Dexterity Electronics Series.

A GUIDE
TO PRACTICAL
ELECTRONICS
FOR TECHNICIANS & HOBBYISTS.

DALO O. EKHABAFE

Table of contents
Preface
Pages
7-9

Chapter 1
A brief explanation of electricity
Atoms, Electrons & Electric charges
Chapter 2
Conductors and Insulators
Atomic structure of Conductors
Electron Valency,
Electronegativity,
Ions & Ionization energy

10 - 16

Chapter 3

17-18

Voltage, Current, & Resistance.

Chapter 4
Electricity & Magnetism
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetism
Principle of induction

19-25

Chapter 5
Batteries & Cells

26-27

Chapter 6
Generators
Principle Of Operational
Types of generators

28

Chapter 7
Direct Current & Alternating Current

29-31

Chapter 8
Ohms Law V=IR

32-33

Chapter 9
Electronic Components
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors

34-55

Chapter 10
Oscillator Circuit
Inductor-Capacitor Resonance

56-57

Chapter 11
Semi-conductors
Diodes
Zener diodes
L.E.D's
Transistors

58-72

Chapter 12
Series & Parallel Circuits

73-80

Chapter 13
Power Transformers

81-88

Chapter 14
Electrical schematic symbols

89

Chapter 15
How to read electrical schematics

90-93

Chapter 16
Radio frequency (RF)

94-95

Chapter 17
Integrated Circuits
555 timers
Logic gates
Digital signal processing

96-101

Chapter 18
Circuit Boards

102-103

Chapter 19
Soldering

104-109

Chapter 20
Using Multimeters

110-114

Chapter 21
Glossary of common electronic terms

115-121

"What then is electricity? This is at once an important and a difficult question. It interests
the lay as well as the scientific mind. Most people who ask it never doubt the existence of
electricity. They expect a description of it - and enumeration of the peculiarities and
powers of this wonderful thing......Electric and magnetic attractions followed the same
law as gravitational attraction; no wonder men thought the simple assumption of action at
a distance sufficient to explain these phenomena, and to trace them back to their ultimate
intelligible cause."Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-1894)

Preface
I had barely turned 11 when I developed a very keen interest in electronics. I was
extremely curious to how radios, video cassette players worked and would often destroy
electronics just to have a peek at their inner workings. Some I could logically understand
others I was totally clueless about. I didnt understand how sounds where generated from
radios or how somehow lights from television where able to produce images. I wanted to
know everything. I often took apart as many electronic i could get and tried to get a
practical understanding of electronics. Every knowledge I got at that point was
experimental. I understood how motors worked by trial and error, so was various basic
circuits such as fans, telephones, radios and so on. My success at understanding the little I
did eventually led me to open my own little shop. There I would build projects and take
them to school to show my classmates. At that point, I had really little knowledge of the
fundamental workings of electronics which severely impaired my ability to build more
complex circuits like I wanted to. I became stuck at remaking broken electronics and
putting different parts of broken electronics together to make a radio but never really
understood how it worked at the fundamental level.
My skill set was severely impaired. But determined to make a breakthrough I started
meeting with electrical engineers at the local telecommunications company where I
would sit with them and ask them questions all day. I was hardly ever satisfied with the
answers I received and I felt they gave me the same answers in many text books on
electronics; many theories but hardly any practical knowledge. So was the case of many
so called electrical engineers where I grew up. I noticed they had plenty of theories
memorized but hardly understood the fundamentals of electronics at an intuitive level.
The level that led to true ability to manipulate electricity. The ability to understand it well
enough to be creative with it and implement it in creating various electronic gadgets.
Such was the trend that when I finally had a grasp of the fundamentals of electronics I
had to write a material to help other people get a grasp of the fundamentals of electronics
at a creative level. There are many adventurous kids out there who want to get their hands
on electronics and understand it the way the manufacturers do but have limited access to
genuine knowledge on the working of electronics. This book is meant to be your guide
into the world of electronics. I have written this book in a practical language that will
offer the best practical understanding for the most people to really have a fundamental
understanding of the workings of electronic and their components with the end goal to
enhance creativism, hobbyism.

.
7

.
CHAPTER 1
A brief explanation of electricity
We live in a wonderful world of electronics. Electronics is everywhere and plays a
tremendous role in our everyday life. Electronics expresses the height of human
creativity. The ability to deal with the minute physical world to produce amazing
electronics that has made human lives a lot easier than ever before us.
Think of the days without TVs, telephones, and cars. It isnt hard to see the effect of
electronics in our world today.
How exactly are we able to create such spectacles that we enjoy so much of?
It is the joy of every society to posses such engineering prowess as to manufacture
products that caters to the need of the society. And the ability to posses such level of
technological creativity independently is genuinely an envious one, one every society
should strive for.
The future of a country or a people rests in its ability to understand and engineer
technologies for various local need also as a symbol of pride and true independence. As a
country you are never really independent until you are able to engineer your own local
technology for as a source of pride and also as a deterrent to foreign aggression.
Electronics truly demonstrates such prowess. It signal the age of genuine intelligence of
that particular populace. No population can be genuinely respected among its peers
without the demonstration of such technological abilities independently.
That being said, I venture to take it upon myself to usher in the age of locally made
electronics technology starting with a thorough understanding of the basic principles
governing the function of electronics and to present a knowledge of electronics capable
of initiating the drive for locally made electronics. An age our country is long been ready
for.
How do electronics work?
Electronics is a very creative process. It involves the use of a few components to create a
desired effect. It involves visualizing the end goal and then employing the right
components in such a manner as to manipulate the movement of electrons to achieve such
goals. It takes a good level of ingenuity to be able to manipulate the movement of
electrons using various components to design many important circuits.
Electronics is all about the manipulation of electron movement. Coupled with a driving
force called voltage we are able to move electrons through certain components like
resistors, capacitors, diodes etc. which all behave in a specific way when electrons moves
through them. And making use of their individual reaction to electron flow (current) we
8

are able to position them in such a way that they may eventually produce the desired
effects we wish to accomplish.
In order to understand this better we will need to understand what electrons are by
looking at the structure of the atom.
The whole process of electricity begins with the electron. Electricity in its basics is the
movement of electrons and using the movement of electrons to do work.
Structure of an atom

Atoms are made up of three parts Protons & Neutrons which make up the Nucleus of the
atom and electrons which orbits the nucleus.
As we must have been taught in schools, we understand that electrons constantly orbit the
nucleus of the atom. The electrons are the only part of the atom which has the ability to
move not only around the nucleus but can also transfer themselves to the surroundings of
nearby atoms as long as they are able to accommodate it. This is called conductivity.
From the previously stated, we can see that electrons are very versatile particles and the
ability to move rapidly under the influence of pressure is the basic principle of
electronics. That is why it is called electronics.
Electronics is all about taking advantage of the movement of millions of electrons at high
speed to do work. Much like we take advantage of waterfalls and dams to spin a turbine
wheel.

Concept of charges
Charges are one of the basic characteristics of nature of sub-atomic particles. It denotes
the property of a basic particle such as an electron to posses attractive or repulsive
characteristics in relation to other particles which posses similar nature or otherwise.
As a rule of thumb like charges attract, unlike charges repel each other.
Charge properties of atomic components
- Electrons - Negative charge
- Neutrons No charge
- Protons Positive charge
Electrons by nature are negative charges
Protons are positive charges
Hence by nature there will be an attractive force between them. This is the attractive
force that keeps the electron in the orbit around the nucleus instead of wondering off.

10

CHAPTER 2
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

CONDUCTORS
Conductors are materials which allow the movement of electrons through them. As we
have stated earlier, electronics is all about using the movement of a lot of electrons to do
work. Conductors are that part of circuits that enable the movement of electrons from one
part of the circuit to another. Much like a pipe around your house enables you to transfer
water around your house. Conductors are made of specific metals such as copper which
by their atomic nature posses excess of electrons on their orbits. These excess of
electrons guarantees a rich flow of electrons once voltage(pressure) is applied across the
conductor.

11

Conductivity & Conductive materials

Conductivity is the ability of a material to allow the movement of a mass of electrons
through it with the least resistance. The ability of a material to be conductive rests in its
physical qualities at the atomic scale. And we will explore certain concepts relating to
such properties.
Atomic number
Valency
Ionization
Ionization energy
Electronegativity
Valency
Meaning: the ability to move, instability
The concept of valency is very important in understanding the movement of electrons and
also the structure and behavior of atoms. We understand that an atom consist of 3 parts.
Protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus which is
usually positively charged due to the positive protons and the electrons which is
negatively charged. The negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively
charged nucleus hence they constantly orbit the nucleus. The atom hence has successive

12

levels of electron orbitals dude to spatial limitations. Much like a public speaker in
public, talking to a crowd. The public speaker in the middle personifies the nucleus.
Immediately surrounding him might be his associates, or those closest to him and there is
only so many people that can stand immediately around him. Once that space is occupied
everybody else have to stand behind those people. The more the people the more they
have to stand behind others generating larger and larger circles. And the farther away
they are from the center of activity the harder it will be to hear what was been said by the
center figure. The atom acts exactly in the same fashion. Immediately surrounding the
nucleus will be the closest electrons which make up the first electron shell or orbital.
Those electrons in the orbit closet to the nucleus experience the strongest attractive force,
the farther away the orbit which an electron is positioned from the nucleus the lesser the
attractive force between the nucleus and electrons in that orbit. Giving it a greater chance
to escape the attractive force of the nucleus. This is very important in electronics because
electronics is all about the movement of electrons. The more valent electrons we have
ready to move the better conductivity hence the greater the current flow. Valency simply
means the readiness of electrons to leave the atom which it surrounds due to its distance
from the nucleus of its atom.

The First shell which is closest to the nucleus is the 1 shell or K- Shell
The second shell is the 2 shell or L- Shell
THE third is 3 shell or M-Shell
The fourth is the 4 shell or N-Shell
The fifth is the 5 shell or O-Shell
The sixth is the 6 shell or P-Shell
The 1st shell can hold up to 2 electrons
The 2nd shell can hold up to 8 electrons
The 3rd shell can hold up to 18 electrons
The 4th shell can hold up to 32 electrons
13

The 5th shell can hold up to 50 electrons

The 6th shell can hold up to 72 electrons
The formula is usually given by 2n^2
Each orbit represent successive energy levels of the electron. Electrons closer to the
nucleus possess a lower energy level since their spin is compensated by the attractive
force provided by the nucleus. As electrons appear further from the nucleus they posses
higher energy levels given by the equation E=mc^2
The electrons in the outermost shell dictates the chemical properties of an atom since
they can easily move in and out of the atom severely disrupting the energy balance of that
atom. That is the valence shell and it is the most important to electronic engineers.
Valency is also important when dealing with conductors. As the whole principle of
conductivity is centered on the property of valency.

