Criticisms of Drift

Why wasnt the continental drift hypothesis accepted?

There were no mechanisms for moving continents.
When Wegener died, the debate did too.
The drift hypothesis needed new and different evidence to move from
hypothesis to theory PLATE TECTONICS
This was provided by 5 Evidences:
- Paleomagnetism
- Age of the ocean floor
- Volcano distribution
- Earthquake distribution
- Hot spots

Boundary Types
Three Plate Boundary Types Importance
- Types of earthquakes and volcanoes and hazard potential
- Types of rocks and minerals present
- Location of resources
- Control on soils and human activity/development

Change over time
185 m.y.






135 m.y.






65 m.y.
Convergent
Divergent

Transform
Present
Type of Boundary Example Types of Rock/Volcanoes Earthquakes
Depth/Strength/Stresses
Physiographic
Features

Divergent

- Oceanic


- Continental

Mid-
Atlantic
Ridge


East
African
Rift



Basalt/Shield


Basalt and Rhyolite/Shield
to Intermediate



Shallow/ low to mod./tension


Shallow/low to mod/tension



Mid-Ocean Ridge
with Central Rift
Valley

Rift Valley



Convergent
- Continent/Ocean


- Ocean/Ocean


- Continent/Continent


Andes


Aleutians,
Japan

Himalayas


Andesite and more
felsic/Composite

Andesite/Composite


Deformation/Minor


Shallow to deep/mod to
high/ compressive




Shallow to Intermed./mod to
high/compressive


Offshore trench,
mountain belt

Trench, Island Arc


Mountain Belt

Transform

San
Andreas
Fault

Deformation/Minor or None

Shallow to Intermed/mod to
high/shear

Fault Valley and
Lateral Offset
Plate Boundaries and Features. Know and be able to Draw/Sketch these.
Subdivision Composition T (C) Density (g/cc)
Continental Crust Felsic (Granite) 0 - 1200 ~2.7
Oceanic Crust Mafic (Basalt and Gabbro) 0 - 1200 ~3.0
Mantle Magnesium silicates (mafic) 2500-5000 3.3 5.7
Outer Core Fe and Ni (Liquid) 5500 - 6500 9.9 12.2
Inner Core Fe and Ni (Solid) 6500 12.6 13.0
Composition and Layers of Earth

The igneous rock types are related to
the types of elements/minerals that
are present in the various layers of
the Earth. The mantle and crust
dictate these.

What are the dominant elements?
Earths composition/zonation:

1. Early differentiation (heavy stuff sinks)
2. Segregation of continental and oceanic material

The Heat of the Earth is a result of:
1. Particle collision during formation of solar system
(Nebular theory and coalescence)
2. Gravitational sinking of heavy materials
3. Radioactive decay (current and most important

Element and Symbol % Weight in Crust % Weight Whole Earth
Oxygen (O) 46 30
Silicon (Si) 28 15
Aluminum (Al) 8 1.1
Iron (Fe) 5 35
Calcium (Ca) 4 1.1
Sodium (Na) 3 <1.0
Potassium (K) 3 <1.0
Magnesium (Mg) 2 13
All Others 1 ~4 (Nickel 2.4, Sulfur 1.9)
A
Continents: Oceans:
Felsic to Intermediate Mafic
Al, K, Na Fe, Mg
Light Color Darker Color
Rock Cycle,
Minerals,
Rocks,
Environments
Chalk White Cliffs
Lava Flow
Granite: Quartz, Feldpar,
Mica, and Hornblende
Grand Canyon
1 Superposition
2 Faunal Succession
3 Lateral Continuity
4 Original Horizontality
5 Cross-cutting relationships
6 Geologic Time, Environments
7 Uniformitarianism
Basalt: Pyroxene,
Plagioclase
Weathering, Sediments, Soils
T, P, Fluids, Deformation,
Recrystallization

Make up ocean floor, volcanic areas and select near plate boundaries


Where do you find igneous rocks? Current or former:
- Divergent boundaries
- Convergent boundaries (ocean-continent, ocean-ocean)
- Hot spots
Mineral Properties and Identification

Mineral:
Naturally occurring
Inorganic
Solid
Definite chemical composition
Definite internal crystal structure
Rocks are composed of one or more
minerals, but they also may be
organic in origin.
What minerals are present in this
granite?
Potassium
feldspar
Thin sections,
viewed w/ a
petrographic
scope, are used
for mineral
identification
Is amber a mineral?
What about ice?
Quartz
Potassium Feldspar
Halite
Feldspar
Quartz


Biotite
Mineral Resource
occurrence is often
predictable. Plate
boundaries
(convergent) are
local areas for the
formation of Copper,
Gold, and more
minerals.
The Gold Rush changed the U.S.

