue!, their true "eaning as forgotten, an! they
ere "ainly %erfor"e! for luck or out of sheer conser#atis". 5o"eti"es a
Christian as%ect as gi#en to the", e.g. by connecting the fires ith 5.
John, or by associating the rites ith the ser#ice of the Church, or by
the clergy being %resent at the". But their true nature as still
e#i!ent as acts of %agan orshi% an! "agic hich no #eneer of
Christianity coul! e#er Luite conceal..G1,4
';G<A5A).
The *st of August, co"ing "i!ay beteen Beltane an! 5a"hain, as an
i"%ortant festi#al a"ong the Celts. 6n Christian ti"es the !ay beca"e
'a""as, but its na"e still sur#i#es in 6rish as 'ugnasa!, in Gaelic as
'unas!al or 'unas!uinn, an! in ManI as 'aa 'uanys, an! it is still
obser#e! as a fair or feast in "any !istricts. 9or"erly asse"blies at
con#enient centres ere hel! on this !ay, not only for religious
%ur%oses, but for co""erce an! %leasure, both of these being of course
saturate! ith religion. BAll 6relan!B "et at Taillti, just as Ball
GaulB "et at 'ugu!unu", B'ug's ton,B or 'yons, in honour of Augustus,
though the feast there ha! for"erly been in honour of the go!
'ugus..G1*4 The festi#al as here Ro"anise!, as it as also in Britain,
here its na"e a%%ears as KGoel&aoustK, KGul&austusK, an! KGyl AstK,
no the BAugust feast,B but for"erly the Bfeast of Augustus,B the na"e
ha#ing re%lace! one corres%on!ing to 'ugnasa!..G1+4
Cor"ac eI%lains the na"e 'ugnasa! as a festi#al of 'ugh "ac /thlenn,
celebrate! by hi" in the beginning of autu"n, an! the KRennes
)in!senchasK accounts for its origin by saying that 'ug's foster&"other,
Tailtiu, ha#ing !ie! on the Calen!s of August, he !irecte! an asse"bly
for la"entation to be hel! annually on that !ay at her to"b..G1E4 'ug is
thus the foun!er of his on festi#al, for that it as his, an! not
Tailtiu's, is clear fro" the fact that his na"e is attache! to it. As
'a""as as a Christian har#est thanksgi#ing, so also as 'ugnasa! a
%agan har#est feast, %art of the ritual of hich %asse! o#er to 5a"hain.
The %eo%le "a!e gla! before the sun&go!&&'ug %erha%s ha#ing that
character&&ho ha! assiste! the" in the groth of the things on hich
their li#es !e%en!e!. Marriages ere also arrange! at this feast,
%robably because "en ha! no "ore leisure an! "ore "eans for entering
u%on "atri"ony. Possibly %ro"iscuous lo#e&"aking also occurre! as a
result of the festi#al gla!ness, agricultural !istricts being still
notoriously i""oral. 5o"e e#i!ence %oints to the connection of the feast
ith 'ug's "arriage, though this has been allegorise! into his e!!ing
the Bso#ereignty of /rin.B Perha%s e ha#e here a hint of the rite of
the sacre! "arriage, for the %ur%ose of "agically fertilising the fiel!s
against neIt year's soing.
)ue obser#ance of the feast %ro!uce! abun!ance of corn, fruit, "ilk, an!
fish. Probably the ritual obser#e! inclu!e! the %reser#ation of the last
sheaf as re%resenting the corn&s%irit, gi#ing so"e of it to the cattle
to strengthen the", an! "ingling it ith neIt year's corn to i"%art to
it the %oer of the corn&s%irit. 6t "ay also ha#e inclu!e! the slaying
of an ani"al or hu"an incarnation of the corn&s%irit, hose flesh an!
bloo! Luickene! the soil an! so %ro!uce! abun!ance neIt year, or, hen
%artaken of by the orshi%%ers, brought blessings to the". To neglect
such rites, abun!ant instances of hich eIist in folk&custo", oul! be
hel! to result in scarcity. This oul! also eI%lain, as alrea!y
suggeste!, hy the festi#al as associate! ith the !eath of Tailtiu or
of Car"an. The euhe"erise! Lueen&go!!ess Tailtiu an! the o"an Car"an
ha! once been corn&go!!esses, e#ol#e! fro" "ore %ri"iti#e corn&s%irits,
an! slain at the feast in their fe"ale re%resentati#es. The story of
their !eath an! burial at the festi#al as a !i" "e"ory of this ancient
rite, an! since the festi#al as also connecte! ith the sun&go! 'ug, it
as easy to bring hi" into relationshi% ith the earlier go!!ess.
/lsehere the festi#al, in its "e"orial as%ect, as associate! ith a
king, %robably because "ale #icti"s ha! co"e to be re%resentati#es of a
corn&go! ho ha! taken the %lace of the go!!ess.
7 7 7 7 7
5o"e of the ritual of these festi#als is illustrate! by scattere!
notices in classical riters, an! on the hole they su%%ort our theory
that the festi#als originate! in a fe"ale cult of s%irits or go!!esses
of fertility. 5trabo s%eaks of sacrifices offere! to )e"eter an! =ore,
accor!ing to the ritual folloe! at 5a"othrace, in an islan! near
Britain, i.e. to nati#e go!!esses eLuate! ith the". :e also !escribes
the ritual of the <a"nite o"en on an islan! in the 'oire. They are
calle! Bacchantes because they conciliate! Bacchus ith "ysteries an!
sacrificesA in other or!s, they obser#e! an orgiastic cult of a go!
eLuate! ith Bacchus. <o "an "ust set foot on the islan!, but the o"en
left it once a year for intercourse ith the other seI. 8nce a year the
te"%le of the go! as unroofe!, an! roofe! again before sunset. 6f any
o"an !ro%%e! her loa! of "aterials >an! it as sai! this alays
ha%%ene!@, she as torn in %ieces an! her li"bs carrie! roun! the
te"%le..G114 )ionysius Periegetes says the o"en ere crone! ith i#y,
an! celebrate! their "ysteries by night in honour of /arth an!
Proser%ine ith great cla"our..G1-4 Pliny also "akes a reference to
British rites in hich nu!e o"en an! girls took %art, their bo!ies
staine! ith oa!..G124
At a later ti"e, 5. Gregory of Tours s%eaks of the i"age of a go!!ess
Berecynthia !ran on a litter through the streets, fiel!s, an! #ineyar!s
of Augusto!unu" on the !ays of her festi#al, or hen the fiel!s ere
threatene! ith scarcity. The %eo%le !ance! an! sang before it. The
i"age as co#ere! ith a hite #eil..G134 Berecynthia has been
conjecture! by Professor Anyl to be the go!!ess Brigin!u, orshi%%e! at
Calnay..G1F4
These rites ere all !irecte! toar!s !i#inities of fertility. But in
har#est custo"s in Celtic 5cotlan! an! elsehere to shea#es of corn
ere calle! res%ecti#ely the 8l! ?o"an an! the Mai!en, the corn&s%irit
of the %ast year an! that of the year to co"e, an! corres%on!ing to
)e"eter an! =ore in early Greek agricultural ritual. As in Greece, so
a"ong the Celts, the %ri"iti#e corn&s%irits ha! %robably beco"e "ore
in!i#i!ualise! go!!esses ith an elaborate cult, obser#e! on an islan!
or at other sacre! s%ots. The cult %robably #arie! here an! there, an!
that of a go! of fertility "ay ha#e taken the %lace of the cult of
go!!esses. A go! as orshi%%e! by the <a"nite o"en, accor!ing to
5trabo, go!!esses accor!ing to )ionysius. The "angle! #icti" as
%robably regar!e! as re%resentati#e of a !i#inity, an! %erha%s %art of
the flesh as "iIe! ith the see!&corn, like the grain of the Mai!en
sheaf, or burie! in the earth. This rite is co""on a"ong sa#ages, an!
its %resence in ol! /uro%ean ritual is atteste! by sur#i#als. That these
rites ere tabu to "en %robably %oints to the fact that they ere
eIa"%les of an ol!er general custo", in hich all such rites ere in the
han!s of o"en ho culti#ate! the earth, an! ho ere the natural
%riestesses of go!!esses of groth an! fertility, of #egetation an! the
groing corn. Another eIa"%le is foun! in the legen! an! %rocession of
Go!i#a at Co#entry&&the sur#i#al of a %agan cult fro" hich "en ere
eIclu!e!..G1G4
Pliny s%eaks of the nu!ity of the o"en engage! in the cult. <u!ity is
an essential %art of all %ri"iti#e agricultural rites, an! %ainting the
bo!y is also a i!es%rea! ritual act. )ressing ith lea#es or green
stuff, as a"ong the <a"nite o"en, an! often ith the intention of
%ersonating the s%irit of #egetation, is also custo"ary. By un#eiling
the bo!y, an! es%ecially the seIual organs, o"en "ore effectually
re%resente! the go!!ess of fertility, an! "ore effectually as her
re%resentati#es, or through their on %oers, "agically con#eye!
fertility to the fiel!s. <ake!ness thus beca"e a %oerful
"agico&religious sy"bol, an! it is foun! as %art of the ritual for
%ro!ucing rain..G-,4
There is thus abun!ant e#i!ence of the cult of fertility, #egetation,
an! corn&s%irits, ho ten!e! to beco"e !i#inities, "ale or fe"ale. :ere
an! there, through conser#atis", the cult re"aine! in the han!s of
o"en, but "ore generally it ha! beco"e a ritual in hich both "en an!
o"en took %art&&that of the great agricultural festi#als. ?here a
!i#inity ha! taken the %lace of the #aguer s%irits, her i"age, like that
of Berecynthia, as use! in the ritual, but the i"age as %robably the
successor of the tree hich e"bo!ie! the #egetation&s%irit, an! as
carrie! through the fiel!s to fertilise the". 5i"ilar %rocessions of
i"ages, often acco"%anie! by a ritual ashing of the i"age in or!er to
in#igorate the !i#inity, or, as in the si"ilar May&!ay custo", to
%ro!uce rain, are foun! in the Teutonic cult of <erthus, the Phrygian of
Cybele, the :in!u of Bha#ani, an! the Ro"an ritual of the Bona )ea. The
i"age of Berecynthia as thus %robably ashe! also. ?ashing the i"ages
of saints, usually to %ro!uce rain, has so"eti"es taken the %lace of the
ashing of a !i#ine i"age, an! si"ilarly the relics of a saint are
carrie! through a fiel!, as as the tree or i"age. The co""unity at 6ona
%era"bulate! a nely son fiel! ith 5. Colu"ba's relics in ti"e of
!rought, an! shook his tunic three ti"es in the air, an! ere rear!e!
by a %lentiful rain, an! later, by a bounteous har#est..G-*4
Many of these local cults ere %re&Celtic, but e nee! not therefore
su%%ose that the Celts, or the Aryans as a hole, ha! no such
cults..G-+4 The Aryans e#eryhere a!o%te! local cults, but this they
oul! not ha#e !one if, as is su%%ose!, they ha! the"sel#es outgron
the". The cults ere local, but the Celts ha! si"ilar local cults, an!
easily acce%te! those of the %eo%le they conLuere!. ?e cannot eI%lain
the %ersistence of such %ri"iti#e cults as lie behin! the great Celtic
festi#als, both in classical ti"es an! o#er the hole area of /uro%e
a"ong the %easantry, by referring the" solely to a %re&Aryan folk. They
ere as "uch Aryan as %re&Aryan. They belong to those unchanging strata
of religion hich ha#e so largely su%%lie! the soil in hich its later
an! "ore s%iritual groths ha#e flourishe!. An! a"ong these they still
e"erge, unchange! an! unchanging, like the gaunt outcro%s of so"e
ancient rock for"ation a"i! rich #egetation an! fragrant floers.
988T<8T/5(
.FFG4 Pliny, I#i. 1-A Caesar, #i. *F. 5ee "y article BCalen!ar >Celtic@B
in :astings' K/ncyclo%ae!ia of Rel. an! /thicsK, iii. 3F f., for a full
!iscussion of the %roble"s in#ol#e!.
.FG,4 8')ono#an, KBook of RightsK, 6ntro. lii f.
.FG*4 8')ono#an, li.A Bertran!, *,-A =eating, E,,.
.FG+4 5a"hain "ay "ean Bsu""er&en!,B fro" Ksa"K, Bsu""er,B an! KfuinK,
BsunsetB or Ben!,B but )r. 5tokes >K;5K +GE@ "akes Ksa"aniK& "ean
Basse"bly,B i.e. the gathering of the %eo%le to kee% the feast.
.FGE4 =eating, *+-, E,,.
.FG14 5ee MacBain, KCMK iI. E+F.
.FG-4 Bran!, i. EG,A Ra"say, K5cotlan! an! 5cots"en in the /ighteenth
CenturyK, ii. 1E3A K5tat. AccountK, Ii. 2+*.
.FG24 :aHlitt, +G3&+GF, E1,A Ca"%bell, K?itchcraftK, +F- f.
.FG34 Curtin, 3+.
.FGF4 9itHgeral!, KRCK #i. +-1.
.FGG4 5ee Cha"bers, KMe!iae#al 5tageK, A%%. <, for the e#i!ence fro"
canons an! councils regar!ing these.
.G,,4 Tille, K$ule an! Christ"asK, G2.
.G,*4 Cha"bers, KPo%ular Rhy"esK, *22.
.G,+4 :utchinson, KCie of <orthu"berlan!K, ii. 1-A Tho"as, KRe#. !e
l':ist. !es Rel.K III#iii. EE- f.
.G,E4 KPatrol. 'ot.K IIIiI. +,,*.
.G,14 K6TK i. +,-A KRCK #. EE*A 'eahy, i. -3.
.G,-4 5ee %. *2G, Ksu%raK.
.G,24 The riter has hi"self seen such bonfires in the :ighlan!s. 5ee
also :aHlitt, +GFA Pennant, KTourK, ii. 13A Rh.Jy4s, K:'K -*-, KC9'K i.
++-&++2. 6n /gy%tian "ythology, Ty%hon assaile! :orus in the for" of a
black sine.
.G,34 =eating, E,,.
.G,F4 Joyce, K5:K ii. --2A KRCK I. +*1, ++-, IIi#. *3+A 8'Gra!y, ii.
E31A KCMK iI. +,G.
.G,G4 5ee Mannhar!t, KMythol. 9orschung.K EEE f.A 9raHer, KA!onisK,
K%assi"KA Tho"as, KRe#. !e l':ist. !es Rel.K III#iii. E+- f.
.G*,4 :aHlitt, E-A Cha"bers, KMe!iae#al 5tageK, i. +2*.
.G**4 Cha"bers, KBook of )aysK, ii. 1G+A :aHlitt, *E*.
.G*+4 :aHlitt, G3A )a#ies, K/Itracts fro" Munic. Recor!s of $orkK, +3,.
.G*E4 5ee %. +E3, Ksu%raKA K''K *2, +*E.
.G*14 Cha"bers, KMe!. 5tageK, i. +-, f.
.G*-4 Cor"ac, Ks.#.K BBelltaine,B BBelBA KArch. Re#.K i. +E+.
.G*24 )'Arbois, ii. *E2.
.G*34 5tokes, K;5K *+-, *21. 5ee his earlier !eri#ation, !i#i!ing the
or! into KbeltK, connecte! ith 'ithuan. KbaltasK, Bhite,B an! KaineK,
the ter"ination in Ksecht"aineK, BeekB >KT6GK III#.@.
.G*F4 <ee!&fire >Gael. KTeinne&eiginnK, Bnecessity fireB@ as use! to
kin!le fire in ti"e of cattle %lague. 5ee Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K 2,F f.A
Martin, **EA Ja"ieson's K)ictionaryK, Ks.#.K Bnei!fyre.B
.G*G4 Cor"ac, Ks.#.KA Martin, *,-, says that the )rui!s eItinguishe! all
fires until their !ues ere %ai!. This "ay ha#e been a tra!ition in the
:ebri!es.
.G+,4 Joyce, KP<K i. +*2A :one, K/#ery!ay BookK, i. F1G, ii. -G-.
.G+*4 Pennant, KTour in 5cotlan!K, i. +G*.
.G++4 :aHlitt, EEG, EG3.
.G+E4 :one, K/#ery!ay BookK, ii. -G-. 5ee %. +*-, Ksu%raK.
.G+14 5inclair, K5tat. AccountK, Ii. 2+,.
.G+-4 Martin, *,-.
.G+24 9or these usages see Ra"say, K5cotlan! an! 5cots"en in the
/ighteenth CenturyK, ii. 1EG f.A 5inclair, K5tat. AccountK, #. F1, Ii.
2+,, I#. -*3. 9or the sacra"ental an! sacrificial use of si"ilar loa#es,
see 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P, i. G1, ii. 3FA Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K iii.
*+EG f.
.G+34 K<e 5tat. AccountK, ?igtonshire, +,FA :aHlitt, EF, E+E, E1,.
.G+F4 5ee Miss 8en, K9olk&lore of the MusLuakie 6n!iansK, -,A 9raHer,
KGol!en BoughKO+P, ii. +,-.
.G+G4 9or notices of Beltane sur#i#als see =eating, E,,A Ca"%bell,
KJourney fro" /!inburghK, i. *1EA Ra"say, K5cotlan! an! 5cots"enK, ii.
1EG f.A K8l! 5tat. AccountK, #. F1, Ii. 2+,, I#. -*3A Gregor, K9olk&lore
of <./. of 5cotlan!K, *23. The %aganis" of the sur#i#als is seen in the
fact that Beltane fires ere freLuently %rohibite! by 5cottish
ecclesiastical councils.
.GE,4 Meyrac, KTra!itions ... !es Ar!ennesK, 2F.
.GE*4 Bertran!, **G.
.GE+4 6bi!. 1,3A Gai!oH, +*A Mannhar!t, KBau"kultusK, -*1, -+EA Bran!,
i. F, E+E.
.GEE4 Mannhar!t, Ko%. cit.K -+- f.A 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P, iii. E*G.
.GE14 P. +E1, Ksu%raK.
.GE-4 9raHer, Ko%. cit.K i. 31A Bran!, i. +++, +E3, +12, E*FA :one,
K/#ery!ay BookK, ii. -G-A Mannhar!t, Ko%. cit.K *33A Gri"", KTeut.
Myth.K 2+*, 333 f.
.GE24 5ee "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, ch. #.
.GE34 9raHer, i. F+, ii. +13 f., +3-A Mannhar!t, E*- f.
.GEF4 Martin, **3. The custo" of alking K!eiseilK roun! an object still
sur#i#es, an!, as an i"itation of the sun's course, it is su%%ose! to
bring goo! luck or ar! off e#il. 9or the sa"e reason the right han!
turn as of goo! augury. Me!b's charioteer, as she !e%arte! for the ar,
"a!e her chariot turn to the right to re%el e#il o"ens >K';K --@.
Curiously enough, Pliny >II#iii. +@ says that the Gauls %referre! the
left&han! turn in their religious rites, though Athenaeus refers to the
right&han! turn a"ong the". K)eiseilK is fro" K!ekso&sK, Bright,B an!
Ks#elK, Bto turn.B
.GEG4 :one, i. F12A :aHlitt, ii. E12.
.G1,4 This account of the Mi!su""er ritual is base! on notices foun! in
:one, K/#ery!ay BookKA :aHlitt, ii. E13 f.A Gai!oH, K'e )ieu 5oleilKA
Bertran!A )eloche, KRCK iI. 1E-A K9olk&'oreK, Iii. E*-A 9raHer, KGol!en
BoughKO+P, iii. +22 f.A Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K ii. 2*3 f.A Monnier, *F2 f.
.G1*4 KRCK I#i. -*A Guirau!, K'es Asse"blees %ro#inciales !ans l'/"%ire
Ro"ainK.
.G1+4 )'Arbois, i. +*-, K'es CeltesK, 11A 'oth, KAnnales !e BretagneK,
Iiii. <o. +.
.G1E4 KRCK I#i. -*.
.G114 5trabo, i#. 1. 2.
.G1-4 )ion. Per. #. -3,.
.G124 Pliny, IIii. *.
.G134 Greg, K!e Glor. Conf.K 133A 5ul%. 5e#. KCita 5. MartiniK, GA Pass.
5. 5y"%hor. Migne, KPat. Graec.K #. *12E, *122. The cult of Cybele ha!
been intro!uce! into Gaul, an! the ritual here !escribe! rese"bles it,
but e are e#i!ently !ealing here ith the cult of a nati#e go!!ess.
5ee, hoe#er, 9raHer, KA!onisK, *32.
.G1F4 Anyl, KCeltic ReligionK, 1*.
.G1G4 5ee :artlan!, K5cience of 9airy&TalesK, F1 f.
.G-,4 Professor Rh.Jy4s suggests that nu!ity, being a freLuent sy"bol of
sub"ission to a conLueror, acLuire! a si"ilar significance in religious
rites >KA'K *F,@. But the "agical as%ect of nu!ity ca"e first in ti"e.
.G-*4 A!a"nan, KCita 5. Col.K ii. 1-.
.G-+4 5ee Go""e, K/thnology in 9olk&loreK, E, f., KCillage Co""unityK,
**1.
C:APT/R Q6Q.
ACC/558R6/5 89 C;'T.
T/MP'/5.
6n %ri"iti#e religion the %lace of orshi% is sel!o" a te"%le "a!e ith
han!s, but rather an enclose! s%ace in hich the sy"bol or i"age of the
go! stan!s. The sacre!ness of the go! "akes the %lace of his cult
sacre!. 8ften an o%en s%ace in the forest is the scene of the regular
cult. There the %riests %erfor" the sacre! ritesA none "ay enter it but
the"sel#esA an! the tre"bling orshi%%er a%%roaches it ith ae lest the
go! shoul! slay hi" if he ca"e too near.
The earliest te"%les of the Gauls ere sacre! gro#es, one of hich, near
Massilia, is !escribe! by 'ucan. <o bir! built in it, no ani"al lurke!
near, the lea#es constantly shi#ere! hen no breeHe stirre! the". Altars
stoo! in its "i!st, an! the i"ages of the go!s ere "issha%en trunks of
trees. /#ery tree as staine! ith sacrificial bloo!. The %oet then
!escribes "ar#els hear! or seen in the gro#e&&the earth groaning, !ea!
yes re#i#ing, trees surroun!e! ith fla"e yet not consu"e!, an! huge
ser%ents tining roun! the oaks. The %eo%le feare! to a%%roach the
gro#e, an! e#en the %riest oul! not alk there at "i!!ay or "i!night
lest he shoul! then "eet its !i#ine guar!ian..G-E4 )io s%eaks of hu"an
sacrifices offere! to An!rasta in a British gro#e, an! in 2* A.). the
oo!s of Mona, !e#ote! to strange rites, ere cut !on by Ro"an
sol!iers..G-14 The sacre! K)ru&ne"etonK of the Galatian Celts "ay ha#e
been a gro#e..G--4 Place&na"es also %oint to the i!es%rea! eIistence of
such gro#es, since the or! Kne"etonK, Bgro#e,B occurs in "any of the",
shoing that the %laces so calle! ha! been sites of a cult. 6n 6relan!,
Kfi!&ne"e!K stoo! for Bsacre! gro#e.B.G-24 The ancient gro#es ere still
the objects of #eneration in Christian ti"es, though fines ere le#ie!
against those ho still clung to the ol! ays..G-34
5acre! gro#es ere still use! in Gallo&Ro"an ti"es, an! the )rui!s "ay
ha#e ha! a %reference for the", a %reference hich "ay un!erlie the
or!s of the scholiast on 'ucan, that Bthe )rui!s orshi% the go!s
ithout te"%les in oo!s.B But %robably "ore elaborate te"%les, great
tribal sanctuaries, eIiste! si!e by si!e ith these local gro#es,
es%ecially in Cisal%ine Gaul, here the Boii ha! a te"%le in hich ere
store! the s%oils of ar, hile the 6nsubri ha! a si"ilar te"%le..G-F4
These ere certainly buil!ings. The Bconsecrate! %laceB in Transal%ine
Gaul, hich Caesar "entions, an! here at fiIe! %erio!s ju!g"ents ere
gi#en, "ight be either a gro#e or a te"%le. Caesar uses the sa"e %hrase
for sacre! %laces here the s%oils of ar ere hea%e!A these "ay ha#e
been gro#es, but )io!orus s%eaks of treasure collecte! in Bte"%les an!
sacre! %lacesB >.Greek( en tois hierois chai te"enesin4@, an! Plutarch
s%eaks of the Bte"%leB here the Ar#erni hung Caesar's sor!..G-G4 The
Bte"%leB of the <a"nite o"en, unroofe! an! re&roofe! in a !ay, "ust
ha#e been a buil!ing. There is no e#i!ence that the insular Celts ha!
te"%les. 6n Gallo&Ro"an ti"es, elaborate te"%les, %erha%s occu%ying
sites of earlier gro#es or te"%les, s%rang u% o#er the Ro"ano&Celtic
area. They ere built on Ro"an "o!els, "any of the" ere of great siHe,
an! they ere !e!icate! to Ro"an or Gallo&Ro"an !i#inities..G2,4 5"aller
shrines ere built by grateful orshi%%ers at sacre! s%rings to their
%resi!ing !i#inity, as "any inscri%tions sho. 6n the te"%les stoo!
i"ages of the go!s, an! here ere store! sacre! #essels, so"eti"es "a!e
of the skulls of ene"ies, s%oils of ar !e!icate! to the go!s, "oney
collecte! for sacre! %ur%oses, an! ar stan!ar!s, es%ecially those hich
bore !i#ine sy"bols.
The ol! i!ea that stone circles ere )rui!ic te"%les, that hu"an
sacrifices ere offere! on the Baltar&stone,B an! libations of bloo!
%oure! into the cu%&"arkings, "ust be gi#en u%, along ith "uch of the
astrono"ical lore associate! ith the circles. 5tonehenge !ates fro" the
close of the <eolithic Age, an! "ost of the s"aller circles belong to
the early BronHe Age, an! are %robably %re&Celtic. 6n any case they ere
%ri"arily %laces of se%ulture. As such they oul! be the scene of
ancestor orshi%, but yet not te"%les in the strict sense of the or!.
The larger circles, burial&%laces of great chiefs or kings, oul! beco"e
central %laces for the recurring rites of ghost&orshi%, %ossibly also
rallying %laces of the tribe on state! occasions. But hether this
ghost&orshi% as e#er trans"ute! into the cult of a go! at the circles
is uncertain an!, in!ee!, unlikely. The Celts oul! naturally regar!
these %laces as sacre!, since the ghosts of the !ea!, e#en those of a
#anLuishe! %eo%le, are alays !angerous, an! they also took o#er the
"yths an! legen!s.G2*4 associate! ith the", such, e.g., as regar!e! the
stones the"sel#es, or trees groing ithin the circles, as e"bo!i"ents
of the !ea!, hile they "ay also ha#e use! the" as occasional %laces of
secon!ary inter"ent. ?hether they ere e#er le! to co%y such circles
the"sel#es is uncertain, since their on "etho!s of inter"ent see" to
ha#e been !ifferent. ?e ha#e seen that the go!s "ay in so"e cases ha#e
been orshi%%e! at tu"uli, an! that 'ugnasa! as, at so"e centres,
connecte! ith co""e"orati#e cults at burial&%laces >"oun!s, not
circles@. But the reasons for this are obscure, nor is there any hint
that other Celtic festi#als ere hel! near burial "oun!s. Probably such
co""e"orati#e rites at %laces of se%ulture !uring 'ugnasa! ere only
%art of a i!er series occurring elsehere, an! e cannot assu"e fro"
such #ague notices that stone circles ere )rui!ic te"%les here orshi%
of an 8riental nature as carrie! on.
Professor Rh.Jy4s is !is%ose! to acce%t the ol! i!ea that 5tonehenge as
the te"%le of A%ollo in the islan! of the :y%erboreans, "entione! by
)io!orus, here the sun&go! as orshi%%e!..G2+4 But though that te"%le
as circular, it ha! alls a!orne! ith #oti#e offerings. <or !oes the
te"%le unroofe! yearly by the <a"nite o"en i"%ly a stone circle, for
there is not the slightest %article of e#i!ence that the circles ere
e#er roofe! in any ay..G2E4 5tone circles ith "ystic trees groing in
the", one of the" ith a ell by hich entrance as gaine! to Tir fa
Tonn, are "entione! in 6rish tales. They ere connecte! ith "agic
rites, but are not s%oken of as te"%les..G214
A'TAR5.
'ucan !escribes realistically the aful sacrifices of the Gauls on cruel
altars not a hit "il!er than those of )iana, an! he s%eaks of Baltars
%ile! ith offeringsB in the sacre! gro#e at Marseilles..G2-4 Cicero
says that hu"an #icti"s ere sacrifice! on altars, an! Tacitus !escribes
the altars of Mona s"eare! ith hu"an bloo!..G224 B)rui!s' altarsB are
"entione! in the 6rish B/I%e!ition of )athi,B an! Cor"ac s%eaks of
Kin!elbaK, or altars a!orne! ith e"ble"s..G234 Probably "any of these
altars ere "ere hea%s of stone like the <orse KhorgK, or a great block
of stone. 5o"e sacrifices, hoe#er, ere too eItensi#e to be offere! on
an altar, but in such cases the bloo! oul! be s%rinkle! u%on it. ;n!er
Ro"an influence, Celtic altars took the for" of those of the conLuerors,
ith inscri%tions containing na"es of nati#e or Ro"an go!s an!
bas&reliefs !e%icting so"e of these. The ol! i!ea that !ol"ens ere
Celtic altars is no aban!one!. They ere %laces of se%ulture of the
<eolithic or early BronHe Age, an! ere originally co#ere! ith a "oun!
of earth. )uring the era of Celtic %aganis" they ere therefore hi!!en
fro" sight, an! it is only in later ti"es that the earth has been
re"o#e! an! the "assi#e stones, arrange! so as to for" a s%ecies of
cha"ber, ha#e been lai! bare.
6MAG/5.
The Gauls, accor!ing to Caesar, %ossesse! K%luri"a si"ulacraK of the
nati#e Mercury, but he !oes not refer to i"ages of other go!s. ?e nee!
not infer fro" this that the Celts ha! a %reju!ice against i"ages, for
a"ong the 6rish Celts i"ages are often "entione!, an! in Gaul un!er
Ro"an rule "any i"ages eIiste!.
The eIistence of i"ages a"ong the Celts as a"ong other %eo%les, "ay oe
so"ething to the cult of trees an! of stones set u% o#er the !ea!. The
stone, associate! ith the !ea! "an's s%irit, beca"e an i"age of
hi"self, %erha%s ru!ely fashione! in his likeness. A rough&hen tree
trunk beca"e an i"age of the s%irit or go! of trees. 8n the other han!,
so"e anthro%o"or%hic i"ages, like the %alaeolithic or Mycenaean figurines,
"ay ha#e been fashione! ithout the inter"e!iary of tree&trunk or stone
%illar. MaIi"us of Tyre says that the Celtic i"age of Reus as a lofty
oak, %erha%s a rough&hen trunk rather than a groing tree, an! such
roughly car#e! tree&trunks, i"ages of go!s, are referre! to by 'ucan in
his !escri%tion of the Massilian gro#e..G2F4 Pillar stones set u% o#er
the gra#es of the !ea! are often "entione! in 6rish teIts. These oul!
certainly be associate! ith the !ea!A in!ee!, eIisting legen!s sho
that they ere belie#e! to be tenante! by the ghosts an! to ha#e the
%oer of "otion. This suggests that they ha! been regar!e! as i"ages of
the !ea!. 8ther stones honoure! in 6relan! ere the Kcloch labraisK, an
oracular stoneA the Klia failK, or coronation stone, hich shoute! hen
a king of the Milesian race seate! hi"self u%on itA an! the Klia
a!ra!aK, or stone of a!oration, a%%arently a boun!ary stone..G2G4 The
K%luri"a si"ulacraK of the Gaulish Mercury "ay ha#e been boun!ary stones
like those !e!icate! to Mercury or :er"es a"ong the Ro"ans an! Greeks.
)i! Caesar conclu!e, or as it actually the case, that the Gauls
!e!icate! such stones to a go! of boun!aries ho "ight be eLuate! ith
MercuryS Many such stan!ing stones still eIist in 9rance, an! their
nu"ber "ust ha#e been greater in Caesar's ti"e. 5eeing the" the objects
of su%erstitious obser#ances, he "ay ha#e conclu!e! that they ere
Ksi"ulacraK of a go!. 8ther Ro"ans besi!es hi"self ha! been struck by
the rese"blance of these stones to their :er"ai, an! %erha%s the Gauls,
if they !i! not alrea!y regar! the" as sy"bols of a go!, acLuiesce! in
the rese"blance. Thus, on the "enhir of =er#a!el are scul%ture! four
figures, one being that of Mercury, !ating fro" Gallo&Ro"an ti"es.
Beneath another, near Peronne, a bronHe statuette of Mercury as
!isco#ere!..G3,4 This oul! see" to sho that the Gauls ha! a cult of
%illar stones associate! ith a go! of boun!aries. Caesar %robably uses
the or! Ksi"ulacru"K in the sense of Bsy"bolB rather than Bi"age,B
though he "ay ha#e "eant nati#e i"ages not fully car#e! in hu"an sha%e,
like the 6rish Kcer"an!K, KcerstachK, orna"ente! ith gol! an! sil#er,
the Bchief i!olB of north 6relan!, or like the si"ilarly orna"ente!
Bi"agesB of Cro"" Cruaich an! his satellites..G3*4 The a!oration of
sacre! stones continue! into Christian ti"es an! as "uch o%%ose! by the
Church..G3+4 5. 5a"son of )ol >siIth century@ foun! "en !ancing roun! a
Ksi"ulacru" abo"inabileK, hich see"s to ha#e been a kin! of stan!ing
stone, an! ha#ing besought the" to !esist, he car#e! a cross u%on
it..G3E4 5e#eral K"enhirionK in 9rance are no si"ilarly
orna"ente!..G314
The nu"ber of eIisting Gallo&Ro"an i"ages shos that the Celts ha! not
a!o%te! a custo" hich as foreign to the", an! they "ust ha#e alrea!y
%ossesse! ru!e nati#e i"ages. The !isa%%earance of these oul! be
eI%laine! if they ere "a!e of %erishable "aterial. ?oo!en i"ages of the
KMatresK ha#e been occasionally foun!, an! these "ay be %re&Ro"an. 5o"e
of the i"ages of the three&hea!e! an! crouching go!s sho no sign of
Ro"an influences in their "o!elling, an! they "ay ha#e been co%ie! fro"
earlier i"ages of oo!. ?e also fin! !i#ine figures on %re&Ro"an
coins..G3-4 Certain %assages in classical ritings %oint to the
eIistence of nati#e i"ages. A statue of a go!!ess eIiste! in a te"%le at
Marseilles, accor!ing to Justin, an! the Galatian Celts ha! i"ages of
the nati#e Ju%%iter an! Arte"is, hile the conLuering Celts ho entere!
Ro"e boe! to the seate! senators as to statues of the go!s..G324 The
Gauls %lace! rich orna"ents on the i"ages of the go!s, an! %resu"ably
these ere nati#e Bi!ols.B
B6!olsB are freLuently "entione! in 6rish teIts, an! there is no !oubt
that these "ean i"ages..G334 Cor"ac "ac Art refuse! to orshi% Bi!ols,B
an! as %unishe! by the )rui!s..G3F4 The i!ols of Cro"" Cruaich an! his
satellites, referre! to in the K)in!senchasK, ere car#e! to re%resent
the hu"an for"A the chief one as of gol!, the others of stone. These
ere "iraculously o#erthron by 5. PatrickA but in the account of the
"iracle the chief i!ol as of stone a!orne! ith gol! an! sil#er, the
others, nu"bering tel#e, ere orna"ente! ith bronHe..G3G4 They stoo!
in Mag 5lecht, an! si"ilar sacre! %laces ith grou%s of i"ages e#i!ently
eIiste! elsehere, e.g. at Rath Archaill, Bhere the )rui!'s altars an!
i"ages are.B.GF,4 The la!y Cessair, before co"ing to 6relan!, is sai! to
ha#e taken a!#ice of her Klai"h&!hiaK, or Bhan! go!s,B %erha%s s"all
i"ages use! for !i#ination..GF*4
9or the British Celts the e#i!ence is slen!er, but i!olatry in the sense
of Bi"age&orshi%B is freLuently "entione! in the li#es of early
saints..GF+4 Gil!as also s%eaks of i"ages B"oul!ering aay ithin an!
ithout the !eserte! te"%les, ith stiff an! !efor"e! features.B.GFE4
This %athetic %icture of the forsaken shrines of forgotten go!s "ay
refer to Ro"ano&Celtic i"ages, but the Bstiff an! !efor"e! featuresB
suggest rather nati#e art, the art of a %eo%le unskilful at re%ro!ucing
the hu"an for", hoe#er artistic they "ay ha#e been in other !irections.
6f the nati#e Celts of 6relan! ha! i"ages, there is no reason to
su%%ose, es%ecially consi!ering the e#i!ence just a!!uce!, that the
Gauls, or at least the )rui!s, ere antagonistic to i"ages. This last is
M. Reinach's theory, %art of a i!er hy%othesis that the )rui!s ere
%re&Celtic, but beca"e the %riests of the Celts, ho till then ha! no
%riests. The )rui!s %rohibite! i"age&orshi%, an! this %rohibition
eIiste! in Gaul, KeI hy%othesiK, fro" the en! of %alaeolithic ti"es.
Pythagoras an! his school ere o%%ose! to i"age&orshi%, an! the
classical riters clai"e! a connection beteen the Pythagoreans an! the
)rui!s. M. Reinach thinks there "ust ha#e been so"e analogy beteen
the", an! that as hostility to anthro%o"or%his". But the analogy is
!istinctly state! to ha#e lain in the !octrine of i""ortality or
"ete"%sychosis. :a! the )rui!s been o%%ose! to i"age&orshi%, classical
obser#ers coul! not ha#e faile! to notice the fact. M. Reinach then
argues that the )rui!s cause! the erection of the "egalithic "onu"ents
in Gaul, sy"bols not i"ages. They are thus )rui!ic, though not Celtic.
The "onu"ents argue a %oerful %riesthoo!A the )rui!s ere a %oerful
%riesthoo!A therefore the )rui!s cause! the "onu"ents to be built. This
is not a %oerful argu"entM.GF14
As has been seen, so"e %urely Celtic i"ages eIiste! in Gaul. The Gauls,
ho use! nothing but oo! for their houses, %robably kne little of the
art of car#ing stone. They oul! therefore "ake "ost of their i"ages of
oo!&&a %erishable "aterial. The insular Celts ha! i"ages, an! if, as
Caesar "aintaine!, the )rui!s ca"e fro" Britain to Gaul, this %oints at
least to a si"ilarity of cult in the to regions. $outhful Gauls ho
as%ire! to )rui!ic knole!ge ent to Britain to obtain it. ?oul! the
)rui!s of Gaul ha#e %er"itte! this, ha! they been iconoclastsS <o single
teIt shos that the )rui!s ha! any anti%athy to i"ages, hile the Gauls
certainly ha! i"ages of orshi%ful ani"als. 9urther, e#en if the )rui!s
ere %riests of a %re&Celtic folk, they "ust ha#e %er"itte! the "aking
of i"ages, since "any B"enhir&statuesB eIist on 9rench soil, at A#eyron,
Tarn, an! elsehere..GF-4 The Celts ere in constant contact ith
i"age&orshi%%ing %eo%les, an! coul! har!ly ha#e faile! to be influence!
by the", e#en if such a %riestly %rohibition eIiste!, just as 6srael
succu"be! to i"ages in s%ite of !i#ine co""an!s. That they oul! ha#e
been thus influence! is seen fro" the nu"ber of i"ages of all kin!s
!ating fro" the %erio! after the Ro"an conLuest.