ION & IONIZATION

While a charge represent the intrinsic characteristic of an atom or particle to attract
others. Ions is all about numbers. The number of electrons. We understand that an atom
has 3 parts to it. The proton, neutron and electron. We know the proton is positively
charged, the electron is negatively charged, while the neutron is neutral or have no
charge. Remember the force of attraction between the positive protons and negatively
14

charge electron is what keeps the electron in orbit around the nucleus. Now if there are
more protons in the atom than electrons, we say that atom is a positive ion since the net
charge of the atom will be positive due to more positive protons making it a negative ion
called Cation. Same applies for an atom with more electrons (which have negative
charge) than protons then that atom's net charge will be negative. Making it a negative
ion called Anion.
Ionization is the process by which an atom gains or loses electrons to become a positive
or negative ion. Negative ions are produced when free electrons collide with atoms that
are electron deficient and is banded with that atom. The atom will tend to acquire more
electrons until it has either equal or more amount of electrons. The atom will acquire
more electrons until it can acquire no more.
Positive ions are produced when an atom losses electrons. Usually this occurs when an
electron is able to be ripped off the orbit of the atom and this occurs when the atom
forcefully collides with other particles or is infused with enough energy by stray photon
particles which infuses the atom with enough energy to rip the electron of the orbit. The
process is called photonization.
Ionization Energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the orbit
of an atom.

15

Electronegativity is the ability of the atom to attract electrons towards itself. The higher
the Electronegativity of an atom, the greater its attraction for bonding electrons and the
greater the ionization energy it will take to pull that electron from that atom. Since
electrons are negatively charged atoms that tend to want to attract electrons eventually
will have a negative net charge when they do. Hence the term electronegative.

16

Insulators
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of
materials, generally non-metals, that have very few or no valent electrons because the
electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the positively charged inner
nucleus.
When voltage is applied to the material, no current will flow as there are no electrons to
move . This gives these materials their insulating properties.
Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per meter, and are generally
not affected by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood
becomes charcoal and changes from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good
insulators are marble, fused quartz, p.v.c. plastics, rubber etc.
Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because
without them electrical circuits would short together and not work. For example,
insulators made of glass or porcelain are used for insulating and supporting overhead
transmission cables while epoxy-glass resin materials are used to make printed circuit
boards, PCBs etc. while PVC is used to insulate electrical cables as shown.

List of common insulators

17

Plastic
Dry wood
Ceramic
Glass
Rubber
Air
Mica
Paper
Carpet
Most nonmetals are insulators. It should be noted that though water is a non-metal it is
however not a practical insulator and we should be care full with electricity when we are
wet or around a wet surrounding.

CHAPTER 3
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, & RESISTANCE.
Voltage, current and resistance are the three pillars of electricity and understanding these
will give you the necessary understanding to handle electricity.
Voltage V (also called potential difference) can be understood as the force which
drives the movement of electrons around the circuit. The movement of electrons have to
be caused by a force pushing them through the conductors and voltage is that force. The
whole concept of voltage, current and resistance can be understood by using the analogy
of water in a pipe. The water in the pipe is the current, the pressure pushing the water
through the pipe is the voltage and the size of the pipe and other debris that might affect
the rate of water flow is the resistance. The concept of voltage as potential difference we
will cover later in this book when dealing with voltage sources. For now it is best we
understand Voltage as the pressure driving the movement of electrons. The unit of
measurement for voltage is Volts.
Current I
Current is simply the quantity of electrons moving. Current can be understood more

18

precisely as the movement of electrons around a circuit. Current is very important

because it is what enables us to do work. Current can also be understood as a thousand
race cars racing through a road a ridiculous speed. To envision that is to envision closely
what goes on in the wires of circuits when dealing with electronics
The unit of measurement of current is the Ampere.
Resistance R
Resistance or impedance is the sum of all factors that may impede the flow of current. As
we know electronics is all about the movement of electrons and it is only appropriate to
factor in all those impeding factors that may hinder the flow of these electrons. The unit
of resistance is Ohms
That being said it is know easy to look at electronics in a more understandable way by
summarizing it in these simple factors
Voltage if the pressure which pushes the electrons
Current is the flow of electrons and it measured in coulombs.1 coulomb is
6,241,510,000,000,000,000 electrons flowing past a point at a point in time
Resistance or impedance is anything that will hinder the flow of current. Impedance is the
sum of all resistive factors. Be it from capacitors, resistors, or inductors. We will discuss
this later in this book.

SUMMARY
Electrons from atoms are pushed through a conductor (wire) by a voltage (V) sometimes
called "electro"-motive force (EMF). The movement of electrons through the wire like
water in a pipe, is what we use to do work. This is the whole idea of electricity. Electrons
flow at very high speed and when this passes our body creates the feeling of "Electric
shock". This can be deadly depending on the force (Voltage) and the amount of electrons
(Current I), we come in contact with . Our body is not a good conductor of electricity

19

like metals in wires so current may have some difficulty flowing through our body. We
say our body has a good Resistance to current flow. Hence the concept "Resistance" (R).
Resistance is sometimes useful in a circuit when we want to restrict or control the flow of
current. hence we make special materials made of poor conductors to restrict current flow
these components are what we call Resistors.

CHAPTER 4
ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM
There is a direct correlation between current
Flow and magnetism. Current flow and magnetism
Go hand in hand as far as electricity is concerned.
Michael Faraday discovered this property in
1831. He proposed that moving a magnet around a
coiled wire made current flow through the wire.
Conversely it was discovered that current flowing
through a wire generated a magnetic field around the
wire as well. That became the start of the
electromagnetic principle. Now it is known as a law
that a moving magnetic field about a wire will
generate current and vice versa. This became known
as
Faradays law of electromagnetism.
Concisely put, any movement of a magnet about a
wire or vice versa will induce a voltage in the wire.
This is the principle on which generators are made. By turning a large loop of wire inside
properly positioned magnets we generate current in the wire. Which is then used to power
appliances.
20

Electric & Magnetic field

Electric field is the attribute of a point charge to repel or attract other charges.
Much like gravity or magnets, charges will attract or repel other charges depending on
the type of charge. A general rule is that:
LIKE CHARGES WILL REPEL EACH OTHER, UNLIKE CHARGES WILL
ATTRACT EACH OTHER
A positive charge will repel another positive charge, while a positive charge and a
negative charge will attract each other.
An Ion is simply an atom with more or less electrons. A positive ion is an atom
with not enough electrons in its outer shell while a negative ion is an atom with plenty
electrons. Naturally when opposite charges come in close contact with each other they are
pulled together to bond. The domain whereby by they come close enough to influence
each other is called the electric field. So we see that charges behave very much like
magnets. When you bring two magnets together close enough, at a certain distance from
each other they are suddenly pulled together instantly. We understand that immediately
surrounding a charge or a magnet there exist an invisible domain immediately
surrounding such charge or magnet that when something is brought close enough into
that domain, it will immediately be attracted to that charge or magnet. Such domain
which surrounds a charge is called an electric field.

A single isolated charge is the source of an electric field

21

When charges attract, their lines of flux or electric field are wrapped around each other
and they bond.
When two opposite charges are brought together their field similarities causes them to
repel each other.

Magnetic field is very identical to an electric field only difference is magnetic field is the
domain immediately surrounding a magnet within which it is able to exert an attractive
or repulsive force depending on the polarities.

22

Magnetic Flux
Is the name given to the magnetic equivalent of electric current. It is the flow of
magnetism from the north to the south pole of a magnet. Magnetic Flux flows
along lines of magnetic force that make up a magnetic field. Just like electric current, it is
easier for magnetic flux to flow through some materials than others, soft iron for example
has a very high permeability. That means, it is very easy for magnetic flux to flow
through it. High permeability can also be described as a very low reluctance to the flow
of magnetic flux (the magnetic equivalent of resistance). Air has more reluctance and so
is less permeable than iron. It is therefore easier for a flux to flow through iron than
through air, and many electromagnetic devices use materials such as iron to concentrate
magnetic flux into a small area and so increase the effectiveness of devices such as
transformers, motors and electromagnets.

FARADAYS LAW OF INDUCTION

This law explains how most electrical motors, generators, transformers and
inductors. This law shows the relationship between electric current and magnetic field.
Faraday performs an experiment with a magnet and coil. During this experiment, he
found that voltage is induced in the coil when flux of the magnetic field moves.

23

In this experiment, Faraday takes a magnet and a coil and connects a

galvanometer across the coil. At starting, the magnet is at rest, so there is no deflection in
the galvanometer i.e. needle of galvanometer is at the center or zero position. When the
magnet is moved towards the coil, the needle of galvanometer deflects in one direction.
When the magnet is held stationary at that position, the needle of galvanometer returns
back to zero position. Now when the magnet is moved away from the coil, there is some
deflection in the needle but in opposite direction and again when the magnet becomes
stationary, at that point with respect to coil, the needle of the galvanometer returns back
to the zero position. Similarly, if magnet is held stationary and the coil is moved away
and towards the magnet, the galvanometer shows deflection in similar manner. It is also
seen that, the faster the change in the magnetic field, the greater will be the induced
voltage in the coil hence current flows through the coil. From these experiments he was
able to formulate Faraday's first and second law.

Faraday's First Law

Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause voltage to be induced in the
coil. This voltage induced is called induced voltage and if the conductor circuit is closed,
the current will also circulate through the circuit and this current is called induced
current.

Method to change magnetic field:

1. By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil
2. By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
3. By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field
4. By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.

24

Faraday's law states in summary that if we move a magnet around a wire or move a wire
around a magnet, we will generate current and this simple experiment became the law
upon which many of our electronic devices have been built upon. Beginning from our
generators, transformers, electric motor and many others

25

Faraday's Second Law

It states that the magnitude of voltage induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of
flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of number of
turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil.

26

Faraday's law as exemplified in a simple generator. The magnet gets rotated inside a
housing of coiled wires. The moving magnets generate current inside the wires which is
then extracted to power circuits

27

CHAPTER 5
BATTERIES AND CELLS

Batteries provide our source of power or voltage. Batteries are the source of
voltage for current to flow. The whole concept of voltage is centered around the battery.
The battery houses the chemical properties the results in a pressure that eventually drives
these billions of electrons around the circuit which we eventually manipulate to produce
various desired effects. Having a good understanding of batteries allows you to
understand how voltage operates a circuit.
Structure of the battery.