1) Why is there gold in them thar hills?
2) Why does panning work?
3) What techniques are currently used?
First gold rush NC 1799 1803
Only gold supplier from 1803 - 1828
Largest gold supplier till 1849

Coin Mint in Charlotte
Placer deposits first and then shifted to mines
Gold Hill most famous area near Charlotte
Reed Gold Mine now State Park


Why is there gold in the Piedmont?


Minerals are the building blocks of rocks and thus the Earth. There are ~4000 but
15 or so go to make up well over 90% of our rocks.

Economically important Drive world economies.
Historically important Dictated human history.
Iron
Copper
Gold
Diamonds
Gems
Developed societies depend on mineral resources.
Metals Iron, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, aluminum, etc.
Non-metals Gypsum, limestone, aggregate, clay.

Quartz Many colors
Where does the idea of Birthstones come from?

Most gem scholars agree the tradition arose from the Breastplate of Aaron: a
ceremonial religious garment set with twelve gemstones that represented the
twelve tribes of Israel. Some found the correspondence w/ the 12 signs of the
zodiac.
Later the stones were associated w/ the 12 months of the year. And of course
the real appeal is that some believed these stones possessed special powers
(and of course they are pretty)


Turquoise December
The blue represents heaven and the
green represents Earth.
A symbol of good fortune and
success and it is believed to bring
prosperity.
North Carolina Receipts in 2012 = $911,000,000 (1.2% of U.S. Total and 24
th
Rank)
Mostly crushed stone, phosphate, sand and gravel, and feldspar
U.S. total Receipts from Minerals in 2012 was $76,500,000,000 (Nevada 1
st
)
(USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2013)
Every American will use
this amount of non-fuel
resources in a lifetime
(per capita)
Cell phone minerals fuel deadly Congo conflict

May 30, 2010
The Ugly Truth About the Materials in Your Cellphone
Tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold are used in the manufacture of major electronic products,
including mobile phones. Mining these minerals is common practice in the Democratic Republic
of Congo, but sadly, Congolese miners (including children) regularly face far worse fates than
hazardous working conditions and low pay.

June 26, 2010
Scrubbing Our Cell Phones of Conflict Minerals
By NICHOLAS KRISTOF NY TIMES
My Sunday column is about the campaign to eliminate blood minerals from cell phones, lap-
tops, digital cameras and other cool devices. Im actually mildly optimistic that Congo is gaining
traction on the international agenda, and that progress is possible after a pretty bad half
century for Congo
Mine
Sites in
the U.S.
Every county in NC has a
mining operation
NHC Sites
Limestone
Sand
Rubies and Sapphires are forms of
Corundum: H = 9, Al
2
O
3

Red is due to Cr and Fe
Blues Charge transfer
Of Fe and Ti
Star is the presence
of rutile in both
Rubies and sapphires
Synthetic formed from
flame fusion
Emerald: Be
3
Al
2
(SiO
3
)
6
; H = 7.5
Diamond is C, H = 10 (Process 10 tons of stone for 1-2 carats)
Why are these Precious Gemstones?
(RBDP)
Carolina Emperor emerald mined by Terry Ledford and Renn Adams in Hiddenite, N.C., prior
to any cutting. Gem experts say the emerald found on a North Carolina farm is the biggest
ever uncovered in North America. The 65-carat emerald nicknamed the Carolina Emperor
was found in the rural community of Hiddenite, about 50 miles (80 kilometers) northwest of
Charlotte.(AP Photo/C.R. "Cap" Beesley)
NC farm produces emerald shaped into massive gem
By EMERY P. DALESIO Associated Press Writer Published:
Monday, August 30, 2010
Emerald compares in size and quality to one once
owned by Catherine the Great, who was empress in
the 18th century, that Christie's auction house in
New York sold in April for $1.65 million
Emeralds are produced where a superheated fluid carrying
the element beryllium migrated through rocks that contain
chromium
Crystal Structure Most Definitive

- Crystal faces reflect internal atomic order
- Different samples of same mineral will have same
crystal type
(Constancy of interfacial angles)


Add
Atoms
Mineral Classification
Luster
Non-Metallic Metallic
Hardness
Cleavage tendency to split along planes
determined by crystal structure
Streak
Color
sometimes helpful
Cleavage planes of weakness
Cleavage - Tendency to break along planes of lattice weakness

Examples of Cleavage:
1 direction


2 directions at ~ 90


2 directions NOT at 90


3 directions at 90



3 directions NOT at 90

Metallic Minerals
Element Percent by Volume
oxygen 46.60%
silicon 27.72%
aluminum 8.13%
iron 5.00%
calcium 3.63%
sodium 2.83%
potassium 2.59%
magnesium 2.09%
titanium 0.44%
hydrogen 0.14%
phosphorus 0.12%
manganese 0.10%
fluorine 0.08%
barium 340 ppm
carbon 0.03%
strontium 370 ppm
sulfur 0.05%
zirconium 190 ppm
tungsten 160 ppm
vanadium 0.01%
chlorine 0.05%
rubidium 0.03%
chromium 0.01%
copper 0.01%
nitrogen 0.005%
nickel trace
zinc trace
The first 8 elements are 98.6%
of Earths Lithosphere by
Volume
Atom smallest unit that retains properties
of elements. It is composed of:

A. Nucleus
1. Protons (+)
2. Neutrons (neutral)

B. Electron Shell (- charges)
Every element is made of atoms
All atoms of any element are the same
Atoms of different elements are different (size, properties)
Atoms of different elements can combine to form compounds
In chemical reactions, atoms are not made, destroyed, or changed
In any compound, the numbers and kinds of atoms remain the same
Atoms and Elements
Outer shells want to have stable
electron # which is 8. By transferring
or sharing e
-
the elements may
combine into minerals.

Ionic bond transfer electron
Covalent bond share electron

Composition and Bonding: Building Minerals and Rocks

- Silicates make up 90% of the minerals and non-silicates comprise the other 10%

- Elements combine together (bonding) to form minerals; minerals form rocks

- Compositions may be the same but form different minerals rocks
- Different bonds may form different properties even with the same composition

Bond types
1. Ionic bonding (transfer e
-
)
2. Covalent bonding (share e-) Very strong
3. Van der Waals bond (weak molecular attraction)
4. Metallic bonds (each atom gives up/shares an e-)


Coal
Graphite
Diamond
Silicate Minerals
- Most abundant and important
- Silicate tetrahedron (Si, O) in
various structures w/ other
elements

Quartz
Non-metallic, H 7, fractures, no
cleavage, vitreous luster,
hexagonal crystal form, various
colors
K Al Si
3
O
8
Feldspar (Microcline)
Another Rule: The charge must be
balanced to form the mineral; positive
and negative charges must =
K = +1, Al = +3, Si = +4, O = - 2

Positive = 1 + 3 + (3 x 4 or 12) = +16
Negative = 2 x 8 = -16
Mineral % Formula Occurrence
Non-Ferromagnesium 71
Plagioclase feldspar 39
NaAlSi
3
O
8
, CaAl
2
Si
2
O
8
All rock types
Potassium feldspar 12
KAlSi
3
O
8
All rock types
Quartz 12
SiO
2
All rock types
Muscovite 3
KAl
2
(AlSi
3
O
10
)(OH)
2
All rock types
Clay Minerals 5
Various (Kaolinite, Illite, Smectite, etc.) Soils, Sed. Rks
Ferromagnesium ~19
Pyroxenes (Augite) 11
(Ca,Na)
2
(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)
2
O
8
Igneous, Meta. Rks
Amphiboles (Hornblende) 5
(Ca,Na)
2
(Mg,Fe,Al)
5
Si
6
(Si,Al)
2
O
22
(OH)
2
Igneous, Meta. Rks
Biotite 2
K(Mg,Fe)
3
(AlSi
3
O
10
)(OH)
2
All rock types
Olivine >1
(Mg,Fe)
2
SiO
4
Igneous, Meta. Rks
OTHERS 10
Calcite and Dolomite CaCO
3
, CaMg(CO
3
)
2
Sedimentary
Anhydrite, Gypsum CaSO
4
, CaSO
4
(OH)
2
Sedimentary
Halite, Sylvite NaCl, KCl Sedimentary
Pyrite, Galena FeS Sedimentary
Hematite Fe
2
O
3
Sedimentary
An Example of Resource Location, Uses, and Issues
(From Plate Tectonics to Mineral Resources)

Mineral Resources

Where do they Occur Plate Tectonics

Uses of Select Mineral Resources and Issues with some of the Sites

Pebble Mine: Resource Extraction, Fisheries, or Both

Gold in the Slate Belt
State Rock Mt. Airy Granite
State Soil
Cecil
State Gemstone
Emerald
Feldspar,
quartz, mica,
gems in pegmatites
Red mudstones for brick
from the Triassic Basins
Phosphate mine from
Coastal Plain; good
fossils too!
Mineral Properties and ID

Naturally occurring
Inorganic
Solid
Definite chemical composition
Definite internal crystal structure
STEPS in Mineral Identification:
1) Identify Metallic vs. Non-Metallic

2) For Metallic Minerals
- Determine hardness
- Determine Streak
- Other Properties
(Color, cleavage (Y or N), magnetism,
specific gravity, crystal form)

3) For Non-Metallic Minerals
- Determine hardness
- Determine cleavage
(Easily visible or not; Type if possible)
- Other properties
(Color, crystal form, acid test, smell,
striations, double refraction, etc.)
Physical Properties
1. Hardness
2. Cleavage/Fracture
3. Streak
4. Luster
5. Color
6. Other (magnetism, smell, fizzes in HCl,
double refraction, specific gravity,
tenacity, striations, etc.)