6nci!ental %roofs of the fon!ness of the Celts for i"ages are foun! in
ecclesiastical ritings an! in late sur#i#als. The %rocession of the
i"age of Berecynthia has alrea!y been !escribe!, an! such %rocessions
ere co""on in Gaul, an! i"%ly a regular folk&custo". 5. Martin of Tours
sto%%e! a funeral %rocession belie#ing it to be such a %agan rite..GF24
Councils an! e!icts %rohibite! these %rocessions in Gaul, but a "ore
effectual ay as to Christianise the". The Rogation ti!e %rocessions
ith crucifiI an! Ma!onna, an! the carrying of 5. John's i"age at the
Mi!su""er festi#als, ere a !irect continuation of the ol!er %ractices.
6"ages ere often broken by Christian saints in Gaul, as they ha! been
o#er&turne! by 5. Patrick in 6relan!. B5tiff an! !efor"e!B "any of the"
"ust ha#e been, if one "ay ju!ge fro" the KGroah&goar!K or BCenus of
Tuini%ily,B for centuries the object of su%erstitious rites in
Brittany..GF34 ?ith it "ay be co"%are! the fetich&stone or i"age of
hich an ol! o"an in the islan! of 6nniskea, the guar!ian of a sacre!
ell, ha! charge. 6t as ke%t ra%%e! u% to hi!e it fro" %rofane eyes,
but at certain %erio!s it as brought out for a!oration..GFF4
The i"ages an! bas&reliefs of the Gallo&Ro"an %erio! fall "ainly into
to classes. 6n the first class are those re%resenting nati#e
!i#inities, like /sus, Tar#os Trigaranos, 5"ertullos, Cernunnos, the
horne! an! crouching go!s, the go! ith the ha""er, an! the go! ith the
heel. Busts an! statues of so"e ater&go!!esses eIist, but "ore
nu"erous are the re%resentations of /%ona. 8ne of these is %ro#i!e! ith
a boI %e!estal in hich offerings "ight be %lace!. The KMatresK are
freLuently figure!, usually as three seate! figures ith baskets of
fruit or floers, or ith one or "ore infants, like the Ma!onna. 6"ages
of tri%le&hea!e! go!s, su%%ose! to be Cernunnos, ha#e been foun!, but
are !ifficult to %lace in any category..GFG4
To the i"ages of the secon! class is usually attache! the Ro"an na"e of
a go!, but generally the nati#e Celtic na"e is a!!e!, but the i"ages
the"sel#es are of the tra!itional Ro"an ty%e. A"ong statues an!
statuettes of bronHe, that of Mercury occurs "ost often. This "ay %oint
to the fact that Caesar's Ksi"ulacraK of the nati#e Mercury ere i"ages,
an! that the ol! %reference for re%resenting this go! continue! in Ro"an
ti"es. 5"all figures of !i#inities in hite clay ha#e been foun! in
large nu"bers, an! "ay ha#e been KeI #otosK or i"ages of househol!
KlarariaK..GG,4
5$MB8'5.
6"ages of the go!s in Gaul can be classifie! by "eans of their
sy"bols&&the "allet an! cu% >a sy"bol of %lenty@ borne by the go! ith
the ha""er, the heel of the sun&go!, the cornuco%ia an! torLue carrie!
by Cernunnos. 8ther sy"bols occur on i"ages, altars, "onu"ents, an!
coins. These are the sastika an! triskele, %robably sy"bols of the
sunA.GG*4 single or concentric circles, so"eti"es ith raysA.GG+4
crossesA an! a curious 5 figure. The triskele an! the circles are
so"eti"es foun! on faces figure! on coins. They "ay therefore ha#e been
tattoo "arkings of a sy"bolic character. The circle an! cross are often
incise! on bronHe i"ages of )is%ater. Much s%eculation has been arouse!
by the 5 figure, hich occurs on coins, hile nine "o!els of this sy"bol
hang fro" a ring carrie! by the go! ith the heel, but the "ost
%robable is that hich sees in it a thun!erbolt..GGE4 But lacking any
ol! teIt inter%reting these #arious sy"bols, all eI%lanations of the"
"ust be conjectural. 5o"e of the" are not %urely Celtic, but are of
orl!&i!e occurrence.
C;'T 89 ?/AP8<5.
:ere so"e reference "ay be "a!e to the Celtic cult of ea%ons. As has
been seen, a ha""er is the sy"bol of one go!, an! it is not unlikely
that a cult of the ha""er ha! %rece!e! that of the go! to ho" the
ha""er as gi#en as a sy"bol. /sus is also re%resente! ith an aIe. ?e
nee! not re%eat hat has alrea!y been sai! regar!ing the %ri"iti#e an!
uni#ersal cult of ha""er or aIe,.GG14 but it is interesting to notice,
in connection ith other e#i!ence for a Celtic cult of ea%ons, that
there is e#ery reason to belie#e that the %hrase Ksub ascia !e!icareK,
hich occurs in inscri%tions on to"bs fro" Gallia 'ug!unensis, usually
ith the figure of an aIe incise! on the stone, %oints to the cult of
the aIe, or of a go! hose sy"bol the aIe as..GG-4 6n 6rish teIts the
%oer of s%eech is attribute! to ea%ons, but, accor!ing to the
Christian scribe, this as because !e"ons s%oke fro" the", for the
%eo%le orshi%%e! ar"s in those !ays..GG24 Thus it "ay ha#e been
belie#e! that s%irits tenante! ea%ons, or that ea%ons ha! souls.
/#i!ence of the cult itself is foun! in the fact that on Gaulish coins a
sor! is figure!, stuck in the groun!, or !ri#ing a chariot, or ith a
arrior !ancing before it, or hel! in the han! of a !ancing
arrior..GG34 The latter are ritual acts, an! rese"ble that !escribe! by
5%enser as %erfor"e! by 6rish arriors in his !ay, ho sai! %rayers or
incantations before a sor! stuck in the earth..GGF4 5or!s ere also
a!!resse! in songs co"%ose! by 6rish bar!s, an! tra!itional re"ains of
such songs are foun! in Brittany..GGG4 They re%resent the chants of the
ancient cult. 8aths ere taken by ea%ons, an! the ea%ons ere belie#e!
to turn against those ho lie!..*,,,4 The "agical %oer of ea%ons,
es%ecially of those o#er hich incantations ha! been sai!, is freLuently
referre! to in tra!itional tales an! 6rish teIts..*,,*4 A re"iniscence
of the cult or of the "agical %oer of ea%ons "ay be foun! in the
on!erful Bglai#es of lightB of Celtic folk&tales, an! the si"ilar
"ystical ea%on of the Arthurian ro"ances.
988T<8T/5(
.G-E4 'ucan, KPharsaliaK, iii. EGG f.
.G-14 )io Cass. lIii. 3A Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E,.
.G--4 5trabo, Iii. -*. K)rune"etonK "ay "ean Bgreat te"%leB >)'Arbois,
K'es CeltesK, +,E@.
.G-24 KAntient 'as of 6relan!K, i. *21.
.G-34 :ol!er, ii. 3*+. Cf. B6n!iculusB in Gri"", KTeut. Myth.K *3EG, B!e
sacris sil#aru", Luas ni"i!as >N ne"eta@ #ocant.B
.G-F4 'i#y, IIiii. +1A Polyb. ii. E+.
.G-G4 Caesar, #i. *E, *3A )io!. 5ic. #. +3A Plutarch, KCaesarK, +2.
.G2,4 5ee eIa"%les in )o" Martin, i. *E1 f.A cf. Greg. Tours, K:ist.
9ranc.K i. E,.
.G2*4 5ee Reinach, B'es "onu"ents !e %ierre brute !ans le langage et les
croyances %o%ulaires,B KRe#. Arch.K *FGE, i. EEGA /#ans, BThe Roll&Right
5tones,B K9olk&'oreK, #i. +, f.
.G2+4 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K *G1A )io!. 5ic. ii. 13.
.G2E4 Rh.Jy4s, *G3.
.G214 Joyce, K8CRK +12A =enne!y, +3*.
.G2-4 'ucan, i. 11E, iii. EGGf.
.G224 Cicero, K%ro 9onteioK, I. +*A Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E,. Cf. Po"%. Mela,
iii. +. *F.
.G234 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +F1A Cor"ac, G1. Cf. K6TK iii. +**, for the
%ractice of circu"a"bulating altars.
.G2F4 MaI. Tyr. K)issert.K #iii. FA 'ucan, iii. 1*+f.
.G2G4 KAntient 'as of 6relan!K, i#. *1+.
.G3,4 KRe#. Arch.K i. %l. iii&#.A Reinach, KRCK Ii. ++1, Iiii. *G,.
.G3*4 5tokes, KMartyr. of 8engusK, *F2&*F3.
.G3+4 5ee the Tenty&thir! Canon of Council of Arles, the Tenty&thir!
of the Council of Tours, -23, an! ch. 2- of the KCa%itulariaK, 3FG.
.G3E4 Mabillon, KActaK, i. *33.
.G314 Reinach, KRe#. Arch.K *FGE, IIi. EE-.
.G3-4 Blanchet, i. *-+&*-E, EF2.
.G324 Justin, Iliii. -A 5trabo, Iii. -. +A Plutarch, K!e Cirt. Mul.K
II.A 'i#y, #. 1*.
.G334 Cor"ac, G1.
.G3F4 =eating, E-2. 5ee also 5tokes, KMartyr. of 8engusK, *F2A KRCK Iii.
1+3, 5ec. *-A Joyce, K5:K +31 f.
.G3G4 K''K +*EKbKA KTri%. 'ifeK, i. G,, GE.
.GF,4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +F1.
.GF*4 =eating, 1G.
.GF+4 Jocelyn, KCita 5. =entig.K +3, E+, E1A Ailre!, KCita 5. <inian.K
2.
.GFE4 Gil!as, 5ec. 1.
.GF14 9or the hole argu"ent see Reinach, KRCK Iiii. *FG f. Bertran!,
KRe#. Arch.K I#. E1-, su%%orts a si"ilar theory, an!, accor!ing to both
riters, Gallo&Ro"an art as the result of the eakening of )rui!ic
%oer by the Ro"ans.
.GF-4 ''Abbe :er"et, Assoc. %our l'a#ance"ent !es 5ciences, KCo"%te
Ren!uK, *G,,, ii. 313A K''Anthro%ologieK, #. *13.
.GF24 KCor%. 5cri%. /ccl. 'at.K i. *++.
.GF34 Monnier, E2+. The i"age bears %art of an inscri%tion ... '6T...
an! it has been thought that this rea! 6'6T:$6A originally. The na"e is
in kee%ing ith the rites still in use before the i"age. This oul! "ake
it !ate fro" Ro"an ti"es. 6f so, it is a %oor s%eci"en of the art of the
%erio!. But it "ay be an ol! nati#e i"age to hich later the na"e of the
Ro"an go!!ess as gi#en.
.GFF4 Ro!en, KProgress of the Refor"ation in 6relan!K, -*. The i"age as
still eIisting in *F-*.
.GFG4 9or figures of "ost of these, see KRe#. Arch.K #ols. I#i., I#iii.,
IiI., III#i.A KRCK I#ii. 1-, I#iii. +-1, II. E,G, IIii. *-G, IIi#. ++*A
Bertran!, K%assi"KA Courcelle&5eneuil, K'es )ieuI Gaulois !'a%res les
Monu"ents 9iguresK, Paris, *G*,.
.GG,4 5ee Courcelle&5eneuil, Ko%. cit.KA Reinach, KB9 %assi"K,
KCatalogue 5o""aire !u Musee !es Ant. nat.KO1P **-&**2.
.GG*4 Reinach, KCatal.K +G, F3A KRe#. Arch.K I#i. *3A Blanchet, i. *2G,
E*2A :uchet, K''art gauloisK, ii. F.
.GG+4 Blanchet, i. *-FA Reinach, KB9K *1E, *-,, *-+.
.GGE4 Blanchet, i. *3A 9louest, K)euI 5telesK >A%%en!.@, Paris, *FF-A
Reinach, KB9K EE.
.GG14 P. E,, Ksu%raK.
.GG-4 :irschfel! in KC6'K Iiii. +-2.
.GG24 KRCK Iii. *,3A Joyce, K5:K i. *E*.
.GG34 Blanchet, i. *2, f.A Muret !e la Tour, KCatalogueK, 2G++, 2G1*,
etc.
.GGF4 KCie of the 5tate of 6relan!K, -3.
.GGG4 KRCK II. 3A Martin, K/tu!es !e la Myth. Celt.K *21.
.*,,,4 K6TK i. +,2A KRCK iI. *11.
.*,,*4 KCMK Iiii. *2F f.A Miss :ull, 11, ++*, ++E.
C:APT/R QQ.
T:/ )R;6)5.
Pliny thought that the na"e B)rui!B as a Greek a%%ellation !eri#e! fro"
the )rui!ic cult of the oak >.Greek( K!rusK4@..*,,+4 The or!, hoe#er,
is %urely Celtic, an! its "eaning %robably i"%lies that, like the
sorcerer an! "e!icine&"an e#eryhere, the )rui! as regar!e! as Bthe
knoing one.B 6t is co"%ose! of to %arts&&K!ruK&, regar!e! by M.
)'Arbois as an intensi#e, an! K#i!sK, fro" K#i!K, Bto kno,B or
Bsee.B.*,,E4 :ence the )rui! as Bthe #ery knoing or ise one.B 6t is
%ossible, hoe#er, that K!ruK& is connecte! ith the root hich gi#es
the or! BoakB in Celtic s%eech&&Gaulish K!eruoK, 6rish K!airK, ?elsh
K!erK&&an! that the oak, occu%ying a %lace in the cult, as thus
brought into relation ith the na"e of the %riesthoo!. The Gaulish for"
of the na"e as %robably K!ruisK, the 8l! 6rish as K!raiK. The "o!ern
for"s in 6rish an! 5cots Gaelic, K!ruiK an! K!raoiK "ean Bsorcerer.B
M. )'Arbois an! others, acce%ting Caesar's !ictu" that Bthe syste" >of
)rui!is"@ is thought to ha#e been !e#ise! in Britain, an! brought thence
into Gaul,B "aintain that the )rui!s ere %riests of the Goi!els in
Britain, ho i"%ose! the"sel#es u%on the Gaulish conLuerors of the
Goi!els, an! that )rui!is" then %asse! o#er into Gaul about +,,
B.C..*,,14 But it is har!ly likely that, e#en if the )rui!s ere
acce%te! as %riests by conLuering Gauls in Britain, they shoul! ha#e
affecte! the Gauls of Gaul ho ere outsi!e the refleI influence of the
conLuere! Goi!els, an! shoul! ha#e there obtaine! that %oer hich they
%ossesse!. Goi!els an! Gauls ere allie! by race an! language an!
religion, an! it oul! be strange if they !i! not both %ossess a si"ilar
%riesthoo!. Moreo#er, the Goi!els ha! been a continental %eo%le, an!
)rui!is" as %resu"ably flourishing a"ong the" then. ?hy !i! it not
influence kin!re! Celtic tribes ithout )rui!s, KeI hy%othesiK, at that
ti"eS 9urther, if e acce%t Professor Meyer's theory that no Goi!el set
foot in Britain until the secon! century A.)., the Gauls coul! not ha#e
recei#e! the )rui!ic %riesthoo! fro" the Goi!els.
Caesar "erely says, Bit is thought >KeIisti"aturK@ that )rui!is" ca"e to
Gaul fro" Britain.B.*,,-4 6t as a %ious o%inion, %erha%s his on, or
one base! on the fact that those ho ishe! to %erfect the"sel#es in
)rui!ic art ent to Britain. This "ay ha#e been because Britain ha! been
less o%en to foreign influences than Gaul, an! its )rui!s, unaffecte! by
these, ere thought to be "ore %oerful than those of Gaul. Pliny, on
the other han!, see"s to think that )rui!is" %asse! o#er into Britain
fro" Gaul..*,,24
8ther riters&&5ir John Rh.Jy4s, 5ir G.'. Go""e, an! M. Reinach&&su%%ort
on !ifferent groun!s the theory that the )rui!s ere a %re&Celtic
%riesthoo!, acce%te! by the Celtic conLuerors. 5ir John Rh.Jy4s thinks
that the )rui!is" of the aborigines of Gaul an! Britain "a!e ter"s ith
the Celtic conLuerors. 6t as acce%te! by the Goi!els, but not by the
Brythons. :ence in Britain there ere Brythons ithout )rui!s,
aborigines un!er the say of )rui!is", an! Goi!els ho co"bine! Aryan
%olytheis" ith )rui!is". )rui!is" as also the religion of the
aborigines fro" the Baltic to Gibraltar, an! as acce%te! by the
Gauls..*,,34 But if so, it is !ifficult to see hy the Brythons, akin to
the", !i! not acce%t it. 8ur knole!ge of Brythonic religion is too
scanty for us to %ro#e that the )rui!s ha! or ha! not say o#er the",
but the %resu"%tion is that they ha!. <or is there any historical
e#i!ence to sho that the )rui!s ere originally a non&Celtic
%riesthoo!. /#eryhere they a%%ear as the su%re"e an! !o"inant
%riesthoo! of the Celts, an! the %riests of a conLuere! %eo%le coul!
har!ly ha#e obtaine! such %oer o#er the conLuerors. The relation of the
Celts to the )rui!s is Luite !ifferent fro" that of conLuerors, ho
occasionally resort to the "e!icine&"en of the conLuere! folk because
they ha#e stronger "agic or greater influence ith the autochthonous
go!s. The Celts !i! not resort to the )rui!s occasionallyA KeI
hy%othesiK they acce%te! the" co"%letely, ere !o"inate! by the" in
e#ery !e%art"ent of life, hile their on %riests, if they ha! any,
acce%te! this or!er of things ithout a "ur"ur. All this is incre!ible.
The %icture !ran by Caesar, 5trabo, an! others of the )rui!s an! their
%osition a"ong the Celts as ju!ges, choosers of tribal chiefs an! kings,
teachers, as ell as "inisters of religion, suggests rather that they
ere a nati#e Celtic %riesthoo!, long establishe! a"ong the %eo%le.
5ir G.'. Go""e su%%orts the theory that the )rui!s ere a %re&Celtic
%riesthoo!, because, in his o%inion, "uch of their belief in "agic as
ell as their use of hu"an sacrifice an! the re!e"%tion of one life by
another, is o%%ose! to BAryan senti"ent.B /Lually o%%ose! to this are
their functions of settling contro#ersies, ju!ging, settling the
succession to %ro%erty, an! arranging boun!aries. These #ies are
su%%orte! by a co"%arison of the %osition of the )rui!s relati#ely to
the Celts ith that of non&Aryan %ersons in 6n!ia ho ren!er occasional
%riestly ser#ices to :in!u #illage co""unities..*,,F4 ?hether this
co"%arison of occasional :in!u custo" ith Celtic usage to thousan!
years ago is just, "ay be Luestione!. As alrea!y seen, it as no "ere
occasional ser#ice hich the )rui!s ren!ere! to the Celts, an! it is
this hich "akes it !ifficult to cre!it this theory. :a! the Celtic
house&father been %riest an! ju!ge in his on clan, oul! he so rea!ily
ha#e surren!ere! his rights to a foreign an! conLuere! %riesthoo!S 8n
the other han!, kings an! chiefs a"ong the Celts %robably retaine! so"e
%riestly functions, !eri#e! fro" the ti"e hen the offices of the
%riest&king ha! not been !ifferentiate!. Caesar's e#i!ence certainly !oes
not su%%ort the i!ea that Bit is only a"ong the ru!est of the so&calle!
Celtic tribes that e fin! this su%eri"%osing of an a%%arently official
%riesthoo!.B Accor!ing to hi", the %oer of the )rui!s as uni#ersal in
Gaul, an! ha! their %osition really corres%on!e! to that of the %ariah
%riests of 6n!ia, occasional %riests of :in!u #illages, the !eter"ine!
hostility of the Ro"an %oer to the" because they iel!e! such an
enor"ous influence o#er Celtic thought an! life, is ineI%lainable. 6f,
further, Aryan senti"ent as so o%%ose! to )rui!ic custo"s, hy !i!
Aryan Celts so rea!ily acce%t the )rui!sS 6n this case the recei#er is
as ba! as the thief. 5ir G.'. Go""e clings to the belief that the Aryans
ere %eo%le of a co"%arati#ely high ci#ilisation, ho ha! !iscar!e!, if
they e#er %ossesse!, a sa#age B%ast.B But ol! beliefs an! custo"s still
sur#i#e through groing ci#ilisation, an! if the #ies of Professor
5ergi an! others are correct, the Aryans ere e#en less ci#ilise! than
the %eo%les ho" they conLuere!..*,,G4 5ha%e&shifting, "agic, hu"an
sacrifice, %riestly !o"ination, ere as "uch Aryan as non&Aryan, an! if
the Celts ha! a co"%arati#ely %ure religion, hy !i! they so soon allo
it to be !efile! by the %uerile su%erstitions of the )rui!sS
M. Reinach, as e ha#e seen, thinks that the Celts ha! no i"ages,
because these ere %rohibite! by their %riests. This %rohibition as
%re&Celtic in Gaul, since there are no <eolithic i"ages, though there
are great "egalithic structures, suggesting the eIistence of a great
religious aristocracy. This aristocracy i"%ose! itself on the
Celts..*,*,4 ?e ha#e seen that there is no reason for belie#ing that the
Celts ha! no i"ages, hence this argu"ent is #alueless. M. Reinach then
argues that the Celts acce%te! )rui!is" Ken blocK, as the Ro"ans
acce%te! 8riental cults an! the Greeks the nati#e Pelasgic cults. But
neither Ro"ans nor Greeks aban!one! their on faith. ?ere the Celts a
%eo%le ithout %riests an! ithout religionS ?e kno that they "ust ha#e
acce%te! "any local cults, but that they a!o%te! the hole aboriginal
faith an! its %riests Ken blocK is not cre!ible. M. Reinach also hol!s
that hen the Celts a%%ear in history )rui!is" as in its !eclineA the
Celt, or at least the "ilitary caste a"ong the Celts, as reasserting
itself. But the )rui!s !o not a%%ear as a !eclining bo!y in the %ages of
Caesar, an! their %oer as still su%re"e, to ju!ge by the hostility of
the Ro"an Go#ern"ent to the". 6f the "ilitary caste rebelle! against
the", this !oes not %ro#e that they ere a foreign bo!y. 5uch a strife
is seen here#er %riest an! sol!ier for" se%arate castes, each !esiring
to rule, as in /gy%t.
8ther riters argue that e !o not fin! )rui!s eIisting in the )anube
region, in Cisal%ine territory, nor in Transal%ine Gaul, Boutsi!e the
li"its of the region occu%ie! by the Celtae.B.*,**4 This coul! only ha#e
eight if any of the classical riters ha! co"%ose! a for"al treatise on
the )rui!s, shoing eIactly the regions here they eIiste!. They "erely
!escribe )rui!is" as a general Celtic institution, or as they kne it in
Gaul or Britain, an! fe of the" ha#e any %ersonal knole!ge of it.
There is no reason to belie#e that )rui!s !i! not eIist here#er there
ere Celts. The )rui!s an! 5e"notheoi of the Celts an! Galatae referre!
to Kc.K +,, B.C. ere a%%arently %riests of other Celts than those of
Gaul, an! Celtic grou%s of Cisal%ine Gaul ha! %riests, though these are
not for"ally style! )rui!s..*,*+4 The argu"ent KeI silentioK is here of
little #alue, since the references to the )rui!s are so brief, an! it
tells eLually against their non&Celtic origin, since e !o not hear of
)rui!s in ALuitania, a non&Celtic region..*,*E4
The theory of the non&Celtic origin of the )rui!s assu"es that the Celts
ha! no %riests, or that these ere efface! by the )rui!s. The Celts ha!
%riests calle! KgutuatriK attache! to certain te"%les, their na"e
%erha%s "eaning Bthe s%eakers,B those ho s%oke to the go!s..*,*14 The
functions of the )rui!s ere "uch "ore general, accor!ing to this
theory, hence M. )'Arbois su%%oses that, before their intrusion, the
Celts ha! no other %riests than the KgutuatriK..*,*-4 But the
%robability is that they ere a )rui!ic class, "inisters of local
sanctuaries, an! relate! to the )rui!s as the 'e#ites ere to the
%riests of 6srael, since the )rui!s ere a co"%osite %riesthoo! ith a
#ariety of functions. 6f the %riests an! ser#ants of Belenos, !escribe!
by Ausonius an! calle! by hi" Koe!ituus BeleniK, ere KgutuatriK, then
the latter "ust ha#e been connecte! ith the )rui!s, since he says they
ere of )rui!ic stock..*,*24 'ucan's B%riest of the gro#eB "ay ha#e been
a KgutuatrosK, an! the %riests >Ksacer!otesK@ an! other "inisters
>KantistitesK@ of the Boii "ay ha#e been )rui!s %ro%erly so calle! an!
KgutuatriK..*,*34 Another class of te"%le ser#ants "ay ha#e eIiste!.
<a"es beginning ith the na"e of a go! an! en!ing in KgnatosK,
Baccusto"e! to,B Bbelo#e! of,B occur in inscri%tions, an! "ay !enote
%ersons consecrate! fro" their youth to the ser#ice of a gro#e or
te"%le. 8n the other han!, the na"es "ay "ean no "ore than that those
bearing the" ere !e#ote! to the cult of one %articular go!.
8ur su%%osition that the KgutuatriK ere a class of )rui!s is su%%orte!
by classical e#i!ence, hich ten!s to sho that the )rui!s ere a great
inclusi#e %riesthoo! ith !ifferent classes %ossessing !ifferent
functions&&%riestly, %ro%hetic, "agical, "e!ical, legal, an! %oetical.
Caesar attributes these to the )rui!s as a hole, but in other riters
they are in %art at least in the han!s of !ifferent classes. )io!orus
refers to the Celtic %hiloso%hers an! theologians >)rui!s@, !i#iners,
an! bar!s, as !o also 5trabo an! Ti"agenes, 5trabo gi#ing the Greek for"
of the nati#e na"e for the !i#iners, .Greek( ouateis4, the Celtic for"
being %robably K#atisK >6rish, KfaithK@..*,*F4 These "ay ha#e been also
%oets, since K#atisK "eans both singer an! %oetA but in all three
riters the bar!s are a fairly !istinct class, ho sing the !ee!s of
fa"ous "en >so Ti"agenes@. )rui! an! !i#iner ere also closely
connecte!, since the )rui!s stu!ie! nature an! "oral %hiloso%hy, an! the
!i#iners ere also stu!ents of nature, accor!ing to 5trabo an!
Ti"agenes. <o sacrifice as co"%lete ithout a )rui!, say )io!orus an!
5trabo, but both s%eak of the !i#iners as concerne! ith sacrifice.
)rui!s also %ro%hesie! as ell as !i#iners, accor!ing to Cicero an!
Tacitus..*,*G4 9inally, 'ucan "entions only )rui!s an! bar!s..*,+,4
)i#iners ere thus %robably a )rui!ic sub&class, stan!ing "i!ay beteen
the )rui!s %ro%er an! the bar!s, an! %artaking of so"e of the functions
of both. Pliny s%eaks of B)rui!s an! this race of %ro%hets an!
!octors,B.*,+*4 an! this suggests that so"e ere %riests, so"e !i#iners,
hile so"e %ractise! an e"%iric "e!ical science.
8n the hole this agrees ith hat is "et ith in 6relan!, here the
)rui!s, though a%%earing in the teIts "ainly as "agicians, ere also
%riests an! teachers. 5i!e by si!e ith the" ere the K9ili!K, Blearne!
%oets,B.*,++4 co"%osing accor!ing to strict rules of art, an! higher
than the thir! class, the Bar!s. The K9ili!K, ho "ay also ha#e been
knon as K9athiK, B%ro%hets,B.*,+E4 ere also !i#iners accor!ing to
strict rules of augury, hile so"e of these auguries i"%lie! a
sacrifice. The )rui!s ere also !i#iners an! %ro%hets. ?hen the )rui!s
ere o#erthron at the co"ing of Christianity, the K9ili!K re"aine! as a
learne! class, %robably because they ha! aban!one! all %agan %ractices,
hile the Bar!s ere re!uce! to a co"%arati#ely lo status. M. )'Arbois
su%%oses that there as ri#alry beteen the )rui!s an! the K9ili!K, ho
"a!e co""on cause ith the Christian "issionaries, but this is not
su%%orte! by e#i!ence. The three classes in Gaul&&)rui!s, KCatesK, an!
Bar!s&&thus corres%on! to the three classes in 6relan!&&)rui!s, K9athiK
or K9ili!K, an! Bar!s..*,+14
?e "ay thus conclu!e that the )rui!s ere a %urely Celtic %riesthoo!,
belonging both to the Goi!elic an! Gaulish branches of the Celts. The
i!ea that they ere not Celtic is so"eti"es connecte! ith the
su%%osition that )rui!is" as so"ething su%era!!e! to Celtic religion
fro" ithout, or that Celtic %olytheis" as not %art of the cree! of the
)rui!s, but sanctione! by the", hile they ha! a !efinite theological
syste" ith only a fe go!s..*,+-4 These are the i!eas of riters ho
see in the )rui!s an occult an! esoteric %riesthoo!. The )rui!s ha!
gron u% K%ari %assuK ith the groth of the nati#e religion an! "agic.
?here they ha! beco"e "ore ci#ilise!, as in the south of Gaul, they "ay
ha#e gi#en u% "any "agical %ractices, but as a class they ere a!!icte!
to "agic, an! "ust ha#e taken %art in local cults as ell as in those of
the greater go!s. That they ere a %hiloso%hic %riesthoo! a!#ocating a
%ure religion a"ong %olytheists is a baseless theory. )rui!is" as not a
for"al syste" outsi!e Celtic religion. 6t co#ere! the hole groun! of
Celtic religionA in other or!s, it as that religion itself.
The )rui!s are first referre! to by %seu!o&Aristotle an! 5otion in the
secon! century B.C., the reference being %reser#e! by )iogenes 'aertius(
BThere are a"ong the Celtae an! Galatae those calle! )rui!s an!
5e"notheoi.B.*,+24 The to or!s "ay be synony"ous, or they "ay !escribe
to classes of %riests, or, again, the )rui!s "ay ha#e been Celtic, an!
the 5e"notheoi Galatic >S Galatian@ %riests. Caesar's account co"es neIt
in ti"e. 'ater riters gi#es the )rui!s a lofty %lace an! s%eak #aguely
of the )rui!ic %hiloso%hy an! science. Caesar also refers to their
science, but both he an! 5trabo s%eak of their hu"an sacrifices.
5uetonius !escribes their religion as cruel an! sa#age, an! Mela, ho
s%eaks of their learning, regar!s their hu"an sacrifices as
sa#agery..*,+34 Pliny says nothing of the )rui!s as %hiloso%hers, but
hints at their %riestly functions, an! connects the" ith "agico&"e!ical
rites..*,+F4 These !i#ergent o%inions are !ifficult to account for. But
as the Ro"ans gaine! closer acLuaintance ith the )rui!s, they foun!
less %hiloso%hy an! "ore su%erstition a"ong the". 9or their cruel rites
an! hostility to Ro"e, they sought to su%%ress the", but this they ne#er
oul! ha#e !one ha! the )rui!s been esoteric %hiloso%hers. 6t has been
thought that Pliny's %hrase, B)rui!s an! that race of %ro%hets an!
!octors,B signifies that, through Ro"an %ersecution, the )rui!s ere
re!uce! to a kin! of "e!icine&"en..*,+G4 But the %hrase rather !escribes
the #arie! functions of the )rui!s, as has been seen, nor !oes it refer
to the state to hich the re%ressi#e e!ict re!uce! the", but to that in
hich it foun! the". Pliny's infor"ation as also li"ite!.
The #ague i!ea that the )rui!s ere %hiloso%hers as re%eate!
%arrot&like by riter after riter, ho regar!e! barbaric races as
Rousseau an! his school looke! u%on the Bnoble sa#age.B Ro"an riters,
sce%tical of a future life, ere fascinate! by the i!ea of a barbaric
%riesthoo! teaching the !octrine of i""ortality in the il!s of Gaul.
9or this teaching the %oet 'ucan sang their %raises. The )rui!s %robably
first i"%resse! Greek an! 'atin obser#ers by their "agic, their
organisation, an! the fact that, like "any barbaric %riesthoo!s, but
unlike those of Greece an! Ro"e, they taught certain !octrines. Their
knole!ge as !i#inely con#eye! to the"A Bthey s%eak the language of the
go!sAB.*,E,4 hence it as easy to rea! anything into this teaching. Thus
the )rui!ic legen! ra%i!ly gre. 8n the other han!, "o!ern riters ha#e
%erha%s eIaggerate! the force of the classical e#i!ence. ?hen e rea! of
)rui!ic associations e nee! not regar! these as higher than the
organise! %riesthoo!s of barbarians. Their !octrine of "ete"%sychosis,
if it as really taught, in#ol#e! no ethical content as in
Pythagoreanis". Their astrono"y as %robably astrological.*,E*4A their
knole!ge of nature a series of cos"ogonic "yths an! s%eculations. 6f a
true )rui!ic %hiloso%hy an! science ha! eIiste!, it is strange that it
is alays "entione! #aguely an! that it eIerte! no influence u%on the
thought of the ti"e.
Classical senti"ent also foun! a connection beteen the )rui!ic an!
Pythagorean syste"s, the )rui!s being regar!e! as confor"ing to the
!octrines an! rules of the Greek %hiloso%her..*,E+4 6t is not i"%robable
that so"e Pythagorean !octrines "ay ha#e reache! Gaul, but hen e
eIa"ine the %oint at hich the to syste"s ere su%%ose! to "eet,
na"ely, the !octrine of "ete"%sychosis an! i""ortality, u%on hich the
hole i!ea of this relationshi% as foun!e!, there is no real
rese"blance. There are Celtic "yths regar!ing the rebirth of go!s an!
heroes, but the eschatological teaching as a%%arently this, that the
soul as clothe! ith a bo!y in the other&orl!. There as no !octrine
of a series of rebirths on this earth as a %unish"ent for sin. The
)rui!ic teaching of a bo!ily i""ortality as "istakenly assu"e! to be
the sa"e as the Pythagorean !octrine of the soul reincarnate! in bo!y
after bo!y. 8ther %oints of rese"blance ere then !isco#ere!. The
organisation of the )rui!s as assu"e! by A""ianus to be a kin! of
cor%orate life&&Kso!aliciis a!stricti consortiisK&&hile the )rui!ic
"in! as alays searching into lofty things,.*,EE4 but those ho rote
"ost fully of the )rui!s kne nothing of this.
The )rui!s, like the %riests of all religions, !oubtless sought after
such knole!ge as as o%en to the", but this !oes not i"%ly that they
%ossesse! a recon!ite %hiloso%hy or a secret theology. They ere
go#erne! by the i!eas current a"ong all barbaric co""unities, an! they
ere at once %riests, "agicians, !octors, an! teachers. They oul! not
allo their sacre! hy"ns to be ritten !on, but taught the" in
secret,.*,E14 as is usual here#er the success of hy"n or %rayer !e%en!s
u%on the right use of the or!s an! the secrecy obser#e! in i"%arting
the" to others. Their ritual, as far as is knon to us, !iffers but
little fro" that of other barbarian folk, an! it inclu!e! hu"an
sacrifice an! !i#ination ith the #icti"'s bo!y. They eIclu!e! the
guilty fro" a share in the cult&&the usual %unish"ent "ete! out to the
tabu&breaker in all %ri"iti#e societies.
The i!ea that the )rui!s taught a secret !octrine&&"onotheis",
%antheis", or the like&&is unsu%%orte! by e#i!ence. )oubtless they
co""unicate! secrets to the initiate!, as is !one in barbaric "ysteries
e#eryhere, but these secrets consist of "agic an! "ythic for"ulae, the
eIhibition of K5acraK, an! so"e teaching about the go!s or about "oral
!uties. These are ke%t secret, not because they are abstract !octrines,
but because they oul! lose their #alue an! because the go!s oul! be
angry if they ere "a!e too co""on. 6f the )rui!s taught religious an!
"oral "atters secretly, these ere %robably no "ore than an eItension of
the threefol! "aIi" inculcate! by the" accor!ing to )iogenes 'aertius(
BTo orshi% the go!s, to !o no e#il, an! to eIercise courage.B.*,E-4 To
this oul! be a!!e! cos"ogonic "yths an! s%eculations, an! "agic an!
religious for"ulae. This ill beco"e "ore e#i!ent as e eIa"ine the
%osition an! %oer of the )rui!s.
6n Gaul, an! to so"e eItent in 6relan!, the )rui!s for"e! a %riestly
cor%oration&&a fact hich hel%e! classical obser#ers to su%%ose that
they li#e! together like the Pythagorean co""unities. ?hile the or!s of
A""ianus&&Kso!aliciis a!stricti consortiisK&&"ay i"%ly no "ore than so"e
kin! of %riestly organisation, M. Bertran! foun!s on the" a theory that
the )rui!s ere a kin! of "onks li#ing a co""unity life, an! that 6rish
"onasticis" as a transfor"ation of this syste"..*,E24 This is %urely
i"aginati#e. 6rish )rui!s ha! i#es an! chil!ren, an! the )rui!
)i#iciacus as a fa"ily "an, hile Caesar says not a or! of co""unity
life a"ong the )rui!s. The hostility of Christianity to the )rui!s oul!
ha#e %re#ente! any co%ying of their syste", an! 6rish "onasticis" as
"o!elle! on that of the Continent. )rui!ic organisation %robably !enote!
no "ore than that the )rui!s ere boun! by certain ties, that they ere
gra!e! in !ifferent ranks or accor!ing to their functions, an! that they
%ractise! a series of co""on cults. 6n Gaul one chief )rui! ha!
authority o#er the others, the %osition being an electi#e one..*,E34 The
insular )rui!s "ay ha#e been si"ilarly organise!, since e hear of a
chief )rui!, K%ri"us "agusK, hile the K9ili!K ha! an KAr!&fileK, or
chief, electe! to his office..*,EF4 The %riesthoo! as not a caste, but
as o%en to those ho shoe! a%titu!e for it. There as a long
no#itiate, eIten!ing e#en to tenty years, just as, in 6relan!, the
no#itiate of the K9ileK laste! fro" se#en to tel#e years..*,EG4
The )rui!s of Gaul asse"ble! annually in a central s%ot, an! there
settle! !is%utes, because they ere regar!e! as the "ost just of
"en..*,1,4 6n!i#i!ual )rui!s also !eci!e! !is%utes or sat as ju!ges in
cases of "ur!er. :o far it as obligatory to bring causes before the"
is unknon, but those ho !i! not sub"it to a !ecision ere inter!icte!
fro" the sacrifices, an! all shunne! the". 6n other or!s, they ere
tabue!. A "agico&religious sanction thus enforce! the ju!g"ents of the
)rui!s. 6n Galatia the tel#e tetrarchs ha! a council of three hun!re!