28

Before we go into the structure of a battery I would like to introduce you to the
concept of potential difference. Potential difference is the reason for voltage. As we
know Voltage is the force which pushes the electrons around the circuit. Without voltage
our circuits cannot operate. Potential difference is the reason for voltage. The force
voltage is as a result of potential difference. Inside your battery there are 2 types of
metals dipped in a solution called an electrolyte. An electrolyte as the name suggests is a
solution the contains plenty of electrons; negative and positive ions (please review: ions)
one of the metals (usually lead metal) called the anode (+) contains more electrons than
the other metal the cathode (-) ,usually tin metal. When a conductive path is made
available or a wire is connected to both ends of the battery all the electrons from the +
metal would rush to the (-) metal because the solution will naturally try to balance the
electrons in the two metals. (nature doesnt like imbalances) it is from that force of trying
to balance itself that creates voltage that drives the electrons about the circuit.

29

CHAPTER 6
GENERATORS
Generators as we all know produces electricity In chapter 3 we studied Faraday
law and how a moving coil close to a magnet will produce a current. This is the whole
concept of the generators. By moving a coil of wire within well placed magnets in any
condition, we will generate some current. In commercial and household generators and
car generators the coils and magnets are much more larger in order to produce a lot of
power. There are usually plenty turns of coils in generator and the magnets are usually
strong magnets. When arranged properly, turning the coil of wire within the magnetic
field will produce our desired current this voltage is then sent to the circuit or our
household for use.
The two most important part of a generator is the rotor windings which is the coil of
copper wire rotating within the magnets and the stator magnets which are stationary.

Generators are easy to understand and their operations are really basic.
Understanding generators is very essential to understanding alternating current. A type of
current we will study in the next chapter.

30

CHAPTER 7
Alternating Current & Direct current
Direct current is usually the current produced by a Battery. Be it small or large. Solar
panels also produce direct current. The bottom line is any current that isnt produced by a
generator or doesnt come out of your wall socket is direct current. The principle of direct
is very simple the current is the most conventional current we come across in our
everyday lives handling small electronic toys, cell phones, remote controls and so on.
Direct current flows only in one direction and is pretty straight forward. Current leaves
the negative end of the battery (this is always the case. Note current always goes from
negative to positive and never the other way around), travels through the circuit and
returns to the positive end of the battery period. It is that simple it goes one way through
the circuit and back to the battery. Nothing else. As the name implies its characteristics
are simple and direct. Like we said earlier these are the type of current produced by our
regular batteries and car batteries and they usually arent large currents usually ranging
between 1.5V-24V. You typical AA battery from you TV remote is a good example and
it produces 1.5V which is enough to power your remote.
Alternating current on the other hand is quite different. As the name suggests it is
constantly alternating. The terminals of your wall socket never has a constant polarity.
They are constantly alternating from positive to negative. As we see in a regular battery.
The Negative and positive terminals are fixed. They dont change. The battery is hooked
up to our circuit the same way every time. Alternating current is quite different. They are
not produced by batteries. They are exclusively produced by generators whether its your
home generator or they huge hydro or turbine generators used by power companies.
Alternating current behaves this way because they are produced by generators.

31

When we look at a generator we see it is simply a huge coil of wire rotating within four
blocks of magnets each magnet is in a north, south, north, South Pole configuration or
two magnets with a north, South Pole orientation. We need to arrange the magnets in this
way to ensure the coil is influenced by both the North Pole and South Pole of a magnet as
this is the only way current is created. And this comes at a price meaning when the coil of
wire passes the north pole of the magnet, current will move in one direction, when the
coil of wire passes through the South Pole the current will move in the opposite direction
and will do this many times per second. Hence the current coming from our wall
receptacle will always be changing direction every time. Current produced by alternating
generators are usually very high voltage can be anywhere from 220Volts-1,000,000 volts
and this is one of the advantages alternating currents have over Direct current.
When we connect an alternating voltage source to an oscilloscope we are able to visually
see how the current behaves. First of all it will climb to its maximum Positive value then
it will descend to the negative half till it reaches its maximum negative value

32

Alternating current is very useful in electronics for various reasons

1. They produce a much higher voltage
2. They can be stepped up and stepped down
3. They can be transmitted over long distances with little drop in voltage unlike
Direct current which gradually losses its power when transmitted over long
distances
4. AC current is the basis for radio transmitters and receivers

33

CHAPTER 8
OHMS LAW
In 1827 German physicist and mathematician George Ohm put out one of the first
and most fundamental equations describing the nature of electricity. Ohms main interest
was current electricity, which had recently been advanced by Alessandro Voltas
invention of the battery. He spent 9 years doing considerable experimental research on
the nature of electric circuits. He took considerable pains to be brutally accurate with
every detail of his work. And after all his efforts, he was able to show from his
experiments that there was a relationship between resistance, voltage and current. A
relationship of these factors we now call Ohms law. Which states that
The current through a conductor or resistor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential difference (Voltage) across the two points
In other words
To make a current flow through a resistance there must be a voltage across that
resistance.
Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, arrives at the usual
mathematical equation that describes this relationship
or

V=IR
where:

I=

or

V
R

R=

V = voltage in volts (V)

I = current in amps (A)
R = resistance in ohms (
)

V
I
or:

V = voltage in volts (V)

I = current in milliamps (mA)
R = resistance in kilohms (k
)

For most electronic circuits the amp is too large and the ohm is too small, so we often
measure current in milliamps (mA) and resistance in kilohms (k ). 1 mA = 0.001 A
and 1 k = 1000
The Ohm's Law equations work if you use V, A and R , or if you use V, mA and k
. You must not mix these sets of units in the equations so you may need to convert
between mA and A or k and .
The VIR triangle
You can use the VIR triangle to help you remember the three versions of
Ohm's Law.
Write down V, I and R in a triangle like the one in the yellow box on the
right.
To calculate voltage, V: put your finger over V,

34

V
I

Ohm's Law
triangle

this leaves you with I R, so the equation is V=IR

To calculate current, I: put your finger over I,
this leaves you with V over R, so the equation is I=V/R
To calculate resistance, R: put your finger over R,
this leaves you with V over I, so the equation is R=V/I

Ohm's Law Calculations

Use this method to guide you through calculations:
1. Write down the Values, converting units if necessary.
2. Select the Equation you need (use the VIR triangle).
3. Put the Numbers into the equation and calculate the answer.

V
I

It should be Very Easy Now!

3 V is applied across a 6
resistor, what is the current?
Values: V = 3 V, I = ?, R = 6
Equation: I = V/R
Numbers: Current, I = 3/6 = 0.5 A
A lamp connected to a 6 V battery passes a current of 60 mA, what is the lamp's
resistance?
Values: V = 6 V, I = 60 mA, R =?
Equation: R = V/I
Numbers: Resistance, R = 6/60 = 0.1 k
= 100
(using mA for current means the calculation gives the resistance in k
)
A 1.2 k
resistor passes a current of 0.2 A, what is the voltage across it?
Values: V = ?, I = 0.2 A, R = 1.2 k
= 1200
(1.2 k
is converted to 1200
because A and k
must not be
used together)
Equation: V = I R
Numbers: V = 0.2 1200 = 240 V

35

CHAPTER 9
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

36

Electronic components are those things in circuit boards which converts the
movement of electrons through them into various effects. When voltage moves electrons
through them, they tend to behave in certain ways and a collection of these various
effects can lead to a chain reaction that will produce the eventual effects or design that we
want. Your radios and telephones and toys all work this way. Like in your radio when
magnetic field crosses your inductor it generates a current, the current flows to the diode,
the diodes lets it go only one way, when the current reaches the capacitor is is filtered and
then to your speaker which makes a sound. Now you can see by each component
performing a certain function we are able to produce radio. The knowledge of these
components and how they behave will enable us to design many circuits.

Resistors

As the name suggests they resist the flow of electrons through them. Sometimes in
circuits you dont want too much current flowing through a place and in order to slow
them down we use resistors to slow down the current. This is useful in many applications.
For example in your torchlight circuit if you dont want all 30000000000 electrons
flowing through the light bulb at a voltage of 9. You will put a resistor in between the
resistor and the light bulb the resistor will slow down the current so it doesnt burn the
light bulb out. Resistors are made of special materials that dont really like to conduct
electricity. They are poor conductors. Most resistors are made off ceramic, carbon or
other material which are not as conductive as wires. When current get through them they
have slight difficulty getting through them so they slow down the flow of current. This
way we use them to control the movement of electrons to serve different functions.
Resistance is measured Ohm () and it is the measure of the value of resistance to
current flow a resistor offers. Some resistors their resistive value can be changed some
their resistive values are fixed. The fixed resistors are those common resistors we see on
circuit boards with colored stripes. Adjustable resistor are usually much bigger and are
used in applications where you want to constantly be able to change the resistance for
37

various purposes.
Volume controls are the best examples of variable resistors.
Resistors are usually identified by their colors. The colored brown, red, yellow, gold
stripes helps us determine the value of resistance (ohms) of a particular resistor.
Resistor color bands and identification

Resistors commonly seen in circuits usually have 3, 4, or 5 stripes. The most common
which is the resistors with 4 & 5 stripes. Although we can often find resistors with 3
bands. Regardless of how many colored stripes is printed on them they are all identified
using the same methods.
Each color stripes on a resistor represents a number value and when all the stripes are
read properly they give us the exact value of the resistor including the tolerance.
When we look at a resistor we notice there are usually a group of 3 or 4 stripes on the
left. And on the other end is usually a single a gold, or silver stripe. The group of 3 or 4
stripes on the left usually give us the numeric value of the resistor (e.g. 340 ohms, 32,000
ohms and so on.) the single stripe on the right end tells us the tolerance of the resistor (+/5% or +/- 10%).
Meaning if a resistor is rated at 500ohms with a tolerance of 5%, its resistance will
behave anywhere from 475ohms 525ohms. The reason been that it has a tolerance of +
or -5%.
5% of 500 = 25
So by knowing the tolerance, we understand our 500ohmm resistor will give a minimum
of 475ohms and a maximum of 525ohms resistance. This is very important when making
calculations in a circuit. When we know how much voltage, and current is flowing
through the circuit understanding the precise values of our resistors help us design and
also efficiently manipulate the behavior of current around the circuit.

