Explains:

- Mountain belts
- Ocean basins
- Energy and Mineral
distribution
- Earthquakes and
volcano distribution
- Ocean circulation and
climatic belts
- Etc.
Plate Tectonics
Unifying Theory
Continental Drift
Hypothesis by Alfred Wegener (German meteorologist, 1915)

Idea that continents are mobile; once a supercontinent Pangaea (Pangea)

Evidences found on multiple continents:
1. Fit of continents
2. Location of glaciers
3. Location/distribution of fossils
4. Rock types and structural similarities
5. Paleoclimates preserved in rocks
Glaciation
- Reconstruction of continents
into a southern
Gondwanaland continental
land mass explains glacial
evidence

- Striations on rock cut by
glacial movement indicate
direction of movement

- Glacial tills present
Glossopteris
Fossil Distribution
(difficulty to impossibility to cross ocean)
Matching of Rock Types on now separated continents across the Atlantic
Geologic structures.
Rock types.
Rock ages
Mountain belts.
The Appalachians.
The Caledonides
By the reconstruction of
the continents the
presence of inferred
ancient deserts, evaporite
deposits, reefs, and coal
deposits were easily
explained.

Ex. Why would Russia have
coal deposits in boreal to
arctic conditions?
Minerals and rocks form
in certain climates.
Reconstruction puts
mineral in the right place
for formation
Criticisms of Drift
Why wasnt the continental drift hypothesis accepted?
There were no mechanisms for moving continents.
When Wegener died, the debate did too.
The drift hypothesis needed new and different evidence.
This was provided by:
- Paleomagnetism
- Age of the ocean floor
- Volcano distribution
- Earthquake distribution
- Hot spots

Why is the red shading wider at the Nazca Plate than at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?
Drilling in the late 1960s recovered crust samples.
Ages increase away from the mid-ocean ridge.
Ages are mirror images across the mid-ocean ridge.
Strong supporting evidence for sea-floor spreading.
Subdivision Composition T (C) Density
(g/cc)
Continental Crust Felsic (Granite) (Al, K, Na) 0 - 1200 ~2.7
Oceanic Crust Mafic (Basalt, Gabbro) (Fe, Mg) 0 - 1200 ~3.0
Mantle Magnesium silicates (mafic) 2500 - 5000 3.3 5.7
Outer Core Fe and Ni (Liquid) 5500 - 6500 9.9 12.2
Inner Core Fe and Ni (Solid) 6500 12.6 13.0
Composition and Layers of Earth

Heat of the Earth
1. Particle collision
2. Gravity settling,
3. Radioactive decay*

What are the dominant elements?
Crust: Oxygen 46%, Silicon 28%
Whole Earth: Iron 35%, Oxygen 30%

Compositional Differences:
Gravity segregation/Density Differentiation
Crust: Continental and Oceanic
Lithosphere: Includes crust and upper mantle
Mantle solid to plastic
Outer Core - liquid
Inner Core - solid
P-Wave Travel
S-Wave Travel
Rock properties and wave types
Dictate travel times and propagation
P waves travel through all materials
But S waves cant pass through liquids
Magnetic Striping
Comparable magnetic field reversals
Magnetic Field
Magnetic Striping and Polar
Wandering are evidences of
Plate Tectonics, but.
1. What causes the striping?
2. What are the effects?
(Auroras)
3. What about other planets?
http://odin.gi.alaska.edu/FAQ/
Solar winds combine with
magnetic field and
atom/molecule collisions lead to
auroras
Aurora around Jupiter

Images from Hubble
Earth: First view of both
poles showing mirror
auroras - 2001
Saturn (800 mil. mi. away from earth)
Earth and Mars are thought to have condensed about 4.6 billion years ago from the solar
nebula, a giant cloud of hot gas swirling around the young Sun. The evolution of the two
planetary neighbors has been driven ever since by the loss of heat produced by radioactive
decay within their interiors.
Similar crusts, cores (except no longer molten on Mars), and early processes. But. Earth is
dynamic, Mars is static. What other differences?
Magnetic Fields?
Migrating whales and other cetaceans appear able to follow magnetic
lineations in the seafloor, which are aligned predominantly north-south
Gray Whale
Using a combination of magnetic stages and
radiometric dating hominid fossils have been
age dated in Africa (Ethiopia). Dates indicate the
hominid genus Homo evolved over 2 m.y. ago
from an older genus Australopithecus
Earthquakes
- Found to be concentrated at the areas
of spreading (shallow), convergent
(deeper), and transform plate
boundaries; some occur within plates
(intraplate)

- Depth of quakes important too.
Fig. 2-14, p. 38
Hot spots are not related to plate margins. Source of magma is believed to
be deep within the mantle at fixed locations.
Plate Tectonics and the Very Unstable Earth Its
Constantly Changing

- 7 major plates
- Numerous minor plates

What are the boundary types and properties?
Continental lithosphere can break apart.
Continuation of this process leads
to full sea-floor spreading.


Rifting
Divergent Boundary:
- Shallow low mag earthquakes
- Mostly non-explosive volcanoes
- Tensional stress
Convergent Tectonic plates move together.
The process of plate consumption is called subduction.
Mod High mag quakes
No volcanoes
Shear stresses
Three Plate Boundary Types Importance
- Types of earthquakes and volcanoes and hazard potential
- Types of rocks and minerals present
- Location of resources
- Control on soils and human activity/development

Change over time
185 m.y.






135 m.y.






65 m.y.
Convergent
Divergent

Transform
Present
Type of Boundary Example Types of
Rock/Volcanoes
Physiographic
Features

Divergent

- Oceanic


- Continental



Mid-Atlantic Ridge


East African Rift




Basalt/Shield


Basalt and
Rhyolite/Shield to
Intermediate



Mid-Ocean Ridge with
Central Rift Valley

Rift Valley



Convergent
- Continent/Ocean


- Ocean/Ocean


- Continent/Continent


Andes


Aleutians, Japan


Himalayas


Andesite and more
felsic/Composite

Andesite/Composite


Deformation/Minor


Offshore trench,
mountain belt

Trench, Island Arc


Mountain Belt

Transform

San Andreas Fault

Deformation/Minor
or None

Fault Valley and
Lateral Offset
Plate Boundaries and Features. Know and be able to Draw/Sketch these.
A
Continents: Oceans:
Felsic to Intermediate Mafic
Al, K, Na Fe, Mg
Light Color Darker Color
Mineral Resource
occurrence is often
predictable. Plate
boundaries
(convergent) are local
areas for the formation
of Copper, Gold, and
more minerals.