"en, an! "et in a %lace calle! )rune"eton to try cases of "ur!er..*,1*4
?hether it is %hilologically %er"issible to connect K)ruK& ith the
corres%on!ing syllable in B)rui!B or not, the likeness to the Gaulish
asse"bly at a Bconsecrate! %lace,B %erha%s a gro#e >Kne"etonK@, is
ob#ious. ?e !o not kno that 6rish )rui!s ere ju!ges, but the K9ili!K
eIercise! ju!g"ents, an! this "ay be a relic of their connection ith
the )rui!s..*,1+4
)io!orus !escribes the )rui!s eIhorting co"batants to %eace, an! ta"ing
the" like il! beasts by enchant"ent..*,1E4 This suggests interference
to %re#ent the !e#astating %oer of the bloo!&feu! or of tribal ars.
They also a%%ear to ha#e eIercise! authority in the election of rulers.
Con#ictolitanis as electe! to the "agistracy by the %riests in Gaul,
Baccor!ing to the custo" of the 5tate.B.*,114 6n 6relan!, after
%artaking of the flesh of a hite bull, %robably a sacrificial ani"al, a
"an lay !on to slee%, hile four )rui!s chante! o#er hi" Bto ren!er his
itness truthful.B :e then sa in a #ision the %erson ho shoul! be
electe! king, an! hat he as !oing at the "o"ent..*,1-4 Possibly the
)rui!s use! hy%notic suggestionA the "e!iu" as a%%arently clair#oyant.
)io Chrysosto" alleges that kings ere "inisters of the )rui!s, an!
coul! !o nothing ithout the"..*,124 This agrees on the hole ith the
itness of 6rish teIts. )rui!s alays acco"%any the king, an! ha#e great
influence o#er hi". Accor!ing to a %assage in the KTainK, Bthe "en of
;lster "ust not s%eak before the king, the king "ust not s%eak before
his )rui!,B an! e#en Conchobar as silent until the )rui! Cathba! ha!
s%oken..*,134 This %oer, rese"bling that of "any other %riesthoo!s,
"ust ha#e hel%e! to balance that of the arrior class, an! it is the
"ore cre!ible hen e recall the fact that the )rui!s clai"e! to ha#e
"a!e the uni#erse..*,1F4 The %riest&kingshi% "ay ha#e been an ol! Celtic
institution, an! this oul! eI%lain hy, once the offices ere
se%arate!, %riests ha! or clai"e! so "uch %olitical %oer.
That %olitical %oer "ust ha#e been enhance! by their %osition as
teachers, an! it is safe to say that sub"ission to their %oers as
inculcate! by the". Both in Gaul an! in 6relan! they taught others than
those ho inten!e! to beco"e )rui!s..*,1G4 As has been seen, their
teachings ere not ritten !on, but trans"itte! orally. They taught
i""ortality, belie#ing that thus "en oul! be rouse! to #alour,
buttressing %atriotis" ith !og"a. They also i"%arte! B"any things
regar!ing the stars an! their "otions, the eItent of the uni#erse an!
the earth, the nature of things, an! the %oer an! "ight of the i""ortal
go!s.B 5trabo also s%eaks of their teaching in "oral science..*,-,4 As
has been seen, it is easy to eIaggerate all this. Their astrono"y as
%robably of a hu"ble kin! an! "ingle! ith astrologyA their natural
%hiloso%hy a "ass of cos"ogonic "yths an! s%eculationsA their theology
as rather "ythologyA their "oral %hiloso%hy a series of "aIi"s such as
are foun! in all barbaric co""unities. Their "e!ical lore, to ju!ge fro"
hat Pliny says, as largely "agical. 5o"e )rui!s, e.g. in the south of
Gaul, "ay ha#e ha! access to classical learning, an! Caesar s%eaks of the
use of Greek characters a"ong the". This coul! har!ly ha#e been general,
an! in any case "ust ha#e su%erse!e! the use of a nati#e scri%t, to
hich the use of oga"s in 6relan!, an! %erha%s also in Gaul, as
su%%le"entary. The 6rish )rui!s "ay ha#e ha! ritten books, for =ing
'oegaire !esire! that 5. Patrick's books an! those of the )rui!s shoul!
be sub"itte! to the or!eal by ater as a test of their oners'
clai"s..*,-*4
6n religious affairs the )rui!s ere su%re"e, since they alone Bkne the
go!s an! !i#inities of hea#en.B.*,-+4 They su%erinten!e! an! arrange!
all rites an! atten!e! to B%ublic an! %ri#ate sacrifices,B an! Bno
sacrifice as co"%lete ithout the inter#ention of a )rui!.B.*,-E4 The
!ark an! cruel rites of the )rui!s struck the Ro"ans ith horror, an!
they for" a curious contrast to their allege! B%hiloso%hy.B They use!
!i#ination an! ha! regular for"ulae of incantation as ell as ritual acts
by hich they looke! into the future..*,-14 Before all "atters of
i"%ortance, es%ecially before arlike eI%e!itions, their a!#ice as
sought because they coul! scan the future.
<a"e&gi#ing an! a s%ecies of ba%tis" ere %erfor"e! by the )rui!s or on
their initiati#e. Many eIa"%les of this occur in 6rish teIts, thus of
Conall Cernach it is sai!, B)rui!s ca"e to ba%tiHe the chil! into
heathenis", an! they sang the heathen ba%tis" >Kbaithis geintli!heK@
o#er the little chil!B, an! of Ailill that he as Bba%tiHe! in )rui!ic
strea"sB..*,--4 6n ?elsh story e rea! that Gri as Bba%tiHe! ith the
ba%tis" hich as usual at that ti"eB..*,-24 5i"ilar illustrations are
co""on at na"e&gi#ing a"ong "any races,.*,-34 an! it is %robable that
the custo" in the :ebri!es of the "i!ife !ro%%ing three !ro%s of ater
on the chil! Kin <o"ineK an! gi#ing it a te"%orary na"e, is a sur#i#al
of this %ractice. The regular ba%tis" takes %lace later, but this
%reli"inary rite kee%s off fairies an! ensures burial in consecrate!
groun!, just as the %agan rite as %rotecti#e an! a!"itte! to the tribal
%ri#ileges..*,-F4
6n the burial rites, hich in 6relan! consiste! of a la"ent, sacrifices,
an! raising a stone inscribe! ith oga"s o#er the gra#e, )rui!s took
%art. The )rui! )erg!a"sa %ronounce! a !iscourse o#er the 8ssianic hero
Mag&nei!, burie! hi" ith his ar"s, an! chante! a rune. The oga"
inscri%tion oul! also be of )rui!ic co"%osition, an! as no sacrifice
as co"%lete ithout the inter#ention of )rui!s, they "ust also ha#e
assiste! at the la#ish sacrifices hich occurre! at Celtic funerals.
Pliny's or!s, Bthe )rui!s an! that race of %ro%hets an! !octorsB,
suggest that the "e!ical art "ay ha#e been in the han!s of a s%ecial
class of )rui!s though all "ay ha#e ha! a s"attering of it. 6t as
"ainly concerne! ith the use of herbs, an! as "iIe! u% ith "agical
rites, hich "ay ha#e been regar!e! as of "ore i"%ortance than the
actual "e!icines use!..*,-G4 6n 6relan! )rui!s also %ractise! the
healing art. Thus hen Cuchulainn as ill, /"er sai!, B6f it ha! been
9ergus, Cuchulainn oul! ha#e taken no rest till he ha! foun! a )rui!
able to !isco#er the cause of that illness.B.*,2,4 But other %ersons,
not referre! to as )rui!s, are "entione! as healers, one of the" a
o"an, %erha%s a re"iniscence of the ti"e hen the art as %ractise! by
o"en..*,2*4 These healers "ay, hoe#er, ha#e been attache! to the
)rui!ic cor%oration in "uch the sa"e ay as ere the bar!s.
5till "ore i"%ortant ere the "agical %oers of the )rui!s&&gi#ing or
ithhol!ing sunshine or rain, causing stor"s, "aking o"en an! cattle
fruitful, using s%ells, rhy"ing to !eath, eIercising sha%e&shifting an!
in#isibility, an! %ro!ucing a "agic slee%, %ossibly hy%notic. They ere
also in reLuest as %oisoners..*,2+4 5ince the Gauls ent to Britain to
%erfect the"sel#es in )rui!ic science, it is %ossible that the insular
)rui!s ere "ore !e#ote! to "agic than those of Gaul, but since the
latter are sai! to ha#e Bta"e! the %eo%le as il! beasts are ta"e!B, it
is ob#ious that this refers to their %oers as "agicians rather than to
any recon!ite %hiloso%hy %ossesse! by the". $et they ere clear&sighte!
enough to use e#ery "eans by hich they "ight gain %olitical %oer, an!
so"e of the" "ay ha#e been o%en to the influence of classical learning
e#en before the Ro"an in#asion. 6n the neIt cha%ter the "agic of the
)rui!s ill be !escribe! in !etail.
The )rui!s, both in Gaul >at the "istletoe rite@ an! in 6relan!, ere
!resse! in hite, but 5trabo s%eaks of their scarlet an! gol!
e"broi!ere! robes, their gol!en necklets an! bracelets..*,2E4 Again, the
chief )rui! of the king of /rin ore a coloure! cloak an! ha! earrings
of gol!, an! in another instance a )rui! ears a bull's hi!e an! a
hite&s%eckle! bir! hea!%iece ith fluttering ings..*,214 There as
also so"e s%ecial tonsure use! by the )rui!s,.*,2-4 hich "ay ha#e
!enote! ser#itu!e to the go!s, as it as custo"ary for a arrior to #o
his hair to a !i#inity if #ictory as grante! hi". 5i"ilarly the )rui!'s
hair oul! be %resente! to the go!s, an! the tonsure oul! "ark their
"inister.
5o"e riters ha#e trie! to !ra a !istinction beteen the )rui!s of Gaul
an! of 6relan!, es%ecially in the "atter of their %riestly
functions..*,224 But, hile a fe %assages in 6rish teIts !o suggest
that the 6rish )rui!s ere %riests taking %art in sacrifices, etc.,
nearly all %assages relating to cult or ritual see" to ha#e been
!eliberately su%%resse!. :ence the )rui!s a%%ear rather as "agicians&&a
natural result, since, once the %eo%le beca"e Christian, the %riestly
character of the )rui!s oul! ten! to be lost sight of. 'ike the )rui!s
of Gaul, they ere teachers an! took %art in %olitical affairs, an! this
shos that they ere "ore than "ere "agicians. 6n 6rish teIts the or!
B)rui!B is so"ehat loosely use! an! is a%%lie! to kings an! %oets,
%erha%s because they ha! been %u%ils of the )rui!s. But it is i"%ossible
to !oubt that the )rui!s in 6relan! fulfille! functions of a %ublic
%riesthoo!. They a%%ear in connection ith all the colonies hich ca"e
to /rin, the annalists regar!ing the %riests or "e!icine&"en of
!ifferent races as )rui!s, through lack of historic %ers%ecti#e. But one
fact shos that they ere %riests of the Celtic religion in 6relan!. The
euhe"erise! Tuatha )e )anann are "asters of )rui!ic lore. Thus both the
go!s an! the %riests ho ser#e! the" ere confuse! by later riters. The
o%%osition of Christian "issionaries to the )rui!s shos that they ere
%riestsA if they ere not, it re"ains to be !isco#ere! hat bo!y of "en
!i! eIercise %riestly functions in %agan 6relan!. 6n 6relan! their
ju!icial functions "ay ha#e been less i"%ortant than in Gaul, an! they
"ay not ha#e been so strictly organise!A but here e are in the region
of conjecture. They ere eIe"%t fro" "ilitary ser#ice in Gaul, an! "any
joine! their ranks on this account, but in 6relan! they ere Bbonny
fechters,B just as in Gaul they occasionally fought like "e!iae#al
bisho%s..*,234 6n both countries they ere %resent on the fiel! of
battle to %erfor" the necessary religious or "agical rites.
5ince the )rui!s ere an organise! %riesthoo!, ith %oers of teaching
an! of "agic i"%licitly belie#e! in by the folk, %ossessing the key of
the other&orl!, an! !o"inating the hole fiel! of religion, it is easy
to see ho "uch #eneration "ust ha#e been %ai! the". Connoting this ith
the influence of the Ro"an Church in Celtic regions an! the %oer of the
Protestant "inister in the :ighlan!s an! in ?ales, so"e ha#e thought
that there is an innate ten!ency in the Celt to be %riest&ri!!en. 6f
this be true, e can only say, Bthe %eo%le ish to ha#e it so, an! the
%riests&&%agan, %a%ist, or %rotestant&&bear rule through their "eansMB
Thus a close eIa"ination of the %osition an! functions of the )rui!s
eI%lains aay to %o%ular "isconce%tions. They ere not %ossesse! of any
recon!ite an! esoteric is!o". An! the culling of "istletoe instea! of
being the "ost i"%ortant, as but a subor!inate %art of their functions.
6n Gaul the Ro"an %oer broke the say of the )rui!s, ai!e! %erha%s by
the s%rea! of Christianity, but it as Christianity alone hich route!
the" in 6relan! an! in Britain outsi!e the Ro"an %ale. The )rui!ic
organisation, their %oer in %olitics an! in the a!"inistration of
justice, their %atriotis", an! also their use of hu"an sacrifice an!
"agic, ere all obnoIious to the Ro"an Go#ern"ent, hich o%%ose! the"
"ainly on %olitical groun!s. Magic an! hu"an sacrifice ere su%%resse!
because they ere contrary to Ro"an "anners. The first attack as in the
reign of Augustus, ho %rohibite! Ro"an citiHens fro" taking %art in the
religion of the )rui!s..*,2F4 Tiberius neIt inter!icte! the )rui!s, but
this as %robably ai"e! at their hu"an sacrifices, for the )rui!s ere
not su%%resse!, since they eIiste! still in the reign of Clau!ius, ho
is sai! to ha#e abolishe! K)rui!aru" religione" !irae
i""anitatisK..*,2G4 The earlier legislation as ineffecti#eA that of
Clau!ius as "ore thorough, but it, too, as %robably ai"e! "ainly at
hu"an sacrifice an! "agic, since Aurelius Cictor li"its it to the
Bnotorious su%erstitionsB of the )rui!s..*,3,4 6t !i! not abolish the
nati#e religion, as is %ro#e! by the nu"erous inscri%tions to Celtic
go!s, an! by the fact that, as Mela infor"s us, hu"an #icti"s ere still
offere! sy"bolically,.*,3*4 hile the )rui!s ere still acti#e so"e
years later. A %arallel is foun! in the British abolition of 5.Na4ti in
6n!ia, hile %er"itting the nati#e religion to flourish.
Probably "ore effecti#e as the %olicy begun by Augustus. Magistrates
ere inaugurate! an! acte! as ju!ges, thus ousting the )rui!s, an!
nati#e !eities an! nati#e ritual ere assi"ilate! to those of Ro"e.
Celtic religion as Ro"anise!, an! if the )rui!s retaine! %riestly
functions, it coul! only be by their beco"ing Ro"anise! also. Perha%s
the ne 5tate religion in Gaul si"%ly ignore! the". The annual asse"bly
of !e%uties at 'ugu!unu" roun! the altar of Ro"e an! Augustus ha! a
religious character, an! as inten!e! to ri#al an! to su%erse!e the
annual gathering of the )rui!s..*,3+4 The !e%uties electe! a fla"en of
the %ro#ince ho ha! sur#eillance of the cult, an! there ere also
fla"ens for each city. Thus the %oer of the )rui!s in %olitics, la,
an! religion as Luietly un!er"ine!, hile Ro"e also struck a blo at
their %osition as teachers by establishing schools throughout
Gaul..*,3E4
M. )'Arbois "aintains that, as a result of %ersecution, the )rui!s
retire! to the !e%ths of the forests, an! continue! to teach there in
secret those ho !es%ise! the ne learning of Ro"e, basing his o%inion
on %assages of 'ucan an! Mela, both riting a little after the
%ro"ulgation of the las..*,314. But neither 'ucan nor Mela refer to an
eIisting state of things, an! !o not inten! their rea!ers to su%%ose
that the )rui!s fle! to oo!s an! ca#erns. 'ucan s%eaks of the"
K!ellingK in oo!s, i.e. their sacre! gro#es, an! resu"ing their rites
after Caesar's conLuest not after the later e!icts, an! he !oes not s%eak
of the )rui!s teaching there..*,3-4 Mela see"s to be echoing Caesar's
account of the tenty years' no#itiate, but a!!s to it that the teaching
as gi#en in secret, confusing it, hoe#er, ith that gi#en to others
than can!i!ates for the %riesthoo!. Thus he says( B)ocent "ulta
nobilissi"os gentis cla" et !iu #icenis annis aut in s%ecu aut in
ab!itis saltibus,B.*,324 but there is not the slightest e#i!ence that
this secrecy as the result of the e!icts. Moreo#er, the attenuate!
sacrificial rites hich he !escribes ere e#i!ently %ractise! Luite
o%enly. Probably so"e )rui!s continue! their teaching in their secret
an! sacre! haunts, but it is unlikely that noble Gauls oul! resort to
the" hen Greco&Ro"an culture as no o%en to the" in the schools, here
they are foun! recei#ing instruction in +* A.)..*,334 Most of the )rui!s
%robably succu"be! to the ne or!er of things. 5o"e continue! the ol!
rites in a "o!ifie! "anner as long as they coul! obtain orshi%%ers.
8thers, "ore fanatical, oul! suffer fro" the la hen they coul! not
e#a!e its gras%. 5o"e of these re#olte! against Ro"e after <ero's !eath,
an! it as %erha%s to this class that those )rui!s belonge! ho
%ro%hesie! the orl!&e"%ire of the Celts in 3, A.)..*,3F4 The fact that
)rui!s eIiste! at this !ate shos that the %roscri%tion ha! not been
co"%lete. But the co"%lete Ro"anising of Gaul took aay their
occu%ation, though e#en in the fourth century "en still boaste! of their
)rui!ic !escent..*,3G4
The insular )rui!s o%%ose! the legions in 5outhern Britain, an! in Mona
in 2+ A.). they "a!e a last stan! ith the arriors against the Ro"ans,
gesticulating an! %raying to the go!s. But ith the establish"ent of
Ro"an %oer in Britain their fate "ust ha#e rese"ble! that of the )rui!s
of Gaul. A recru!escence of )rui!is" is foun!, hoe#er, in the %resence
of K"agiK >)rui!s@ ith Cortigern after the Ro"an ith!raal..*,F,4
8utsi!e the Ro"an %ale the )rui!s ere still ra"%ant an! %ractise! their
rites as before, accor!ing to Pliny..*,F*4 Much later, in the siIth
century, they o%%ose! Christian "issionaries in 5cotlan!, just as in
6relan! they o%%ose! 5. Patrick an! his "onks, ho co"bate! Bthe
har!&hearte! )rui!s.B 9inally, Christianity as #ictorious an! the
%oers of the )rui!s %asse! in large "easure to the Christian clergy or
re"aine! to so"e eItent ith the K9ili!K..*,F+4 6n %o%ular belief the
clerics ha! %re#aile! less by the %ersuasi#e %oer of the gos%el, than
by successfully ri#alling the "agic of the )rui!s.
Classical riters s%eak of K)rya!esK or B)rui!essesB in the thir!
century. 8ne of the" %re!icte! his a%%roaching !eath to AleIan!er
5e#erus, another %ro"ise! the e"%ire to )iocletian, others ere
consulte! by Aurelian..*,FE4 Thus they ere !i#ineresses, rather than
%riestesses, an! their na"e "ay be the result of "isconce%tion, unless
they assu"e! it hen )rui!s no longer eIiste! as a class. 6n 6relan!
there ere !i#ineresses&&Kban&fili!K or Kban&fathiK, %robably a !istinct
class ith %ro%hetic %oers. =ings are arne! against B%ythonessesB as
ell as )rui!s, an! )r. Joyce thinks these ere )rui!esses..*,F14 5.
Patrick also ar"e! hi"self against Bthe s%ells of o"enB an! of
)rui!s..*,F-4 ?o"en in 6relan! ha! a knole!ge of futurity, accor!ing to
5olinus, an! the o"en ho took %art ith the )rui!s like furies at
Mona, "ay ha#e been !i#ineresses..*,F24 6n 6relan! it is %ossible that
such o"en ere calle! B)rui!esses,B since the or! Kban&!ruiK is "et
ith, the o"en so calle! being also style! Kban&filiK, hile the fact
that they belonge! to the class of the K9ili!K brings the" into
connection ith the )rui!s..*,F34 But Kban&!ruiK "ay ha#e been a%%lie!
to o"en ith %riestly functions, such as certainly eIiste! in
6relan!&&e.g. the #irgin guar!ians of sacre! fires, to hose functions
Christian nuns succee!e!..*,FF4 ?e kno also that the British Lueen
Bou!icca eIercise! %riestly functions, an! such %riestesses, a%art fro"
the K)rya!esK, eIiste! a"ong the continental Celts. 6nscri%tions at
Arles s%eak of an Kantistita !eaeK, an! at 'e Prugnon of a Kfla"inica
sacer!osK of the go!!ess Thucolis..*,FG4 These ere ser#ants of a
go!!ess like the %riestess of the Celtic Arte"is in Galatia, in hose
fa"ily the %riesthoo! as here!itary..*,G,4 The #irgins calle!
GalliHenae, ho %ractise! !i#ination an! "agic in the isle of 5ena, ere
%riestesses of a Gaulish go!, an! so"e of the o"en ho ere B%ossesse!
by )ionysusB an! %ractise! an orgiastic cult on an islan! in the 'oire,
ere %robably of the sa"e kin!..*,G*4 They ere %riestesses of so"e
"agico&religious cult %ractise! by o"en, like the guar!ians of the
sacre! fire in 6relan!, hich as tabu to "en. M. Reinach regar!s the
accounts of these islan! %riestesses as fictions base! on the story of
Circe's isle, but e#en if they are garble!, they see" to be base! on
actual obser#ation an! are %arallele! fro" other regions..*,G+4
The eIistence of such %riestesses an! !i#ineresses o#er the Celtic area
is to be eI%laine! by our hy%othesis that "any Celtic !i#inities ere at
first fe"ale an! ser#e! by o"en, ho ere %ossesse! of the tribal lore.
'ater, "en assu"e! their functions, an! hence arose the great
%riesthoo!s, but conser#atis" s%ora!ically retaine! such fe"ale cults
an! %riestesses, so"e go!!esses being still ser#e! by o"en&&the
Galatian Arte"is, or the go!!esses of Gaul, ith their fe"ale ser#ants.
Ti"e also brought its re#enges, for hen %aganis" %asse! aay, "uch of
its folk&ritual an! "agic re"aine!, %ractise! by ise o"en or itches,
ho for generations ha! as "uch %oer o#er ignorant "in!s as the
Christian %riesthoo!. The fact that Caesar an! Tacitus s%eak of Ger"anic
but not of Celtic %riestesses, can har!ly, in face of these scattere!
notices, be taken as a %roof that o"en ha! no %riestly KroleK in Celtic
religion. 6f they ha! not, that religion oul! be uniLue in the orl!'s
history.
988T<8T/5(
.*,,+4 Pliny, K:<K I#i. +1G.
.*,,E4 )'Arbois, K'es )rui!esK, F-, folloing Thurneysen.
.*,,14 )'Arbois, Ko%. cit.K *+ f.A )eloche, KRe#ue !es )euI Mon!esK,
IIIi#. 122A )esjar!ins, KGeog. !e la Gaule Ro"aineK, ii. -*F.
.*,,-4 Caesar, #i. *E.
.*,,24 Pliny, K:<K III. *.
.*,,34 Rh.Jy4s, KCBKO1P 2G f.
.*,,F4 Go""e, K/thnol. in 9olk&loreK, -F, KCillage Co""unityK, *,1.
.*,,G4 5ergi, KThe Me!iterranean RaceK, +G-.
.*,*,4 Reinach, B''Art %lastiLue en Gaule et le )rui!is"e,B KRCK Iiii.
*FG.
.*,**4 :ol"es, KCaesar's ConLuest of GaulK, *-A )ottin, +3,.
.*,*+4 )iog. 'aert. i. *A 'i#y IIiii. +1.
.*,*E4 )esjar!ins, Ko%. cit.K ii. -*GA but cf. :ol"es, -E-.
.*,*14 KGutuatrosK is %erha%s fro" KgutuK&, B#oiceB >:ol!er, i. +,12A
but see 'oth, KRCK II#iii. *+,@. The eIistence of the KgutuatriK is
knon fro" a fe inscri%tions >see :ol!er@, an! fro" :irtius, K!e Bell.
Gall.K #iii. EF, ho "entions a KgutuatrosK %ut to !eath by Caesar.
.*,*-4 )'Arbois, K'es )rui!esK, + f., K'es CeltesK, E+.
.*,*24 Ausonius, KProfessor.K #. 3, Ii. +1.
.*,*34 'ucan, iii. 1+1A 'i#y, IIiii. +1.
.*,*F4 )io!. 5ic. #. E*A 5trabo, i#. 1. 1A Ti"agenes Ka%u!K A"". Marc.
I#. G.
.*,*G4 Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. 1*. G,A Tac. K:ist.K i#. -1.
.*,+,4 KPhars.K i. 11G f.
.*,+*4 K:<K III. i.
.*,++4 K9ili!K, sing. K9ileK, is fro" K#eloK, B6 seeB >5tokes, K;5K
+33@.
.*,+E4 K9athiK is cognate ith KCatesK.
.*,+14 6n ?ales there ha! been )rui!s as there ere Bar!s, but all trace
of the secon! class is lost. 'ong after the )rui!s ha! %asse! aay, the
fiction of the K!ery!!&#ar!!K or )rui!&bar! as create!, an! the later
bar!s ere hel! to be !e%ositories of a su%%osititious )rui!ic
theoso%hy, hile they %ractise! the ol! rites in secret. The late or!
K!ery!!K as %robably in#ente! fro" K!erK, Boak,B by so"e one ho kne
Pliny's !eri#ation. 5ee )'Arbois, K'es )rui!esK, F*.
.*,+-4 9or these #ies see )ottin, +G-A :ol"es, *3A Bertran!, *G+&*GE,
+2F&+2G.
.*,+24 )iog. 'aert. i. %roe". *. 9or other references see Caesar, #i. *E,
*1A 5trabo, i#. 1. 1A A"". Marc. I#. GA )io!. 5ic, #. +FA 'ucan, i. 12,A
Mela, iii. +.
.*,+34 5uet. KClau!.K +-A Mela, iii. +.
.*,+F4 Pliny, III. *.
.*,+G4 )'Arbois, K'es )rui!esK, 33.
.*,E,4 )io!. 5ic. #. E*. 1.
.*,E*4 5ee Cicero, K!e )i#.K i. 1*.
.*,E+4 )io!. 5ic. #. +FA A"". Marc. I#. GA :i%%olytus, KRefut. :aer.K i.
++.
.*,EE4 A"". Marc. I#. G.
.*,E14 Caesar, #i. *1.
.*,E-4 )iog. 'aert. 2. Celtic enthusiasts see in this tri%le "aIi"
so"ething akin to the ?elsh tria!s, hich they clai" to be )rui!icM
.*,E24 Bertran!, +F,.
.*,E34 Caesar, #i. *E.
.*,EF4 KTri%. 'ifeK, ii. E+-, i. -+, ii. 1,+A K6TK i. E3EA KRCK II#i.
EE. The title Krig&fileK, Bking %oet,B so"eti"es occurs.
.*,EG4 Caesar, #i. *1.
.*,1,4 Caesar, #i. *EA 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.
.*,1*4 5trabo, Iii. -. +.
.*,1+4 Their ju!icial %oers ere taken fro" the" because their s%eech
ha! beco"e obscure. Perha%s they ga#e their ju!g"ents in archaic
language.
.*,1E4 )io!. 5ic. #. E*. -.
.*,114 Caesar, #ii. EE.
.*,1-4 K6TK i. +*EA )'Arbois, #. *F2.
.*,124 )io, K8rat.K IliI.
.*,134 K''K GE.
.*,1F4 KAncient 'as of 6relan!K, i. ++.
.*,1G4 Caesar, #i. *E, *1A ?in!isch, KTainK, line *,3, f.A K6TK i. E+-A
KArch. Re#.K i. 31A KTri%. 'ifeK, GGA cf. 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +,*.
.*,-,4 Caesar, #i. *1A 5trabo, i#. 1. 1.
.*,-*4 KTri%. 'ifeK, +F1.
.*,-+4 'ucan, i. 1-*.
.*,-E4 )io!. #. E*. 1A cf. Caesar, #i. *E, *2A 5trabo, i#. 1. -.
.*,-14 5ee %. +1F, Ksu%raK.
.*,--4 KRCK Ii#. +GA Miss :ull, 1, +E, *1*A K6TK iii. EG+, 1+EA 5tokes,
K9elireK, 6ntro. +E.
.*,-24 'oth, i. -2.
.*,-34 5ee "y art. BBa%tis" >/thnic@B in :astings' K/ncyclo%ae!ia of
Religion an! /thicsK, ii. E23 f.
.*,-F4 Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!el.K i. **-.
.*,-G4 5ee %. +,2, Ksu%raK.
.*,2,4 K6TK i. +*-.
.*,2*4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K ++*, 21*.
.*,2+4 KRCK I#i. E1.
.*,2E4 Pliny, K:<K I#i. 1-A KTri%. 'ifeK, ii. E+-A 5trabo, i#. +3-.
.*,214 KRCK IIii. +F-A 8'Curry, KMCK ii. +*-.
.*,2-4 Ree#es' e!. of A!a"nan's K'ife of 5. Col.K +E3A To!!, K5.
PatrickK, 1--A Joyce, K5:K i. +E1. 9or the relation of the )rui!ic
tonsure to the %eculiar tonsure of the Celtic Church, see Rh.Jy4s, K:'K
+*E, KCBKO1P 3+A Gougau!, K'es Chretientes CeltiLuesK, *GF.
.*,224 5ee :y!e, K'it. :ist. of 6relan!K, FFA Joyce, K5:K i. +EG.
.*,234 Caesar, #i. *1, ii. *,.
.*,2F4 5uetonius, KClau!.K +-.
.*,2G4 Pliny K:<K III. *A 5uet. KClau!.K +-.
.*,3,4 K!e CaesaribusK, 1, Bfa"osae su%erstitionesBA cf. %. E+F, KinfraK.
.*,3*4 Mela, iii. +.
.*,3+4 Mo""sen, KRo". Gesch.K #. G1.
.*,3E4 Bloch >'a#isse@, K:ist. !e 9ranceK, i. +, *32 f., EG* f.A )uruy,
BCo""ent %erit l'institution )rui!iLue,B KRe#. Arch.K I#. E13A !e
Coulanges, BCo""ent le )rui!is"e a !is%aru,B KRCK i#. 11.
.*,314 K'es )rui!esK, 3E.
.*,3-4 KPhars.K i. 1-E, B$e )rui!s, after ar"s ere lai! asi!e, sought
once again your barbarous cere"onials.... 6n re"ote forests !o ye
inhabit the !ee% gla!es.B
.*,324 Mela, iii. +.
.*,334 Tacit. iii. 1E.
.*,3F4 6bi!. i#. -1.
.*,3G4 Ausonius, KProf.K #. *+, Ii. *3.
.*,F,4 <ennius, 1,. 6n the 6rish #ersion they are calle! B)rui!s.B 5ee
%. +EF, Ksu%raK.
.*,F*4 Pliny, III. *.
.*,F+4 A!a"nan, KCita 5. Col.K, i. E3. ii. E-, etc.A Ree#es' KA!a"nanK,
+13 f.A 5tokes, KThree :o"iliesK, +1 f.A KAntient 'as of 6relan!K, i.
*-A KRCK I#ii. *1+ f.A K6TK i. +E.
.*,FE4 'a"%ri!ius, KAleI. 5e#.K 2,A Co%iscus, K<u"erienusK, *1,
KAurelianusK, 11.
.*,F14 ?in!isch, KTainK, E*, ++*A cf. Meyer, KContributions to 6rish
'eIicog.K *32 Joyce, K5:K i. +EF.
.*,F-4 K6TK i. -2.
.*,F24 5olinus, E-A Tac. KAnn.K Ii#. E,.
.*,F34 KRCK I#. E+2, I#i. E1, +33A ?in!isch, KTainK, EE*. 6n K''K 3-KbK
e hear of Bthree )rui!s an! three )rui!esses.B
.*,FF4 5ee %. 2G, Ksu%raKA =eating, EE*.
.*,FG4 Jullian, *,,A :ol!er, Ks.#.K BThucolis.B
.*,G,4 Plutarch, KCir. "ul.K +,.
.*,G*4 Mela, iii. 2A 5trabo, i#. 1. 2.
.*,G+4 Reinach, KRCK I#iii. * f. The fact that the rites ere calle!
)ionysiac is no reason for !enying the fact that so"e orgiastic rites
ere %ractise!. Classical riters usually re%orte! all barbaric rites in
ter"s of their on religion. M. )'Arbois >#i. E+-@ %oints out that Circe
as not a #irgin, an! ha! not eight co"%anions.
C:APT/R QQ6.
MAG6C.
The Celts, like all other races, ere !e#ote! to "agical %ractices, "any
of hich coul! be use! by any one, though, on the hole, they ere in
the han!s of the )rui!s, ho in "any as%ects ere little higher than the
sha"ans of barbaric tribes. But si"ilar "agical rites ere also
attribute! to the go!s, an! it is %robably for this reason that the
Tuatha )e )anann an! "any of the !i#inities ho a%%ear in the
KMabinogionK are !escribe! as "agicians. =ings are also s%oken of as
iHar!s, %erha%s a re"iniscence of the %oers of the %riest king. But
since "any of the %ri"iti#e cults ha! been in the han!s of o"en, an! as
these cults i"%lie! a large use of "agic, they "ay ha#e been the
earliest iel!ers of "agic, though, ith increasing ci#ilisation, "en
took their %lace as "agicians. 5till si!e by si!e ith the
"agic&iel!ing )rui!s, there ere classes of o"en ho also !ealt in
"agic, as e ha#e seen. Their %oers ere feare!, e#en by 5. Patrick,
ho classes the Bs%ells of o"enB along ith those of )rui!s, an!, in a
"ythic tale, by the father of Connla, ho, hen the youth as fascinate!
by a go!!ess, feare! that he oul! be taken by the Bs%ells of o"enB
>Kbrichta banK@..*,GE4 6n other tales o"en %erfor" all such "agical
actions as are elsehere ascribe! to )rui!s..*,G14 An! after the )rui!s
ha! %asse! aay %recisely si"ilar actions&&%oer o#er the eather, the
use of incantations an! a"ulets, sha%e&shifting an! in#isibility,
etc.&&ere, an! still are in re"ote Celtic regions, ascribe! to itches.
Much of the )rui!ic art, hoe#er, as also su%%ose! to be %ossesse! by
saints an! clerics, both in the %ast an! in recent ti"es. But o"en
re"aine! as "agicians hen the )rui!s ha! !isa%%eare!, %artly because of
fe"ale conser#atis", %artly because, e#en in %agan ti"es, they ha!
orke! "ore or less secretly. At last the Church %roscribe! the" an!
%ersecute! the".
/ach clan, tribe, or king!o" ha! its )rui!s, ho, in ti"e of ar,
assiste! their hosts by "agic art. This is reflecte! back u%on the
grou%s of the "ythological cycle, each of hich has its )rui!s ho %lay
no s"all %art in the battles fought. Though Pliny recognises the
%riestly functions of the )rui!s, he associates the" largely ith "agic,
an! a%%lies the na"e K"agusK to the"..*,G-4 6n 6rish ecclesiastical
literature, K!ruiK is use! as the translation of K"agusK, e.g. in the
case of the /gy%tian "agicians, hile K"agiK is use! in 'atin li#es of
saints as the eLui#alent of the #ernacular K!rui!esK..*,G24 6n the sagas
an! in %o%ular tales K)rui!echtK, B)rui!is",B stan!s for B"agic,B an!
Kslat an !raoichtaK, Bro! of )rui!is",B is a "agic an!..*,G34 The
Tuatha )e )anann ere sai! to ha#e learne! B)rui!is"B fro" the four
great "aster )rui!s of the region hence they ha! co"e to 6relan!, an!
e#en no, in %o%ular tales, they are often calle! B)rui!sB or B)anann
)rui!s.B.*,GF4 Thus in 6relan! at least there is clear e#i!ence of the
great "agical %oer clai"e! by )rui!s.
That %oer as eIercise! to a great eItent o#er the ele"ents, so"e of
hich )rui!s clai"e! to ha#e create!. Thus the )rui! Cathba! co#ere! the
%lain o#er hich )eir!re as esca%ing ith Ba great&a#e! sea.B.*,GG4
)rui!s also %ro!uce! blin!ing sno&stor"s, or change! !ay into
night&&feats ascribe! to the" e#en in the 'i#es of 5aints..**,,4 8r they
!ischarge Bshoer&clou!s of fireB on the o%%osing hosts, as in the case
of the )rui! Mag Ruith, ho "a!e a "agic fire, an! flying u%ar!s
toar!s it, turne! it u%on the ene"y, hose )rui! in #ain trie! to
!i#ert it..**,*4 ?hen the )rui!s of Cor"ac !rie! u% all the aters in
the lan!, another )rui! shot an arro, an! here it fell there issue! a
torrent of ater..**,+4 The )rui! Mathgen boaste! of being able to thro
"ountains on the ene"y, an! freLuently )rui!s "a!e trees or stones
a%%ear as ar"e! "en, !is"aying the o%%osing host in this ay. They coul!
also fill the air ith the clash of battle, or ith the !rea! cries of
el!ritch things..**,E4 5i"ilar %oers are ascribe! to other %ersons. The
!aughters of Calatin raise! the"sel#es aloft on an enchante! in!, an!
!isco#ere! Cuchulainn hen he as hi!!en aay by Cathba!. 'ater they
%ro!uce! a "agic "ist to !isco"fit the hero..**,14 5uch "ists occur
freLuently in the sagas, an! in one of the" the Tuatha )e )anann arri#e!
in 6relan!. The %riestesses of 5ena coul! rouse sea an! in! by their
enchant"ents, an!, later, Celtic itches ha#e clai"e! the sa"e %oer.
6n folk&sur#i#als the %ractice of rain&"aking is connecte! ith sacre!
s%rings, an! e#en no in rural 9rance %rocessions to shrines, usually
connecte! ith a holy ell, are co""on in ti"e of !rought. Thus %eo%le
an! %riest go to the fountain of Baranton in %rocession, singing hy"ns,
an! there %ray for rain. The %riest then !i%s his foot in the ater, or
thros so"e of it on the rocks..**,-4 6n other cases the i"age of a
saint is carrie! to a ell an! as%erge!, as !i#ine i"ages for"erly ere,
or the aters are beaten or thron into the air..**,24 Another custo"
as that a #irgin shoul! clean out a sacre! ell, an! for"erly she ha!
to be nu!e..**,34 <u!ity also for"s %art of an ol! ritual use! in Gaul.