38

Practicality of resistor identification

Once again in our torch light circuit. Say we have a 9volt battery supply and a bulb rated
at 3volts, we want to be able to down step that 9 volts getting to the lamp in order to
prevent it from frying. We should be able to calculate the resistance needed to drop the
voltage to 3volts and then find an appropriate resistor to play that role. So when we pick
up a resistor, we are able to look at it, and by the number and colors of stripes on our
resistor we can tell exactly the resistance value it offers and place it in our circuit if
needed.
How to identify a resistor
As stated earlier, we will come across the 4 or 5 striped resistors more often when dealing
with circuits. The 4 stripe resistor will have a group of 3 stripes to the left and a single
stripe on the right end. Same goes for the 5 striped resistor; a group of 4 band on the left
and a single stripe on the right. Regardless of the number of stripes we will read them the
same way.
Like we stated earlier the group of bands on the left are the most important, the single
band on the right just gives us the tolerance.
In reading the group of stripes on the left the first two or 3 stripes are the most important.
They give us the numeric value of the resistor say 52 ohms, the 3rd or 4th stripe depending
on the number of stripes gives us the multiplier or number of zeroes. Say x1000 or 000.
Meaning our resistor is a 52000ohm resistor. The single stripe then gives us the tolerance.
Say 10%. Meaning our resistor is a 52000 ohm resistor with a tolerance of 10%. In reality
our resistor will give a minimum of 47000ohm resistance and a maximum of 57000ohm
resistance.

39

Below is a list of colors and their numeric values

Black
Brown
Red
Orange3

0
1
2

40

Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White

4
5
6
7
8
9

Number of Zeros
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
Gold
Silver

0
00
000
0000
00000
000000
0000000
00000000
000000000
x0.1
x0.01

Tolerance
Gold
Silver
No color

+/-5%
+/-10%
+/- 20%

There are various variations of the above tables however they present the same facts. In
some books they will call the number of zeros multipliers. But to ease understanding of
the presented topic I have chosen languages and formats that will present the easiest way
of understanding resistor color identification the easiest and most efficient way.

41

Examples
Lets look at a resistor with 4 stripes

Using the above table we get

Brown = 1
Red = 2
Therefore we have = 12
Number of zeros, using our chart
Orange = 000
Therefore the 4 striped resistor above is a 12,000 Ohm resistor with a tolerance of +/-5%
Tolerance for Gold stripes = +/-5%
5% of 12,000 = 600
Therefore our resistor although rated at 12,000Ohms, will provide a resistance of between
11,400Ohms-12,600 Ohms!
It is very common to see 12,000 Ohms written as 12kOhms. K which stands for kilo is

42

just another way of saying 12,000 Ohms without the zeros to conserve space.

Using our table

Brown = 1
Red = 2
Orange =3
=123
Number of zeros
Blue = 000000
Silver tolerance = +/-10%
We have a 123,000,000 Ohm resistor with a tolerance of +/-10%
in reality the resistance provided by such resistor will range from 110,000000 1400000
Ohms!
Like in our previous resistor, 123,000,000 Ohms = 123MOhms. M stangs for Mega =
Million.

43

True Nature of resistors

Resistors are the opposite of good conductors, as stated earlier resistors are basically poor
conductors. The most common type of resistors is the carbon film type resistor and
ceramic resistors.
Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors. Carbon
resistors are a cheap general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits.
Their resistive element is manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or
graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all
together.
The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the overall
resistive value of the mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the lower the overall
resistance. The mixture is molded into a cylindrical shape with metal wires or leads are
attached to each end to provide the electrical connection as shown, before being coated
with an outer insulating material and color coded markings to denote its resistive value.

Potentiometers
Potentiometers are variable resistors. In plain English, they have some sort of knob or
slider that you turn or push to change resistance in a circuit. If you have ever used a
volume knob on a stereo or a sliding light dimmer, then you have used a potentiometer.
Potentiometers are measured in ohms like resistors, but rather than having color bands,
they have their value rating written directly on them (i.e. "1M"). They are also marked
with an "A" or a "B, which indicated the type of response curve it has.
Potentiometers marked with a "B" have a linear response curve. This means that as you
turn the knob, the resistance increases evenly (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, etc.). The
potentiometers marked with an "A" have a logarithmic response curve. This means that
as you turn the knob, the numbers increase logarithmically (1, 10, 100, 10,000 etc.)
Potentiometers have three legs as to create a voltage divider, which is basically two
resistors in series. When two resistors are put in series, the point between them is a

44

voltage that is a value somewhere between the source value and ground.
For instance, if you have two 10K resistors in series between power (5V) and ground
(0V), the point where these two resistors meet will be half the power supply (2.5V)
because both of the resistors have identical values. Assuming this middle point is actually
the center pin of a potentiometer, as you turn the knob, the voltage on the middle pin will
actually increase towards 5V or decrease toward 0V (depending which direction that you
turn it). This is useful for adjusting the intensity of an electrical signal within a circuit
(hence its use as a volume knob).
This is represented in a circuit as a resistor with an arrow pointing towards the middle of
it.
If you only connect one of the outer pins and the center pin to the circuit, you are only
changing the resistance within the circuit and not the voltage level on the middle pin.
This too is a useful tool for circuit building because often you just want to change the
resistance at a particular point and not create an adjustable voltage divider.
This configuration is often represented in a circuit as a resistor with an arrow coming out
of one side and looping back in to point towards the middle.

45

Capacitors

As the name suggests they have a capacity to hold charges pr act as a charge tank. In
reality capacitors are micro batteries capable of holding very small amount of charges.
They constantly charge and discharge during the operations of a circuit and this can help
us serve various functions where we need breaks in a circuit. For example if it takes a
capacitor two seconds to charge we can use it in a circuit where a 2 second delay is
needed like an intermittent flashing light circuit, a beeping sound circuit, and so on. Each
of this circuit will have a 2 second delay as a result of the capacitor. When it is charging,
there will be a pause in current flow, as soon as it is charged it releases the current and
will do this every 2 second. To an observer the light or sound will only come on every 2
seconds, the charge cycle of the capacitor.
Capacitors are also used as filters for various applications. An attribute of a capacitor we
will explain later in this chapter. In order to understand the workings of a capacitor we
will need to study the construction of one.

46

Anatomy of a capacitor

Capacitors contains 2 metal plates separated by an insulator or air. This insulator

is usually referred to as a dielectric. The insulator could be paper, mica, plastic or
ceramic.
The Negative terminal of the capacitor is connected to the positive end of the battery and
vice versa. When both ends are connected to the positive and negative terminal of a
battery both plates are charged with negative and positive charges respectively. The
presence of a negatively charged metal plate in close proximity with a positively charged
metal plate creates an electric field since we have already been taught that unlike charges
will attract. The presence of these two opposing charges gives us an electric potential.
When charges travel across the dielectric we have a voltage and current flow.
When a capacitor is connected to a battery, the end of the capacitor connected to the
-Negative terminal of the battery gains electrons from the battery (since current always
flows from the negative to the positive) and is charged up. The negative end of the
capacitor connected to the positive terminal of the battery losses electrons to battery. As
soon as enough negative and positive charges build up in the plates of the capacitor, it
discharges. By going through its charge and discharge cycles constantly we are able to
use this property for various effects in our circuit.
The most common use of capacitors in a circuit are.
Timing & Delay:
Every capacitor has its capacitance. Meaning it has a specific amount of charge it can
47

hold. And it usually takes time for a capacitor to be fully charged to its maximum
capacity after which it will discharge. Letting go of all its charge into the circuit. A
capacitor is only active during its discharge cycle since this is the only time current flows
out of a capacitor. So by knowing how long it takes to charge (for example 2 seconds) we
are able to employ this in a circuit where a 2 seconds delay is required. This is the basics
of constructing blinking light circuits and other intermittent circuits.

Smoothing out current

The ability of capacitors to store charge makes them very useful in circuits where
periodic break in current supply is experienced. Whenever there is a break the current
supply, the capacitor will immediately discharge whatever charges it has held up in its
reservoir to supplement for the current loss. Thus to an observer it will seem there is a
constant flow of current. Capacitors are widely placed between terminals of power supply
for the same reason they help compensate for any fluctuations that may be experienced in
power supply.
Filtering
Capacitors are used as filters in circuits to filter out specific frequencies. For this lecture
we will stick to capacitors been able to filter audio signals although they apply to a wide
range of electronic uses including videos and graphics streaming from your television. In
fact anything that has to do with frequencies and filtering out specific frequencies
capacitors are indispensable. In order to understand how capacitors act as filters we will
need to take a closer look at how a capacitor fundamentally behaves and how it will
behave when dealing with changing electronic frequencies.
Earlier on we studied two types of current Direct current (DC) and Alternating Current
(AC)We usually assume capacitors block DC current. And rightly so because of the
nature of the capacitor. When we connect a capacitor to a DC source like a battery
naturally the battery will charge up the capacitor, unless there is an outlet to discharge the
capacitor, it will remain that way. But when dealing with AC that constantly changes
polarity, it affords our capacitors a chance to discharge continually since it constantly

48

changes polarity. To understand this concept, lets look at a capacitor connected to a Dc

source.
When the capacitor is connected to the battery 2 interesting things happen.
Firstly, all the negative charges on the left plate of the capacitor is drawn to the Positive
plate of the battery. The positive charges on the right plate of the capacitor is drawn to the
negative part of the battery positive charges will flow to the left plate and negative
charges will flow to the right plate.. In every metal or wire there is always both negative
and positive charges floating in them and the capacitor is no way different.
Secondly, because the metal plates are held so closely together there is an electrostatic
force of attraction between the positive charges on the left plate and the negative charges
on the right plate. To go even further this force of attraction between the the negative and
positive charges on both plates help drain out the battery. And it is this electrostatic force
that holds the charges in the capacitor and makes sure they stay there until it is connected
to a circuit and drained by a more active current source. In the end we will have one plate
exclusively filled with positive charges and the other plate filled exclusively with
negative charges. Now the capacitor is fully charged. All the various charges have found
their respective positions and they stay there. If we were to reverse the battery the same
process will repeat itself again, this time the other way around. But as we all know
batteries in a circuit fits in one way and will work only in one way.
As for alternating current the case is quite different, since the polarity is continuously
changing from positive to negative, the capacitor will be drained and charged up
continuously by the attraction of charges and constant reversal of polarities of the current
supplied. So AC acts like we are constantly reversing a battery. One time one end is
positive, the next second, it is negative. And it does this many times a second so our
capacitor is constantly charged and drained then charged again. To an outside observer it
will seem like current is flowing through the capacitor, but it is not. Remember we have a
dielectric in between the metal plates of the capacitor and the plates are also spaced. The
sole reason we bring the plates in close proximity to each other is so they can experience
the electrostatic force of attraction which helps hold the charges to the metal plates when
we need to use them.
CAPACITOR SIZE, CAPACITY & CAPACITANCE
The capacitance of a capacitor is a function of various factors
The size of the metal plates. The larger the size of the metal plates in the capacitor, the
more charges it can hold. Also take not that it will take a bit longer to charge up too.
Distance between the plates. The more distance between the plates, the lesser the
electrostatic force of attraction is felt between charges on both plates. Drastically
affecting its ability to hold enough charges.
Permittivity of the dielectric. As long as the dielectric allows both plates to experience
the maximum force of attraction between them without hindrance it is a good one.

49

Various materials have different permeativity effects called dielectric constant. The
permittivity of a paper dielectric will be different from the permittivity of plastic or
ceramic.
In electronics, charges are represented by the letter q. If the charges on the plates are +q
and q, and V gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance C is given by
which gives the voltage/current relationship

Capacitors in Series:
When capacitors are connected in series the total capacitance is even less than any one of
the capacitors connected in series, individual capacitance. If more than two capacitors are
connected in series, the whole outcome is of a solitary (equal) capacitor which has the
total sum of the plate space of the single capacitor. As we very well know that a rise in
the plate spacing, with rest of the factors unaltered, outcomes in fall of capacitance.
Therefore, the overall capacitance is lower than any solitary of the individual capacitors
capacitance. For calculating the total capacitance of capacitors connected in series
formula is given below:-

Capacitors in Parallel:
When capacitors are united in parallel the overall capacitance is the total of the solitary
capacitors capacitance. If more than 2 capacitors are linked in parallel, the whole
outcome is that of a solo correspondent capacitor which has the sum total of the plate
surface of the solo capacitor. As we have experienced that an increase in the plate
surface, while other essential factors remain same, the outcome is an increase in the
capacitance.
The formula to evaluate parallel resistance is same as for calculating
total capacitance of capacitors connected in series.

50

Types of Capacitors:
Capacitors can be employed in a number of different manners in a variety of electronic
circuits. Even though their method of functioning remains precisely similar they can be
employed to supply a range of different circuit operations such as- Coupling capacitor,
Smoothing capacitor, Decoupling capacitor. There are many other types of capacitors too
that can be employed, maximum of them are discussed below:

1. Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitor is found in many appliances ranging from radio to RF. By far ceramic
capacitors are the most commonly used capacitors; this is because these capacitors are
cheap, reliable & their loss factor is much lower. These ceramic capacitors are used in
Both leaded and surface mount formats.

51

Ceramic is most widely employed capacitor which is employed in many

appliances & electronic gears now-a-days. At present ceramic capacitors are available in
a wide range of formats such as leaded constituents to surface mount technology. Leaded
version of disc ceramic capacitors is broadly accessible. These ceramic capacitors are
employed practically in each & every sort of electric equipment. The exact performance
of a ceramic capacitor basically relies in kind of dielectric employed. Ceramic capacitors
are considered as workhorses of current capacitor world.
Ceramic capacitors are obtainable currently in 3 major types even though additional
styles are also available:
Leaded disc ceramic capacitors for throughout hole mounting which are resin
layered.
Multi-layer surface mount chip ceramic capacitors.
Specialist microwave bare lead-less disc ceramic capacitors that are intended to be
seated in a slit in the PCB and are welded in place.
2. Electrolytic Capacitors
This type of capacitor is polarized. These capacitors are capable of offering higher
capacitance value- generally above 1F, this type of capacitor is commonly used in low
frequency applications.

Electrolytic capacitor has been employed in many appliances for a number of years. The
plates of this capacitor are crafted from conducting aluminum foil. Owing to aluminum
film the plates can be made extremely thin and these plates are flexible as well. Hence
these plates can be packed at the end of the construction procedure. The two plates
included in this capacitor are a bit different. The 1st one is coated with an insulating
oxide sheet and a paper spacer drenched in electrolyte is positioned amid them. The foil
insulated by the oxide coating is anode whereas the liquor electrolyte and the 2nd foil
operate as cathode.

52

INDUCUTORS

An inductor in the real sense of it is really just a piece of wire. We have studied
Faradays experiments in previous chapters where we were told about Induced voltage
in a wire if we move a magnet around it. Well from that experiment came the term
induction and hence the inductor which is really just a fancy name for wires exhibiting
magnetic properties. We later found out that we can increase this magnetic effect when
we coil a long piece of wire up. Making it feel like it is many wires joined together. That
way the magnetic field adds up since the wire is coiled up and this is the whole principle
of inductors. Soon we will be able to see why this is necessary in circuits.
Inductors depend for their action on the magnetic field that is present around any
conductor when it is carrying a current. If the wire coil is wound around a core made of a
material that is easily magnetized, such as iron, then the magnetic field around the coil
is concentrated within the core; this greatly increases the efficiency of the inductor.

Symbol for an Inductor

53

INDUCTORS IN AC CIRCUITS
Inductors are extensively used in alternating current (AC) applications such as radio, TV
and communications equipment, and in these systems, how inductors react to AC signals
of different frequencies is very useful
CHOKE
Another name used for an inductor is a "Choke". Inductors, being just coils of copper
wire, will allow DC to pass easily, but when AC is applied, inductors create an opposition
to current flow that increases, as the frequency of the alternating current increases.
Therefore AC is prevented from flowing or is "Choked off" while DC is allowed to pass.
This effect is used in power supply circuits where the public AC mains (line) supply has
to be converted to a DC supply suitable for powering electronic circuits.
ENERGY STORAGE
The magnetic field around an inductor is a store of energy (from the current that caused
the field). When the current is turned off, the energy stored in the magnetic field is
returned to the inductor, causing a current to flow in the opposite direction. This can
produce a pulse of high voltage across the coil. The pulse of energy can be a problem in
some electronic circuits and can easily destroy other components if not properly
controlled, but it can also be extremely useful; such high voltage pulses produced by an
inductor are used to create the spark that ignites the petrol in automobile engines.

54

Inductance
A current generated in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic field. This effect is called INDUCTANCE and is given the
symbol L. It is measured in units called the Henry (H) named after the American
Physicist Joseph Henry (1797-1878). One Henry is the amount of inductance required to
produce an e.m.f. of 1 volt in a conductor when the current in the conductor changes at
the rate of 1
Ampere per second. The Henry is a rather large unit for use in electronics, with the millihenry (mH) and micro-henry (H) being more common. These units describe one
thousandth and one millionth of a Henry respectively. Although the henry is given the
symbol (capital) H, the name Henry, applied to the unit of inductance uses a lower case
h. The plural form of the henry may be henries or henrys; the American National Institute
of Standards and Technology recommends that in US publications henries is used.
Factors Affecting Inductance.
The amount of inductance in an inductor is dependent on:

a. The number of turns of wire in the inductor.

b. The material of the core.

c. The shape and size of the core.

d. The shape, size and arrangement of the wire making up the coils.
Because inductance (in henries) depends on so many variable quantities, it is quite
difficult to calculate accurately; numerous formula have been developed to take different
design features into account. Also these formula often need to use special constants and
tables of conversion data to work with the required degree of accuracy. The use of
computer programs and computer-aided design has eased the situation somewhat.
However, external effects caused by other components and wiring near the inductor, can
also affect its value of inductance once it is assembled in a circuit, so when an accurate
value of inductance is required, one approach is to calculate an approximate value, and
design the inductor so that it is adjustable. A typical formula for approximating the
inductance value of an inductor is given below. This particular version is designed to
calculate the inductance of "A solenoid wound with a single layer of turns of infinitely
thin tape rather than wire, and with the turns evenly and closely spaced."

55

Where:

L is the inductance in henries.

d is the diameter of the coil in meters.

n is the number of turns in the coil.

l is the length of the coil in meters.

For coils not conforming exactly to the above specification extra factors must be
incorporated.
Voltage and e.m.f.
A voltage induced into a conductor is called an e.m.f. (electro motive force) because its
source is the changing magnetic field around and external to the conductor. Any
externally produced voltage (including those produced by an external battery or power
supply) is called an e.m.f., whilst a voltage (a potential difference or p.d.) across an
internal component in a circuit is called a voltage.
Inductive Reactance.
Reactance produces an opposition to the flow of alternating current. Like resistance, it is
measured in Ohms, but because resistance has the same value at any frequency and the
opposition to AC found in inductors varies with frequency, it cannot be called resistance.
Instead, it is called Reactance (X). Capacitors also have the property of reactance but they
respond to frequency in a different way, therefore there are two types of reactance;
inductors have Inductive Reactance (XL), and capacitors have Capacitive Reactance
(XC).