6n ti"e of !rought the girls of the #illage folloe! the youngest #irgin
in a state of nu!ity to seek the herb KbelinuntiaK. This she u%roote!,
an! as then le! to a ri#er an! there as%erge! by the others. 6n this
case the as%erging i"itate! the falling rain, an! as "eant to %ro!uce
it auto"atically. ?hile so"e of these rites suggest the use of "agic by
the folk the"sel#es, in others the %resence of the Christian %riest
%oints to the fact that, for"erly, a )rui! as necessary as the rain
%ro!ucer. 6n so"e cases the %riest has inherite! through long ages the
rain&"aking or te"%est&Luelling %oers of the %agan %riesthoo!, an! is
often besought to eIercise the"..**,F4
Causing in#isibility by "eans of a s%ell calle! Kfeth fia!aK, hich "a!e
a %erson unseen or hi! hi" in a "agic "ist, as also use! by the )rui!s
as ell as by Christian saints. 5. Patrick's hy"n, calle! K9ae! 9ia!aK,
as sung by hi" hen his ene"ies lay in ait, an! cause! a gla"our in
the". The incantation itself, Kfith&fathK, is still re"e"bere! in
:ighlan! glens..**,G4 6n the case of 5. Patrick he an! his folloers
a%%eare! as !eer, an! this %oer of sha%e&shifting as iel!e! both by
)rui!s an! o"en. The )rui! 9er 9i!ail carrie! off a "ai!en by taking
the for" of a o"an, an! another )rui! !ecei#e! Cuchulainn by taking the
for" of the fair <ia"h..***,4 8ther )rui!s are sai! to ha#e been able to
take any sha%e that %lease! the"..****4 These %oers ere reflecte! back
u%on the go!s an! "ythical %ersonages like Taliesin or A"airgen, ho
a%%ear in "any for"s. The %riestesses of 5ena coul! assu"e the for" of
ani"als, an! an 6rish Circe in the KRennes )in!senchasK calle! )alb the
Rough change! three "en an! their i#es into sine by her s%ells..***+4
This %oer of transfor"ing others is often !escribe! in the sagas. The
chil!ren of 'ir ere change! to sans by their cruel ste%"otherA 5aar,
the "other of 8isin, beca"e a fan through the %oer of the )rui! 9ear
)oirche hen she rejecte! his lo#eA an! si"ilarly Tuirrenn, "other of
8isin's houn!s, as transfor"e! into a stag&houn! by the fairy "istress
of her husban! 6ollann..***E4 6n other instances in the sagas, o"en
a%%ear as bir!s..***14 These transfor"ation tales "ay be connecte! ith
tote"is", for hen this institution is !ecaying the current belief in
sha%e&shifting is often "a!e use of to eI%lain !escent fro" ani"als or
the tabu against eating certain ani"als. 6n so"e of these 6rish
sha%e&shifting tales e fin! this tabu referre! to. Thus, hen the
chil!ren of 'ir ere turne! into sans, it as %roclai"e! that no one
shoul! kill a san. The reason of an eIisting tabu see"e! to be
sufficiently eI%laine! hen it as tol! that certain hu"an beings ha!
beco"e sans. 6t is not i"%ossible that the )rui!s "a!e use of hy%notic
suggestion to %ersua!e others that they ha! assu"e! another for", as Re!
6n!ian sha"ans ha#e been knon to !o, or e#en hallucinate! others into
the belief that their on for" ha! been change!.
By a B!rink of obli#ionB )rui!s an! other %ersons coul! "ake one forget
e#en the "ost !early belo#e!. Thus Cuchulainn as "a!e to forget 9an!,
an! his ife /"er to forget her jealousy..***-4 This is a re"iniscence
of %otent !rinks bree! fro" herbs hich cause! hallucinations, e.g.
that of the change of sha%e. 6n other cases they ere of a narcotic
nature an! cause! a !ee% slee%, an instance being the !raught gi#en by
Grainne to 9ionn an! his "en..***24 Again, the B)rui!ic slee%B is
suggesti#e of hy%notis", %ractise! in !istant ages an! also by
%resent&!ay sa#ages. ?hen Bo!b sus%ecte! his !aughter of lying he cast
her into a B)rui!ic slee%,B in hich she re#eale! her icke!ness..***34
6n other cases s%ells are cast u%on %ersons so that they are
hallucinate!, or are ren!ere! "otionless, or, Bby the sleight of han! of
soothsayers,B "ai!ens lose their chastity ithout knoing it..***F4
These %oint to knole!ge of hy%notic "etho!s of suggestion. 8r, again, a
s%ectral ar"y is o%%ose! to an ene"y's force to ho" it is an
hallucinatory a%%earance&&%erha%s an eIaggeration of natural hy%notic
%oers..***G4
)rui!s also "a!e a Bhe!ge,B the Kairbe !rua!K, roun! an ar"y, %erha%s
circu"a"bulating it an! saying s%ells so that the attacking force "ight
not break through. 6f any one coul! lea% this Bhe!ge,B the s%ell as
broken, but he lost his life. This as !one at the battle of Cul )re"ne,
at hich 5. Colu"ba as %resent an! ai!e! the heroic lea%er ith his
%rayers..**+,4
A %ri"iti#e %iece of sy"%athetic "agic use! still by sa#ages is recor!e!
in the KRennes )in!senchasK. 6n this story one "an says s%ells o#er his
s%ear an! hurls it into his o%%onent's sha!o, so that he falls
!ea!..**+*4 /Lually %ri"iti#e is the )rui!ic Bsen!ingB a is% of stra
o#er hich the )rui! sang s%ells an! flung it into his #icti"'s face, so
that he beca"e "a!. A si"ilar "etho! is use! by the /ski"o KangekokK.
All "a!ness as generally ascribe! to such a Bsen!ing.B
5e#eral of these instances ha#e shon the use of s%ells, an! the )rui!
as belie#e! to %ossess %oerful incantations to !isco"fit an ene"y or
to %ro!uce other "agical results. A s%ecial %osture as
a!o%te!&&stan!ing on one leg, ith one ar" outstretche! an! one eye
close!, %erha%s to concentrate the force of the s%ell,.**++4 but the
%oer lay "ainly in the s%oken or!s, as e ha#e seen in !iscussing
Celtic for"ulae of %rayer. 5uch s%ells ere also use! by the K9ili!K, or
%oets, since "ost %ri"iti#e %oetry has a "agical as%ect. Part of the
training of the bar! consiste! in learning tra!itional incantations,
hich, use! ith !ue ritual, %ro!uce! the "agic result..**+E4 5o"e of
these incantations ha#e alrea!y co"e before our notice, an! %robably
so"e of the #erses hich Caesar says the )rui!s oul! not co""it to
riting ere of the nature of s%ells..**+14 The #irtue of the s%ell lay
in the s%oken for"ula, usually intro!ucing the na"e of a go! or s%irit,
later a saint, in or!er to %rocure his inter#ention, through the %oer
inherent in the na"e. 8ther char"s recount an effect alrea!y %ro!uce!,
an! this, through "i"etic "agic, is su%%ose! to cause its re%etition.
The earliest ritten !ocu"ents bearing u%on the %aganis" of the insular
Celts contain an a%%eal to Bthe science of GoibniuB to %reser#e butter,
an! another, for "agical healing, runs, B6 a!"ire the healing hich
)iancecht left in his fa"ily, in or!er to bring health to those he
succoure!.B These are foun! in an eighth or ninth century M5., an!, ith
their a%%eal to %agan go!s, ere e#i!ently use! in Christian
ti"es..**+-4 Most )rui!ic "agic as acco"%anie! by a s%ell&&
transfor"ation, in#isibility, %oer o#er the ele"ents, an! the !isco#ery
of hi!!en %ersons or things. 6n other cases s%ells ere use! in "e!icine
or for healing oun!s. Thus the Tuatha )e )anann tol! the 9o"orians that
they nee! not o%%ose the", because their )rui!s oul! restore the slain
to life, an! hen Cuchulainn as oun!e! e hear less of "e!icines than
of incantations use! to stanch his bloo!..**+24 6n other cases the )rui!
coul! re"o#e barrenness by s%ells.
The sur#i#al of the belief in s%ells a"ong "o!ern Celtic %eo%les is a
con#incing %roof of their use in %agan ti"es, an! thros light u%on
their nature. 6n Brittany they are han!e! !on in certain fa"ilies, an!
are carefully guar!e! fro" the knole!ge of others. The na"es of saints
instea! of the ol! go!s are foun! in the", but in so"e cases !iseases
are a!!resse! as %ersonal beings. 6n the :ighlan!s si"ilar char"s are
foun!, an! are often han!e! !on fro" "ale to fe"ale, an! fro" fe"ale to
"ale. They are also in co""on use in 6relan!. Besi!es healing !iseases,
such char"s are su%%ose! to cause fertility or bring goo! luck, or e#en
to transfer the %ro%erty of others to the reciter, or, in the case of
!arker "agic, to cause !eath or !isease..**+34 6n 6relan!, sorcerers
coul! Bri"e either a "an or beast to !eath,B an! this recalls the %oer
of satire in the "outh of K9ileK or )rui!. 6t raise! blotches on the
face of the #icti", or e#en cause! his !eath..**+F4 A"ong %ri"iti#e
races %oerful internal e"otion affects the bo!y in curious ays, an! in
this tra!itional %oer of the satire or Bri"eB e ha#e %robably an
eIaggerate! reference to actual fact. 6n other cases the Bcurse of
satireB affecte! nature, causing seas an! ri#ers to sink back..**+G4 The
satires "a!e by the bar!s of Gaul, referre! to by )io!orus, "ay ha#e
been belie#e! to %ossess si"ilar %oers..**E,4 Contrariise, the
K9ili!K, on uttering an unjust ju!g"ent, foun! their faces co#ere! ith
blotches..**E*4
A "agical slee% is often cause! by "usic in the sagas, e.g. by the har%
of )ag!a, or by the branch carrie! by #isitants fro" /lysiu"..**E+4 Many
BfairyB lullabies for %ro!ucing slee% are e#en no eItant in 6relan! an!
the :ighlan!s..**EE4 As "usic for"s a %art of all %ri"iti#e religion,
its soothing %oers oul! easily be "agnifie!. 6n orgiastic rites it
cause! #arying e"otions until the singer an! !ancer fell into a !ee%
slu"ber, an! the tales of those ho joine! in a fairy !ance an! fell
aslee%, aaking to fin! that "any years ha! %asse!, are "ythic
eItensions of the %oer of "usic in such orgiastic cults. The "usic of
the K9ili!K ha! si"ilar %oers to that of )ag!a's har%, %ro!ucing
laughter, tears, an! a !elicious slu"ber,.**E14 an! Celtic folk&tales
aboun! in si"ilar instances of the "agic char" of "usic.
?e no turn to the use of a"ulets a"ong the Celts. 5o"e of these ere
sy"bolic an! inten!e! to bring the earer un!er the %rotection of the
go! ho" they sy"bolise!. As has been seen, a Celtic go! ha! as his
sy"bol a heel, %robably re%resenting the sun, an! nu"erous s"all heel
!iscs "a!e of !ifferent "aterials ha#e been foun! in Gaul an!
Britain..**E-4 These ere e#i!ently orn as a"ulets, hile in other
cases they ere offere! to ri#er !i#inities, since "any are "et ith in
ri#er be!s or for!s. Their use as %rotecti#e a"ulets is shon by a stele
re%resenting a %erson earing a necklace to hich is attache! one of
these heels. 6n 6rish teIts a )rui! is calle! Mag Ruith, eI%laine! as
K"agus rotaru"K, because he "a!e his )rui!ical obser#ations by
heels..**E24 This "ay %oint to the use of such a"ulets in 6relan!. A
curious a"ulet, connecte! ith the )rui!s, beca"e fa"ous in Ro"an ti"es
an! is !escribe! by Pliny. This as the Bser%ents' egg,B for"e! fro" the
foa" %ro!uce! by ser%ents tining the"sel#es together. The ser%ents
thre the BeggB into the air, an! he ho sought it ha! to catch it in
his cloak before it fell, an! flee to a running strea", beyon! hich the
ser%ents, like the itches %ursuing Ta" o' 5hanter, coul! not follo
hi". This BeggB as belie#e! to cause its oner to obtain access to
kings or to gain lasuits, an! a Ro"an citiHen as %ut to !eath in the
reign of Clau!ius for bringing such an a"ulet into court. Pliny ha! seen
this Begg.B 6t as about the siHe of an a%%le, ith a cartilaginous skin
co#ere! ith !iscs..**E34 Probably it as a fossil echinus, such as has
been foun! in Gaulish to"bs..**EF4 5uch BeggsB ere !oubtless connecte!
ith the cult of the ser%ent, or so"e ol! "yth of an egg %ro!uce! by
ser%ents "ay ha#e been "a!e use of to account for their for"ation. This
is the "ore likely, as rings or bea!s of glass foun! in tu"uli in ?ales,
Cornall, an! the :ighlan!s are calle! Bser%ents' glassB >Kglain
nai!rK@, an! are belie#e! to be for"e! in the sa"e ay as the Begg.B
These, as ell as ol! s%in!le&horls calle! Ba!!er stonesB in the
:ighlan!s, are hel! to ha#e "agical #irtues, e.g. against the bite of a
ser%ent, an! are highly %riHe! by their oners..**EG4
Pliny s%eaks also of the Celtic belief in the "agical #irtues of coral,
either orn as an a"ulet or taken in %o!er as a "e!icine, hile it has
been %ro#e! that the Celts !uring a li"ite! %erio! of their history
%lace! it on ea%ons an! utensils, !oubtless as an a"ulet..**1,4 8ther
a"ulets&&hite "arble balls, LuartH %ebbles, "o!els of the tooth of the
boar, or %ieces of a"ber, ha#e been foun! burie! ith the !ea!..**1*4
'ittle figures of the boar, the horse, an! the bull, ith a ring for
sus%en!ing the" to a necklet, ere orn as a"ulets or i"ages of these
!i#ine ani"als, an! %hallic a"ulets ere also orn, %erha%s as a
%rotection against the e#il eye..**1+4
A cult of stones as %robably connecte! ith the belief in the "agical
%oer of certain stones, like the K'ia 9ailK, hich shrieke! alou! hen
Conn knocke! against it. :is )rui!s eI%laine! that the nu"ber of the
shrieks eLualle! the nu"ber of his !escen!ants ho shoul! be kings of
/rin..**1E4 This is an aetiological "yth accounting for the use of this
fetich&stone at coronations. 8ther stones, %robably the object of a cult
or %ossessing "agical #irtues, ere use! at the installation of chiefs,
ho stoo! on the" an! #oe! to follo in the ste%s of their
%re!ecessors, a %air of feet being car#e! on the stone to re%resent
those of the first chief..**114 8ther stones ha! "ore "usical
#irtues&&the Bcons%icuous stoneB of /lysiu" fro" hich arose a hun!re!
strains, an! the "elo!ious stone of 'och 'aig. 5uch beliefs eIiste! into
Christian ti"es. 5. Colu"ba's stone altar floate! on the a#es, an! on
it a le%er ha! crosse! in the ake of the saint's coracle to /rin. But
the sa"e stone as that on hich, long before, the hero 9ionn ha!
sli%%e!..**1-4
Connecte! ith the cult of stones are "agical obser#ances at fiIe! rocks
or boul!ers, regar!e! %robably as the abo!e of a s%irit. These
obser#ances are in origin %re&Celtic, but ere %ractise! by the Celts.
Girls sli!e !on a stone to obtain a lo#er, %regnant o"en to obtain an
easy !eli#ery, or contact ith such stones causes barren o"en to ha#e
chil!ren or gi#es #itality to the feeble. A s"all offering is usually
left on the stone..**124 5i"ilar rites are %ractise! at "egalithic
"onu"ents, an! here again the custo" is ob#iously %re&Celtic in origin.
6n this case the s%irits of the !ea! "ust ha#e been eI%ecte! to assist
the %ur%oses of the rites, or e#en to incarnate the"sel#es in the
chil!ren born as a result of barren o"en resorting to these
stones..**134 5o"eti"es hen the %ur%ose of the stones has been
forgotten an! so"e other legen!ary origin attribute! to the", the custo"
a!a%ts itself to the legen!. 6n 6relan! "any !ol"ens are knon, not as
%laces of se%ulture, but as B)iar"ai! an! Grainne's be!sB&&the %laces
here these elo%ing lo#ers sle%t. :ence they ha#e %oers of fruitfulness
an! are #isite! by o"en ho !esire chil!ren. The rite is thus one of
sy"%athetic "agic.
:ole! !ol"ens or naturally %ierce! blocks are use! for the "agical cure
of sickness both in Brittany an! Cornall, the %atient being %asse!
through the hole..**1F4 5i"ilar rites are use! ith trees, a slit being
often "a!e in the trunk of a sa%ling, an! a sickly chil! %asse! through
it. The slit is then close! an! boun!, an! if it joins together at the
en! of a certain ti"e, this is a %roof that the chil! ill
reco#er..**1G4 6n these rites the s%irit in stone or tree as su%%ose!
to assist the %rocess of healing, or the !isease as transferre! to
the", or, again, there as the i!ea of a ne birth ith conseLuent
renee! life, the act i"itating the %rocess of birth. These rites are
not confine! to Celtic regions, but belong to that uni#ersal use of
"agic in hich the Celts freely %artici%ate!.
5ince Christian riters fir"ly belie#e! in the "agical %oers of the
)rui!s, ai!e! hoe#er by the !e#il, they taught that Christian saints
ha! "iraculously o#erco"e the" ith their on ea%ons. 5. Patrick
!is%elle! sno&stor"s an! !arkness raise! by )rui!s, or !estroye! )rui!s
ho ha! brought !on fire fro" hea#en. 5i"ilar !ee!s are attribute! to
5. Colu"ba an! others..**-,4 The "oral #ictory of the Cross as later
regar!e! also as a "agical #ictory. :ence also li#es of Celtic saints
are full of "iracles hich are si"%ly a re%ro!uction of )rui!ic
"agic&&controlling the ele"ents, healing, carrying li#e coals ithout
hurt, causing confusion by their curses, %ro!ucing in#isibility or
sha%e&shifting, "aking the ice&col! aters of a ri#er hot by stan!ing in
the" at their !e#otions, or alking unscathe! through the fiercest
stor"s..**-*4 They ere soon regar!e! as "ore eI%ert "agicians than the
)rui!s the"sel#es. They "ay ha#e lai! clai" to "agical %oers, or
%erha%s they use! a natural shre!ness in such a ay as to suggest
"agic. But all their %oer they ascribe! to Christ. BChrist is "y
)rui!B&&the true "iracle&orker, sai! 5. Colu"ba. $et they ere i"bue!
ith the su%erstitions of their on age. Thus 5. Colu"ba sent a hite
stone to =ing Bru!e at 6n#erness for the cure of his )rui! Broichan, ho
!rank the ater %oure! o#er it, an! as heale!..**-+4 5oon si"ilar
#irtues ere ascribe! to the relics of the saints the"sel#es, an! at a
later ti"e, hen "ost 5cots"en cease! to belie#e in the saints, they
thought that the "inisters of the kirk ha! %oers like those of %agan
)rui! an! Catholic saint. Ministers ere le#itate!, or shone ith a
celestial light, or ha! clair#oyant gifts, or, ith !ire results, curse!
the ungo!ly or the benighte! %relatist. They %ro%hesie!, use!
trance&utterance, an! eIercise! gifts of healing. Angels "inistere! to
the", as hen 5a"uel Rutherfor!, ha#ing fallen into a ell hen a chil!,
as %ulle! out by an angel..**-E4 The substratu" of %ri"iti#e belief
sur#i#es all changes of cree!, an! the folk i"%artially attribute!
"agical %oers to %agan )rui!, Celtic saints, ol! crones an! itches,
an! Presbyterian "inisters.
988T<8T/5(
.*,GE4 K6TK i. -2A )'Arbois, #. EF3.
.*,G14 5ee, e.g., BThe )eath of Muirchertach,B KRCK IIiii. EG1.
.*,G-4 K:<K III. 1, *E.
.*,G24 Ri""er, KGloss. :ibern.K *FEA Ree#es, KA!a"nanK, +2,.
.*,G34 =enne!y, *3-A cf. K6TK i. ++,.
.*,GF4 5ee KRCK Iii. -+ f.A )'Arbois, #. 1,E&1,1A 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K
-,-A =enne!y, 3-, *G2, +-F.
.*,GG4 )'Arbois, #. +33.
.**,,4 5tokes, KThree Mi!!le 6rish :o"iliesK, +1A K6TK iii. E+-.
.**,*4 KRCK Iii. FEA Miss :ull, +*-A )'Arbois, #. 1+1A 8'Curry, KMCK ii.
+*-.
.**,+4 =eating, E1*A 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +3*.
.**,E4 KRCK Iii. F*.
.**,14 Miss :ull, +1, f.
.**,-4 Maury, *1.
.**,24 5ebillot, ii. ++2 f., i. *,*, ii. ++-A Berenger&9erau!,
K5u%erstitions et 5ur#i#ancesK, iii. *2G f.A K5tat. AccountK, #iii. -+.
.**,34 KRe#. !es Tra!.K *FGE, 2*EA 5ebillot, ii. ++1.
.**,F4 Berenger&9erau!, iii. +*F f.A 5ebillot, i. *,,, *,GA KRCK ii.
1F1A 9raHer, KGol!en BoughKO+P, i. 23.
.**,G4 )'Arbois, #. EF3A K6TK i. -+A )iIon, KGairlochK, *2-A Car"ichael,
KCar". Ga!.K ii. +-.
.***,4 KRCK I#i. *-+A Miss :ull, +1E.
.****4 )'Arbois, #. *EEA K6TK ii. E3E.
.***+4 Mela, iii. 2A KRCK I#. 13*.
.***E4 Joyce, K8CRK * f.A =enne!y, +E-.
.***14 Bir!&o"en %ursue! by CuchulainnA )'Arbois, #. *3FA for other
instances see 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K 1+2A Miss :ull, F+.
.***-4 )'Arbois, #. +*-.
.***24 Joyce, K8CRK +3G.
.***34 6bi!. F2.
.***F4 KRCK IIiii. EG1A Jocelyn, KCita 5. =ent.K c. *.
.***G4 KRCK I#. 112.
.**+,4 8'Conor, KRer. :ib. 5cri%.K ii. *1+A 5tokes, K'i#es of 5aintsK,
II#iii.
.**+*4 KRCK I#. 111.
.**++4 5ee %. +-*, Ksu%raK.
.**+E4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +1,.
.**+14 5ee %%. +1F, E,1, Ksu%raKA Caesar, K#iK. *1.
.**+-4 Ri""er, KGloss. :iber.K +3*. 8ther 6rish incantations, a%%ealing
to the saints, are foun! in the KCo!eI Regularu"K at =losternenburg
>KRCK ii. **+@.
.**+24 'eahy, i. *E3A =enne!y, E,*.
.**+34 5au#e, KRCK #i. 23 f.A Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!el.K, K%assi"KA KCMK
Iii. EFA Joyce, K5:K i. 2+G f.A Ca"!en, KBritanniaK, i#. 1FFA 5cot,
K)isco#ery of ?itchcraftK, iii. *-.
.**+F4 9or eIa"%les see 8'Curry, KM5. Met.K +1FA )'Arbois, ii. *G,A KRCK
Iii. 3*, IIi#. +3GA 5tokes, KT6GK III#i. f.
.**+G4 ?in!isch, KTainK, line E123.
.**E,4 )io!. 5ic. #. E*.
.**E*4 )'Arbois, i. +3*.
.**E+4 KRCK Iii. *,GA <utt&Meyer, i. +A )'Arbois, #. 11-.
.**EE4 Petrie, KAncient Music of 6relan!K, i. 3EA KThe GaelK, i. +E-
>fairy lullaby of Mac'eo! of Mac'eo!@.
.**E14 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K +--.
.**E-4 KArchaeologiaK, IIIiI. -,GA KProc. 5oc. Ant.K iii. G+A Gai!oH, K'e
)ieu Gaul. !u 5oleilK, 2, f.
.**E24 K6TK iii. 1,GA but see Rh.Jy4s, K:'K +*-.
.**E34 Pliny, K:<K IIiI. E. -1.
.**EF4 KRe#. Arch.K i. ++3, IIIiii. +FE.
.**EG4 :oare, KMo!ern ?iltshireK, -2A Ca"!en, KBritanniaK, F*-A :aHlitt,
*G1A Ca"%bell, K?itchcraftK, F1. 6n the :ighlan!s s%in!le&horls are
thought to ha#e been %erforate! by the a!!er, hich then %asses through
the hole to ri! itself of its ol! skin.
.**1,4 Pliny, IIIii. +. +1A Reinach, KRCK II. *E f.
.**1*4 KRe#. Arch.K i. ++3A Greenell, KBritish BarrosK, *2-A /lton,
22A Renel, G-f., *G1f.
.**1+4 Reinach, KB9K +F2, +FG, E2+.
.**1E4 8'Curry, KM5 Mat.K EF3. 5ee a %a%er by :artlan!, BThe Coice of
the 5tone of )estiny,B K9olk&lore JournalK, Ii#. *G,E.
.**114 Petrie, KTrans. Royal 6rish Aca!.K I#iii. %t. +.
.**1-4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K EGE f.
.**124 5ebillot, i. EE1 f.
.**134 Trollo%e, KBrittanyK, ii. ++GA Berenger&9erau!, K5u%erstitions et
5ur#i#ancesK, i. -+G f.A Borlase, K)ol"ens of 6relan!K, iii. -F,, 2FG,
F1* f.
.**1F4 KRe#. !es Tra!.K *FG1, 1G1A Berenger&9erau!, i. -+G, ii. E23A
/lorthy, K/#il /yeK, 3,.
.**1G4 Berenger&9erau!, i. -+EA /lorthy, 2G, *,2A Reinach,
K''Anthro%ologieK, i#. EE.
.**-,4 =enne!y, E+1A A!a"nan, KCita 5. Col.K ii. E-.
.**-*4 'ife of 5. 9echin of 9ore, KRCK Iii. EEEA 'ife of 5. =ieran,
8'Gra!y, ii. *EA A"ra Cholu"bchille, KRCK II. 1*A 'ife of 5. Moling,
KRCK II#ii. +GEA an! other li#es K%assi"K. 5ee also Plu""er, KCitae
5anctoru" :iberniaeK.
.**-+4 A!a"nan, ii. E1. This %ebble as long %reser#e!, but "ysteriously
!isa%%eare! hen the %erson ho sought it as !oo"e! to !ie.
.**-E4 ?o!ro, KAnalectaK, K%assi"KA ?alker, K5iI 5aints of the
Co#enantK, e!. by )r. :ay 9le"ing.
C:APT/R QQ66.
T:/ 5TAT/ 89 T:/ )/A).
A"ong all the %roble"s ith hich "an has busie! hi"self, none so
a%%eals to his ho%es an! fears as that of the future life. 6s there a
farther shore, an! if so, shall e reach itS 9e races, if any, ha#e
!oubte! the eIistence of a future state, but their conce%tions of it
ha#e !iffere! greatly. But of all the races of antiLuity, outsi!e /gy%t,
the Celts see" to ha#e cherishe! the "ost ar!ent belief in the orl!
beyon! the gra#e, an! to ha#e been %reoccu%ie! ith its joys. Their
belief, so far as e kno it, as eItre"ely #i#i!, an! its chief
characteristic as life in the bo!y after !eath, in another
region..**-14 This, cou%le! ith the fact that it as taught as a
!octrine by the )rui!s, "a!e it the a!"iration of classical onlookers.
But besi!es this belief there as another, !eri#e! fro" the i!eas of a
!istant %ast, that the !ea! li#e! on in the gra#e&&the to conce%tions
being connecte!. An! there "ay also ha#e been a certain !egree of belief
in trans"igration. Although the Celts belie#e! that the soul coul! eIist
a%art fro" the bo!y, there see"s to be no e#i!ence that they belie#e! in
a future eIistence of the soul as a sha!e. This belief is certainly
foun! in so"e late ?elsh %oe"s, here the ghosts are !escribe! as
an!ering in the Cale!onian forest, but these can har!ly be "a!e use of
as e#i!ence for the ol! %agan !octrine. The e#i!ence for the latter "ay
be gathere! fro" classical obser#ers, fro" archaeology an! fro" 6rish
teIts.
Caesar rites( BThe )rui!s in %articular ish to i"%ress this on the"
that souls !o not %erish, but %ass fro" one to another >Kab aliis ... a!
aliosK@ after !eath, an! by this chiefly they think to incite "en to
#alour, the fear of !eath being o#erlooke!.B 'ater he a!!s, that at
funerals all things hich ha! been !ear to the !ea! "an, e#en li#ing
creatures, ere thron on the funeral %yre, an! shortly before his ti"e
sla#es an! belo#e! clients ere also consu"e!..**--4 )io!orus says(
BA"ong the" the !octrine of Pythagoras %re#aile! that the souls of "en
ere i""ortal, an! after co"%leting their ter" of eIistence they li#e
again, the soul %assing into another bo!y. :ence at the burial of the
!ea! so"e thre letters a!!resse! to !ea! relati#es on the funeral %ile,
belie#ing that the !ea! oul! rea! the" in the neIt orl!.B.**-24
Calerius MaIi"us rites( BThey oul! fain "ake us belie#e that the souls
of "en are i""ortal. 6 oul! be te"%te! to call these breeches&earing
folk fools, if their !octrine ere not the sa"e as that of the
"antle&cla! Pythagoras.B :e also s%eaks of "oney lent hich oul! be
re%ai! in the neIt orl!, because "en's souls are i""ortal..**-34 These
%assages are generally taken to "ean that the Celts belie#e! si"%ly in
trans"igration of the Pythagorean ty%e. Possibly all these riters cite
one co""on original, but Caesar "akes no reference to Pythagoras. A
co"%arison ith the Pythagorean !octrine shos that the Celtic belief
!iffere! "aterially fro" it. Accor!ing to the for"er, "en's souls
entere! ne bo!ies, e#en those of ani"als, in this orl!, an! as an
eI%iation. There is nothing of this in the Celtic !octrine. The ne bo!y
is not a %rison&house of the soul in hich it "ust eI%iate its for"er
sins, an! the soul recei#es it not in this orl! but in another. The
real %oint of connection as the insistence of both u%on i""ortality,
the )rui!s teaching that it as bo!ily i""ortality. Their !octrine no
"ore taught trans"igration than !oes the Christian !octrine of the
resurrection. Ro"an riters, aare that Pythagoras taught i""ortality
K#iaK a series of trans"igrations, an! that the )rui!s taught a !octrine
of bo!ily i""ortality, "ay ha#e thought that the recei#ing of a ne bo!y
"eant trans"igration. The"sel#es sce%tical of a future life or belie#ing
in a tra!itional gloo"y :a!es, they ere boun! to be struck ith the
#igour of the Celtic !octrine an! its effects u%on con!uct. The only
thing like it of hich they kne as the Pythagorean !octrine. 'ooke! at
in this light, Caesar's or!s nee! not con#ey the i!ea of trans"igration,
an! it is %ossible that he "istranslate! so"e Greek original. :a! these
riters "eant that the )rui!s taught trans"igration, they coul! har!ly
ha#e a!!e! the %assages regar!ing !ebts being %ai! in the other orl!,
or letters con#eye! there by the !ea!, or hu"an sacrifices to benefit
the !ea! there. These also %reclu!e the i!ea of a "ere i""ortality of
the soul. The !ea! Celt continue! to be the %erson he ha! been, an! it
"ay ha#e been that not a ne bo!y, but the ol! bo!y glorifie!, as
tenante! by his soul beyon! the gra#e. This bo!ily i""ortality in a
region here life ent on as on this earth, but un!er ha%%ier
con!itions, oul! then be like the Ce!ic teaching that the soul, after
the burning of the bo!y, ent to the hea#en of $a"a, an! there recei#e!
its bo!y co"%lete an! glorifie!. The to conce%tions, :in!u an! Celtic,
"ay ha#e s%rung fro" early BAryanB belief.
This Celtic !octrine a%%ears "ore clearly fro" hat 'ucan says of the
)rui!ic teaching. B9ro" you e learn that the bourne of "an's eIistence
is not the silent halls of /rebus, in another orl! >or region, Kin orbe
alioK@ the s%irit ani"ates the "e"bers. )eath, if your lore be true, is
but the centre of a long life.B 9or this reason, he a!!s, the Celtic
arrior ha! no fear of !eath..**-F4 Thus 'ucan concei#e! the )rui!ic
!octrine to be one of bo!ily i""ortality in another region. That region
as not a gloo"y stateA rather it rese"ble! the /gy%tian Aalu ith its
rich an! #arie! eIistence. Classical riters, of course, "ay ha#e knon
of hat a%%ears to ha#e been a s%ora!ic Celtic i!ea, !eri#e! fro" ol!
beliefs, that the soul "ight take the for" of an ani"al, but this as
not the )rui!ic teaching. Again, if the Gauls, like the 6rish, ha! "yths
telling of the rebirth of go!s or se"i&!i#ine beings, these "ay ha#e
been "isinter%rete! by those riters an! regar!e! as eschatological. But
such "yths !o not concern "ortals. 8ther riters, Ti"agenes, 5trabo, an!
Mela,.**-G4 s%eak only of the i""ortality of the soul, but their
testi"ony is %robably not at #ariance ith that of 'ucan, since Mela
a%%ears to co%y Caesar, an! s%eaks of accounts an! !ebts being %asse! on
to the neIt orl!.
This theory of a bo!ily i""ortality is su%%orte! by the 6rish sagas, in
hich ghosts, in our sense of the or!, !o not eIist. The !ea! ho
return are not s%ectres, but are fully clothe! u%on ith a bo!y. Thus,
hen Cuchulainn returns at the co""an! of 5. Patrick, he is !escribe!
eIactly as if he ere still in the flesh. B:is hair as thick an! black
... in his hea! his eye glea"e! sift an! grey.... Blacker than the si!e
of a cooking s%it each of his to bros, re!!er than ruby his li%s.B :is
clothes an! ea%ons are fully !escribe!, hile his chariot an! horses
are eLually cor%oreal..**2,4 5i"ilar !escri%tions of the !ea! ho return
are not infreLuent, e.g. that of Caoilte in the story of Mongan, ho"
e#ery one belie#es to be a li#ing arrior, an! that of 9ergus "ac Roich,
ho rea%%eare! in a beautiful for", a!orne! ith bron hair an! cla! in
his for"er s%len!our, an! recite! the lost story of the KTainK..**2*4
Thus the 6rish Celts belie#e! that in another orl! the s%irit ani"ate!
the "e"bers. This bo!ily eIistence is also suggeste! in Celtic #ersions
of the B)ea! )ebtorB folk&tale cycle. Generally an ani"al in hose sha%e
a !ea! "an hel%s his benefactor is foun! in other /uro%ean #ersions, but
in the Celtic stories not an ani"al but the !ea! "an hi"self a%%ears as
a li#ing %erson in cor%oreal for"..**2+4 /Lually substantial an!
cor%oreal, eating, !rinking, lo#e"aking, an! fighting are the !i#ine
folk of the Ksi!K or of /lysiu", or the go!s as they are re%resente! in
the teIts. To the Celts, go!s, Ksi!eK, an! the !ea!, all alike ha! a
bo!ily for", hich, hoe#er, "ight beco"e in#isible, an! in other ays
!iffere! fro" the earthly bo!y.
The archaeological e#i!ence of burial custo"s a"ong the Celts also bears
itness to this belief. 8#er the hole Celtic area a rich %rofusion of
gra#e&goo!s has been foun!, consisting of ea%ons, ar"our, chariots,
utensils, orna"ents, an! coins..**2E4 5o"e of the inter"ents un!oubte!ly
%oint to sacrifice of ife, chil!ren, or sla#es at the gra#e. Male an!
fe"ale skeletons are often in close %roIi"ity, in one case the ar" of
the "ale encircling the neck of the fe"ale. 6n other cases the re"ains
of chil!ren are foun! ith these. 8r hile the loer inter"ent is richly
%ro#i!e! ith gra#e&goo!s, abo#e it lie irregularly se#eral skeletons,
ithout gra#e&goo!s, an! often ith hea! se%arate! fro" the bo!y,
%ointing to !eca%itation, hile in one case the ar"s ha! been tie!
behin! the back..**214 All this suggests, taken in connection ith
classical e#i!ence regar!ing burial custo"s, that the future life as
life in the bo!y, an! that it as a Kre%licaK of this life, ith the
sa"e affections, nee!s, an! energies. Certain %assages in 6rish teIts
also !escribe burials, an! tell ho the !ea! ere interre! ith
orna"ents an! ea%ons, hile it as a co""on custo" to bury the !ea!
arrior in his ar"our, fully ar"e!, an! facing the region hence ene"ies
"ight be eI%ecte!. Thus he as a %er%etual "enace to the" an! %re#ente!
their attack..**2-4 Possibly this belief "ay account for the ele#ate!
%osition of "any tu"uli. Ani"als ere also sacrifice!. :ostages ere
burie! ali#e ith 9iachra, accor!ing to one teIt, an! the i#es of
heroes so"eti"es eI%ress their !esire to be burie! along ith their !ea!
husban!s..**224
The i!ea that the bo!y as ell as the soul as i""ortal as %robably
linke! on to a #ery %ri"iti#e belief regar!ing the !ea!, an! one share!
by "any %eo%les, that they li#e! on in the gra#e. This conce%tion as
ne#er forgotten, e#en in regions here the theory of a !istant lan! of
the !ea! as e#ol#e!, or here the bo!y as consu"e! by fire before
burial. 6t a%%ears fro" such %ractices as bin!ing the !ea! ith cor!s,
or laying hea#y stones or a "oun! of earth on the gra#e, %robably to
%re#ent their egress, or fee!ing the !ea! ith sacrificial foo! at the
gra#e, or fro" the belief that the !ea! co"e forth not as s%irits, but
in the bo!y fro" the gra#e. This %ri"iti#e conce%tion, of hich the
belief in a subterranean orl! of the !ea! is an eItension, long
sur#i#e! a"ong #arious races, e.g. the 5can!ina#ians, ho belie#e! in
the barro as the abi!ing %lace of the !ea!, hile they also ha! their
conce%tion of :el an! Calhalla, or a"ong the 5la#s, si!e by si!e ith
Christian conce%tions..**234 6t also sur#i#e! a"ong the Celts, though
another belief in the Korbis aliusK ha! arisen. This can be shon fro"
"o!ern an! ancient folk&belief an! custo".
6n nu"erous Celtic folk&tales the !ea! rise in the bo!y, not as ghosts,
fro" the gra#e, hich is so"eti"es !escribe! as a house in hich they
li#e. They %erfor" their or!inary occu%ations in house or fiel!A they
eat ith the li#ing, or a#enge the"sel#es u%on the"A if scourge!, bloo!
is !ran fro" their bo!iesA an!, in one curious Breton tale, a !ea!
husban! #isits his ife in be! an! she then has a chil! by hi", because,
as he sai!, Bsa co"%te !'enfantsB as not yet co"%lete..**2F4 6n other
stories a cor%se beco"es ani"ate! an! s%eaks or acts in %resence of the
li#ing, or fro" the to"b itself hen it is !isturbe!..**2G4 The earliest
literary eIa"%le of such a tale is the tenth century BA!#entures of
<era,B base! on ol!er sources. 6n this <era goes to tie a ithy to the
foot of a "an ho has been hung. The cor%se begs a !rink, an! then
forces <era to carry hi" to a house, here he kills to slee%ers..**3,4
All such stories, shoing as they !o that a cor%se is really li#ing,
"ust in essence be of great antiLuity. Another co""on belief, foun! o#er
the Celtic area, is that the !ea! rise fro" the gra#e, not as ghosts,
hen they ill, an! that they a%%ear Ken "asseK on the night of All
5aints, an! join the li#ing..**3*4
As a result of such beliefs, #arious custo"s are foun! in use,
a%%arently to %er"it of the cor%se ha#ing free!o" of "o#e"ent, contrary
to the ol!er custo" of %re#enting its egress fro" the gra#e. 6n the est
of 6relan! the feet of the cor%se are left free, an! the nails are !ran
fro" the coffin at the gra#e. 6n the :ebri!es the threa!s of the shrou!
are cut or the bin!ings of feet, han!s, an! face are raise! hen the
bo!y is %lace! in the coffin, an! in Brittany the ar"s an! feet are left
free hen the cor%se is !resse!..**3+4 The reason is sai! to be that the
s%irit "ay ha#e less trouble in getting to the s%irit orl!, but it is
ob#ious that a "ore "aterial #ie %rece!e! an! still un!erlies this
later gloss. Many stories are tol! illustrating these custo"s, an! the
earlier belief, Christianise!, a%%ears in the tale of a o"an ho
haunte! her frien!s because they ha! "a!e her gra#e&clothes so short
that the fires of Purgatory burnt her knees..**3E4
/arlier custo"s recor!e! a"ong the Celts also %oint to the eIistence of
this %ri"iti#e belief influencing actual custo". <ican!er says that the
Celts ent by night to the to"bs of great "en to obtain oracles, so "uch
!i! they belie#e that they ere still li#ing there..**314 6n 6relan!,
oracles ere also sought by slee%ing on funeral cairns, an! it as to
the gra#e of 9ergus that to bar!s resorte! in or!er to obtain fro" hi"
the lost story of the KTainK. ?e ha#e also seen ho, in 6relan!, ar"e!
heroes eIerte! a sinister influence u%on ene"ies fro" their gra#es,
hich "ay thus ha#e been regar!e! as their ho"es&&a belief also
un!erlying the ?elsh story of Bran's hea!.
?here as the orl! of the !ea! situate!S M. Reinach has shon, by a
careful co"%arison of the !ifferent uses of the or! KorbisK, that
'ucan's or!s !o not necessarily "ean Banother orl!,B but Banother
region,B i.e. of this orl!..**3-4 6f the Celts cherishe! so fir"ly the
belief that the !ea! li#e! on in the gra#e, a belief in an un!erorl! of
the !ea! as boun! in course of ti"e to ha#e been e#ol#e! as %art of
their cree!. To it all gra#es an! tu"uli oul! gi#e access. Classical
obser#ers a%%arently hel! that the Celtic future state as like their
on in being an un!erorl! region, since they s%eak of the !ea! Celts as
KinferiK, or as going Ka! ManesK, an! Plutarch "akes Ca""a s%eak of
!escen!ing to her !ea! husban!..**324 ?hat !ifferentiate! it fro" their
on gloo"y un!erorl! as its eIuberant life an! i""ortality. This
as%ect of a subterranean lan! %resente! no !ifficulty to the Celt, ho
ha! "any tales of an un!erorl! or un!er&ater region "ore beautiful an!
blissful than anything on earth. 5uch a subterranean orl! "ust ha#e
been that of the Celtic )is%ater, a go! of fertility an! groth, the
roots of things being nourishe! fro" his king!o". 9ro" hi" "en ha!
!escen!e!,.**334 %robably a "yth of their co"ing forth fro" his
subterranean king!o", an! to hi" they returne! after !eath to a blissful
life.
5e#eral riters, notably M. )'Arbois, assu"e that the Korbis aliusK of
the !ea! as the Celtic islan! /lysiu". But that /lysiu" Kne#erK a%%ears
in the tales as a lan! of the !ea!. 6t is a lan! of go!s an! !eathless
folk ho are not those ho ha#e %asse! fro" this orl! by !eath. Mortals
"ay reach it by fa#our, but only hile still in life. 6t "ight be argue!
that /lysiu" as regar!e! in %agan ti"es as the lan! of the !ea!, but
after Christian eschatological #ies %re#aile!, it beca"e a kin! of
fairylan!. But the eIisting tales gi#e no hint of this, an!, after being
carefully eIa"ine!, they sho that /lysiu" ha! alays been a %lace
!istinct fro" that of the !e%arte!, though there "ay ha#e arisen a
ten!ency to confuse the to.
6f there as a genuine Celtic belief in an islan! of the !ea!, it coul!
ha#e been no "ore than a local one, else Caesar oul! not ha#e s%oken as
he !oes of the Celtic )is%ater. 5uch a local belief no eIists on the
Breton coast, but it is "ainly concerne! ith the souls of the
!rone!..**3F4 A si"ilar local belief "ay eI%lain the story tol! by
Proco%ius, ho says that Brittia >Britain@, an islan! lying off the
"outh of the Rhine, is !i#i!e! fro" north to south by a all beyon!
hich is a noIious region. This is a !istorte! re"iniscence of the Ro"an
all, hich oul! a%%ear to run in this !irection if Ptole"y's "a%, in
hich 5cotlan! lies at right angles to /nglan!, ha! been consulte!.
Thither fisher"en fro" the o%%osite coast are co"%elle! to ferry o#er at
!ea! of night the sha!es of the !ea!, unseen to the", but "arshalle! by
a "ysterious lea!er..**3G4 Proco%ius "ay ha#e "ingle! so"e local belief
ith the current tra!ition that ;lysses' islan! of the sha!es lay in the
north, or in the est..**F,4 6n any case his story "akes of the gloo"y
lan! of the sha!es a #ery !ifferent region fro" the blissful /lysiu" of
the Celts an! fro" their joyous Korbis aliusK, nor is it certain that he
is referring to a Celtic %eo%le.
Traces of the i!ea of an un!erorl! of the !ea! eIist in Breton
folk&belief. The !ea! "ust tra#el across a subterranean ocean, an!
though there is scarcely any tra!ition regar!ing hat ha%%ens on
lan!ing, M. 5ebillot thinks that for"erly Bthere eIiste! in the
subterranean orl! a sort of centralisation of the !ifferent states of
the !ea!.B 6f so, this "ust ha#e been foun!e! on %agan belief. The
interior of the earth is also belie#e! to be the abo!e of fabulous
beings, of giants, an! of fantastic ani"als, an! there is also a
subterranean fairy orl!. 6n all this e "ay see a sur#i#al of the ol!er
belief, "o!ifie! by Christian teaching, since the Bretons su%%ose that
%urgatory an! hell are beneath the earth an! accessible fro" its
surface..**F*4
5o"e British folk&lore brought to Greece by )e"etrius an! re%orte! by
Plutarch "ight see" to suggest that certain %ersons&&the "ighty
!ea!&&ere %ri#ilege! to %ass to the islan! /lysiu". 5o"e islan!s near
Britain ere calle! after go!s an! heroes, an! the inhabitants of one of
these ere regar!e! as sacrosanct by the Britons, like the %riestesses
of 5ena. They ere #isite! by )e"etrius, ho as tol! that the stor"s
hich arose !uring his #isit ere cause! by the %assing aay of so"e of
the B"ightyB or of the Bgreat souls.B 6t "ay ha#e been "eant that such
"ighty ones %asse! to the "ore !istant islan!s, but this is certainly
not state!. 6n another islan!, =ronos as i"%risone!, atche! o#er by
Briareus, an! guar!e! by !e"ons..**F+4 Plutarch refers to these islan!s
in another ork, re%eating the story of =ronos, an! saying that his
islan! is "il! an! fragrant, that %eo%le li#e there aiting on the go!
ho so"eti"es a%%ears to the" an! %re#ents their !e%arting. Meanhile
they are ha%%y an! kno no care, s%en!ing their ti"e in sacrificing an!
hy"n&singing or in stu!ying legen!s an! %hiloso%hy.
Plutarch has ob#iously "ingle! Celtic /lysiu" beliefs ith the classical
conce%tion of the )rui!s..**FE4 6n /lysiu" there is no care, an!
fa#oure! "ortals ho %ass there are generally %re#ente! fro" returning
to earth. The reference to =ronos "ay also be base! %artly on "yths of
Celtic go!s of /lysiu", %artly on tales of heroes ho !e%arte! to
"ysterious islan!s or to the hollo hills here they lie aslee%, but
hence they ill one !ay return to benefit their %eo%le. 5o Arthur
%asse! to A#alon, but in other tales he an! his arriors are aslee%
beneath Craig&y&)!inas, just as 9ionn an! his "en rest ithin this or
that hill in the :ighlan!s. 5i"ilar legen!s are tol! of other Celtic
heroes, an! they itness to the belief that great "en ho ha! !ie! oul!
return in the hour of their %eo%le's nee!. 6n ti"e they ere thought not
to ha#e !ie! at all, but to be "erely slee%ing an! aiting for their
hour..**F14 The belief is base! on the i!ea that the !ea! are ali#e in
gra#e or barro, or in a s%acious lan! belo the earth, or that !ea!
arriors can "enace their foes fro" the to"b.
Thus neither in ol! sagas, nor in KMaerchenK, nor in %o%ular tra!ition,
is the islan! /lysiu" a orl! of the !ea!. 9or the "ost %art the %agan
eschatology has been "erge! in that of Christianity, hile the /lysiu"
belief has re"aine! intact an! still sur#i#es in a hole series of
beautiful tales.
The orl! of the !ea! as in all res%ects a Kre%licaK of this orl!, but
it as ha%%ier. 6n eIisting Breton an! 6rish belief&&a sur#i#al of the
ol!er conce%tion of the bo!ily state of the !ea!&&they resu"e their
tools, crafts, an! occu%ations, an! they %reser#e their ol! feelings.
:ence, hen they a%%ear on earth, it is in bo!ily for" an! in their
custo"ary !ress. 'ike the %agan Gauls, the Breton re"e"bers un%ai!
!ebts, an! cannot rest till they are %ai!, an! in Brittany, 6relan!, an!
the :ighlan!s the foo! an! clothes gi#en to the %oor after a !eath, fee!
an! clothe the !ea! in the other orl!..**F-4 6f the orl! of the !ea!
as subterranean,&&a theory su%%orte! by current folk&belief,.**F24&&the
/arth&go!!ess or the /arth&go!, ho ha! been first the earth itself,
then a being li#ing belo its surface an! causing fertility, coul! not
ha#e beco"e the !i#inity of the !ea! until the "ultitu!e of single
gra#es or barros, in each of hich the !ea! li#e!, ha! beco"e a i!e
subterranean region of the !ea!. This !i#inity as the source of life
an! grothA hence he or she as regar!e! as the %rogenitor of "ankin!,
ho ha! co"e forth fro" the un!erorl! an! oul! return there at !eath.
6t is not i"%ossible that the Breton conce%tion of Ankou, !eath
%ersonifie!, is a re"iniscence of the Celtic )is%ater. :e atches o#er
all things beyon! the gra#e, an! carries off the !ea! to his king!o".
But if so he has been altere! for the orse by "e!iae#al i!eas of B)eath
the skeletonB..**F34 :e is a grisly go! of !eath, hereas the Celtic )is
as a beneficent go! of the !ea! ho enjoye! a ha%%y i""ortality. They
ere not col! %hantas"s, but ali#e an! en!oe! ith cor%oreal for" an!
able to enjoy the things of a better eIistence, an! cla! in the
beautiful rai"ent an! gau!y orna"ents hich ere lo#e! so "uch on earth.
:ence Celtic arriors !i! not fear !eath, an! suici!e as eItre"ely
co""on, hile 5%anish Celts sang hy"ns in %raise of !eath, an! others
celebrate! the birth of "en ith "ourning, but their !eaths ith
joy..**FF4 'ucan's or!s are thus the truest eI%ression of Celtic
eschatology&&B6n another region the s%irit ani"ates the "e"bersA !eath,
if your lore be true, is but the %assage to en!uring life.B
There is no !ecisi#e e#i!ence %ointing to any theory of "oral
retribution beyon! the gra#e a"ong the %agan Celts. Perha%s, since the
ho%e of i""ortality "a!e arriors face !eath ithout a tre"or, it "ay
ha#e been hel!, as "any other races ha#e belie#e!, that coar!s oul!
"iss the bliss of the future state. Again, in so"e of the 6rish
Christian #isions of the other&orl! an! in eIisting folk&belief,
certain characteristics of hell "ay not be !eri#e! fro" Christian
eschatology, e.g. the sufferings of the !ea! fro" col!..**FG4 This "ight
%oint to an ol! belief in a col! region hither so"e of the !ea! ere
banishe!. 6n the KA!#entures of 5. Colu"ba's ClericsK, hell is reache!
by a bri!ge o#er a glen of fire,.**G,4 an! a narro bri!ge lea!ing to
the other orl! is a co""on feature in "ost "ythologies. But here it "ay
be borroe! fro" 5can!ina#ian sources, or fro" such Christian ritings
as the K)ialoguesK of 5. Gregory the Great..**G*4 6t "ight be conten!e!
that the Christian !octrine of hell has absorbe! an earlier %agan theory
of retribution, but of this there is no no trace in the sagas or in
classical references to the Celtic belief in the future life. <or is
there any reference to a !ay of ju!g"ent, for the %assage in hich
'oegaire s%eaks of the !ea! burie! ith their ea%ons till Bthe !ay of
/r!athe,B though glosse! Bthe !ay of ju!g"ent of the 'or!,B !oes not
refer to such a ju!g"ent..**G+4 6f an ethical blin!ness be attribute! to
the Celts for their a%%arent lack of any theory of retribution, it
shoul! be re"e"bere! that e "ust not ju!ge a %eo%le's ethics holly by
their #ies of future %unish"ent. 5can!ina#ians, Greeks, an! 5e"ites u%
to a certain stage ere as unethical as the Celts in this res%ect, an!
the Christian hell, as concei#e! by "any theologians, is far fro"
suggesting an ethical )eity.
988T<8T/5(
.**-14 5kene, i. E3,.
.**--4 Caesar, #i. *1, *G.
.**-24 )io!. 5ic. #, +F.
.**-34 Cal. MaI. #i. 2. *,.
.**-F4 KPhars.K i. 1-- f.
.**-G4 A"". Marc. I#. GA 5trabo, i#. 1A Mela, iii. +.
.**2,4 Miss :ull, +3-.
.**2*4 <utt&Meyer, i. 1GA Miss :ull, +GE.
.**2+4 'ar"inie, *--A :y!e, KBesi!e the 9ireK, +*, *-EA KCMK Iiii. +*A
Ca"%bell, K?:TK, ii. +*A 'e BraHO+P, i. %. Iii.
.**2E4 Con 5acken, K)as Grabfel! #on :allstattKA Greenell, KBritish
BarrosKA KRCK I. +E1A KAntiLuaryK, III#ii. *+-A Blanchet, ii. -+F f.A
An!erson, K5cotlan! in Pagan Ti"esK.
.**214 K''Anthro%ologieK, #i. -F2A Greenell, Ko%. cit.K **G.
.**2-4 <utt&Meyer, i. -+A 8')ono#an, KAnnalsK, i. *1-, *F,A KRCK I#. +F.
6n one case the ene"y !isinter the bo!y of the king of Connaught, an!
rebury it face !onar!s, an! then obtain a #ictory. This nearly
coinci!es ith the !ire results folloing the !isinter"ent of Bran's
hea! >8')ono#an, i. *1-A cf. %. +1+, Ksu%raK@.
.**224 K';K *E,KaKA KRCK IIi#. *F-A 8'Curry, KMCK i. %. cccIIIA
Ca"%bell, K?:TK iii. 2+A 'eahy, i. *,-.
.**234 Cigfusson&Poell, KCor%us Poet. BorealeK, i. *23, 1*3&1*F, 1+,A
an! see "y KChil!hoo! of 9ictionK, *,E f.
.**2F4 'ar"inie, E*A 'e BraHO+P, ii. *12, *-G, *2*, *F1, +-3 >the KroleK
of the !ea! husban! is usually taken by a KlutinK or KfolletK, 'uHel,
KCeillees BretonsK, 3G@A KRe#. !es Tra!. Po%.K ii. +23A KAnn. !e
BretagneK, #iii. -*1.
.**2G4 'e BraHO+P, i. E*E. Cf. also an inci!ent in the KCoyage of
Mael!uinK.
.**3,4 KRCK I. +*1f. Cf. =enne!y, *2+A 'e BraHO+P, i. +*3, for #ariants.
.**3*4 Curtin, KTalesK, *-2A see %. *3,, Ksu%raK.
.**3+4 Curtin, KTalesK, *-2A Ca"%bell, K5u%erstitionsK, +1*A
K9olk&'oreK, Iiii. 2,A 'e BraHO+P, i. +*E.
.**3E4 K9olk&'oreK, ii. +2A $eats, KCeltic TilightK, *22.
.**314 Tertullian, K!e Ani"aK, +*.
.**3-4 Reinach, KRCK IIii. 113.
.**324 Cal. MaI. #i. 2A Mela, iii. +. *GA Plut. KCirt. "ulK +,.
.**334 5ee %. ++G, Ksu%raK.
.**3F4 'e BraHO+P, i. %. IIIiI. This is only one out of "any local
beliefs >cf. 5ebillot, ii. *1G@.
.**3G4 Proco%. K)e Bello Goth.K #i. +,.
.**F,4 Clau!ian, K6n Rufin.K i. *+E.
.**F*4 5ebillot, i. 1*F f.
.**F+4 K!e )efectu 8rac.K *F. An occasional na"e for Britain in the
KMabinogionK is Bthe islan! of the MightyB >'oth, i. 2G, Ket %assi"K@.
To the stor" inci!ent an! the %assing of the "ighty, there is a curious
%arallel in 9ijian belief. A cla% of thun!er as eI%laine! as Bthe noise
of a s%irit, e being near the %lace in hich s%irits %lunge to enter
the other orl!, an! a chief in the neighbourhoo! ha#ing just !ie!B
>?illia"s, K9ijiK, i. +,1@.
.**FE4 K!e 9acie 'un.oe4K, +2.
.**F14 5ee :artlan!, K5cience of 9airy TalesK, +,GA Mac!ougall, K9olk
an! :ero TalesK, 3E, +2EA 'e BraHO+P, i. %. III. Mortals so"eti"es
%enetrate! to the %resence of these heroes, ho aoke. 6f the #isitor
ha! the courage to tell the" that the hour ha! not yet co"e, they fell
aslee% again, an! he esca%e!. 6n Brittany, rocky clefts are belie#e! to
be the entrance to the orl! of the !ea!, like the ca#e of 'ough )earg.
5i"ilar stories ere %robably tol! of these in %agan ti"es, though they
are no a!a%te! to Christian beliefs in %urgatory or hell.
.**F-4 'e BraHO+P, i. %. Il, ii. 1A Curtin, *,A MacPhail, K9olk&'oreK,
#i. *3,.
.**F24 5ee %. EEF, Ksu%raK, an! 'ogan, K5cottish GaelK, ii. E31A
K9olk&'ore,K #iii. +,F, +-E.
.**F34 'e BraHO+P, i. G2, *+3, *E2f., an! 6ntro, Il#.
.**FF4 Philostratus, KA%oll. of TyanaK, #. 1A Cal. MaI. ii. 2. *+.
.**FG4 'e BraHO*P, ii. G*A Curtin, KTalesK, *12. The %unish"ent of
suffering fro" ice an! sno a%%ears in the KA%ocaly%se of PaulK an! in
later Christian accounts of hell.
.**G,4 KRCK II#i. *-E.
.**G*4 Bk. i#. ch. E2.
.**G+4 K/r!atheK, accor!ing to )'Arbois, "eans >*@ Bthe !ay in hich the
!ea! ill resu"e his colour,B fro" K!athK, BcolourBA >+@ Bthe agreeable
!ay,B fro" K!ataK, BagreeableB >)'Arbois, i. *F-A cf. K'es )rui!esK,
*E-@.
C:APT/R QQ666.
R/B6RT: A<) TRA<5M6GRAT68<.
6n 6rish sagas, rebirth is asserte! only of !i#inities or heroes, an!,
%robably because this belief as obnoIious to Christian scribes, hile
so"e M55. tell of it in the case of certain heroic %ersonages, in others
these sa"e heroes are sai! to ha#e been born naturally. There is no
teItual e#i!ence that it as attribute! to or!inary "ortals, an! it is
%ossible that, if classical obser#ers !i! not "isun!erstan! the Celtic
!octrine of the future life, their references to rebirth "ay be base! on
"ythical tales regar!ing go!s or heroes. ?e shall stu!y these tales as
they are foun! in 6rish teIts.
6n the "ythological cycle, as has been seen, /tain, in insect for", fell
into a cu% of ine. 5he as salloe! by /tar, an! in !ue ti"e as
reborn as a chil!, ho as e#entually "arrie! by /ochai! Aire", but
recogniHe! an! carrie! off by her !i#ine s%ouse Mi!er. /tain, hoe#er,
ha! Luite forgotten her for"er eIistence as a go!!ess..**GE4
6n one #ersion of Cuchulainn's birth story )echtire an! her o"en fly
aay as bir!s, but are !isco#ere! at last by her brother Conchobar in a
strange house, here )echtire gi#es birth to a chil!, of ho" the go!
'ug is a%%arently the father. 6n another #ersion the bir!s are not
)echtire an! her o"en, for she acco"%anies Conchobar as his charioteer.
They arri#e at the house, the "istress of hich gi#es birth to a chil!,
hich )echtire brings u%. 6t !ies, an! on her return fro" the burial
)echtire sallos a s"all ani"al hen !rinking. 'ug a%%ears to her by
night, an! tells her that he as the chil!, an! that no she as ith
chil! by hi" >i.e. he as the ani"al salloe! by her@. ?hen he as born
he oul! be calle! 5etanta, ho as later na"e! Cuchulainn. Cuchulainn,
in this #ersion, is thus a rebirth of 'ug, as ell as his father..**G14
6n the KTale of the To 5ineher!sK, 9riuch an! Rucht are her!s of the
go!s 8chall an! Bo!b. They Luarrel, an! their fighting in #arious ani"al
sha%es is fully !escribe!. 9inally they beco"e to or"s, hich are
salloe! by to cosA these then gi#e birth to the ?hitehorn an! to the
Black Bull of Cuailgne, the ani"als hich ere the cause of the KTain.K
The sineher!s ere %robably the"sel#es go!s in the ol!er #ersions of
this tale..**G-4
8ther stories relate the rebirth of heroes. Conchobar is #ariously sai!
to be son of <essa by her husban! Cathba!, or by her lo#er 9achtna. But
in the latter #ersion an inci!ent is foun! hich %oints to a thir!
account. <essa brings Cathba! a !raught fro" a ri#er, but in it are to
or"s hich he forces her to sallo. 5he gi#es birth to a son, in each
of hose han!s is a or", an! he is calle! Conchobar, after the na"e of
the ri#er into hich he fell soon after his birth. The inci!ent closes
ith the or!s, B6t as fro" these or"s that she beca"e %regnant, say
so"e.B.**G24 Possibly the !i#inity of the ri#er ha! taken the for" of
the or"s an! as reborn as Conchobar. ?e "ay co"%are the story of the
birth of Conall Cernach. :is "other as chil!less, until a )rui! sang
s%ells o#er a ell in hich she bathe!, an! !rank of its aters. ?ith
the !raught she salloe! a or", Ban! the or" as in the han! of the
boy as he lay in his "other's o"bA an! he %ierce! the han! an! consu"e!
it.B.**G34
The %ersonality of 9ionn is also connecte! ith the rebirth i!ea. 6n one
story, Mongan, a se#enth&century king, ha! a !is%ute ith his %oet
regar!ing the !eath of the hero 9otha!. The 9ian Caoilte returns fro"
the !ea! to %ro#e Mongan right, an! he says, B?e ere ith thee, ith
9ionn.B Mongan bi!s hi" be silent, because he !i! not ish his i!entity
ith 9ionn to be "a!e knon. BMongan, hoe#er, as 9ionn, though he
oul! not let it be tol!.B.**GF4 6n another story Mongan is son of
Manannan, ho ha! %ro%hesie! of this e#ent. Manannan a%%eare! to the
ife of 9iachna hen he as fighting the 5aIons, an! tol! her that
unless she yiel!e! herself to hi" her husban! oul! be slain. 8n hearing
this she agree!, an! neIt !ay the go! a%%eare! fighting ith 9iachna's
forces an! route! the slain. B5o that this Mongan is a son of Manannan
"ac 'ir, though he is calle! Mongan son of 9iachna.B.**GG4 6n a thir!
#ersion Manannan "akes the bargain ith 9iachna, an! in his for" slee%s
ith the o"an. 5i"ultaneously ith Mongan's birth, 9iachna's atten!ant
ha! a son ho beca"e Mongan's ser#ant, an! a arrior's ife bears a
!aughter ho beca"e his ife. Manannan took Mongan to the 'an! of
Pro"ise an! ke%t hi" there until he as siIteen..*+,,4 Many "agical
%oers an! the faculty of sha%e&shifting are attribute! to Mongan, an!
in so"e stories he is brought into connection ith the Ksi!K..*+,*4
Probably a "yth tol! ho he ent to /lysiu" instea! of !ying, for he
co"es fro" Bthe 'an! of 'i#ing :eartB to s%eak ith 5. Colu"ba, ho took
hi" to see hea#en. But he oul! not satisfy the saints' curiosity
regar!ing /lysiu", an! su!!enly #anishe!, %robably returning
there..*+,+4
This tofol! account of Mongan's birth is curious. Perha%s the i!ea that
he as a rebirth of 9ionn "ay ha#e been suggeste! by the fact that his
father as calle! 9iachna 9inn, hile it is %robable that so"e ol! "yth
of a son of Manannan's calle! Mongan as attache! to the %ersonality of
the historic Mongan.
About the era of Mongan, =ing )iar"ai! ha! to i#es, one of ho" as
barren. 5. 9innen ga#e her holy ater to !rink, an! she brought forth a
la"bA then, after a secon! !raught, a trout, an! finally, after a thir!,
Ae! 5lane, ho beca"e high king of 6relan! in -G1. This is a
Christianise! #ersion of the story of Conall Cernach's birth..*+,E4
6n ?elsh "ythology the story of Taliesin affor!s an eIa"%le of rebirth.
After the transfor"ation co"bat of the go!!ess Cerri!en an! Gion,
rese"bling that of the sine&her!s, Gion beco"es a grain of heat,
hich Cerri!en in the for" of a hen sallos, ith the result that he
is reborn of her as Taliesin..*+,14
Most of these stories no longer eIist in their %ri"iti#e for", an!
#arious i!eas are foun! in the"&&conce%tion by "agical "eans, !i#ine
!escent through the Ka"ourK of a !i#inity an! a "ortal, an! rebirth.
As to the first, the hel% of "agician or %riest is often in#oke! in
sa#age society an! e#en in /uro%ean folk&custo" in case of barrenness.
Prayers, char"s, %otions, or foo! are the "eans use! to in!uce
conce%tion, but %erha%s at one ti"e these ere thought to cause it of
the"sel#es. 6n "any tales the salloing of a see!, fruit, insect, etc.,
results in the birth of a hero or heroine, an! it is %robable that these
stories e"bo!y actual belief in such a %ossibility. 6f the stories of
Conall Cernach an! Ae! 5lane are not attenuate! instances of rebirth,
say, of the !i#inity of a ell, they are eIa"%les of this belief. The
gift of fruitfulness is bestoe! by )rui! an! saint, but in the story of
Conall it is rather the salloing of the or" than the )rui!'s
incantation that causes conce%tion, an! is the real K"otifK of the tale.
?here the rebirth of a !i#inity occurs as the result of the salloing
of a s"all ani"al, it is e#i!ent that the go! has first taken this for".
The Celt, belie#ing in conce%tion by salloing so"e object, an! in
sha%e&shifting, co"bine! his infor"ation, an! so %ro!uce! a thir! i!ea,
that a go! coul! take the for" of a s"all ani"al, hich, hen salloe!,
beca"e his rebirth..*+,-4 6f, as the #isits of barren o"en to !ol"ens
an! "egalithic "onu"ents suggest, the Celts belie#e! in the %ossibility
of the s%irit of a !ea! "an entering a o"an an! being born of her or at
least ai!ing conce%tion,&&a belief hel! by other races,.*+,24&&this "ay
ha#e gi#en rise to "yths regar!ing the rebirth of go!s by hu"an "others.
At all e#ents this latter Celtic belief is %arallele! by the A"erican
6n!ian "yths, e.g. of the Thlinkeet go! $ehl ho transfor"e! hi"self no
into a %ebble, no into a bla!e of grass, an!, being thus salloe! by
o"en, as reborn.
6n the stories of /tain an! of 'u!, reborn as 5etanta, this i!ea of
!i#ine transfor"ation an! rebirth occurs. A si"ilar i!ea "ay un!erlie
the tale of 9ionn an! Mongan. As to the tales of Gion an! the
5ineher!s, the latter the ser#ants of go!s, an! %erha%s the"sel#es
regar!e! once as !i#inities, ho in their rebirth as bulls are certainly
!i#ine ani"als, they %resent so"e features hich reLuire further
consi!eration. The %re#ious transfor"ations in both cases belong to the
Transfor"ation Co"bat for"ula of "any KMaerchenK, an! ob#iously ere not
%art of the original for" of the "yths. 6n all such KMaerchenK the
antagonists are "ales, hence the rebirth inci!ent coul! not for" %art of
the". 6n the ?elsh tale of Gion an! in the corres%on!ing Taliesin %oe",
the ingenious fusion of the KMaerchenK for"ula ith an eIisting "yth of
rebirth "ust ha#e taken %lace at an early !ate..*+,34 This is also true
of KThe To 5ineher!sK, but in this case, since the "yth tol! ho to
go!s took the for" of or"s an! ere reborn of cos, the for"ula ha! to
be altere!. Both re"ain ali#e at the en! of the co"bat, contrary to the
usual for"ula, because both ere "ales an! both ere reborn. The fusion
is skilful, because the reborn %ersonages %reser#e a re"e"brance of
their for"er transfor"ations,.*+,F4 just as Mongan knos of his for"er
eIistence as 9ionn. 6n other cases there is no such re"e"brance. /tain
ha! forgotten her for"er eIistence, an! Cuchulainn !oes not a%%ear to
kno that he is a rebirth of 'ug.
The relation of 'ug to Cuchulainn !eser#es further inLuiry. ?hile the
go! is reborn he is also eIisting as 'ug, just as ha#ing been salloe!
as a or" by )echtire, he a%%ears in his !i#ine for" an! tells her he
ill be born of her. 6n the KTainK he a%%ears fighting for Cuchulainn,
ho" he there calls his son. There are thus to as%ects of the hero's
relationshi% to 'ugA in one he is a rebirth of the go!, in the other he
is his son, as in!ee! he see"s to re%resent hi"self in KThe ?ooing of
/"erK, an! as he is calle! by 'aborcha" just before his !eath..*+,G4 6n
one of the birth&stories he is clearly 'ug's son by )echtire. But both
#ersions "ay si"%ly be !ifferent as%ects of one belief, na"ely, that a
go! coul! be reborn as a "ortal an! yet continue his !i#ine eIistence,
because all birth is a kin! of rebirth. The "en of ;lster sought a ife
for Cuchulainn, Bknoing that his rebirth oul! be of hi"self,B i.e. his
son oul! be hi"self e#en hile he continue! to eIist as his father.
/Ia"%les of such a belief occur elsehere, e.g. in the K'asK of Manu,
here the husban! is sai! to be reborn of his ife, an! in ancient
/gy%t, here the go!s ere calle! Bself&begotten,B because each as
father to the son ho as his true i"age or hi"self. 'ikeness i"%lie!
i!entity, in %ri"iti#e belief. Thus the belief in "ortal !escent fro"
the go!s a"ong the Celts "ay ha#e in#ol#e! the theory of a !i#ine
a#atar. The go! beca"e father of a "ortal by a o"an, an! %art of
hi"self %asse! o#er to the chil!, ho as thus the go! hi"self.
Conchobar as also a rebirth of a go!, but he as na"e! fro" the ri#er
hence his "other ha! !ran ater containing the or"s hich she
salloe!. This "ay %oint to a lost #ersion in hich he as the son of a
ri#er&go! by <essa. This as Luite in accor!ance ith Celtic belief, as
is shon by such na"es as )ubrogenos, fro" K!ubronK, Bater,B an!
KgenosK, Bborn ofBA )i#ogenos, )i#ogena, Bson or !aughter of a go!,B
%ossibly a ri#er&go!, since K!ei#osK is a freLuent ri#er na"eA an!
Rhenogenus, Bson of the Rhine.B.*+*,4 The %ersons ho first bore these
na"es ere belie#e! to ha#e been begotten by !i#inities. Mongan's
!escent fro" Manannan, go! of the sea, is "a!e %erfectly clear, an! the
?elsh na"e Morgen N KMorigenosK, Bson of the sea,B %robably %oints to a
si"ilar tale no lost. 8ther Celtic na"es are freLuently %regnant ith
"eaning, an! tell of a once&eIisting rich "ythology of !i#ine Ka"oursK
ith "ortals. They sho !escent fro" !eities&&Ca"ulogenus >son of
Ca"ulos@, /sugenos >son of /sus@, Bo!uogenus >son of Bo!#a@A or fro"
tree&s%irits&&)ergen >son of the oak@, Cernogenus >son of the al!er@A or
fro" !i#ine ani"als&&Arthgen >son of the bear@, ;rogenus >son of the
urus@..*+**4 ?hat as once an e%ithet !escribing !i#ine filiation beca"e
later a %ersonal na"e. 5o in Greece na"es like A%ollogenes, )iogenes,
an! :er"ogenes, ha! once been e%ithets of heroes born of A%ollo, Reus,
an! :er"es.
Thus it as a #ital Celtic belief that !i#inities "ight unite ith
"ortals an! beget chil!ren. :eroes entice! aay to /lysiu" enjoye! the
lo#e of its go!!esses&&Cuchulainn that of 9an!A Connla, Bran, an! 8isin
that of unna"e! !i#inities. 5o, too, the go!!ess Morrigan offere!
herself to Cuchulainn. The Christian Celts of the fifth century retaine!
this belief, though in a so"ehat altere! for". 5. Augustine an! others
!escribe the shaggy !e"ons calle! K!usiiK by the Gauls, ho sought the
couches of o"en in or!er to gratify their !esires..*+*+4 The K!usiiK
are akin to the KincubiK an! KfauniK, an! !o not a%%ear to re%resent the
higher go!s re!uce! to the for" of !e"ons by Christianity, but rather a
s%ecies of lesser !i#inities, once the object of %o%ular !e#otion.
These beliefs are also connecte! ith the Celtic notions of
transfor"ation an! trans"igration&&the one signifying the assu"ing of
another sha%e for a ti"e, the other the %assing o#er of the soul or the
%ersonality into another bo!y, %erha%s one actually eIisting, but "ore
usually by actual rebirth. As has been seen, this %oer of
transfor"ation as clai"e! by the )rui!s an! by other %ersons, or
attribute! to the", an! they ere not likely to "ini"ise their %oers,
an! oul! %robably boast of the" on all occasions. 5uch boasts are %ut
into the "ouths of the 6rish A"airgen an! the ?elsh Taliesin. As the
Milesians ere a%%roaching 6relan!, A"airgen sang #erses hich ere
%erha%s %art of a ritual chant(
B6 a" the in! hich blos o#er the sea,
6 a" the a#e of the ocean,
6 a" the bull of se#en battles,
6 a" the eagle on the rock...
6 a" a boar for courage,
6 a" a sal"on in the ater, etc.B.*+*E4
Professor Rh.Jy4s %oints out that so"e of these #erses nee! not "ean
actual transfor"ation, but "ere likeness, through Ba %ri"iti#e for"ation
of %re!icate ithout the ai! of a %article corres%on!ing to such a or!
as 'like.'B.*+*14 /nough, hoe#er, re"ains to sho the clai" of the
"agician. Taliesin, in "any %oe"s, "akes si"ilar clai"s, an! says, B6
ha#e been in a "ultitu!e of sha%es before 6 assu"e! a consistent
for"B&&that of a sor!, a tear, a star, an eagle, etc. Then he as
create!, ithout father or "other..*+*-4 5i"ilar %retensions are co""on
to the "e!icine&"an e#eryhere. But fro" another %oint of #ie they "ay
be "ere %oetic eItra#agances such as are co""on in Celtic %oetry..*+*24
Thus Cuchulainn says( B6 as a houn! strong for co"bat ... their little
cha"%ion ... the casket of e#ery secret for the "ai!ens,B or, in another
%lace, B6 a" the bark buffete! fro" a#e to a#e ... the shi% after the
losing of its ru!!er ... the little a%%le on the to% of the tree that
little thought of its falling.B.*+*34 These are "eta%horic !escri%tions
of a co"%arati#ely si"%le kin!. The full&blon bo"bast a%%ears in the
KColloLuy of the To 5agesK, here <e!e an! 9ercertne eIhaust language
in !escribing the"sel#es to each other..*+*F4 8ther ?elsh bar!s besi!es
Taliesin "ake si"ilar boasts to his, an! )r. 5kene thinks that their
clai"s B"ay ha#e been "ere bo"bast.B.*+*G4 5till so"e current belief in
sha%e&shifting, or e#en in rebirth, un!erlies so"e of these boastings
an! gi#es %oint to the". A"airgen's B6 a"B this or that, suggests the
inherent %oer of transfor"ationA Taliesin's B6 ha#e been,B the actual
transfor"ations. 5uch assertions !o not in#ol#e Bthe %oerful
%antheistic !octrine hich is at once the glory an! error of 6rish
%hiloso%hy,B as M. )'Arbois clai"s,.*++,4 else are sa#age "e!icine&"en,
boastful of their sha%e&shifting %oers, %hiloso%hic %antheists. The
%oe"s are "erely highly !e#elo%e! for"s of %ri"iti#e beliefs in
sha%e&shifting, such as are foun! a"ong all sa#ages an! barbaric folk,
but eI%resse! in the boastful language in hich the Celt !elighte!.