56

CHAPTER 10
OSCILATOR CIRCUIT

57

The oscillatory circuit, also called the L-C circuit or tank circuit, consists of an
inductive coil of inductance L connected in parallel with a capacitor of capacitance C.
The values of L and C determines the frequency of oscillations produced by the circuit.
The most important point is that both the capacitor and inductor are capable of storing
energythe capacitor stores energy in its dielectric field whenever a pd exists across its
plates while the inductor stores energy in its magnetic field whenever current flows
through it.
For understanding the operation of an oscillatory circuit, let the capacitor be charged
from a dc source with the polarity as shown in figure (a). A potential difference will
be across the plates of the capacitor because of the accumulation of electrons in the lower
plate of the capacitor. The electrons get accumulated in the lower plate due to the supply
from the negative terminal of the battery. Thus, a potential energy will be formed in the
capacitor. Now when the capacitor is fully charged and the switch S is opened, as shown
in figure (b), the capacitor cannot discharge through L.
Suppose the switch S is kept in position b. The current starts flowing in the circuit but
the self-induced emf in the coil opposes the current flow. Thus the rate of rise of current
is slow. Maximum current flows in the circuit when the capacitor is fully discharged. Due
to flow of current, magnetic field is set up which stores the energy given by the electric
field, as shown in figure (c). Thus, at the instant the capacitor gets completely discharged,
the electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor gets converted into the magnetic field
energy associated with the inductor L.
When the capacitor is completely discharged, the magnetic field begins to collapse and a
counter or back emf is developed which, according to Lenzs law, keeps the current
flowing in the same direction. The capacitor now starts getting charge but with opposite
polarity, as shown in fig.(d). In this case, the energy associated with the magnetic field is
again converted into electrostatic energy. In an ideal case (that is, both the L and C are
loss-free), the capacitor is charged to the value it had initially while the magnetic field
energy reduces to zero.
After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now begins to discharge with a current flow in the opposite direction. The electric field starts collapsing
whereas magnetic field starts building up again but in opposite direction. Fig. (e) shows
58

the condition when the capacitor gets fully discharged. The sequence of charging and
discharging continues, that is, the process of transformation of dielectric energy into
magnetic energy and vice-versa is repeated again and again. This situation is similar to an
oscillating pendulum, in which the energy keeps on interchanging between potential and
kinetic energy. Thus the charge and discharge of a capacitor through inductor results in
oscillating current and hence electrical oscillations are set up in the L-C or tank circuit.
The frequency of oscillation is the same as the resonant frequency of the tank circuit
and it is given as fo = 1/2LC
The interchange of energy between L and C would continue indefinitely if there were no
losses in the tank circuit. But since there are losses, the indefinite interchange of energy
cannot be proved practically. The losses include the energy that is lost in the form of heat
generated in the coil resistance, capacitor leakage resistance and connecting wires. Some
energy is even lost in the form of electro-magnetic waves that are radiated out from the
circuit through which an oscillatory current is flowing. As a result, while the total energy
is consumed in overcoming the losses, the oscillating current goes on decreasing with
time and eventually becomes zero.
The rate at which the energy from the L-C circuit dissipates must be same as the energy
that is supplied to the L-C circuit. In case of electronic oscillators, the transistor and
power supply source are provided to feed energy to the for meeting the losses at right
time. Thus sustained or undamped oscillations are produced by electronic oscillator
circuits.

CHAPTER 11
Semiconductor Basics
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium

59

arsenide (GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a
conductor and an insulator. They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence
their name semi-conductors). They have very few fee electrons because their atoms
are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a crystal lattice. However,
their ability to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by adding certain impurities
to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice
versa.
By controlling the amount of impurities added to the semiconductor material it is possible
to control its conductivity. These impurities are called donors or acceptors depending on
whether they produce electrons or holes respectively.
This process of adding impurity atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity
atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping.
The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has
four valence electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its neighboring silicon
atoms to form full orbitals of eight electrons. The structure of the bond between the two
silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbor making the
bond very stable.
As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals
of pure silicon (or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high
value resistors.
Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline
solid structure. A crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an
intrinsic crystal (it has no impurities) and therefore has no free electrons.
But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an
electric current from it. To do that we need to create a positive and a negative pole
within the silicon allowing electrons and therefore electric current to flow out of the
silicon. These poles are created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.

Diodes

60

Diodes are one of the electronic components that is a must have in any circuit of
reasonable complexity. The function of diodes is very simple. Let current flow in only
one direction. Many at times in circuits we need current to flow in just one direction. As
we have earlier discussed with Alternating current, it is constantly flowing back and forth
like a two lane highway. We have some cars going one way and others going the other
way. Sometimes we want to create a certain road that will have just one lane for cars
going only in a particular direction. And thats exactly what diodes does in a circuit; they
allow current to flow in only a specified direction and will block other currents trying to
flow in the reverse direction. A diode performs this function due to its anatomy. Diodes
are made of semiconductor material called silicon (Si) meaning they could conduct
electricity or not conduct electricity, depending on the situation. The most ordinary sort
of diode in current circuit design is the semi-conductor diode, even though additional
diode technologies are present. The word diode is traditionally aloof for tiny signal
appliances, I 1 A. When a diode is positioned in a simple battery lamp circuit, then the
diode will either permit or stop flow of current through the lamp, all this depend on the
polarization of the volts applied. There are various sorts of diode but their fundamental
role is identical. The most ordinary kind of diode is silicon diode; it is placed in a glass
cylinder.

The symbol of diode is represented as follows

61

Diode Operation:
A diode starts its operations when a voltage signal applies across its terminals. A DC volt
is applied so that diode starts its operation in a circuit and this is known as Biasing. Diode
is similar to a switch which is one way, hence it can be either in conduction more or nonconduction mode. ON mode of the diode, is attained by forward biasing, which simply
means that higher or positive potential is applied on the anode and on the cathode,
negative or lower potential is applied of a diode. Whereas the OFF mode of the diode is
attained with the aid of reverse biasing which simply means that higher or positive
potential is applied on the cathode and on the anode, negative or lower potential is
applied of a diode.

In the ON situation the practical diode provides forward resistance. A diode needs
forward bias voltage to get in the ON mode this is known as cut-in-voltage. Whereas
the diode initiates conducting in reverse biased manner when reverse bias voltage goes
62

beyond its limit and this is known as breakdown voltage. The diode rests in OFF mode
when no voltage is applicable across it.
Function of Diode:
The key function of a diode is to obstruct the flow of current in one direction and permit
the flow of current in the other direction. Current passing through the diode is known as
forward current whereas the current blocked by the diode is known as the reverse current.
Diode Circuits:
The basic aim behind this study is to show how diodes can be employed in circuits. Now
let us analyze a simple diode circuit. Keep in mind what we learnt about ideal diodes.
Here we are assuming that diode is ideal, this is just for the purpose of discussion.
1. When diode is in ON mode, no voltage is there across it; hence it acts like a short
circuit.
2. Whereas when diode is in OFF mode, there is zero current, hence it behaves like
an open circuit.
3. From the above two conditions, either one can take place at a time. This helps us
to check out what will happen in any circuit with diodes.
Diode Characteristics:
Diodes have attributes that allow them to carry out a number of electronic functions.
Three vital characteristics of diodes are as follows:
Forward Voltage Drop- forward bias about seven volts
Reverse Voltage Drop- Weakened layer broadens, generally the applied voltage
Reverse breakdown voltage- reverse voltage drop thatll force flow of current and
in maximum cases demolish the diodes.

Application of Diodes:
Diodes are employed in a variety of applications such as clipper, rectification, clamper,
comparator, voltage multiplier, filters, sampling gates, etc.
1. Rectification: Rectification symbolizes the alteration of AC volt into DC volt. Some
of the common examples of rectification circuits are- FWR (full wave rectifier), bridge
rectifier & HWR (half wave rectifier).
2. Clipper: Diode can be employed to trim down some fraction of pulse devoid of
deforming the left over fraction of the waveform.
3. Clamper: A clamping circuit limits the level of voltage to go beyond a limit by
changing the DC level. The crest to crest is not influenced by clamping. Capacitors,
resistors & diodes all are used to create clamping circuits.

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Types of Diodes:
All sort of diodes are dissimilar in means of construction, characteristics & applications.
Following are some of the types of diodes:

Zener Diodes
LED (Light Emitting Diodes)
Photodiodes
Tunnel Diodes
Varactor Diodes
Crystal Diode

Zener Diode:
Zener diode works in reverse bias situation when the voltage attains the breakdown peak.
An even voltage can be attained by insertion of a resistor across it to limit the flow of
current. This Zener diode is employed to give reference voltage in power supplying
circuits.
Zener Diode Characteristics:
Special diodes such as zener diodes are intended & manufactured to function in the
opposite direction without being broken.
1. The zener diode acts like a common silicon diode, during the forward bias.
2. Changeable quantity of reverse current can go through the diode devoid of
destructing it. The Vz (zener voltage) or breakdown voltage across the diode
upholds comparatively steady.
3. Producers rate zener diodes as per their zener voltage value and the highest PD
(Power Dissipation) i.e. at 25C. This provides a signal of the highest I R (reverse
current), that a diode securely carries out.
Zener Diode Applications:
Zener diodes have many applications in transistor circuitry. Here we are discussing
various vital points in Zener diode applications:
Zener Diode Shunt Regulator- This diode is commonly employed as a Voltage
Regulator or Shunt Regulator.
Meter Protection- This diode may also come across its functions in meter security.
Zener Diode as Peak Clipper- This diodes can be employed to cut off the
maximum value of incoming waveform.
Switching operation- This diode can generate an unexpected alteration from low
to high current, so it is functional in switching applications. It is relatively speedy
in switching processes.

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P-N Junction Diode:

The simplest semi-conductor appliance is named as p-n junction diode. It is a 2 terminal,
one-sided, bipolar repairing device that conducts just in 1 direction. The common diodes
are employed in the following areas:
Modification in power supplying circuits
Mining of modulation from broadcasting signals in a radio recipient and in
security circuits where big transient currents may emerge on ICs or low current
transistors in interfacing with relays or other soaring power appliances.
Employed in series with power inputs to electric circuits where just 1 positive or
negative polarity voltage is required.

Tunnel Diode:
A tunnel diode is a highly conducting two terminal p-n junction diode doped heavily
approximately 1000 times upper than a usual junction diode. A tunnel diode is also
named as Esaki diode, its named after Esaki diode who is a Nobel prize winner in
physics for discovering electron tunneling outcome employed in these diodes. Tunnel
diodes are helpful in several circuit purposes like in- microwave oscillation, binary
memory & microwave amplification. Tunnel diodes are generally made-up from gallium
or germanium or gallium arsenide. These all comprise tiny prohibited energy breaks and
elevated ion motilities. Silicon is not utilized in the manufacturing of tunnel diodes owing
to its low value (Ip,I v).

Light Emitting Diode or LED:

LED is a semiconductor appliance that produces visible light beams or infrared light
beams when an electric current is passed through it. Visible LEDs can be seen in several
electronic devices such as microwaves number display light, brake lights, and even
cameras to make use of Infrared LEDs. In LEDs (light emitting diodes) light is created by
a solid situation procedure which is named as electroluminescence.
Light emitting diodes are available in various colors like- orange, red, yellow, amber,
green, white & blue. Blue & white LEDs are more costly in comparison to other LEDs.
The color of a Light emitting diodes is decided by the semi-conductor substance, not by
the coloring the plastic of the body.
Varactor diode:
Varicap or Varactor diode is that shows the attributes of a variable capacitor. The
exhaustion area at the p-n junction behaves as the di-electric and plates of an ordinary
capacitor and grounds expansion and contraction by the voltage applied to the varicap
diode. This action boosts and reduces the capacitance. The graphic symbol for the varicap
diode is shown below. Varactors are employed in fine-tuning circuits and can be
employed as high frequency amplifiers.