:o ere the successi#e sha%e&shiftings effecte!S To anser this e
shall first look at the story of Tuan Mac Caraill, ho sur#i#e! fro" the
!ays of Partholan to those of 5. 9innen. :e as a !ecre%it "an at the
co"ing of <e"e!, an! one night, ha#ing lain !on to slee%, he aoke as a
stag, an! li#e! in this for" to ol! age. 6n the sa"e ay he beca"e a
boar, a hak, an! a sal"on, hich as caught an! eaten by Cairell's
ife, of ho" he as born as Tuan, ith a %erfect recollection of his
!ifferent for"s..*++*4
This story, the in#ention of a ninth or tenth century Christian scribe
to account for the current knole!ge of the "any in#asions of
6relan!,.*+++4 "ust ha#e been base! on %agan "yths of a si"ilar kin!,
in#ol#ing successi#e transfor"ations an! a final rebirth. 5uch a "yth
"ay ha#e been tol! of Taliesin, recounting his transfor"ations an! his
final rebirth, the for"er being re%lace! at a later ti"e by the e%iso!e
of the Transfor"ation Co"bat, in#ol#ing no great la%se of ti"e. 5uch a
series of successi#e sha%es&&of e#ery beast, a !ragon, a olf, a stag, a
sal"on, a seal, a san&&ere ascribe! to Mongan an! foretol! by
Manannan, an! Mongan refers to so"e of the" in his colloLuy ith 5.
Colu"ba&&Bhen 6 as a !eer ... a sal"on ... a seal ... a ro#ing olf
... a "an.B.*++E4 Perha%s the co"%lete story as that of a fabulous hero
in hu"an for", ho assu"e! !ifferent sha%es, an! as finally reborn. But
the transfor"ation of an ol! "an, or an ol! ani"al, into ne youthful
an! #igorous for"s "ight be regar!e! as a kin! of trans"igration&&an
eItension of the transfor"ation i!ea, but in#ol#ing no "ete"%sychosis,
no %assing of the soul into another bo!y by rebirth. Actual
trans"igration or rebirth occurs only at the en! of the series, an!, as
in the case of /tain, 'ug, etc., the %re&eIistent %erson is born of a
o"an after being salloe! by her. Possibly the transfor"ation belief
has reacte! on the other, an! obscure! a belief in actual "ete"%sychosis
as a result of the soul of an ancestor %assing into a o"an an! being
reborn as her neIt chil!. A!! to this that the soul is often thought of
as a tiny ani"al, an! e see ho a K%oint !'a%%uiK for the "ore
"aterialistic belief as affor!e!. The insect or or"s of the rebirth
stories "ay ha#e been once for"s of the soul. 6t is easy also to see
ho, a theory of conce%tion by salloing #arious objects being alrea!y
in eIistence, it "ight be thought %ossible that eating a sal"on&&a
transfor"e! "an&&oul! cause his rebirth fro" the eater.
The Celts "ay ha#e ha! no consistent belief on this subject, the general
i!ea of the future life being of a !ifferent kin!. 8r %erha%s the
#arious beliefs in transfor"ation, trans"igration, rebirth, an!
conce%tion by unusual "eans, are too ineItricably "ingle! to be
se%arate!. The nucleus of the tales see"s to be the %ossibility of
rebirth, an! the belief that the soul as still cla! in a bo!ily for"
after !eath an! as itself a "aterial thing. But otherise so"e of the"
are not !istincti#ely Celtic, an! ha#e been influence! by ol! KMaerchenK
for"ulae of successi#e changes a!o%te! by or force! u%on so"e %erson, ho
is finally reborn. This for"ulae is alrea!y ol! in the fourteenth century
B.C. /gy%tian story of the KTo BrothersK.
5uch Celtic stories as these "ay ha#e been knon to classical authors,
an! ha#e influence! their state"ents regar!ing eschatology. $et it can
har!ly be sai! that the tales the"sel#es bear itness to a general
trans"igration !octrine current a"ong the Celts, since the stories
concern !i#ine or heroic %ersonages. 5till the belief "ay ha#e ha! a
certain currency a"ong the", base! on %ri"iti#e theories of soul life.
/#i!ence that it eIiste! si!e by si!e ith the "ore general !octrines of
the future life "ay be foun! in ol! or eIisting folk&belief. 6n so"e
cases the !ea! ha#e an ani"al for", as in the KCoyage of Mael!uinK,
here bir!s on an islan! are sai! to be souls, or in the legen! of 5.
Maelsuthain, hose %u%ils a%%ear to hi" after !eath as bir!s..*++14 The
bir! for" of the soul after !eath is still a current belief in the
:ebri!es. Butterflies in 6relan!, an! "oths in Cornall, an! in 9rance
bats or butterflies, are belie#e! to be souls of the !ea!..*++-4 =ing
Arthur is thought by Cornish"en to ha#e !ie! an! to ha#e been change!
into the for" of a ra#en, an! in "e!iae#al ?ales souls of the icke!
a%%ear as ra#ens, in Brittany as black !ogs, %etrels, or hares, or ser#e
their ter" of %enitence as cos or bulls, or re"ain as cros till the
!ay of ju!g"ent..*++24 ;nba%tiHe! infants beco"e bir!sA !rone! sailors
a%%ear as beasts or bir!sA an! the souls of girls !ecei#e! by lo#ers
haunt the" as hares..*++34
These sho that the i!ea of trans"igration "ay not ha#e been foreign to
the Celtic "in!, an! it "ay ha#e arisen fro" the i!ea that "en assu"e!
their tote" ani"al's sha%e at !eath. 5o"e tales of sha%e&shifting are
%robably !ue to tote"is", an! it is to be note! that in =erry %easants
ill not eat hares because they contain the souls of their
gran!"others..*++F4 8n the other han!, so"e of these sur#i#als "ay "ean
no "ore than that the soul itself has alrea!y an ani"al for", in hich
it oul! naturally be seen after !eath. 6n Celtic folk&belief the soul
is seen lea#ing the bo!y in slee% as a bee, butterfly, gnat, "ouse, or
"annikin..*++G4 5uch a belief is foun! a"ong "ost sa#age races, an!
"ight easily be "istaken for trans"igration, or also assist the
for"ation of the i!ea of trans"igration. Though the folk&sur#i#als sho
that trans"igration as not necessarily allege! of all the !ea!, it "ay
ha#e been a sufficiently #ital belief to colour the "ythology, as e see
fro" the eIisting tales, a!ulterate! though these "ay ha#e been.
The general belief has its roots in %ri"iti#e i!eas regar!ing life an!
its %ro%agation&&i!eas hich so"e hol! to be un&Celtic an! un&Aryan. But
Aryans ere B%ri"iti#eB at so"e %erio! of their history, an! it oul! be
curious if, hile still in a barbarous con!ition, they ha! forgotten
their ol! beliefs. 6n any case, if they a!o%te! si"ilar beliefs fro"
non&Aryan %eo%le, this %oints to no great su%eriority on their %art.
5uch beliefs originate! the i!ea of rebirth an! trans"igration..*+E,4
<e#ertheless this as not a characteristically Celtic eschatological
beliefA that e fin! in the theory that the !ea! li#e! on in the bo!y or
assu"e! a bo!y in another region, %robably un!ergroun!.
988T<8T/5(
.**GE4 9or teItual !etails see Ri""er, KReit. fuer Cergl. 5%rach.K
II#iii. -F- f. The tale is ob#iously archaic. 9or a translation see
'eahy, i. F f.
.**G14 K6TK i. *E1 f.A )'Arbois, #. ++. There is a suggestion in one of
the #ersions of another story, in hich 5etanta is chil! of Conchobar
an! his sister )echtire.
.**G-4 K6TK iii. +1-A KRCK I#. 12-A <utt&Meyer, ii. 2G.
.**G24 5toe M5. GG+, KRCK #i. *31A K6TK ii. +*,A )'Arbois, #. Ef.
.**G34 K6TK iii. EGE. Cf. the story of the ife of Cor"ac, ho as
barren till her "other ga#e her %ottage. Then she ha! a !aughter >KRCK
IIii. *F@.
.**GF4 <utt&Meyer, i. 1- f., teIt an! translation.
.**GG4 6bi!. 1+ f.
.*+,,4 6bi!. -F. The si"ultaneous birth for"ula occurs in "any
KMaerchenK, though that of the future ife is not co""on.
.*+,*4 <utt&Meyer, i. -+, -3, F-, F3.
.*+,+4 KRCPK ii. E*2 f. :ere Mongan co"es !irectly fro" /lysiu", as !oes
8isin before "eeting 5. Patrick.
.*+,E4 K6TK iii. E1-A 8'Gra!y, ii. FF. Cf. Rees, EE*.
.*+,14 Guest, iii. E-2 f.A see %. **2, Ksu%raK.
.*+,-4 6n so"e of the tales the s"all ani"al still eIists in!e%en!ently
after the birth, but this is %robably not their %ri"iti#e for".
.*+,24 5ee "y KReligion( 6ts 8rigin an! 9or"sK, 32&33.
.*+,34 5kene, i. -E+. After relating #arious sha%es in hich he has
been, the %oet a!!s that he has been a grain hich a hen recei#e!, an!
that he reste! in her o"b as a chil!. The reference in this early %oe"
fro" a fourteenth century M5. shos that the fusion of the KMaerchenK
for"ula ith a "yth of rebirth as alrea!y ell knon. 5ee also Guest,
iii. E2+, for #erses in hich the transfor"ations !uring the co"bat are
eIaggerate!.
.*+,F4 5kene, i. +32, -E+.
.*+,G4 Miss :ull, 23A )'Arbois, #. EE*.
.*+*,4 9or #arious for"s of KgenoK&, see :ol!er, i. +,,+A 5tokes, K;5K
**,.
.*+**4 9or all these na"es see :ol!er, Ks.#.K
.*+*+4 5. Aug. K!e Ci#. )eiK, I#. +EA 6si!ore, K8rat.K #iii. +. *,E.
K)usiosK "ay be connecte! ith 'ithuanian K!#aeseK, Bs%irit,B an!
%erha%s ith .Greek( Thehos4 >:ol!er, Ks.#.K@. )'Arbois sees in the
K!usiiK ater&s%irits, an! co"%ares ri#er&na"es like )huys, )use#a,
)usius >#i. *F+A KRCK IiI. +-*@. The or! "ay be connecte! ith 6rish
K!uisK, glosse! BnobleB >5tokes, KT6GK 32@. The Bretons still belie#e in
fairies calle! K!uHK, an! our or! K!iHHyK "ay be connecte! ith
K!usiosK, an! oul! then ha#e once signifie! the "a!ness folloing on
the Ka"ourK, like Greek .Greek( ny"%hole%tos4, or Bthe incon#enience of
their succubi,B !escribe! by =irk in his K5ecret Co""onealth of the
/l#esK.
.*+*E4 K''K *+KbKA KT85K #. +E1.
.*+*14 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K -1G.
.*+*-4 5kene, i. +32, E,G, etc.
.*+*24 5igerson, KBar!s of the GaelK, E3G.
.*+*34 Miss :ull, +FFA :y!e, K'it. :ist. of 6relan!K, E,,.
.*+*F4 KRCK II#i. +*.
.*+*G4 5kene, ii. -,2.
.*++,4 )'Arbois, ii. +12, here he also !eri#es /rigena's %antheis" fro"
Celtic beliefs, such as he su%%oses to be eIe"%lifie! by these %oe"s.
.*++*4 K';K *-KaKA )'Arbois, ii. 13 f.A <utt&Meyer, ii. +G1 f.
.*+++4 Another "etho! of accounting for this knole!ge as to i"agine a
long&li#e! %ersonage like 9intan ho sur#i#e! for -,,, years. )'Arbois,
ii. ch. 1. :ere there as no transfor"ation or rebirth.
.*++E4 <utt&Meyer, i. +1A KRCPK ii. E*2.
.*++14 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K 3F.
.*++-4 ?oo!&Martin, KPagan 6relan!K, *1,A KChoice <otesK, 2*A Monnier,
*1EA Maury, +3+.
.*++24 KChoice <otesK, 2GA Rees, G+A 'e BraHO+P, ii. F+, F2, E,3A KRe#.
!es Tra!. Po%.K Iii. EG1.
.*++34 'e BraHO+P, ii. F,A K9olk&lore Jour.K #. *FG.
.*++F4 K9olk&'oreK, i#. E-+.
.*++G4 Car"ichael, KCar". Ga!el.K ii. EE1A Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K 2,+A 'e
BraHO+P, i. *3G, *G*, +,,.
.*+E,4 Mr. <utt, KCoyage of BranK, !eri#e! the origin of the rebirth
conce%tion fro" orgiastic cults.
C:APT/R QQ6C.
/'$56;M.
The Celtic conce%tion of /lysiu", the %ro!uct at once of religion,
"ythology, an! ro"antic i"agination, is foun! in a series of 6rish an!
?elsh tales. ?e !o not kno that a si"ilar conce%tion eIiste! a"ong the
continental Celts, but, consi!ering the likeness of their beliefs in
other "atters to those of the insular Celts, there is a strong
%robability that it !i!. There are four ty%ical %resentations of the
/lysiu" conce%tion. 6n 6relan!, hile the go!s ere belie#e! to ha#e
retire! ithin the hills or Ksi!K, it is not unlikely that so"e of the"
ha! alays been su%%ose! to li#e in these or in a subterranean orl!,
an! it is therefore %ossible that hat "ay be calle! the subterranean or
Ksi!K ty%e of /lysiu" is ol!. But other ty%es also a%%ear&&that of a
estern islan! /lysiu", of a orl! belo the aters, an! of a orl!
co&eItensi#e ith this an! entere! by a "ist.
The na"es of the 6rish /lysiu" are so"eti"es of a general character&&Mag
Mor, Bthe Great PlainBA Mag Mell, Bthe Pleasant PlainBA Tir n'Aill, Bthe
8ther&orl!BA Tir na "&Beo, Bthe 'an! of the 'i#ingBA Tir na n&8g, Bthe
'an! of $outhBA an! Tir Tairngiri, Bthe 'an! of Pro"iseB&&%ossibly of
Christian origin. 'ocal na"es are Tir fa Tonn, B'an! un!er ?a#esBA
6&Bresail an! the 'an! of 9alga, na"es of the islan! /lysiu". The last
!enotes the 6sle of Man as /lysiu", an! it "ay ha#e been so regar!e! by
Goi!els in Britain at an early ti"e..*+E*4 To this %erio! "ay belong the
tales of Cuchulainn's rai! on 9alga, carrie! at a later ti"e to 6relan!.
Tir Tairngiri is also i!entifie! ith the 6sle of Man..*+E+4
A brief resu"e of the %rinci%al /lysiu" tales is necessary as a
%reli"inary to a !iscussion of the %roble"s hich they in#ol#e, though
it can gi#e but little i!ea of the beauty an! ro"anticis" of the tales
the"sel#es. These, if not actually co"%ose! in %agan ti"es, are base!
u%on story&ger"s current before the co"ing of Christianity to 6relan!.
*. KThe si! /lysiu".K&&6n the story of /tain, hen Mi!er !isco#ere! her
in her rebirth, he !escribe! the lan! hither he oul! carry her, its
"usic an! its fair %eo%le, its ar" strea"s, its choice "ea! an! ine.
There is eternal youth, an! lo#e is bla"eless. 6t is ithin Mi!er's
Ksi!K, an! /tain acco"%anies hi" there. 6n the seLuel =ing /ochai!'s
)rui! !isco#ers the Ksi!K, hich is ca%ture! by the king, ho then
regains /tain..*+EE4 8ther tales refer to the Ksi!K in si"ilar ter"s,
an! !escribe its treasures, its foo! an! !rink better than those of
earth. 6t is in "ost res%ects si"ilar to the islan! /lysiu", sa#e that
it is localise! on earth.
+. KThe islan! /lysiu".K&&The story of the #oyage of Bran is foun!
frag"entarily in the ele#enth century K';K, an! co"%lete in the
fourteenth an! siIteenth century M55. 6t tells ho Bran hear! "ysterious
"usic hen aslee%. 8n aking he foun! a sil#er branch ith blosso"s, an!
neIt !ay there a%%eare! a "ysterious o"an singing the glory of the lan!
o#erseas, its "usic, its on!erful tree, its free!o" fro" %ain an!
!eath. 6t is one of thrice fifty islan!s to the est of /rin, an! there
she !ells ith thousan!s of B"otley o"en.B Before she !isa%%ears the
branch lea%s into her han!. Bran set sail ith his co"ra!es an! "et
Manannan crossing the sea in his chariot. The go! tol! hi" that the sea
as a floery %lain, Mag Mell, an! that all aroun!, unseen to Bran, ere
%eo%le %laying an! !rinking Bithout sin.B :e ba!e hi" sail on to the
'an! of ?o"en. Then the #oyagers ent on an! reache! the 6sle of Joy,
here one of their nu"ber re"aine! behin!. At last they ca"e to the 'an!
of ?o"en, an! e hear of their elco"e, the !rea"like la%se of ti"e, the
foo! an! !rink hich ha! for each the taste he !esire!. 9inally the tale
recounts their ho"e&sickness, the arning they recei#e! not to set foot
on /rin, ho one of their nu"ber lea%e! ashore an! turne! to ashes, ho
Bran fro" his boat tol! of his an!erings an! then !isa%%eare! for
e#er..*+E14
Another story tells ho Connla as #isite! by a go!!ess fro" Mag Mell.
:er %eo%le !ell in a Ksi!K an! are calle! B"en of the Ksi!K.B 5he
in#ites hi" to go to the i""ortal lan!, an! !e%arts, lea#ing hi" an
a%%le, hich su%%orts hi" for a "onth ithout groing less. Then she
rea%%ears an! tells Connla that Bthe /#er&'i#ing 8nesB !esire hi" to
join the". 5he bi!s hi" co"e ith her to the 'an! of Joy here there are
only o"en. :e ste%s into her crystal boat an! #anishes fro" his father
an! the )rui! ho has #ainly trie! to eIercise his s%ells against
her..*+E-4 6n this tale there is a confusion beteen the Ksi!K an! the
islan! /lysiu".
The eighteenth century %oe" of 8isin in Tir na n&8g is %robably base! on
ol! legen!s, an! !escribes ho <ia", !aughter of the king of Tir na
n&8g, %lace! KgeasaK on 8isin to acco"%any her to that lan! of i""ortal
youth an! beauty. :e "ounte! on her stee!, hich %lunge! forar!s across
the sea, an! brought the" to the lan! here 8isin s%ent three hun!re!
years before returning to 6relan!, an! there suffering, as has been
seen, fro" the breaking of the tabu not to set foot on the soil of
/rin..*+E24
6n K5erglige Conculain!K, BCuchulainn's 5ickness,B the go!!ess 9an!,
!eserte! by Manannan, offers herself to the hero if he ill hel% her
sister's husban! 'abrai! against his ene"ies in Mag Mell. 'abrai! li#es
in an islan! freLuente! by troo%s of o"en, an! %ossessing an
ineIhaustible #at of "ea! an! trees ith "agic fruit. 6t is reache! ith
"ar#ellous s%ee! in a boat of bronHe. After a %reli"inary #isit by his
charioteer 'aeg, Cuchulainn goes thither, #anLuishes 'abrai!'s foes, an!
re"ains a "onth ith 9an!. :e returns to 6relan!, an! no e hear of the
struggle for hi" beteen his ife /"er an! 9an!. But Manannan su!!enly
a%%ears, reaakens 9an!'s lo#e, an! she !e%arts ith hi". The go! shakes
his cloak beteen her an! Cuchulainn to %re#ent their e#er "eeting
again..*+E34 6n this story 'abrai!, 9an!, an! 'iban, 9an!'s sister,
though !ellers on an islan! /lysiu", are calle! Ksi!K&folk. The to
regions are %artially confuse!, but not holly, since Manannan is
!escribe! as co"ing fro" his on lan! >/lysiu"@ to oo 9an!. A%%arently
'abrai! of the 5ift :an! on the 5or! >ho, though calle! Bchief of the
Ksi!eKB, is certainly a ar&go!@ is at en"ity ith Manannan's hosts, an!
it is these ith ho" Cuchulainn has to fight..*+EF4
6n an 8ssianic tale se#eral of the 9ians ere carrie! off to the 'an! of
Pro"ise. After "any a!#entures, 9ionn, )iar"ai!, an! others !isco#er
the", an! threaten to !estroy the lan! if they are not restore!. 6ts
king, A#arta, agrees to the restoration, an! ith fifteen of his "en
carries the 9ians to /rin on one horse. :a#ing reache! there, he bi!s
the" look at a certain fiel!, an! hile they are !oing so, he an! his
"en !isa%%ear..*+EG4
E. K'an! un!er ?a#es.K&&9iachna, of the "en of the Ksi!K, a%%eare! to
the "en of Connaught, an! begge! their hel% against Goll, ho ha!
ab!ucte! his ife. 'oegaire an! his "en !i#e ith 9iachna into 'och
<aneane, an! reach a on!erful lan!, ith "ar#ellous "usic an! here the
rain is ale. They an! the Ksi!K&folk attack the fort of Mag Mell an!
!efeat Goll. /ach then obtains a o"an of the Ksi!eK, but at the en! of
a year they beco"e ho"esick. They are arne! not to !escen! fro"
horseback in /rin. Arri#e! a"ong their on %eo%le, they !escribe the
"ar#els of Tir fa Tonn, an! then return there, an! are no "ore
seen..*+1,4 :ere, again, the Ksi!K /lysiu" an! 'an! un!er ?a#es are
confuse!, an! the !i#ine tribes are at ar, as in the story of
Cuchulainn.
6n a section of the 8ssianic tale just cite!, 9ionn an! his "en arri#e
on an islan!, here )iar"ai! reaches a beautiful country at the botto"
of a ell. This is Tir fa Tonn, an! )iar"ai! fights its king ho has
usur%e! his ne%he's inheritance, an! thus reco#ers it for hi"..*+1*4
1. KCo&eItensi#e ith this orl!.K&&An early eIa"%le of this ty%e is
foun! in the KA!#entures of Cor"acK. A !i#ine #isitant a%%eare! to
Cor"ac an! ga#e hi" in eIchange for his ife, son, an! !aughter, his
branch of gol!en a%%les, hich hen shaken %ro!uce! seetest "usic,
!is%elling sorro. After a year Cor"ac set out to seek his fa"ily, an!
as he journeye! encountere! a "ist in hich he !isco#ere! a strange
house. 6ts "aster an! "istress&&Manannan an! his consort&&offere! hi"
shelter. The go! brought in a %ig, e#ery Luarter of hich as cooke! in
the telling of a true tale, the %ig afterar!s co"ing to life again.
Cor"ac, in his tale, !escribe! ho he ha! lost his fa"ily, hereu%on
Manannan "a!e hi" slee%, an! brought his ife an! chil!ren in. 'ater he
%ro!uce! a cu% hich broke hen a lie as tol!, but beca"e hole again
hen a true or! as s%oken. The go! sai! Cor"ac's ife ha! no a ne
husban!, an! the cu% broke, but as restore! hen the go!!ess !eclare!
this to be a lie. <eIt "orning all ha! !isa%%eare!, an! Cor"ac an! his
fa"ily foun! the"sel#es in his on %alace, ith cu% an! branch by their
si!e..*+1+4 5i"ilarly, in KThe Cha"%ion's /cstasyK, a "ysterious
horse"an a%%ears out of a "ist to Conn an! lea!s hi" to a %alace, here
he re#eals hi"self as the go! 'ug, an! here there is a o"an calle!
Bthe 5o#ereignty of /rin.B Besi!e the %alace is a gol!en tree..*+1E4 6n
the story of Bran, Mag Mell is sai! to be all aroun! the hero, though he
knos it not&&an analogous conce%tion to hat is foun! in these tales,
an! another instance is that of the "ysterious house entere! by
Conchobar an! )echtire..*+114 Mag Mell "ay thus ha#e been regar!e! as a
"ysterious !istrict of /rin. This "agic "ist enclosing a "ar#ellous
!elling occurs in "any other tales, an! it as in a "ist that the
Tuatha )ea ca"e to 6relan!.
A certain corres%on!ence to these 6rish beliefs is foun! in Brythonic
story, but here the /lysiu" conce%tion has been influence! by Christian
i!eas. /lysiu" is calle! KAnnfnK, "eaning Ban abyss,B Bthe state of the
!ea!,B Bhell,B an! it is also concei#e! of as Kis elfy!!K, Bbeneath the
earth.B.*+1-4 But in the tales it bears no likeness to these "eanings of
the or!, sa#e in so far as it has been confuse! by their Christian
re!actors ith hell. 6t is a region on the earth's surface or an o#er&or
un!er&sea orl!, in hich so"e of the characteristics of the 6rish
/lysiu" are foun!&&a caul!ron, a ell of !rink seeter than ine, an!
ani"als greatly !esire! by "ortals, hile it is of great beauty an! its
%eo%le are not subject to !eath or !isease. :ence the na"e KAnnfnK has
%robably taken the %lace of so"e earlier %agan title of /lysiu".
6n the tale of Pyll, the earliest reference to KAnnfnK occurs. 6t is
rule! by Aran, at ar ith :afgan. Aran obtains the hel% of Pyll by
eIchanging king!o"s ith hi" for a year, an! Pyll !efeats :afgan. 6t is
a beautiful lan!, here "erri"ent an! feasting go on continuously, an!
its Lueen is of great lo#eliness. 6t has no subterranean character, an!
is concei#e! a%%arently as contiguous to Pyll's king!o"..*+124 6n other
tales it is the lan! hence Gy!ion an! others obtain #arious
ani"als..*+134 The later folk&conce%tion of the !e"oniac !ogs of Annfn
"ay be base! on an ol! "yth of !ogs ith hich its king hunte!. These
are referre! to in the story of Pyll..*+1F4
KAnnfnK is also the na"e of a lan! un!er a#es or o#er sea, calle! also
KCaer 5i!iK, Bthe re#ol#ing castle,B about hich Bare ocean's strea"s.B
6t is Bknon to Manay!!an an! Pry!eri,B just as the 6rish /lysiu" as
rule! by Manannan..*+1G4 Another BCaer of )efenceB is beneath the
a#es..*+-,4 Perha%s the to i!eas ere interchangeable. The %eo%le of
this lan! are free fro" !eath an! !isease, an! in it is Ban abun!ant
ell, seeter than hite ine the !rink in it.B There also is a caul!ron
belonging to the lor! of Annfn, hich as stolen by Arthur an! his "en.
5uch a caul!ron is the %ro%erty of %eo%le belonging to a ater orl! in
the KMabinogionK..*+-*4
The !escri%tion of the isle of A#allon >later i!entifie! ith
Glastonbury@, hither Arthur as carrie!, co"%letes the likeness to the
6rish /lysiu". <o te"%est, eIcess of heat or col!, nor noIious ani"al
afflicts itA it is blesse! ith eternal s%ring an! ith fruit an!
floers groing ithout labourA it is the lan! of eternal youth,
un#isite! by !eath or !isease. 6t has a Kregia #irgoK lo#elier than her
lo#ely atten!antsA she cure! Arthur of his oun!s, hence she is the
Morgen of other tales, an! she an! her "ai!ens "ay be i!entifie! ith
the !i#ine o"en of the 6rish isle of o"en. Morgen is calle! a K!ea
%hantasticaK, an! she "ay be co"%are! ith 'iban, ho cure! Cuchulainn
of his sickness..*+-+4
The i!entification of A#allon ith Glastonbury is %robably %ost&%agan,
an! the na"es a%%lie! to Glastonbury&&A#allon, K6nsula Po"onu"K, K6nsula
#itreaK&&"ay be %ri"iti#e na"es of /lysiu". ?illia" of Mal"esbury
!eri#es K6nsula Po"onu"K in its a%%lication to Glastonbury fro" a nati#e
na"e K6nsula A#allonioeK, hich he connects ith the Brythonic Ka#allaK,
Ba%%les,B because Glastenig foun! an a%%le tree there..*+-E4 The na"e
"ay thus ha#e been connecte! ith "ar#ellous a%%le trees, like those of
the 6rish /lysiu". But he also suggests that it "ay be !eri#e! fro" the
na"e of A#alloc, li#ing there ith his !aughters. A#alloc is e#i!ently
the BReI A#allonB >A#allach@ to hose %alace Arthur as carrie! an!
heale! by the Kregia #irgoK..*+-14 :e "ay therefore ha#e been a "ythic
lor! of /lysiu", an! his !aughters oul! corres%on! to the "ai!ens of
the isle. ?illia" also !eri#es BGlastonburyB fro" the na"e of an
e%ony"ous foun!er Glastenig, or fro" its nati#e na"e K$nesuuitronK,
BGlass 6slan!.B This na"e rea%%ears in Chretien's K/ricK in the for"
Bl'isle !e #erre.B Giral!us eI%lains the na"e fro" the glassy aters
aroun! Glastonbury, but it "ay be an early na"e of /lysiu"..*+--4 Glass
"ust ha#e a%%eale! to the i"agination of Celt, Teuton, an! 5la#, for e
hear of Merlin's glass house, a glass fort !isco#ere! by Arthur, a glass
toer attacke! by the Milesians, /tain's glass KgriananK, an! a boat of
glass hich con#eye! Connla to /lysiu". 6n Teutonic an! 5la#onic "yth
an! KMaerchenK, glass "ountains, on hich !ell "ysterious %ersonages,
freLuently occur.
The origin of the Celtic /lysiu" belief "ay be foun! in uni#ersal "yths
of a gol!en age long ago in so"e !istant /lysian region, here "en ha!
li#e! ith the go!s. 6nto that region bra#e "ortals "ight still
%enetrate, though it as lost to "ankin! as a hole. 6n so"e "ythologies
this /lysiu" is the lan! hither "en go after !eath. Possibly the Celtic
"yth of "an's early intercourse ith the go!s in a lost region took to
for"s. 6n one it as a joyful subterranean region hither the Celt ho%e!
to go after !eath. 6n the other it as not reco#erable, nor as it the
lan! of the !ea!, but fa#oure! "ortals "ight reach it in life. The
Celtic /lysiu" belief, as knon through the tales just cite!, is alays
of this secon! kin!. ?e sur"ise, hoe#er, that the lan! of the !ea! as
a joyous un!erorl! rule! o#er by a go! of fertility an! of the !ea!,
an! fro" that region "en ha! originally co"e forth. The later
association of go!s ith the Ksi!K as a continuation of this belief,
but no the Ksi!K are certainly not a lan! of the !ea!, but /lysiu" %ure
an! si"%le. There "ust therefore ha#e been at an early %erio! a ten!ency
to !istinguish beteen the ha%%y region of the !ea!, an! the !istant
/lysiu", if the to ere e#er really connecte!. The subject is obscure,
but it is not i"%ossible that another origin of the /lysiu" i!ea "ay be
foun! in the %heno"enon of the setting sun( it suggeste! to the
continental Celts that far off there as a !i#ine lan! here the sun&go!
reste!. ?hen the Celts reache! the coast this !i#ine estern lan! oul!
necessarily be locate! in a far&off islan!, seen %erha%s on the horiHon.
:ence it oul! also be regar!e! as connecte! ith the sea&go!, Manannan,
or by hatsoe#er na"e he as calle!. The !istant /lysiu", hether on
lan! or across the sea, as concei#e! in i!entical ter"s, an! hence also
hene#er the hollo hills or Ksi!K ere regar!e! as an abo!e of the
go!s, they also ere !escribe! just as /lysiu" as.
The i!ea of a orl! un!er the aters is co""on to "any "ythologies, an!,
generally s%eaking, it originate! in the ani"istic belief that e#ery
%art of nature has its in!elling s%irits. :ence the s%irits or go!s of
the aters ere thought of as !elling belo the aters. Tales of
su%ernatural beings a%%earing out of the aters, the custo" of throing
offerings therein, the belief that hu"an beings ere carrie! belo the
surface or coul! li#e in the region beneath the a#es, are all connecte!
ith this ani"istic i!ea. A"ong the Celts this ater&orl! assu"e! "any
as%ects of /lysiu", an! it has na"es in co""on ith it, e.g. it is
calle! Mag Mell. :ence in "any %o%ular tales it is har!ly !ifferentiate!
fro" the islan! /lysiu"A o#ersea an! un!er&a#es are often synony"ous.
:ence, too, the belief that such ater&orl!s as 6&Bresail, or ?elsh
fairy&lan!s, or sunken cities off the Breton coast, rise %erio!ically to
the surface, an! oul! re"ain there %er"anently, like an islan! /lysiu",
if so"e "ortal oul! fulfil certain con!itions..*+-24
The Celtic belief in Tir fa Tonn is closely connecte! ith the current
belief in sub"erge! tons or lan!s, foun! in greatest !etail on the
Breton coast. :ere there are "any such legen!s, but "ost %ro"inent are
those hich tell ho the ton of 6s as sub"erge! because of the
icke!ness of its %eo%le, or of )ahut, its king's !aughter, ho
so"eti"es still seeks the lo#e of "ortals. 6t is occasionally seen belo
the a#es or e#en on their surface..*+-34 /lsehere in Celtic regions
si"ilar legen!s are foun!, an! the sub"ersion is the result of a curse,
of the breaking of a tabu, or of neglect to co#er a sacre! ell..*+-F4
Probably the tra!ition of actual cataclys"s or inroa!s of the sea, such
as the Celts encountere! on the coasts of :ollan!, "ay account for so"e
of these legen!s, hich then "ingle! ith "yths of the !i#ine
ater&orl!.
The i!ea that /lysiu" is co&eItensi#e ith this orl! an! hi!!en in a
"ist is %erha%s connecte! ith the belief in the "agical %oers of the
go!s. As the )rui!s coul! raise a "ist at ill, so too "ight the go!s,
ho then create! a te"%orary /lysiu" in it. 9ro" such a "ist, usually on
a hill, su%ernatural beings often e"erge! to "eet "ortals, an! in
KMaerchenK fairylan! is so"eti"es foun! ithin a "ist..*+-G4 6t as
alrea!y belie#e! that %art of the go!s' lan! as not far offA it as
in#isibly on or ithin the hills on hose slo%es "en sa the "ist
sirling "ysteriously. :ence the "ist "ay si"%ly ha#e conceale! the
Ksi!K of the go!s. But there "ay also ha#e been a belief that this orl!
as actually inter%enetrate! by the !i#ine orl!, for this is belie#e!
of fairylan! in ?elsh an! 6rish folk&lore. Men "ay unittingly interfere
ith it, or ha#e it su!!enly re#eale! to the", or be carrie! into it an!
"a!e in#isible..*+2,4
6n "ost of the tales /lysiu" is a lan! ithout grief or !eath, here
there is i""ortal youth an! %eace, an! e#ery kin! of !elight. But in
so"e, hile the sensuous !elights are still the sa"e, the inhabitants
are at ar, in#ite the ai! of "ortals to o#erco"e their foes, an! are
e#en slain in fight. 5till in both grou%s /lysiu" is a lan! of go!s an!
su%ernatural folk hither "ortals are in#ite! by fa#our. 6t is ne#er the
orl! of the !ea!A its %eo%le are not "ortals ho ha#e !ie! an! gone
thither. The to conce%tions of /lysiu" as a lan! of %eace an!
!eathlessness, an! as a lan! here ar an! !eath "ay occur, "ay both be
%ri"iti#e. The latter "ay ha#e been for"e! by reflecting back on the
!i#ine orl! the actions of the orl! of "ortals, an! it oul! also be
on a %arallel ith the conce%tion of the orl! of the !ea! here
arriors %erha%s still fought, since they ere burie! ith their
ea%ons. There ere also "yths of go!s arring ith each other. But "en
"ay also ha#e felt that the go!s ere not as the"sel#es, that their lan!
"ust be one of %eace an! !eathlessness. :ence the i!ea of the %eaceful
/lysiu", hich %erha%s foun! "ost fa#our ith the %eo%le. Mr. <utt
thought that the i!ea of a arlike /lysiu" "ay ha#e resulte! fro"
5can!ina#ian influence acting on eIisting tales of a %eaceful
/lysiu",.*+2*4 but e kno that ol! "yths of !i#ine ars alrea!y
eIiste!. Perha%s this conce%tion arose a"ong the Celts as a arlike
%eo%le, a%%ealing to their arrior instincts, hile the %eaceful /lysiu"
"ay ha#e been the %ro!uct of the Celts as an agricultural folk, for e
ha#e seen that the Celt as no a fighter, no a far"er. 6n its %eaceful
as%ect /lysiu" is Ba fa"iliar, culti#ate! lan!,B here the fruits of the
earth are %ro!uce! ithout labour, an! here there are no stor"s or
eIcess of heat or col!&&the fancies hich oul! a%%eal to a toiling,
agricultural %eo%le. There foo! is %ro!uce! "agically, yet naturally,
an! in agricultural ritual "en sought to increase their foo! su%%ly
"agically. 6n the tales this %rocess is, so to s%eak, heightene!..*+2+4
5o"e riters ha#e "aintaine! that /lysiu" is si"%ly the lan! of the
!ea!, although nothing in the eIisting tales justifies this
inter%retation. M. )'Arbois argues for this #ie, resting his theory
"ainly on a %assage in the story of Connla, inter%rete! by hi" in a ay
hich !oes not gi#e its real "eaning..*+2E4 The or!s are s%oken by the
go!!ess to Connla, an! their sense is&&BThe /#er&'i#ing 8nes in#ite
thee. Thou art a cha"%ion to Tethra's %eo%le. They see thee e#ery !ay in
the asse"blies of thy fatherlan!, a"ong thy fa"iliar lo#e! ones.B.*+214
M. )'Arbois assu"es that Tethra, a 9o"orian, is lor! of /lysiu", an!
that after his !efeat by the Tuatha )ea, he, like =ronos, took refuge
there, an! no reigns as lor! of the !ea!. By translating Kar&!ot&chiatK
>Bthey see thee,B Er! %lur., %res. in!.@ as Bon t'y #erra,B he "aintains
that Connla, by going to /lysiu", ill be seen a"ong the gatherings of
his !ea! kinsfolk. But the or!s, BThou art a cha"%ion to Tethra's
%eo%le,B cannot be "a!e to "ean that Tethra is a go! of the !ea!. 6t
"eans si"%ly that Connla is a "ighty arrior, one of those ho" Tethra,
a ar&go!, oul! ha#e a%%ro#e!. The %hrase, BTethra's "ighty "en,B use!
elsehere,.*+2-4 is a con#entional one for arriors. The rest of the
go!!ess's or!s i"%ly that the 6""ortals fro" afar, or %erha%s BTethra's
"ighty "en,B i.e. arriors in this orl!, see Connla in the asse"blies
of his fatherlan! in /rin, a"ong his fa"iliar frien!s. )rea! !eath
aaits Kthe"K, she has just sai!, but the 6""ortals !esire Connla to
esca%e that by co"ing to /lysiu". :er or!s !o not i"%ly that he ill
"eet his !ea! ancestors there, nor is she in any sense a go!!ess of
!eath. 6f the !ea! ent to /lysiu", there oul! be little nee! for
in#iting a li#ing %erson to go there. :a! Connla's !ea! ancestors or
Tethra's %eo%le >arriors@ been in /lysiu", this oul! contra!ict the
%icture !ran by the go!!ess of the lan! hither she !esires hi" to
go&&a lan! of o"en, not of "en. Moreo#er, the rulers of /lysiu" are
alays "e"bers of the Tuatha )e )anann or the Ksi!K&folk, ne#er a
9o"orian like Tethra..*+224
M. )'Arbois also assu"es that B5%ainB in <ennius' account of the 6rish
in#asions an! in 6rish teIts "eans the lan! of the !ea!, an! that it as
intro!uce! in %lace of so"e such title as Mag Mor or Mag Mell by Bthe
euhe"erising %rocess of the 6rish Christians.B But in other !ocu"ents
%enne! by 6rish Christians these an! other %agan titles of /lysiu"
re"ain unchange!. <or is there the slightest %roof that the or!s use!
by Tuan MacCaraill about the in#a!ers of 6relan!, BThey all !ie!,B ere
ren!ere! in an original teIt, no lost accor!ing to M. )'Arbois, BThey
set sail for Mag Mor or Mag Mell,B a for"ula in hich <ennius sa
in!ications of a return to 5%ain..*+234 5%ain, in this hy%othetical
teIt, as the 'an! of the )ea! or /lysiu", hence the in#a!ers ca"e.
This Blost originalB eIists in M. )'Arbois i"agination, an! there is not
the slightest e#i!ence for these alterations. 8nce, in!ee!, Tailtiu is
calle! !aughter of Magh Mor, =ing of 5%ain, but here a %erson, not a
%lace, is s%oken of..*+2F4 5ir John Rh.Jy4s acce%ts the i!entification
of 5%ain ith /lysiu" as the lan! of the !ea!, an! fin!s in e#ery
reference to 5%ain a reference to the 8ther&orl!, hich he regar!s as a
region rule! by B!ark !i#inities.B But neither the lor!s of /lysiu" nor
the Celtic )is%ater ere !ark or gloo"y !eities, an! the lan! of the
!ea! as certainly not a lan! of !arkness any "ore than /lysiu". The
nu"erous references to 5%ain %robably %oint to ol! tra!itions regar!ing
a connection beteen 5%ain an! 6relan! in early ti"es, both co""ercial
an! social, an! it is not i"%ossible that Goi!elic in#a!ers !i! reach
6relan! fro" 5%ain..*+2G4 /arly "a%s an! geogra%hers "ake 6relan! an!
5%ain contiguousA hence in an 6rish tale 6relan! is #isible fro" 5%ain,
an! this geogra%hical error oul! strengthen eIisting tra!itions..*+3,4
B5%ainB as use! #aguely, but it !oes not a%%ear to ha#e "eant /lysiu"
or the 'an! of the )ea!. 6f it !i!, it is strange that the Tuatha )e
)anann are ne#er brought into connection ith it.
8ne of the "ost "arke! characteristics of the Celtic /lysiu" is its
!eathlessness. 6t is Bthe lan! of the li#ingB or of Bthe /#er&'i#ing
8nes,B an! of eternal youth. Most %ri"iti#e races belie#e that !eath is
an acci!ent befalling "en ho are naturally i""ortalA hence free!o" fro"
such an acci!ent naturally characterises the %eo%le of the !i#ine lan!.
But, as in other "ythologies, that i""ortality is "ore or less !e%en!ent
on the eating or !rinking of so"e foo! or !rink of i""ortality. Manannan
ha! i""ortal sine, hich, kille! one !ay, ca"e ali#e neIt !ay, an! ith
their flesh he "a!e the Tuatha )e )anann i""ortal. 6""ortality as also
conferre! by the !rinking of Goibniu's ale, hich, either by itself or
ith the flesh of sine, for"e! his i""ortal feast. The foo! of /lysiu"
as ineIhaustible, an! hoe#er ate it foun! it to %ossess that taste
hich he %referre!. The fruit of certain trees in /lysiu" as also
belie#e! to confer i""ortality an! other Lualities. 'aeg sa one hun!re!
an! fifty trees groing in Mag MellA their nuts fe! three hun!re!
%eo%le. The a%%le gi#en by the go!!ess to Connla as ineIhaustible, an!
he as still eating it ith her hen Teigue, son of Cian, #isite!
/lysiu". B?hen once they ha! %artaken of it, nor age nor !i"ness coul!
affect the".B.*+3*4 A%%les, cri"son nuts, an! roan berries are
s%ecifically sai! to be the foo! of the go!s in the tale of K)iar"ai!
an! GrainneK. Through carelessness one of the berries as !ro%%e! on
earth, an! fro" it gre a tree, the berries of hich ha! the effect of
ine or "ea!, an! three of the" eaten by a "an of a hun!re! years "a!e
hi" youthful. 6t as guar!e! by a giant..*+3+4 A si"ilar tree groing on
earth&&a roan guar!e! by a !ragon, is foun! in the tale of 9raoch, ho
as bi!!en to bring a branch of it to Ailill. 6ts berries ha! the #irtue
of nine "ealsA they heale! the oun!e!, an! a!!e! a year to a "an's
life..*+3E4 At the ells hich ere the source of 6rish ri#ers ere
su%%ose! to gro haHel&trees ith cri"son nuts, hich fell into the
ater an! ere eaten by sal"on..*+314 6f these ere caught an! eaten,
the eater obtaine! is!o" an! knole!ge. These ells ere in /rin, but
in so"e instances the ell ith its haHels an! sal"on is in the
8ther&orl!,.*+3-4 an! it is ob#ious that the cri"son nuts are the sa"e
as the foo! of the go!s in K)iar"ai! an! GrainneK.
?hy shoul! i""ortality be !e%en!ent on the eating of certain foo!sS Most
of "an's irrational i!eas ha#e so"e reason in the", an! %robably "an's
knole!ge that ithout foo! life oul! co"e to an en!, joine! to his
i!ea of !eathlessness, le! hi" to belie#e that there as a certain foo!
hich %ro!uce! i""ortality just as or!inary foo! su%%orte! life. 8n it
go!s an! !eathless beings ere fe!. 5i"ilarly, as ater cleanse! an!
in#igorate!, it as thought that so"e s%ecial kin! of ater ha! these
%oers in a "ar#ellous !egree. :ence arose the tales of the 9ountain of
$outh an! the belief in healing ells. 9ro" the knole!ge of the
nourishing %oer of foo!, s%rang the i!ea that so"e foo! conferre! the
Lualities inherent in it, e.g. the flesh of !i#ine ani"als eaten
sacra"entally, an! that go!s obtaine! their i""ortality fro" eating or
!rinking. This i!ea is i!es%rea!. The Babylonian go!s ha! foo! an!
ater of 'ifeA /gy%tian "yth s%oke of the brea! an! beer of eternity
hich nourishe! the go!sA the :in!us an! 6ranians kne of the !i#ine
Kso"aK or Khao"aKA an! in 5can!ina#ian "yth the go!s renee! their youth
by tasting 6!una's gol!en a%%les.
6n Celtic /lysiu" tales, the fruit of a tree is "ost usually the foo! of
i""ortality. The fruit ne#er !i"inishes an! alays satisfies, an! it is
the foo! of the go!s. ?hen eaten by "ortals it confers i""ortality u%on
the"A in other or!s, it "akes the" of like nature to the go!s, an! this
is !oubtless !eri#e! fro" the i!es%rea! i!ea that the eating of foo!
gi#en by a stranger "akes a "an of one kin ith hi". :ence to eat the
foo! of go!s, fairies, or of the !ea!, bin!s the "ortal to the" an! he
cannot lea#e their lan!. This "ight be illustrate! fro" a i!e range of
"yth an! folk&belief. ?hen Connla ate the a%%le he at once !esire! to go
to /lysiu", an! he coul! not lea#e it once he as thereA he ha! beco"e
akin to its %eo%le. 6n the stories of Bran an! 8isin, they are not sai!
to ha#e eaten such fruit, but the %ri"iti#e for" of the tales "ay ha#e
containe! this inci!ent, an! this oul! eI%lain hy they coul! not set
foot on earth unscathe!, an! hy Bran an! his folloers, or, in the tale
of 9iachna, 'oegaire an! his "en ho ha! !runk the ale of /lysiu",
returne! thither. 6n other tales, it is true, those ho eat foo! in
/lysiu" can return to earth&&Cor"ac an! CuchulainnA but ha! e the
%ri"iti#e for" of these tales e shoul! %robably fin! that they ha!
refraine! fro" eating. The inci!ent of the fruit gi#en by an i""ortal to
a "ortal "ay ha#e borroe! so"ething fro" the i!e folk&custo" of the
%resentation of an a%%le as a gage of lo#e or as a %art of the "arriage
rite..*+324 6ts acce%tance !enotes illingness to enter u%on betrothal
or "arriage. But as in the Ro"an rite of KconfarreatioK ith its sa#age
%arallels, the un!erlying i!ea is %robably that hich has just been
consi!ere!, na"ely, that the gi#ing an! acce%tance of foo! %ro!uces the
bon! of kinshi%.
As #arious nuts an! fruits ere %riHe! in 6relan! as foo!, an! ere
%erha%s use! in so"e cases to %ro!uce an intoIicant,.*+334 it is e#i!ent
that the trees of /lysiu" ere, %ri"arily, a "agnifie! for" of earthly
trees. But all such trees ere !oubtless objects of a cult before their
%ro!uce as generally eatenA they ere first sacre! or tote"&trees, an!
their foo! eaten only occasionally an! sacra"entally. 6f so, this oul!
eI%lain hy they gre in /lysiu" an! their fruit as the foo! of the
go!s. 9or hate#er "an eats or !rinks is generally su%%ose! to ha#e been
first eaten an! !runk by the go!s, like the Kso"aK. But, groing in
/lysiu", these trees, like the trees of "ost "yths of /lysiu", are far
"ore "ar#ellous than any knon on earth. They ha#e branches of sil#er
an! gol!en a%%lesA they ha#e "agical su%%lies of fruit, they %ro!uce
on!erful "usic hich so"eti"es causes slee% or obli#ionA an! bir!s
%erch in their branches an! arble "elo!y Bsuch that the sick oul!
slee% to it.B 6t shoul! be note! also that, as Miss :ull %oints out, in
so"e tales the branch of a !i#ine tree beco"es a talis"an lea!ing the
"ortal to /lysiu"A in this rese"bling the gol!en bough %lucke! by A/neas
before #isiting the un!erorl!..*+3F4 This, hoe#er, is not the
fun!a"ental characteristic of the tree, in 6rish story. Possibly, as Mr.
A.B. Cook "aintains, the branch gi#ing entrance to /lysiu" is !eri#e!
fro" the branch borne by early Celtic kings of the oo!, hile the tree
is an i"aginati#e for" of those hich incarnate! a #egetation
s%irit..*+3G4 Be this as it "ay, it is rather the fruit eaten by the
"ortal hich bin!s hi" to the 6""ortal 'an!.
The inhabitants of /lysiu" are not only i""ortal, but also in#isible at
ill. They "ake the"sel#es #isible to one %erson only out of "any
%resent ith hi". Connla alone sees the go!!ess, in#isible to his father
an! the )rui!. Mananuan is #isible to Bran, but there are "any near the
hero ho" he !oes not seeA an! hen the sa"e go! co"es to 9an!, he is
in#isible to Cuchulainn an! those ith hi". 5o Mi!er says to /tain, B?e
behol!, an! are not behel!.B.*+F,4 8ccasionally, too, the %eo%le of
/lysiu" ha#e the %oer of sha%e&shifting&&9an! an! 'iban a%%ear to
Cuchulainn as bir!s.
The haHel of knole!ge connects is!o" ith the go!s' orl!, an! in
Celtic belief generally ci#ilisation an! culture ere su%%ose! to ha#e
co"e fro" the go!s. The things of their lan! ere co#ete! by "en, an!
often stolen thence by the". 6n ?elsh an! 6rish tales, often ith
reference to the 8ther&orl!, a "agical caul!ron has a %ro"inent %lace.
)ag!a %ossesse! such a caul!ron an! it as ineIhaustible, an! a #at of
ineIhaustible "ea! is !escribe! in the story of KCuchulain's 5icknessK.
?hate#er as %ut into such caul!rons satisfie! all, no "atter ho
nu"erous they "ight be..*+F*4 Cuchulainn obtaine! one fro" the !aughter
of the king of 5cath, an! also carrie! off the king's three cos..*+F+4
6n an analogous story, he stole fro" Curoi, by the conni#ance of his
ife Blathnat, her father Mi!er's caul!ron, three cos, an! the o"an
herself. But in another #ersion Cuchulainn an! Curoi go to Mi!er's
stronghol! in the 6sle of 9alga >/lysiu"@, an! steal caul!ron, cos, an!
Blathnat. These ere taken fro" Cuchulainn by CuroiA hence his re#enge
as in the %re#ious tale..*+FE4 Thus the theft as fro" /lysiu". 6n the
?elsh %oe" BThe 5%oils of Annfn,B Arthur stole a caul!ron fro" Annfn.
6ts ri" as encruste! ith %earls, #oices issue! fro" it, it as ke%t
boiling by the breath of nine "ai!ens, an! it oul! not boil a coar!'s
foo!..*+F14
As has been seen fro" the story of Gion, he as set to atch a caul!ron
hich "ust boil until it yiel!e! Bthree !ro%s of the grace of
ins%iration.B 6t belonge! to Tegi! Coel an! Cerri!en, !i#ine rulers of
a 'an! un!er the ?aters..*+F-4 6n the KMabinogiK of Branen, her brother
Bran recei#e! a caul!ron fro" to beings, a "an an! a huge o"an, ho
ca"e fro" a lake. This caul!ron as gi#en by hi" to the king of /rin,
an! it ha! the %ro%erty of restoring to life the slain ho ere %lace!
in it..*+F24
The three %ro%erties of the caul!ron&&ineIhaustibility, ins%iration, an!
regeneration&&"ay be su""e! u% in one or!, fertilityA an! it is
significant that the go! ith ho" such a caul!ron as associate!,
)ag!a, as a go! of fertility. But e ha#e just seen it associate!,
!irectly or in!irectly, ith go!!esses&&Cerri!en, Branen, the o"an
fro" the lake&&an! %erha%s this "ay %oint to an earlier cult of
go!!esses of fertility, later transferre! to go!s. 6n this light the
caul!ron's %oer of restoring to life is significant, since in early
belief life is associate! ith hat is fe"inine. ?o"an as the fruitful
"other suggeste! that the /arth, hich %ro!uce! an! nourishe!, as also
fe"ale. :ence arose the cult of the /arth&"other ho as often also a
go!!ess of lo#e as ell as of fertility. Cerri!en, in all %robability,
as a go!!ess of fertility, an! Branen a go!!ess of lo#e..*+F34 The
cult of fertility as usually associate! ith orgiastic an!
in!iscri"inate lo#e&"aking, an! it is not i"%ossible that the caul!ron,
like the :in!u KyoniK, as a sy"bol of fertility..*+FF4 Again, the
slaughter an! cooking of ani"als as usually regar!e! as a sacre! act in
%ri"iti#e life. The ani"als ere cooke! in enor"ous caul!rons, hich
ere foun! as an in#ariable %art of the furniture of e#ery Celtic
house..*+FG4 The Luantities of "eat hich they containe! "ay ha#e
suggeste! ineIhaustibility to %eo%le to ho" the caul!ron as alrea!y a
sy"bol of fertility. Thus the sy"bolic caul!ron of a fertility cult as
"erge! ith the caul!ron use! in the religious slaughter an! cooking of
ani"al foo!. The caul!ron as also use! in ritual. The Ci"ri slaughtere!
hu"an #icti"s o#er a caul!ron an! fille! it ith their bloo!A #icti"s
sacrifice! to Teutates ere suffocate! in a #at >Kse"icu%iu"K@A an! in
6relan! Ba caul!ron of truthB as use! in the or!eal of boiling
ater..*+G,4 'ike the foo! of "en hich as regar!e! as the foo! of the
go!s, the caul!ron of this orl! beca"e the "ar#ellous caul!ron of the
8ther&orl!, an! as it then beca"e necessary to eI%lain the origin of
such caul!rons on earth, "yths arose, telling ho they ha! been stolen
fro" the !i#ine lan! by a!#enturous heroes, Cuchulainn, Arthur, etc. 6n
other instances, the caul!ron is re%lace! by a "agic #essel or cu%
stolen fro" su%ernatural beings by heroes of the 9ionn saga or of
KMaerchenK..*+G*4 :ere, too, it "ay be note! that the Graal of Arthurian
ro"ance has affinities ith the Celtic caul!ron. 6n the KConte !u GraalK
of %seu!o&Chretien, a cu% co"es in of itself an! ser#es all %resent ith
foo!. This is a si"%le conce%tion of the Graal, but in other %oe"s its
"agical an! sacrosanct character is heightene!. 6t su%%lies the foo!
hich the eater %refers, it gi#es i""ortal youth an! i""unity fro"
oun!s. 6n these res%ects it %resents an un"istakable likeness to the
caul!ron of Celtic "yth. But, again, it as the #essel in hich Christ
ha! institute! the Blesse! 5acra"entA it containe! :is Bloo!A an! it ha!
been gi#en by our 'or! to Jose%h of Ari"athea. Thus in the Graal there
as a fusion of the "agic caul!ron of Celtic %aganis" an! the 5acre!
Chalice of Christianity, ith the %ro!uct "a!e "ystic an! glorious in a
"ost on!erful "anner. The story of the Graal beca"e i""ensely %o%ular,
an!, !ee%ening in ethical, "ystical, an! ro"antic i"%ort as ti"e ent
on, as taken u% by one %oet after another, ho Buse! it as a ty%e of
the loftiest goal of "an's effort.B.*+G+4
6n other ays "yth tol! ho the gifts of ci#ilisation ca"e fro" the
go!s' orl!. ?hen "an ca"e to !o"esticate ani"als, it as belie#e! in
course of ti"e that the knole!ge of !o"estication or, "ore usually, the
ani"als the"sel#es ha! co"e fro" the go!s, only, in this case, the
ani"als ere of a "agical, su%ernatural kin!. 5uch a belief un!erlies
the stories in hich Cuchulainn steals cos fro" their !i#ine oners. 6n
other instances, heroes ho obtain a ife fro" the Ksi!K&folk, obtain
also cattle fro" the Ksi!K..*+GE4 As has been seen the sine gi#en to
Pry!eri by Aran, king of Annfn, an! hitherto unknon to "an, are
stolen fro" hi" by Gy!ion, Pry!eri being son of Pyll, a te"%orary king
of Annfn, an! in all %robability both ere lor!s of /lysiu". The theft,
in the original for" of the "yth, "ust thus ha#e been fro" /lysiu",
though e ha#e a hint in BThe 5%oils of AnnfnB that Gy!ion >Geir@ as
unsuccessful an! as i"%risone! in Annfn, to hich i"%rison"ent the
later blen!ing of Annfn ith hell ga#e a !oleful as%ect..*+G14 6n a
late ?elsh M5., a hite roebuck an! a %u%%y >or, in the KTria!sK, a
bitch, a roebuck, an! a la%ing@ ere stolen by A"aethon fro" Annfn, an!
the story %resents archaic features..*+G-4 6n so"e of these tales the
ani"als are transferre! to earth by a !i#ine or se"i&!i#ine being, in
ho" e "ay see an early Celtic culture&hero. The tales are attenuate!
for"s of ol!er "yths hich shoe! ho all !o"estic ani"als ere at first
the %ro%erty of the go!s, an! an echo of these is still hear! in
KMaerchenK !escribing the theft of cattle fro" fairylan!. 6n the "ost
%ri"iti#e for" of the tales the theft as !oubtless fro" the un!erorl!
of go!s of fertility, the %lace hither the !ea! ent. But ith the rise
of "yths telling of a !istant /lysiu", it as ine#itable that so"e tales
shoul! connect the ani"als an! the theft ith that far&off lan!. 5o far
as the 6rish an! ?elsh tales are concerne!, the thefts see" "ainly to be
fro" /lysiu"..*+G24
'o#e&"aking has a large %lace in the /lysiu" tales. Go!!esses seek the
lo#e of "ortals, an! the "ortal !esires to #isit /lysiu" because of
their entice"ents. But the lo#e&"aking of /lysiu" is Bithout sin,
ithout cri"e,B an! this %hrase "ay %erha%s suggest the eIistence of
ritual seI&unions at state! ti"es for "agical influence u%on the
fertility of the earth, these unions not being regar!e! as i""oral, e#en
hen they tres%asse! on custo"ary tribal la. 6n so"e of the stories
/lysiu" is co"%ose! of "any islan!s, one of hich is the Bislan! of
o"en.B.*+G34 These o"en an! their Lueen gi#e their fa#ours to Bran an!
his "en or to Mael!uin an! his co"%any. 5i"ilar Bislan!s of o"enB occur
in KMaerchenK, still current a"ong Celtic %eo%les, an! actual islan!s
ere or still are calle! by that na"e&&/igg an! GroageH off the Breton
coast..*+GF4 5i"ilar islan!s of o"en are knon to Chinese, Ja%anese,
an! Ainu folk&lore, to Greek "ythology >Circe's an! Caly%so's islan!s@,
an! to ancient /gy%tian conce%tions of the future life..*+GG4 They ere
also knon elsehere,.*E,,4 an! e "ay therefore assu"e that in
!escribing such an islan! as %art of /lysiu", the Celts ere using
so"ething co""on to uni#ersal folk&belief. But it "ay also oe so"ething
to actual custo", to the "e"ory of a ti"e hen o"en %erfor"e! their
rites in seclusion, a seclusion %erha%s recalle! in the references to
the "ysterious nature of the islan!, its inaccessibility, an! its
!isa%%earance once the "ortal lea#es it. To these rites "en "ay ha#e
been a!"itte! by fa#our, but %erha%s to their !etri"ent, because of
their te"%orary %artner's eItre"e erotic "a!ness. This is the case in
the Chinese tales of the islan! of o"en, an! this, rather than
ho"e&sickness, "ay eI%lain the !esire of Bran, 8isin, etc., to lea#e
/lysiu". Celtic o"en %erfor"e! orgiastic rites on islan!s, as has been
seen..*E,*4 All this "ay ha#e originate! the belief in an islan! of
beautiful !i#ine o"en as %art of /lysiu", hile it also heightene! its
sensuous as%ect.
Borroe! fro" the !elight hich the Celt took in "usic is the recurring
reference to the "ar#ellous "usic hich selle! in /lysiu". There, as
the go!!ess says to Bran, Bthere is nothing rough or harsh, but seet
"usic striking on the ear.B 6t soun!e! fro" bir!s on e#ery tree, fro"
the branches of trees, fro" "ar#ellous stones, an! fro" the har%s of
!i#ine "usicians. An! this is recalle! in the ra#ishing "usic hich the
belate! tra#eller hears as he %asses fairy&haunte! s%ots&&Bhat %i%es
an! ti"brels, hat il! ecstasyMB The ro"antic beauty of /lysiu" is
!escribe! in these Celtic tales in a ay uneLualle! in all other sagas
or KMaerchenK, an! it is insiste! on by those ho co"e to lure "ortals
there. The beauty of its lan!sca%es&&hills, hite cliffs, #alleys, sea
an! shore, lakes an! ri#ers,&&of its trees, its inhabitants, an! its
bir!s,&&the char" of its su""er haHe, is ob#iously the %ro!uct of the
i"agination of a %eo%le keenly ali#e to natural beauty. The o%ening
lines sung by the go!!ess to Bran strike a note hich soun!s through all
Celtic literature(
BThere is a !istant isle, aroun! hich sea&horses glisten,
...
A beauty of a on!rous lan!, hose as%ects are lo#ely,
?hose #ie is a fair country, inco"%arable in its haHe.
6t is a !ay of lasting eather, that shoers sil#er on the lan!A
A %ure hite cliff on the range of the sea,
?hich fro" the sun recei#es its heat.B
5o 8isin !escribes it( B6 sa a country all green an! full of floers,
ith beautiful s"ooth %lains, blue hills, an! lakes an! aterfalls.B All
this an! "ore than this is the reflection of nature as it is foun! in
Celtic regions, an! as it as seen by the eye of Celtic !rea"ers, an!
inter%rete! to a %oetic race by the".
6n 6rish accounts of the Ksi!K, )ag!a has the su%re"acy, reste! later
fro" hi" by 8engus, but generally each oner of a Ksi!K is its lor!. 6n
?elsh tra!ition Aran is lor! of Annfn, but his clai"s are conteste! by
a ri#al, an! other lor!s of /lysiu" are knon. Manannan, a go! of the
sea, a%%ears to be lor! of the 6rish islan! /lysiu" hich is calle! Bthe
lan! of Manannan,B %erha%s because it as easy to associate an o#ersea
orl! Baroun! hich sea&horses glistenB ith a go! hose "ythic stee!s
ere the a#es. But as it lay toar!s the sunset, an! as so"e of its
as%ects "ay ha#e been suggeste! by the glories of the setting sun, the
sun&go! 'ug as also associate! ith it, though he har!ly takes the
%lace of Manannan.
Most of the as%ects of /lysiu" a%%ear unchange! in later folk&belief,
but it has no beco"e fairylan!&&a %lace ithin hills, "oun!s, or Ksi!K,
of "ar#ellous beauty, ith "agic %ro%erties, an! here ti"e la%ses as in
a !rea". A on!erful o#ersea lan! is also foun! in KMaerchenK an!
tra!ition, an! Tir na n&8g is still a li#ing reality to the Celt. There
is the fountain of youth, healing balsa"s, life&gi#ing fruits, beautiful
o"en or fairy folk. 6t is the true lan! of heart's !esire. 6n the
ele#enth century M55. fro" hich our knole!ge of /lysiu" is "ainly
!ran, but hich i"%ly a re"ote antiLuity for the "aterials an! i!eas of
the tales, the Ksi!K&orl! is still the orl! of !i#ine beings, though
these are beginning to assu"e the traits of fairies. Probably a"ong the
%eo%le the"sel#es the change ha! alrea!y begun to be "a!e, an! the lan!
of the go!s as si"%ly fairylan!. 6n ?ales the sa"e change ha! taken
%lace, as is seen by Giral!us' account of /li!urus entice! to a
subterranean fairylan! by to s"all %eo%le..*E,+4
5o"e of the /lysiu" tales ha#e been influence! by Christian conce%tions,
an! in a certain grou%, the K6"ra"aK or BCoyages,B /lysiu" finally
beco"es the Christian %ara!ise or hea#en. But the /lysiu" conce%tion
also reacte! on Christian i!eas of %ara!ise. 6n the KCoyage of
Mael!uinK, hich bears so"e rese"blance to the story of Bran, the
Christian influence is still in!efinite, but it is "ore "arke! in the
KCoyage of 5ne!gus an! MacRiaglaK. 8ne islan! has beco"e a kin! of
inter"e!iate state, here !ell /noch an! /lijah, an! "any others
aiting for the !ay of ju!g"ent. Another islan! rese"bles the Christian
hea#en. But in the KCoyage of Bran!anK the %agan ele"ents ha#e
%ractically !isa%%eare!A there is an islan! of hell an! an islan! of
%ara!ise..*E,E4 The islan! conce%tion is the last relic of %aganis", but
no the #oyage is un!ertaken for the %ur%ose of re#enge or %enance or
%ilgri"age. Another series of tales of #isionary journeys to hell or
hea#en are %urely Christian, yet the joys of hea#en ha#e a sensuous
as%ect hich recalls those of the %agan /lysiu". 6n one of these, KThe
Ti!ings of )oo"s!ayK,.*E,14 there are to hells, an! besi!es hea#en
there is a %lace for the Kboni non #al!eK, rese"bling the islan! of
/noch an! /lijah in the KCoyage of 5ne!gusK. The connection of /lysiu"
ith the Christian %ara!ise is seen in the title KTir TairngiriK, BThe
'an! of Pro"ise,B hich is a%%lie! to the hea#enly king!o" or the lan!
floing ith "ilk an! honey in early glosses, e.g. on :eb. i#. 1, #i.
*-, here Canaan an! the Kregnu" c.oe4loru"K are calle! KTir TairngiriK,
an! in a gloss to * Cor. I. 1, here the hea#enly lan! is calle! Tir
Tairngiri 6nna"beo, BThe 'an! of Pro"ise of the 'i#ing 8nes,B thus
likening it to the B'an! of the 'i#ingB in the story of Connla.
5ensuous as "any of the as%ects of /lysiu" are, they ha#e yet a
s%iritual as%ect hich "ust not be o#erlooke!. The e"%hasis %lace! on
its beauty, its "usic, its rest an! %eace, its obli#ion, is s%iritual
rather than sensual, hile the !elling of fa#oure! "ortals there ith
!i#ine beings is suggesti#e of that union ith the !i#ine hich is the
essence of all religion. Though "en are lure! to seek it, they !o not
lea#e it, or they go back to it after a brief absence, an! 'aeg says
that he oul! %refer /lysiu" to the kingshi% of all 6relan!, an! his
or!s are echoe! by others. An! the lure of the go!!ess often e"%hasises
the free!o" fro" tur"oil, grief, an! the ru!e alar"s of earthly life.
This Bseet an! blesse! countryB is !escribe! ith all the %assion of a
%oetical race ho !rea"e! of %erfect ha%%iness, an! sa in the joy of
nature's beauty, the lo#e of o"en, an! the thought of unbroken %eace
an! har"ony, no s"all %art of "an's truest life. 9a#oure! "ortals ha!
reache! /lysiu", an! the ho%e that he, too, "ight be so fa#oure! buoye!
u% the Celt as he !rea"e! o#er this state, hich as so "uch "ore
blissful e#en than the future state of the !ea!. Many races ha#e
i"agine! a ha%%y 8ther&orl!, but no other race has so fille! it ith
"agic beauty, or so %ersistently recurre! to it as the Celts. They stoo!
on the cliffs hich face! the est, an! as the %ageant of sunset %asse!
before the", or as at "i!!ay the light shi""ere! on the far horiHon an!
on sha!oy islan!s, they gaHe! ith istful eyes as if to catch a
gli"%se of /lysiu" beyon! the fountains of the !ee% an! the halls of the
setting sun. 6n all this e see the Celtic #ersion of a %ri"iti#e an!
instincti#e hu"an belief. Man refuses to think that the "isery an!
!isa%%oint"ent an! strife an! %ain of life "ust alays be his. :e ho%es
an! belie#es that there is reser#e! for hi", so"ehere an! at so"e ti"e,
eternal ha%%iness an! eternal lo#e.
988T<8T/5(
.*+E*4 <utt&Meyer, i. +*E.
.*+E+4 Joyce, K8CRK 1E*.
.*+EE4 )'Arbois, ii. E**A K6TK i. **E f.A 8'Curry, KMCK iii. *G,.
.*+E14 <utt&Meyer, i. * f., teIt an! translation.
.*+E-4 K';K *+,KaKA ?in!isch, K6rische Gra"".K *+, f.A )'Arbois, #. EF1
f.A KGaelic JournalK, ii. E,3.
.*+E24 KT85K i#. +E1. 5ee also Joyce, K8CRK EF-A =enne!y, +1,.
.*+E34 K';K 1E f.A K6TK i. +,- f.A 8'Curry, KAtlantisK, ii., iii.A
)'Arbois, #. *3,A 'eahy, i. 2, f.
.*+EF4 B9ro" Manannan ca"e foes.B
.*+EG4 Joyce, K8CRK ++E f.
.*+1,4 8'Gra!y, ii. +G,. 6n this story the sea is i!entifie! ith
9iachna's ife.
.*+1*4 Joyce, K8CRK +-E f.
.*+1+4 K6TK iii. +** f.A )'Arbois, ii. *F-.
.*+1E4 8'Curry, KM5. Mat.K EFF.
.*+114 A si"ilar i!ea occurs in "any 9ian tales.
.*+1-4 /#ans, K?elsh )ict. s.#.K BAnnfnBA Anyl, 2,A Gai!oH, KRCPK i.
+G f.
.*+124 'oth, i. +3 f.A see %. ***, Ksu%raK.
.*+134 P%. *,2, **+, Ksu%raK.
.*+1F4 Guest, iii. 3-A 'oth, i. +G f.
.*+1G4 5kene, i. +21, +32. Cf. the K6lle tournoiontK of the Graal
ro"ances an! the re#ol#ing houses of KMaerchenK. A re#ol#ing ra"%art
occurs in BMael!uinB >KRCK I. F*@.
.*+-,4 5kene, i. +F-.
.*+-*4 P%. *,E, **2, Ksu%raK.
.*+-+4 Chretien, K/ricK, *GEE f.A Geoffrey, KCita MerliniK, 1*A 5an
Marte, KGeoffreyK, 1+-. Another 6rish 'iban is calle! Muirgen, hich is
the sa"e as Morgen. 5ee Giral!. Ca"br. K5%ec. /ccl.K Rolls 5eries, i#.
1F.
.*+-E4 ?illia" of Mal"esbury, K!e Ant. Glaston. /ccl.K
.*+-14 5an Marte, 1+-.
.*+--4 K8%. cit.K i#. 1G.
.*+-24 Joyce, K8CRK 1E1A Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. *3,A :ar!i"an, K6rish Minst.K
i. E23A 5ebillot, ii. -2 f.A Giral!. Ca"br. ii. *+. The un!erorl! is
so"eti"es reache! through a ell >cf. %. +F+, Ksu%raKA KT6K iii. +,G@.
.*+-34 K'e BraHKO+P, i. %. IIIiI, ii. E3 f.A Albert le Gran!, KCies !e
5aints !e BretagneK, 2E.
.*+-F4 A hole class of such 6rish legen!s is calle! KTo"ha!naK,
B6nun!ations.B A ty%ical instance is that of the ton belo 'ough <eagh,
alrea!y referre! to by Giral!us Ca"brensis, KTo%. :ib.K ii. GA cf. a
?elsh instance in K6tin. Ca"br.K i. +. 5ee Rh.Jy4s, KC9', %assi"KA
=enne!y, +F+A KRe#. !es Tra!. Po%.K iI. 3G.
.*+-G4 K5cott. Celt. Re#.K i. 3,A Ca"%bell, K?:TK <os. EF, -+A 'oth, i.
EF.
.*+2,4 Curtin, KTalesK, *-FA Rh.Jy4s, KC9'K i. +E,.
.*+2*4 <utt&Meyer, i. *-G.
.*+2+4 6n the Ce!as, /lysiu" has also a strong agricultural as%ect,
%robably for the sa"e reasons.
.*+2E4 )'Arbois, ii. **G, *G+, EF-, #i. *G3, +*GA KRCK II#i. *3EA K'es
)rui!esK, *+*.
.*+214 9or the teIt see ?in!isch, K6r. Gra".K *+,( BTotchurethar bii
bithbi at gerait !o !ainib Tethrach. ar&!ot&chiat each !ia i n&!alaib
tathar!ai eter !ugnathu in"aini.B )r. 5tokes an! 5ir John Rh.Jy4s ha#e
both %ri#ately confir"e! the inter%retation gi#en abo#e.
.*+2-4 B)ialogue of the 5ages,B KRCK II#i. EE f.
.*+224 Tethra as husban! of the ar&go!!ess Ba!b, an! in one teIt his
na"e is glosse! Kba!bK >Cor"ac, Ks.#.K BTethraB@. The na"e is also
glosse! K"uirK, Bsea,B by 8'Cleary, an! the sea is calle! Bthe %lain of
TethraB >KArch. Re#.K i. *-+@. These obscure notices !o not necessarily
!enote that he as ruler of an o#ersea /lysiu".
.*+234 <ennius, K:ist. Brit.K 5ec. *EA )'Arbois, ii. F2, *E1, +E*.
.*+2F4 K''K FKbKA =eating, *+2.
.*+2G4 Both art K"otifsK an! early burial custo"s in the to countries
are si"ilar. 5ee Reinach, KRCK IIi. FFA K''Anthro%ologieK, *FFG, EG3A
5iret, K'es Pre"iere Ages !u Metal !ans le 5u!. /st. !e l'/s%agne.K
.*+3,4 8rosius, i. +. 3*A K''K **KbK.
.*+3*4 )'Arbois, #. EF1A 8'Gra!y, ii. EF-.
.*+3+4 KT85K iii. **GA Joyce, K8CRK E*1. 9or a folk&tale #ersion see
K9olk&loreK, #ii. E+*.
.*+3E4 'eahy, i. E2A Ca"%bell, K'9K +GA KCMK Iiii. +F-A K)ean of
'is"ore's BookK, -1.
.*+314 8'Curry, KMCK ii. *1EA Cor"ac, E-.
.*+3-4 5ee %. *F3, Ksu%raKA K6TK iii. +*E.
.*+324 5ee Gai!oH, B'a ReLuisition !e l'A"our et la 5y"bolis"e !e la
Po""e,B KAnn. !e l'/cole PratiLue !es :autes /tu!esK, *G,+A 9raser,
KPausaniasK, iii. 23.
.*+334 Rh.Jy4s, K:'K E-G.
.*+3F4 BThe 5il#er Bough in 6rish 'egen!,B K9olk&'oreK, Iii. 1E*.
.*+3G4 Cook, K9olk&'oreK, I#ii. *-F.
.*+F,4 K6TK i. *EE.
.*+F*4 8')ono#an, KBattle of Mag RathK, -,A )'Arbois, #. 23A K6TK i. G2.
)ag!a's caul!ron ca"e fro" Murias, %robably an o#ersea orl!.
.*+F+4 Miss :ull, +11. 5cath is here the 8ther&orl!, concei#e!,
hoe#er, as a !is"al abo!e.
.*+FE4 8'Curry, KMCK ii. G3, iii. 3GA =eating, +F1 f.A KRCK I#. 11G.
.*+F14 5kene, i. +21A cf. KRCK IIii. *1.
.*+F-4 P. **2, Ksu%raK.
.*+F24 Guest, iii. E+* f.
.*+F34 5ee %%. *,E, **3, Ksu%raK.
.*+FF4 9or the use of a #essel in ritual as a sy"bol of !eity, see
Crooke, K9olk&'oreK, #iii. E-* f.
.*+FG4 )io!. 5ic. #. +FA Athen. i#. E1A Joyce, K5:K ii. *+1A KAntient
'as of 6relan!K, i#. E+3. The caul!rons of 6rish houses are sai! in the
teIts to be ineIhaustible >cf. KRCK IIiii. EG3@.
.*+G,4 5trabo, #ii. +. *A 'ucan, ;sener's e!., %. E+A K6TK iii. +*,A
KAntient 'as of 6relan!K, i. *G- f.
.*+G*4 Curtin, K:T6K +1G, +2+.
.*+G+4 5ee Cille"arLue, KContes Po%. !es anciens BretonsK, Paris, *F1+A
Rh.Jy4s, KA'KA an! es%ecially <utt, K'egen! of the :oly GrailK, *FFF.
.*+GE4 BA!#entures of <era,B KRCK I. ++2A KRCK I#i. 2+, 21.
.*+G14 P. *,2, Ksu%raK.
.*+G-4 P. *,3, Ksu%raK.
.*+G24 9or %arallel "yths see KRig&Ce!aK, i. -E. +A Ca"%bell, KTra#els
in 5outh AfricaK, i. E,2A Johnston, K;gan!a ProtectorateK, ii. 3,1A 'ing
Roth, K<ati#es of 5araakK, i. E,3A an! cf. the "yth of Pro"etheus.
.*+G34 This is foun! in the stories of Bran, Mael!uin, Connla, in 9ian
tales >8'Gra!y, ii. ++F, +EF@, in the BChil!ren of Tuirenn,B an! in
Gaelic KMaerchenK.
.*+GF4 Martin, +33A 5ebillot, ii. 32.
.*+GG4 Burton, KThousan! <ights an! a <ightK, I. +EGA Cha"berlain, KAino
9olk&TalesK, EFA K''Anthro%ologieK, #. -,3A Mas%ero, K:ist. anc. !es
%eu%les !e l'8rientK, i. *FE. The lust of the o"en of these islan!s is
fatal to their lo#ers.