65

Even though varactor or varicap diodes can be employed inside several sorts of circuit,
they discover applications inside 2 key areas:1. RF filters
2. Voltage controlled oscillators, VCOs

Photo Diode:
Photo diodes are extensively used in various kinds of electronics such as detectors in
compact disc players to optical telecommunications systems. Photo diode technology is
popular because its trouble-free, inexpensive yet strong configuration. As photodiodes
provide dissimilar properties, various photodiode technologies are utilized in a number of
areas. There are 4 types of photo diodes

PN photodiode
PIN photodiode
Schottky photodiode
Avalanche photodiode

Semiconductor Diode:
A diode which is created from semi-conductor material generally- silicon, is known as
semiconductor diode. The cathode is negatively charged therefore has a surplus of
electrons, is positioned neighboring to the anode, which has intrinsically positive charge,
giving a surplus of holes. At this intersection a exhaustion area is created, with no
electrons nor holes. Exhaustion area becomes small when a positive voltage is provided
to the anode, and current flows; Exhaustion area becomes large when a negative voltage
is provides at the anode, thereby stopping current flow.

Transistors

66

Transistors can be regarded as a type of switch, as can many electronic

components. They are used in a variety of circuits and you will find that it is rare that a
circuit that does not contain at least one transistor. They are central to electronics and
there are two main types; NPN and PNP. Most circuits tend to use NPN. There are
hundreds of transistors which work at different voltages but all of them fall into these two
categories.

Transistors are manufactured in different shapes but they have three leads (legs).
The BASE - which is the lead responsible for activating the transistor.
The COLLECTOR - which is the positive lead.
The EMITTER - which is the negative lead.
The diagram below shows the symbol of an NPN transistor. They are not always set out
as shown in the diagrams to the left and right, although the tab on the type shown to the
left is usually next to the emitter.

Diagram 'A' shows an NPN transistor which is often used as a type of switch. A
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small current or voltage at the base allows a larger voltage to flow through the other two
leads (from the collector to the emitter).
The circuit shown in diagram B is based on an NPN transistor. When the switch is
pressed a current passes through the resistor into the base of the transistor. The transistor
then allows current to flow from the +9 volts to the 0vs, and the lamp comes on.
The transistor has to receive a voltage at its base and until this happens the lamp does
not light.
The resistor is present to protect the transistor as they can be damaged easily by too high
a voltage / current. Transistors are an essential component in many circuits and are
sometimes used to amplify a signal.

NPN Transistor:
By NPN we mean negative-positive-negative transistor. NPN transistors comprise a
positive layer positioned amid 2 negative layers. Where, NPN is the most common type
of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) used in many circuits.
The diagram shown above of NPN transistor shows that transistor is employed as switch.
A minute voltage or current at the bottom permits a superior voltage to run all the way
through the other 2 legs from the collector to the emitter. The second diagram above of
NPN transistor shows that when the switch is pushed a current is passed all the way
through the resistor in the bottom of the transistor. The transistor then permits current to
68

run from +9 voltages to the 0 volts, and the bulb of the lamp glows on.
The transistor needs to collect a voltage at its bottom and until this occurs the lamp does
not glow. The resistor is exists to shield the transistor as they may be injured quickly by
extremely high voltage or current. Transistors are a vital constituent in a lot of circuits
and are at times employed to intensify a signal.

PNP Transistor:
The opposite of NPN transistor is the PNP transistor. Fundamentally, in this sort of
transistors structure the 2 diodes are upturned with reference to the NPN sort providing a
Positive-Negative-Positive pattern, with the (arrow) which also describes the Emitter
terminal this moment spotting inside in the transistor emblem.
All the polarization for a PNP transistor are upturned , the meaning of this is that it
drops current into its bottom as opposite to the NPN transistor which supplies current
all the way through its bottom. The major variation amid the 2 sorts of transistors is that
holes are the more significant transporters for PNP transistors, while electrons are the
significant transporters for NPN transistors.
PNP transistors bring into play a minute base current and a negative bottom voltage to
direct a much superior emitter collector current. In simple terms, for PNP transistor, the
Emitter is additional positive in consideration to the base and also in consideration to the
collector.
The structure of a PNP transistor includes 2 P-type semi-conductor substances on both
side of an N-type substance as revealed in the figure below.
Transistor Biasing:
For the appropriate functioning of the circuit, it is essential to bias the transistor by
employing resistor systems. Operating point is a point on the productivity traits that
exhibits the Collector-Emitter volt & the collector current with zero input signal. The
Operating point is also named as the Quiescent point (Q-Point) or Bias point.
Biasing means giving capacitors, resistors or supply voltage etc to supply appropriate
operating attributes of the transistors. DC biasing is employed to get DC collector current
at an exact collector volt. The value of this volt and current are articulated in expressions
of the Q-Point. In a transistor amplifier arrangement, the IC (maximum) is the utmost
current that can run all the way through the transistor and VCE (maximum) is the utmost
volt valid across the machine.

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Modes of Transistor biasing:

1. Current Biasing As shown in the 1st figure below, 2 resistors RB & RC are
employed to place the base bias. The resistors used in the circuit create the initial
functioning area of the transistor with a constant current bias. The transistor bias
forward, with a positive foundation bias voltage throughout RB. Consequently
the current throughout RB is IB = (Vcc VBE) / IB.
2. Feedback Biasing As shown in the 2 nd figure below, the foundation bias is
achieved from the collector voltage. The collector feedback makes certain that the
transistor is constantly biased in the dynamic area. When the current of collector
rises, the volt at the collector decreases. This decreases the bottom drive which in
return decreases the current of collector. This feedback pattern is perfect for
transistor amplifier designs.
3. Double Feedback Biasing As shown in the 3rd figure below, by making use of
2 resistors RB1 & RB2 rises the steadiness in consideration to the deviations in
Beta by rising the flow of current via the bottom bias resistors. In this pattern, the
RB1 current is equivalent to 10 % of the current in collector.
4. Voltage Dividing Biasing As shown in the 4th figure below, the voltage
dividing biasing in which 2 resistors RB1 & RB2 are coupled to the bottom of the
transistors creating a voltage splitting (dividing) system. The transistor obtains
biases by the voltage fall across RB2. This sort of biasing pattern is employed
extensively in amplifier circuits.
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5. Double Base Biasing The 5th figure shown below, exhibits the double feedback
for steadiness. It employs both collector & emitter foundation feedback to perk up
the steadiness via controlling the current of collector.
Transistor Characteristics:
To learn the transistor characteristics a transistor is either functioned in ordinary
emitter pattern or in common foundation pattern. Lets capture an NPN transistor
functioned on common emitter approach. As converses previously a transistor functions
barely when the input side is biased forwardly and output side is biased reversely.
Ammeter is united in succession with collector & base to calculate bottom current and
current of collector correspondingly. Voltmeters are united in parallel to calculate the
input volt (VBE) & output volt (VCE). To learn the characteristics, the output factor,
specifically VCE is held stable and the deviation of input current with input volt is
calculated and the similar designed in the graph (below) (VBE v/s IB). A unit of curves
might be designed by changing VCE. The graph symbolizes the characteristics of a
forwardly biased P-N junction.
Now to learn the output characteristics, input current is held even and the alternates out
voltage and output current are calculated and a graph is designed (above). It symbolizes
characteristics of a reversely biased P-N junction diode.
The output impedance is able to calculate from the graph. Output impedance is the
quotient of output volt to output current at a stable input current.
To be precise -The output characteristics depicts that IC alters quickly in the start but in a
little while IC becomes self-regulating of VCE, appearing like a saturated one. The
quotient - is almost stable and it is entitled as current gain.

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Transistor Operation:
A transistor connected in a circuit has to be in one of these three circumstances:1. Disconnect (no flow of current in connector), helpful for switch operation.
2. When in active area (a quantity of collector current, more than some tenths of a
voltage higher than the emitter), helpful for amplifier purposes
3. In saturation (collector some tenths of a voltage higher than emitter), higher
current helpful for switch on purposes.

Types of Transistor:
A number of transistors types are employed mainly for switching purposes. While others
can be employed for both amplification & switching purpose. Below is a listing of the
different sorts of transistors:

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1. Bipolar Junction Transistors Bipolar junction transistors are made up of 3

areas, the base, the collector & the emitter. There transistors are current
controlled. Bipolar junction transistors are of 2 types- PNP & NPN.
2. Field Effect Transistors Field effect transistors are made up of 3 areas namelya drain, a gate & a source. These are voltage controlled devices. A voltage
supplied at the gate controls flow of current from the source to the drain of
transistor. Field effect transistors are of two types- JFETs & MOSFETs.
Types of Transistor by Function:
1. Small Signal Transistors: Small signal transistors are transistors that are
employed mainly to intensify low level signals but can even work well as
switches.
2. Small Switching Transistors: Small Switching Transistors are transistors that are
used primarily as switches but which can also be used as amplifiers. They come in
NPN and PNP forms.
3. Power Transistors: Power transistors are appropriate for the purpose where a
large number of power is being consumed- voltage & current. The transistors
collector is united with a metal base that behaves like a heat sink to disburse
surplus power.
4. High Frequency Transistors: RF transistors are transistors that are employed for
minute signals that flow at high frequency for high speed switching purposes.
High frequency transistors are employed in VHF, HF, CATV, UHF, and MATV
amplifier and oscillator purposes.
5. Photo-transistors: These transistors are light sensitive. Photo-transistors
resembles like a bipolar transistor with its base leg eliminated and substituted with
a light-sensitive region.
6. Uni-junction Transistors: Uni-junction transistors are three legged transistors
that perform entirely as electricity controlled switches; these transistors are not
employed as amplifiers.
BC547 Transistor:
BC547 is a bi-polar NPN junction transistor. A transistor symbolizes resistance transfer,
is ordinarily employed to intensify current. A small amount of current at the bottom of it
controls a superior amount of current at emitter & controller ends. BC547 is principally
employed for switching & amplification functions. Its utmost current gain is of 800. Its
corresponding transistors are namely BC549 & BC548.
BC547 is employed in ordinary emitter pattern for amplifiers. The voltage separator is the
universally employed biasing mode. For switching purposes, transistor is biased so that it
lingers completely ON if theres a signal at its bottom. In the lack of bottom signal, it
automatically gets totally OFF.

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MOS Transistor:
A MOS transistor is a mainstream carrier tool, in which the current in a carrying outing
canal amid the supply and the drain is adjusted by a voltage functional to the gate.