.*E,,4 An islan! near <e Guinea is calle! Bthe lan! of o"en.B 8n it
"en are alloe! to lan! te"%orarily, but only the fe"ale offs%ring of
the o"en are alloe! to sur#i#e >K'' Anthro%.K #. -,3@. The 6n!ians of
9lori!a ha! a tra!ition of an islan! in a lake inhabite! by the fairest
o"en >Chateaubrian!, KAutob.K *F+1, ii. +1@, an! 9ijian "ythology knos
of an /lysian islan! of go!!esses, near the lan! of the go!s, to hich a
fe fa#oure! "ortals are a!"itte! >?illia"s, K9ijiK, i. **1@.
.*E,*4 P. +31, Ksu%raK. 6slan!s "ay ha#e been regar!e! as sacre! because
of such cults, as the folk&lore re%orte! by Plutarch suggests >%. E1E,
Ksu%raK@. Celtic saints retaine! the #eneration for islan!s, an! lo#e!
to !ell on the", an! the i!ea sur#i#es in folk&belief. Cf. the
#eneration of 'eis"en for the 9lannan islan!s.
.*E,+4 Gir. Ca"b. K6tin. Ca"b.K i. F.
.*E,E4 Translations of so"e of these KCoyagesK by 5tokes are gi#en in
KRCK, #ols. iI. I. an! Ii#. 5ee also Ri""er, BBren!an's Meerfahrt,B
KReits. fuer )eut. Alt.K IIIiii.A cf. <utt&Meyer, ch. 1, F.
.*E,14 KRCK i#. +1E.
6<)/Q
Abnoba, 1E.
A!a"nan, 3+.
Ae! Abrat, 2-.
Ae! 5lane, E-*.
Aeracura, E3, 11.
Afanc, *G,.
Agricultural rites, E, 1, -3, F,, *,3, *1,, ++3, +E3. 5ee 9esti#als.
Aife, *+G.
Aillen, 3,.
Aine, 3, f.
Aitherne, F1.
AlbioriI, +F.
All 5aints' )ay, *3,.
All 5ouls' )ay, *3,.
Allat, F3, *,,.
Al%ine race, F, *+.
Altars, +F+ f.
A"aethon, *,3, EF1.
A"airgen, --, *3+.
A"bicatus, *G, +++.
A"ours ith "ortals, !i#ine, *+F, *-G, E1F, E-,, E--.
A"ulets, E,, E+3 f., E+E.
Ancestor orshi%, *2-, +,,.
An!arta, 1*.
An!rasta, 1*, *+-.
AneItio"arus, *+-.
Ani"al go!s, anthro%o"or%hic, E1, G+, *,2, *EG f., *-F, +*,, +*+, ++2.
Ani"al orshi%, E, G+, *1,, *F2, +,F f., +2,.
Ani"als, burial of, *F2, +**, ++*.
Ani"als, !escent fro", +*E, +*2 f.
Ani"als, !o"estic, fro" the go!s' lan!, E3, EF1.
Ani"als, !ressing as, +*3, +2,.
Ani"als, sacra"ental eating of, ++* f.
Ani"als, slaughter of, EF+.
Ani"als, tabooe!, +*G.
Ani"is", *3E, *F-.
Ankou, E1-.
Annfn, *,2, ***, **-, **3, E23 f., EF*.
Anu, 23 f., 3+, 3E, ++E.
Anyl, Prof., 1* note, G2.
A%ollo, +-, +3, *+-, *F,, *FE, +E*.
Aran, ***, E2F, EF1, EF3.
Archaeology, +.
Ar!uinna, 1E.
Arianrho!, *,1, *,-, *,2, *,G f.
Arte"is, 1+, **,, *33, +1+.
Artaios, +1, *+*.
Arthur, FF, G3, *,G, **3, **G f., +**, +1+, E11, E2G, EF*.
Arthurian cycle, **G, EFE.
Artor, *+*.
Ar#alus, *+-.
Astrology, +1F.
Augustus, +E, G,.
Auto&suggestion, +-1.
A#ag!!u, **2.
A#allon, *+,, E2G.
Bacchus, +31.
Ba!b, -F, 3*, 3+, *E2, *E3, +E+.
Ba!bcatha, 1*, 3*.
Balor, E*, E- note, -1, -3, FG, G,.
Banba, -,, 3E, 31.
KBanfeinni!iK, 3+.
KBangaisge!aigK, 3+.
Ba%tis", *G2 note, E,F f.
Bar!s, **3, +GG, E+-.
Barintus, FF.
BarreI, *+-.
Barri, 5., FF.
Bear, cult of, +*+.
Be!!oe, )r., *+.
Belatuca!ros, +F, *+-.
Belenos, +2, *,+, **E, *+1, +E*, +21, +GF.
Belgae, G f.
Beli, 2,, GF, *,E, **+ f., *+1.
KBelinuntiaK, +2, E++.
Belinus, +2, *,+, **E, *+1.
Belisa"a, 1*, 2F&2G, *+-.
Bello#esus, *G.
Beltane, G+, *G1, +EG, +-G, +21.
Bericynthia, 11, +3-.
Bertran!, M., E,-.
KBileK, *2+, +,*.
Bile, -1, 2,, *,E.
Bir! go!s, *,F, +,-, +13.
Birth, *G2, E1-.
Black Annis' Boer, 23.
Blathnat, F1, *,G, EF*.
Blo!eue!!, *,1, *,- f., *,F.
Bloo!, +1,, +11.
Bloo!, Brotherhoo!, *E*, +1,.
Boan!, F*, *G*.
Boar, cult of, 1+.
Bo!b, FE.
Bo!b )earg, 21, 3F, F2.
Bor"ana, 1E.
Bor#o, 1E, *FE.
Bou!icca, 3+, *+-, *2*, +*G.
Boughs, +2-, +3,.
Boun!ary stones, +F1.
Braciaca, +F.
Bran, E1, GF, *,, f., *,3, ***, **3, *2,, +1+, E2E, E3G f.
Branen, GF, *,E f., EF* f., EF-.
BraHiers, go! of, 32.
Brennius, *,+, **+ f.
Brennus, *2,.
Bres, -E, -1, -F&-G.
Brian, 3E f.
Bri!e, 5., 2G.
Bri!ge, E12.
Bri!ge of 'ife, ++F.
Brigantia, 2F, *+-.
Brigin!o, 2F, +3-.
Brigit, 1*, -F, 2F f., G,, G+.
Brigit, 5t., 2F f., FF note, +-3.
Broca, G.
BronHe Age, *1F.
Brother&sister unions, *,2, **E.
Bron Bull, *E,.
Bronie, *22, *FG, +1-.
KBrugK. 5ee K5i!K.
Brythons, *E.
Brythons, go!s of, F-, G- f., *+1.
Buanann, 2F, 3E, ++E.
Bull, cult of, EF, *1,, *FG, +,F, +1E.
Burial rites, E,G, EE3 f.
Caer 5i!i, **+, **3, E2F.
Caesar, ++, +G, +*G, ++E, +EE, +FE, +G1, EE1.
Cakes, +22.
Calatin, *E* f.
Calen!ar, *3- f., +-+.
Ca"ulos, +F, *+-, *1G.
Can!le"as, 2G.
Cannibalis", +EG, +3*.
Caoilte, 2*, *1+, *-+, EE2.
Caractacus, *,E.
Car"an, *23.
Car%enters, go! of, 32.
Cassiteri!es, EG.
Cassi#ellaunus, **E.
Castor an! PolluI, *E2.
Casallan, GF, *,+, **+&**E.
Cathba!, *+3.
Cathubo!ua, 1*, 3*.
CaturiI, +F.
Caul!ron, F1, G+, **+, **2, *+,, E2F, EF*.
Celtae, F, G, *-.
Celtiberians, *32, +12.
Celtic an! Teutonic religion, **.
Celtic e"%ire, *F f.
Celtic origins, F f.
Celtic %eo%le, ty%es of, F.
Celtic religion, e#olution of, E f.
Celtic religion, higher as%ects of, 2.
Celtic religion, ho"ogeneity of, -.
Celtic religion, Ro"an influence on, -.
Celts, go!s of, *-F.
Celts, religiosity of, +.
Celts, te"%era"ent of, E, *1.
Cenn Cruaich, 22, 3G note.
Cera, 33.
Cernunnos, +G f., E+, *,*, *E2, +*+, +F+.
Cerri!en, **2 f., E-*, E-F f.
Cessair, -,.
Cethlenn, -G, F*.
Cetna!, +1G.
Char"s, *3+, E-2.
Church an! %aganis", 2, 3, 1F, F,, **-, *E+, *-+ f., *31 f., +,E f.,
+EF, +1G, +-F, +3+, +F,, +F-, +FF&+FG, E*-, E+*, EE*, EFG.
Cian, 3-, FG.
Clair#oyance, E,3.
Cleena, 3,.
Clota, 1E, 3,.
Clutoi!a, 3,.
Coci!ius, *+-.
Cock, +*G.
Colu"ba, 5., *3, 22, FF note, *F*, +EF, E*-, E+1, EE*&EE+, E-F.
Co"bats, ritual, +2E, +23.
Co"e!o#ae, 13.
Co"yn, M., *1E, *-*.
Conaire, F1, ++,, +-+, +--.
Conall Cernach, *E1, *E2, +E,, +1,.
Conan, *1+.
Conce%tion, "agical, E-*.
Conchobar, *+3, *E+, *2,, *F+, +E+, +-1, E1G.
Conn, E23.
Conncrithir, 3E.
Connla, -G, 2-, E21, E31, E33, E3G, EF,.
Conser#atis" in belief, *GE.
Coral, E+G.
Coranians, **1.
Cor!elia, GG.
Cor"ac, 23, 2F, FF, E22.
Corn&s%irit, G+, *,3, **3, *2F, *3E, +*E, +2,, +2+, +3E f., +3-.
Corotacus, *+-.
Cos"ogony, ++3 f.
Cou#a!e, *E,, ++1.
Crafts, go!s of, GE.
Cranes, EF.
Craniology, F f.
Creation, +E,.
Crei!!yla!, F-, GG, **E.
Crei!ne, 32, 33.
Creiry, **2.
Cro" )ubh, F,.
Cro" /ocha, 3G.
Cro"" Cruaich, -3, 3G, +E2, +F2.
Cross, +G,.
Cross&roa!s, *31.
Cruithne, *3.
Cuchulainn, 3+, *,G, *+*, *+E, *-G, *31, *3G, ++,, +1,, +-+, +-1, EE2,
E1G, E--, E-3, E2-, E2G, EF*.
Cuchulainn saga, EF, 2E, 3*, F3, G3, *+3 f., *1-, +,1, +,3.
Culann, *+F.
Culture go!!esses, 1, 2F f.
Culture go!s an! heroes, 1, -F, G+&GE, *,2, *+*, *+1 note, *E2.
Cu"al, *+-, *1+, *1- f., *1F f.
Curoi, *,G, EF*.
Cursing ells, *E3.
)ag!a, 11, 2*, 21, 2-, 3+, 31&3-, 33 f., E+3, EF3.
)a"ona, 1E, +*-.
)ance, ritual, +12, +2F, +F2.
)anu, 2E, 23 f., G+, *,E, ++E.
K)aoine&si!heK, 2+.
)'Arbois, M., E*, EF, -2, -G, 31, 3G, G,, *E2, *3F, +21, +GE, E*1, E1*,
E-3, E31.
)ay of Ju!g"ent, E13.
)ea!, con!ition an! cult of, 2F, *2- f., +F+, EE,, EEE f., E1,, E11 f.,
E3F.
)ea! )ebtor, EE3.
)ea!, lan! of, an! /lysiu", E1, f.
)ea! li#ing in gra#e, EEF&EEG.
)ebility of ;ltonians, 3*, *+G f., ++1.
)echelette, M., *22.
)echtire, *+3 f., E1F, E-1.
K)eiseilK, *GE, +E3, +3*.
)ei Terreni, 21.
)e"eter, 11, 2F, **3, +31.
)e"ons, *3E f., *FF.
)e#orgilla, *EE.
)iana, 1+, *33.
)iancecht, 33, F1, +,3, E+-.
)iar"ai!, F+, FE, FF, *,,, *1+, *13, *-,, +*,, ++,, +-+, +-1, E-*,
E2-&E22.
K)ii Casses,K EG.
)io!orus 5iculus, EE1.
)ionysus, +**.
)ioscuri, *E2.
)irona, 1+, 3,.
)irra, 3,.
)isablot, *2G.
)isir, *2G.
)is%ater, +G f., 11, 2,, *,,, *2G, +*F, ++G, E1*, E1-, E32.
)istortion, *+F, *E+, *E1.
)i#ination, +E-, +13 f., +-G, +22, E,1.
)i#ine !escent, E-*, E-1.
)i#ine kings, +-E.
)i#ineresses, E*2.
)i#iners, +GG.
)i#ining ro!, +1F.
)ol"ens, +FE, EE,, E-+.
)o"estication, +*,, +*1, ++-.
K)o"inaeK, 13.
)o"nu, -3 note, -G, ++E.
)on, 2,, 2E, *,E, ++E.
)onnotaurus, *EF, +,G.
)ragon, **1, *+*, *FF.
)rink of obli#ion, E+1.
)rui!esses, +-,, E*2.
)rui!ic :e!ge, E+1.
)rui!ic sen!ing, E+-.
)rui!s, 2, ++, 2*, 32, *-,, *2* f., *3E, *F,, +,*, +,- f., +E- f., +EF,
+12 f., +-,, +2-, +F,&+F*, +F3 f., +GE f., E*+.
)rui!s an! 9ili!, E,- f.
)rui!s an! "agic, E*,, E*G, E+- f.
)rui!s an! "e!icine, E,G.
)rui!s an! "onasticis", E,-.
)rui!s an! Pythagoras, E,E.
)rui!s an! Ro"e, E*+ f.
)rui!s, classical references to, E,* f.
)rui!s, !ress of, E*, f.
)rui!s, origin of, +G+ f.
)rui!s, %oe"s of, +.
)rui!s, %oer of, E*+.
)rui!s, teaching of, E,3 f., E*1, EEE.
)rui!s, #arieties of, +GF f.
)rune"eton, *2*, +F,, E,2.
)ualis", -3 f., 2, f.
)u"ias, +-.
)usii, E--.
)elling of go!s. 5ee Go!s, abo!e of.
)ylan, *,1, **,, *3F.
K/ach uisgeK, *FF.
/arth an! ;n!er&earth, E-, E3, 2F.
/arth cults, E.
/arth !i#inities, E*, E-, E3, 1,, 1+, 11 f., -3 note, 2-, 23 f., 3+, 3F,
G+, **,, *2+, *2G, ++3, ++G f., E1-.
/cli%ses, *3F.
/cne, 31, ++E.
/cstasy, +-*.
/gg, ser%ent's, +**.
/latha, -E, -F, 2,.
/lc"ar, 3F, F3.
/le"ents, cult of, *3* f.
/l%hin, **F.
/l#es, 22 note.
/lysiu", -G, 3F f., F1, F3, *,+, *,2, **-, **2, *+,, *2E, +,*, ++G f.,
E-,, E2+ f.
/lysiu", an! Para!ise, EFF f.
/lysiu", characteristics of, E3E ff.
/lysiu", lor!s of, EF3.
/lysiu", na"es of, E2+.
/lysiu", origin of, E3, f.
/lysiu", #arieties of, E2E f.
/"er, *+F, *+G, *E-.
/nbarr, FF, *E-.
/ochai!, FE.
/ochai! 8llathair, 3F.
/ochai! 8'9lynn, 21.
/ogabail, 3,.
/%ona, 1E, *+-, *FG, +*E f.
/ri, -E.
/ri!anus, +3.
/riu, 3E&31.
/sus, +G, EF, *E3, +,F, +E1, +FG.
/tain, F+ f., ++E, E1F, E2E, EF,.
/tair, F+.
/thics, E,1, E,3.
/thne, E* note, FG.
/uhe"erisation, 1G f., F1, G*, G-, GF, *+3.
/urossy!, *,,.
/#ans, )r., +,,.
/#il eye, -G.
/#nissyen, GF.
/Ioga"y, +++.
K/I #otosK, *G-.
9achan, +-*.
9airies, 1E, 1- f., 2+, 21 f., 3,, 3E, F,, GF, **1, **-, *22, *3E, *3F
note, *FE, *F- f., *G,, +,*, +,E, +2+, +2E, E3F.
9airylan!, E3+, EF-, EFF.
K9aithK, *,2, E,,, E,G.
9alga, F1, F3, EF*.
9an!, 2-, F3, FF, *E-, E2-, EF,.
9er!ia, *E*.
9ergus, *1+, EE2.
9ertility cults, E, -2, 3,, 3E, 3F, FE, G+, GE, **+, **1&**-, +32, EE,,
E-+, EF+ f.
9esti#als, 1, *F*, +-2 f.
9esti#als of !ea!, *23.
9etich, +FG.
9iachna, FF, E-,, E22, E3G.
9ians, *1E, E2-.
K9ili!K, +1F f., E,,, E,- f., E+-.
K9in!bennachK, *E,.
9innen, 5., E-*.
9inntain, -,.
9ionn, +F, **F, *+,&*+*, *+-, *1+ f., *3G, ++,, +-1, E11, E-,, E2-&E22.
9ionn saga, FE, G3, ***, *+,, *1+ f.
K9ir )eaK, 2E.
K9ir )o"nannK, -+ f., *-3.
K9ir 5i!eK, 21, 2-.
9irbolgs, -+, -3.
9ires, *GG f., +-G, +2* f., +2-, +2F, +3,.
9ires, sacre!, 2G.
9ish, sacre!, *F2, ++,.
9lann Manistrech, 21.
9loo!, ++F, +E*.
9o"orians, -*, -+ f., --&-2, 2-, 3+, FE, FG, G,, **1, *EE, *FG, +E3,
+-*.
9oo! of i""ortality, E33 f.
9oo! as bon! of relationshi%, E3G.
9orest !i#inities, 1E, *,F.
9otla, 3E&31.
9oun!ation sacrifices, +EF.
9ountains, *3*, *31, *F*.
9ountains of youth, E3F, EFF.
9raoch, E33.
9riuch, E1G.
9raHer, )r. J.G., *3,, *32, +2G.
9ua"nach, ++.
9uneral sacrifices, *2-, +E1, EE3.
9uture life, EEE f.
Galatae, *F.
Galli, *G.
GalliHenae, E*3. 5ee Priestesses.
Galioin, -+, -3.
Garbh "ac 5tairn, *EG.
Gargantua, *+1 note, +E,.
Gar"an, *23.
Gauls, G, +,.
Ga#i!a, FG, *,G.
KGeasaK, *+F, *E+, *E1, *11, *-, f., *2,, +-+ f. 5ee Tabu.
Geoffrey of Mon"outh, *,+, **+, **G.
Ghosts, 22, 23, *22, *2G, +2+, +F*, +F1, EE,, EE2.
Ghosts in trees, +,+ f.
Gil!as, *3*.
Gilla Coe"ain, 21.
Gil#aethy, *,1.
Glass, E3,.
Glastonbury, **-, *+*, E2G.
Goborchin, *FG.
Go! of Connaught, G+.
Go! of )rui!is", G+, *,-, *++.
Go! of ;lster, G+.
Go!!esses an! "ortals, E--.
Go!!esses, %re&e"inence of, GE, *+1, *FE.
Go!i#a, +32.
Go!s, abo!e of, ++F f., E2+, E3+.
Go!s, chil!ren of, *-G.
Go!s, fertility an! ci#ilisation fro" lan! of, *,,, *,2&*,3, **+, *+*,
EF, f., EFE.
Go!s uniting ith "ortals, *-G.
Goibniu, 32, *,E, E+-.
Goi!els, *2, *3, G2.
Goll "ac Morna, *1+.
Go""e, 5ir G.'., *F*, +G-.
Goose, +*G.
Go#annon, *,G f.
Graal, EFE.
Grainne, *-,, +-1.
Grannos, +2, 1+ f., 33, *+-, *FE.
Gregory of Tours, *G1, *G2, +3-.
Gro#es, *31, *GF, +3G f.
Groth, !i#inities of, -, 11, F,, F+, G+, *F+.
Gruagach, +1-.
Guine#ere, *+E.
Gurgiunt, *+1.
Gutuatri, +GF f.
Gal, GG, ***.
Geir, *,2.
Gion, **3, E-*, EF*.
Gy!ion, *,1, *,- f., **3, E2F, EF-.
Gyn, --, **E, **-.
Gythur, --.
:a!es, *E-.
:afgan, ***, E2F.
:alloe'en, +-G, +F*.
:allstatt, +,F, +**.
:allucinations, E+E&E+1.
:a""er as !i#ine sy"bol, E,, +G*.
:a""er, Go! ith, E, f., E-, E2 f., 3G.
:ao"a, 32.
:are, +*G.
:ar#est, +-G, +3E.
:ea!&hunting, +1,.
:ea!s, cult of, E1, 3*, *,+, +1, f.
:ealing %lants, *E*, +,2 f.
:ealing ritual, *++, *GE f.
:ealing s%rings, *+E, *F2.
:earth as altar, *2- f.
:ea#en an! earth, ++3.
:en, +*G.
:e%haistos, 32.
:eracles, +-, 3-, *EE.
:eroes in hills, E11.
:ills, 22.
:ol!er, A., +E.
:orne! hel"ets, +*3.
:orns, go!s ith, E+ f.
:orse, +*E f.
:u Ga!ar", *+1 note.
:y!e, )r., *1E&*11.
:y%erboreans, *F, +3.
:y%notis", E,3, E*,, E+E&E+1.
6berians, *E.
6cauna, 1E.
6conoclas", +F3.
6gerna, *+,.
6"ages, 3G, F-, +,1, +33, +FE f.
K6"bas 9orosnaiK, +1F.
6""ortality, *-F, EEE, E32.
6ncantations, F,, +1F f., +-1, +G3, E+-.
6ncest, ++E f.
6n!ech, -1, -F.
6ns%iration, **2, **F.
6n#isibility, E++, EF,.
6s, E3+.
6uchar, 6ucharbar, 2E, 3E f.
Janus, E1, *,,.
Joyce, )r., 2-, *1E, +E2.
Juno, 13.
Junones, 1-.
Jullian, *3F.
Ju%%iter, +G.
=ale#ala, *1+.
=eane, G.
=eating, -*, *1E.
=ei, *++ f.
=eres, 3+.
=ie#a, GG.
=ing an! fertility, 1, +-E.
=ings, !i#ine, *2, f., +1E.
=ings, election of, E,2.
=ore, 11, +31&+3-.
=ronos, -G.
'a Tene, +,F.
'abrai!, 2-, E2-, E2G, EF,.
'akes, *F*, *G1.
'a""as, +3E.
'an! un!er a#es, E3*.
'ear, F2.
'er, 'ir, 1G note, F2, E+,.
'ia 9ail, E+G.
'iban, 2-, E2-.
'ibations, +11 f., +13.
'igurians, *E.
'le, G*, *,1, *,2.
'lu!! 'laereint, F-, GG, *,+, **E f., *+1.
'lyr, GF f.
'ochlanners, -2, *13.
'o!ens, **E.
'oegaire, 21, *E3, E3G.
'onnrot, *1+.
'oth, M., *,F.
'o#e, EF-.
'ucan, EF, *+-, +3G, +F+, EE- f., E1-.
'uchtine, 32.
'ucian, 3-, *+-.
'ug, E* note, E- note, -G, 2,, 2*, 31, 3-, FG f., *,E, *,F f., *+F, *E*,
*E1, *E3, *23, +3+, E1F, E-E f.
'ugai!, *E+.
'ugnasa!, G*, *,G, *23 f., +3+ f.
'ugo#es, G*.
'ugus, G,, +3+.
'ycanthro%y, +*2.
Mabinogion, +, G- f.
Mabon, *+E, *FE.
MacBain, )r., *2, -2, 3F.
MacCuill, MacCecht, an! MacGrainne, 31.
Macha, 3*, *+G, *E3, +1*.
Mac6neely, FG.
MacPherson, *1+, *-- f.
Ma!onna, +FG.
Mael!uin, EF-.
Maelrubha, 5. +1E.
Magic, 2, *,-, *G1, +G+, E*G.
Magic, agricultural, +2,, +2-&+22, +3*, +3E, +32 note.
Magico&"e!ical rites, EE, f., EE+.
Magonia, *F,.
Magture!, -E f., F1.
Man, origin of, E2, ++F.
Manannan, 1G note, 21&2-, 3,, F,, F2 f., G+, *,,, *E1, *13, *3F, *FG,
+E*, E-, f., E-F, E21 f., EF,, EF3.
Manay!!an, F3, GF f., *,, f., ***, E2F.
Mannhar!t, +2G.
Ma%onos, +3, *+E.
KMaerchenK for"ulae, 33, F+, FE, FG, G-, *,3&*,F, ***, **2, *+1, *E+, *EE,
*1E, *1F, *-+, *F3, EE3, E-E, EF1.
Marriage, sacre!, *2E, +23, +3E.
Mars, +3 f., F-, *F,, +*1.
Martin, 5., *1,, +1E, +2,.
Martin"as, +-G. f.
Math, *,1 f.
Matholych, GF.
Matres, 1,, 11 f., 3+&3E, *+-, *2G, *FE, +*1, +F-, +FG.
Matriarchate, *3, ++E.
Matronae, 12, *+E, *FE.
May&!ay, **1.
May&Lueen, *2E, +23.
Me!b, *E, f.
Me!icine, E,G f.
Me!iterranean race, G.
Me!ros, F1, +,G.
Megaliths, +,+, +G3, EE,, E-+. 5ee 5tonehenge.
Men, cults of, E.
Mercury, +1 f., E1, *E3, +F1 f.
Merlin, *+,, *+* f.
Mer"ai!s, *G,.
Mete"%sychosis, E,E, E1F f.
Meyer, Prof., *2, +G1.
Miach, +3.
Mi!er, F+ f., +,G, E2E, EF,&EF*.
Mi!su""er, 3,, G+, *32, *F1, *G*, *G1, +,,, +*-, +E-, +EG, +-3, +2F f.
Mile, -1.
Milesians, --, 2,, 3F.
Miner#a, 1*, 2F, *+-.
Miracles, EE*, E-*.
Mistletoe, *2+, *32, *GG, +,-, +1E f., +3,.
Mithrais", +,G.
Moccus, +1, +*,.
Mo!ranicht, *2G.
Mo!ron, *+E, *FE.
Mogons, +3, *+-, *F,.
Mongan, FF, *+,, E-, f., E-F.
Moon, *3- f., +12.
Morgen, *-G, *3F, E2G.
Morrigan, 3*, F*, FE, *E,&*E*, *E2&*E3, *-G, *3+.
Mor#ran, **2, **F.
Moun!s, 2E, 22.
Mountain go!s, EG.
Mountains, *3* f.
Moat, M., EE, E2.
Muireartach, -2, *3G.
Muirne, *1F.
Mule, +*1.
Mullo, +*1.
Music, E+G, EF2.
Mythological school, FE, FG, *,F, **G, *++, *EE f.
<a"e, +12.
<a"e&gi#ing, E,F f.
<antos#elta, E*.
<ature !i#inities an! s%irits, 1F, GE, *3* f.
<ee!fire, *GG.
<e"ain!, -F.
<e"an, 3*.
<e"e!ians, -* f.
K<e"etonK, *2*.
<e"etona, 1*, 3*.
<ennius, **G.
<eo&)rui!ic heresy, + note.
<e%tune, F-.
<era, EEG.
<essa, *+F, E1G.
<et, +F, -F, 3*.
<eton, +F.
<e $ear, *3,, +-G, +2*.
<ight, +-2.
<iskas, *F-.
<o!ons, F-, **1, *+1, *2,.
<orse influence, GG, *+3.
<ua!a, -E f., 2*, 33, F1, G,, *2,.
<ua!a <echt, F- f.
<u!!, **E, **- f., *+1, *2,.
<u!! :ael, F2.
<u!ity, +3-&+32, E++.
<utt, Mr., *,E, E3E.
<y"%hs, 1E.
<ynnya, **E.
8ak, *GG.
8aths, *3+ f., +G+.
8'Curry, 2-, *1E.
8')a#oren, G*.
8engus, 3F, F*, F2, *12, EF3.
8gha"s, 3-.
8g"a, -1, 31&3-.
8g"ios, +-, 3-.
8ilill 8lo", 3,.
8isin, *1+, *-,&*-*, *-+ f., +++, E21, E3G, EF3.
8"ens, +13 f.
8racles, *3G, *G2.
8ran, +EF.
K8rbis aliusK, E1,.
8rbsen, F3.
8r!eals, *G2 f., EFE.
8rgiastic rites, F,, +2*, +2-, EF2.
8siris, 22.
Para!ise, EFF f.
Partholan, -*.
Pastoral stage, E, ++-, +2,.
Patrick, 5., 2*. 21, 22, 3,, 32, 3G&F,, *E+, *-*, *-+ f., *3*, *GE, +E3,
+1+, +1G, +-*, +F2, E*- f., E*G.
Peanfahel, *3.
Peisgi, *F-.
Penn Cruc, 22.
Pennocruciu", 22.
Pera"bulation, +33.
Perse%hone, 2F, F-.
Picts, *2 f., +*3, ++,, +++.
Pillar of sky, ++F.
Place&na"es, *2 note, *3, *G, *+,, *12, +,G, +**.
Plants, *32, +,- f.
Pliny, *2+, *3-, *GF, +,- f., E+F.
Plutarch, E1E.
Pluto, E1 f.
Plutus, E-.
Poeninus, EG.
Poetry, !i#inities of, 2F, 3-.
PolluI, *F,.
Polyan!ry, 31, ++E f.
Polyga"y, *3, ++1.
Prayer, +1- f.
Pre&Celtic cults, 1F, F*, GE, *31, *F*, +,,, +,+, +*G, ++1, +33, +G1 f.,
E2*.
Priesthoo!. 5ee )rui!s.
Priestesses, 2G, *F,, *G+ f., ++2, +12, +-,, E*2, E+*.
Priest&kings, *2*, ++2, +23, +G2, E,3.
Proco%ius, E1+.
Pro%hecy, +-, f, E,, f.
Pry!eri, GF f., **, f., **+, E2F, EF-.
Pyll, **, f., **+, E2F, EF-.
Pythagoras, E,E, EE1.
KTua!ri#iaeK, 13.
Ragnarok, +E+.
Rain&"aking, +22, E+* f.
Rebirth, FF, **3, *+F, E1F f.
Reinach, M., E* note, EF, *E3, +**, +F3, +G3, E*3, E1,.
Relics, EE+.
Retribution, E12.
Rhiannon, GF f., **, f.
Rh.Jy4s, 5ir J., *-, *2, +1, --, 2,, 2F, 3F, F+ f., G*, GE, *,,, *,* f.,
*,E, *,2, *,F, *++, *E-, *FE, +*G, +F+, +G1, E-2, E32.
Rigantona, ***.
Rigisa"a, +F.
Ri#er !i#inities, 1E, 12, *+E, *F+, +1E, E-1.
Ri#ers, cult of, *3+, *F, f.
Ri#ers, na"es of, *F+.
Ro"an an! Celtic go!s, ++ f., +FG f.
Ro"ans an! )rui!s, E*+ f.
Rua!an, -F.
Rua!&rofhessa, 33.
Rucht, E1G.
Ru!iobus, +*1.
5aar, *-,.
5acra"ental rites, +++, +2,, +22, +3*.
5acrifice of age!, +1+.
5acrifice of ani"als, *1,, *F*, *FG, +,-, +1+ f., +2,, +2-.
5acrifice, foun!ation, *+*, +EF f.
5acrifice, hu"an, -3, 3G, *2-, *G,, *GF, +EE f., +2*, +2-, +2G, E,1,
E,F, E*E, EE3.
5acrifice to !ea!, *2- f., +E1, EE3.
5acrificial offerings, 2, *31, *F*, *F-, *G,, *G1, *GF, +EE f., +GG,
E,F.
5acrificial sur#i#als, +11 f.
5aints, **-, +,G, +*3, +-*, +F- f., +FF, EE* f., EF2 note.
5aints an! ells, *GE.
5aints' !ays an! %agan festi#als, +-F.
5al"on of knole!ge, *1G, *F3, E33.
5a"hain, -2, 3,, F,, *23&*2F, *3,, +++, +-2 f., +-F f.
5atire, E+2.
5aturn, 13.
5can!ina#ia an! 6relan!, *1F.
5cathach, *+G, *E-.
K5cottiK, *3.
5ea, **,, *3F.
5ebillot, E1+.
5ego"o, +*1.
5ego#esus, *G.
5el#anus, E3.
5e"notheoi, +GF, E,*.
5eLuana, 1E.
5ergi, Prof., G, +G2.
5er%ent, E-, *22, *FF, +**.
5er%ent ith ra"'s hea!, E1, 11, *22, +**.
5er%ent's egg, E+F.
5er%ent's glass, E+F.
5etanta, E1G.
5ha%e&shifting, *,1, *,-, **3, *E,, *E*, *-,, ++*, E++ f., E-,, E-2 f.
K5i!K, 2E, 21 note, 2-, 3F.
5il#anus, +G, E2, +*F.
5inen!, *F3, *G*.
5innan, 1E.
5irona, 1+.
5kene, )r., *2, *,F.
5lain go!s an! hu"an #icti"s, *-G, *2F f., *GG, ++2, +E-, +EG, +2+, +2G,
+3+.
5lee%, "agic, E+3.
5"ertullos, E-, *E2, +FG.
5"iths, go! of, 32.
5"iths, "agic of, 32.
5olar hero, *EE.
5o"a, 32.
5oul as ani"al, E2,.
5oul, se%arable, *1,, *2+, +3,.
5%ain, E3-.
5%ells, +12, +-1, E+- f.
5Luatting go!s, E+ f.
5reng, F1.
5tag, +*E.
5tanna, 1+.
5tokes, )r., *2, -2, 3*, 33, +++, +21.
5tone circles, +F*.
5tonehenge, +3, *+*, +,,, +F*&+F+.
5tones, cult of, *31, +F1, E+G.
5ualtai", *+F.
5ub"erge! tons, +E*, E3+.
5ucellos, E, f.
5uici!e, +E1, E1-.
5ul, 1*, 2G, *+-.
5ule#iae, 12.
5un, *3F, +2F.
5un "yths, FE.
5an&"ai!ens, F+.
5astika, +G,.
5ine, +-, *,2, **3, +,G f.
5ineher!s, The To, E1G.
5y"bols, +G,.
Tabu, 2G, *,+, *+F, *E+, *11, *F2, *G* f., +*,, +*G, +-+ f., +32, E,1,
E,2, E+E, E3+. 5ee KGeasaK.
Ta!g, ++*.
KTaghair"K, +1G.
Tailtiu, *23, +3E, E32.
KTain bo CuailgneK, *+3, *E, f.
Taliesin, G-, G3, **2, E+E, EE-, E-2, E-F.
Taran, *+1.
Taranis, +G, E,, +E1.
Taranos, *+1.
KTarbh ;isgeK, *FG.
KTar#os TrigaranosK, EF, *E3, +,F, +FG.
Tattooing, *3, +*3.
Tegi! Coel, **2.
KTein" 'aeghaK, +1G.
KTe"%estariiK, *3-, *F,.
Te"%les, F-, +3G f.
Tethra, -F&-G, 3*, 3-, E31.
Teutates, +F, *+-, +E1.
Teyrnon, ***.
Three&hea!e! go!s, E+ f.
Thu"b of knole!ge, *1G.
Thurna", )r., *+.
KTir na n&8gK, *-*, E2+, E21.
To"bs as sacre! %laces, *2-.
Tonsure, E**.
TorLue, E1.
Totatis, *+-.
Tote"is", *1G, *F3, +,* f., +*2, E+E, E2,, E3G.
Toutatis, +F.
Transfor"ation. 5ee 5ha%e&shifting.
Transfor"ation Co"bat, E-E.
Trans"igration, EE1 f., E1F f., E-2, E-G f.
Tree cults, *2+, *2G, *31, *G1, *GF f., +,F, +2-, +2G, EE*, E3G.
Tree !escent fro", +,+.
Trees of /lysiu", EF,.
Trees of 6""ortality, E33 f.
Tria!s, E1 f., EG, G- f., *,G, **E&**1, **-, **F, *+,, *+E, *+1 note.
Tri%le go!!esses, 11 f.
Tristra", *,E.
Tuan MacCairill, -3, E-3, E3-.
Tuatha )e )anann, 1G f., 2,, 2*, 2E f., 22, G+ f., *12, *-F, *2F, *3E.
Tutelar !i#inities, 1,, 1-, 3E.
Tuag, F3.
KTrch TrythK, *,F, **G, +**.
Tyr, F1.
;n!erorl!, 2,, *,+, **+, E1*.
;rien, *,*.
K;risgK, *FG.
;thyr, *,*, *+,, *++.
Calkyries, 3+.
Cegetation cults, E, +*-.
Cegetation go!s an! s%irits, EF, G+, *EG, *-G, *2+ f., *GG, +,F, +*-,
+1E, +2-, +2G.
Cenus of Tuini%ily, +FG.
Cera, 3,.
Cesta, 2G.
KCierges noiresK, 12.
Cintius, *F,.
KCirginesK, 13.
Ci#iane, *++.
Cortigern, *+*, +EF, E*-.
Cosegus, EG.
Coti#e offerings, *F-.
Culcan, 13.
?ar chants, +12.
?ar go!!esses, 3*, GE.
?ar go!s, 1, +3 f., 1F, 3*, G+, **-, **F, *+E, *E2.
?arrior, i!eal, *E+, *E2.
?arrior, %oer of !ea!, EEF.
?asher at the 9or!, 3E.
?ater bull, *FG.
?ater fairies, 3,, 3E note, *G,.
?ater, guar!ians of, *G-.
?ater horse, *FF.
?ater orl!, *G+ note, E3*.
?a#es, fighting the, *3F.
?a#es, nine, *3G.
?ea%ons, +G*.
?ells, 33, *F, f., *F1, *G*, *GE f., E+*, E3+.
?ells, origin of, +E,.
?heel, go! ith, +G.
?heel sy"bol, +G, +3*, E+3.
?hite o"en, 3E.
?in!, *F,.
?in!isch, Prof., *2.
?is!o", 31.
?is!o" fro" eating ani"al, *1G note.
?olf go!, E2, +*2, +*F.
?itch, +,*, +,E, +2+, +2F, E*F, E+*.
?o"en an! "agic, E*G f.
?o"en as first ci#ilisers, 1*, 1-, *G+, E*3.
?o"en as arriors, 3+.
?o"en, cults of, E, -, 1*, 2G, *2E f., ++- f., +31 f., E*3.
?o"en, islan!s of, EF- f.
?orl! catastro%he, ++F, +E+.
?orl!, origin of, +E,.
?ren, ++*.
$a"a, *,*.
$ear, !i#ision of, +-2.
$ule log, *3,, +-G.
Reus, 22, F1, *GG f.
Ri""er, -2, *1*, *13.
/n! of the Project Gutenberg /Book of The Religion of the Ancient Celts
by J. A. MacCulloch
777 /<) 89 T:65 PR8J/CT G;T/<B/RG /B88= T:/ R/'6G68< 89 T:/ A<C6/<T C/'T5 777