NMOS Transistor:
NMOS is a N-type MOS transistor.
1. Mainstream carrier electrons
2. A positive voltage functional on the gate with consideration to the substrate boosts
the amount of electrons in the channel and consequently boosts the channels
conductivity.
3. If gate voltage is low in comparison to a Vt (threshold voltage), the channel is
bring to a halt (extremely short current amid source and drain).
PMOS Transistor:
PMOS is a P-type MOS transistor.
1. Mainstream carrier holes
2. Applied voltage is negative in consideration to substrate.

Transistor Applications:
Common applications of transistor comprise of analog & digital switches, power
regulators, signal amplifiers & equipment controllers. Transistors are also the
constructing units of incorporated circuits and most up-to-date electronics.
Microprocessors over and over again comprise more than a billion of transistors in every
single chip. Transistors are employed in approximately everything, from stove-tops to
computers and pacesetters to airplanes.
The primary transistors were fashioned in the year 1940 as semi-conductor substitutes for
vacuum tubes. In the early years transistor applications comprise of radios, telephone
equipment, hearing aids, etc. Room sized PCs were re-considered to bring transistors into
play, condensing their size and eliminating excess heating issues. In contrast to vacuum
tubes, transistors are undersized, not expensive and less bulkythey are also sturdy and
not sensitive to trembling or shock. No warm-up time is required in it, a small
functioning voltage and an elongated life period; the transistor rapidly substituted the
majority of vacuum tube technology.

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CHAPTER 12
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A series circuit is a circuit where there is a single path for current to flow. As the name
suggests, the components are connected in a straight line one component after the other.
Like a chain. Because of this arrangement, current has only one path to follow and must
flow through every component of the circuit before returning to the power source.

When the switch is closed, a current exists almost immediately in all three lamps.
There is only one pathway that you can trace with your finger, so this is a series
circuit.
The current does not "pile up in any lamp but flows through each lamp.
Electrons that make up this current leave the negative terminal of the battery, pass
through each of the resistive filaments in the lamps in turn, and then end up at the
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positive terminal of the battery.

The same amount of current passes through the battery, since it is part of the circuit.
A break anywhere in the path results in an open circuit, and the flow of electrons
stops.
Burning out of one of the lamp filaments or simply opening the switch could cause such a
break. Important characteristics of series connections:
1. Electric current has a single pathway through the circuit.
This means that the current passing through each resistor is the same
.
2. This current is resisted by the first resistor, the second resistor, and the third resistor
also.
The total resistance to current in the circuit is the sum of the individual resistances
along the circuit path.
3. The current in the circuit is equal to the voltage supplied by the source divided by the
total resistance of the circuit. (I = V / R total)
4. The voltage drop (potential difference) across each device is proportional to its
resistance.
This is because more energy is used to move a unit of charge through a large resistance
than through a small resistance.
5. The total voltage across a series circuit is divided among the individual electrical
devices in the circuit
The sum of the voltage drops across each individual device is equal to the
total voltage supplied by the source.
Example
: This example is a long one, so pay attention! The diagram above shows three light
bulbs, with resistances of 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0hooked up in series to a 9.0V
battery. Calculate...
a) the current in the circuit.
First we need to find what single resistance R could replace the three true resistors

76

without altering the rest of the circuit.

We let V represent the voltage across all three resistors.
V also equals the voltage of the battery.
We let V1, V2, and V3 be the potential differences across each of the resistors R1, R2
and R3
. V1= IR
V2= IR2
V3= IR3
* Note: The current is the same throughout a series circuit, so it is a constant in all three
formulas.
Since the resistors are connected end to end, the total voltage V is equal to the sum of
the voltages across each resistor, so we have
V = IR
V = V1+ V2+ V3
IR = IR1+ IR2+ IR3
R = R1+ R2+ R3
So, for several resistances in series,
the total resistance is the sum of the
separate resistances.
o
This works for any number of resistances.
o When you add more resistance to the circuit, the current will decrease.
For our example, the total resistance in the circuit is
R = R1+ R2+ R3
R = 3.0+ 4.0+ 5.0= 12.0
For our example, the current in the circuit is
V = IR
I = V / R = 9.0V / 12.0 = 0.75A
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b) the voltage drop across each resistor.

Voltage drop is how much of the voltage is used by each resistor.
" Remember to think of voltage as pumping power
" As the current goes around the circuit, it loses some of its
pumping power at each resistor.
" By the time the current has gone all the way around the circuit, it shouldnt have any
pumping power left.
Remember that the current you calculated in (a) is the current anywhere in the circuit.
" We will use this current and the resistance of each resistor to figure out the voltage drop
across each resistor...
The 3.0 resistor !
V = IR = 0.75A (3.0) = 2.3 V
The 4.0 resistor !
V = IR = 0.75A (4.0) = 3.0 V
The 5.0 resistor !
V = IR = 0.75A (5.0) = 3.8 V
Notice that if you take rounding off in
to account, these three voltages add
up to 9 volts, which is what the battery supplies!
c) the total voltage drop across all three resistors.
We know that by the time the current has gone all the way around the circuit, the
voltage must drop by 9 volts. This is the answer! If you dont believe me,
you can calculate it this way...
V = IR
= (0.75A)(12.0)
V = 9.0V

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Parallel Circuits Resistors are connected in parallel are connected to the same two
points of an electric circuit.
Notice that in the diagrams above, you could trace three different paths from one
terminal to the other with your finger.
Electrons leaving the negative terminal of the battery will travel through only one
resistor before returning to the positive terminal of the battery.
In the example, current branches into three separate pathways.
A break in any one path does not interrupt the flow of charge in the other paths.
Important characteristics of parallel connections
:
1. Each device connects at the same two points of the circuit. Therefore the voltage is the

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same across each device.

If you look at it, each of those resistors is connected to both ends of the battery, without
any other resistors in series in the way.
2. The total current in the circuit divides among the parallel branches. Current passes
more readily into devices of low resistance, so the amount of current in each branch
is inversely proportional to the resistance of the
branch.
This means if one of the branches has a very low resistance the majority of the current
will flow through that resistor.
Less current will flow through branches that have high resistance.
3. The total current in the circuit equals the sum of the currents in its parallel branches.
4. As the number of parallel branches is increased, the overall resistance of the circuit is
Decreased

Example
: This is another long one! Look at the following diagram with three resistors, 3.0,
4.0, and 5.0, hooked up in parallel to a 9.0V battery. Calculate...
a) The current in the wire before it branches off into all the different resistors.
The current starts at the negative terminal and runs clockwise.
The total current that leaves the battery breaks into three branches I1, I2, and I3
In the resistors R1, R2, and R3

To figure out the current before it splits, we need to figure out what the current would be
If there was only one resistor in the way... and equivalent resistor.
This follows a different set of rules than series circuits.
Because charge is conserved, the current flowing into a junction must equal the current
flowing out, so
I = I1+ I2+ I3

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 The total voltage of the battery is applied to each resistor, so

I1= V/R1
I2= V/R2
I3= V/R3
Combine and cancel out V to get...
V/R = V/R1+ V/R2 + V/R3 1/R = 1/R1+ 1/R2 + 1/R3
You can NOT just say Oh, now Ill take the inverse of this formula and just get
R = R1 + R2 + R3
... they are NOT mathematically equivalent.
For this circuit the equivalent resistance is...
1/R = 1/R1+ 1/R2 + 1/R3
1/R = 1/ (3.0) + 1/ (4.0) + 1/ (5.0)
1/R = 0.78-1R = 1.3
Remember to take the inverse to get the final answer. Overlooking this is a very common
mistake!
Now, to figure out the current before the electricity reaches the branch where
3.0
Resistor is sitting...
V = IR
I=V/R
= (9.0V) / (1.3) I = 7.1 A
b) The current in each branch of the circuit.
When the current starts branching off into those resistors, the 7.1 A you calculated
above will start to branch off as well.
Whichever pathway offers the least resistance will have the most current flowing through
it.
We do know that since this is a parallel circuit, each part of the circuit is connected to
the same voltage, 9.0V.

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 For the R1resistor...

V = IR
I=V/R
= (9.0V) / (3.0)
I = 3.0 A
For the R2resistor...
V = IR
I = V / R = (9.0V) / (4.0)
I = 2.3 A
For the R3 resistor...
V = IR
I=V/R
= (9.0V) / (5.0)
I = 1.8 A
Add all three currents together (as they join back up from the branches and flow
towards the positive terminal in a single wire) and youll see that you have 7.1A!
c) The voltage drop over each resistor.
Like weve already said... they all have the same voltage across them, 9.0V
d) The total voltage drop across all the resistors.
Still 9.0V. Can you say why?

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CHAPTER 13
TRANSFORMERS

The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component rather than an

electronic component. A transformer basically is very simple static (or stationary)
electro-magnetic passive electrical device that works on the principle of Faradays law of
induction by converting electrical energy from one value to another.
The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a
common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself. A
transformer operates on the principals of electromagnetic induction, in the form of
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Mutual Induction.
Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage
into another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work
in the magnetic domain, and transformers get their name from the fact that they
transform one voltage or current level into another.
Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current levels
of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of Electrical Power being
transferred from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.
A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one
called the Primary Winding and another called the Secondary Winding. For this
tutorial we will define the primary side of the transformer as the side that usually takes
power, and the secondary as the side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase
voltage transformer the primary is usually the side with the higher voltage.
These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead wrapped
together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the core. This soft iron
core is not solid but made up of individual laminations connected together to help reduce
the cores losses.
The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are magnetically
linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be transferred from one coil
to the other. When an electric current passed through the primary winding, a magnetic
field is developed which induces a voltage into the secondary winding as shown.

Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two
coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally,
the primary winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and
converts or transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the
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secondary winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into electrical power
producing the required output voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

Where:
VP-is the Primary Voltage
VS-is the Secondary Voltage
NP-is the Number of Primary Windings
NS-is the Number of Secondary Windings
(phi)-is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only
linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease
the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to increase the
voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up
transformer. When it is used to decrease the voltage on the secondary winding with
respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on its
secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its output is identical with
respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This type of transformer is called an
Impedance Transformer and is mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation of
adjoining electrical circuits.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by
changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding (NP) compared to the number
of coil turns on the secondary winding (NS).
As the transformer is a linear device, a ratio now exists between the numbers of turns of
the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called
the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a transformers turns ratio, (TR).
This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the transformer and the corresponding
voltage available on the secondary winding.
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding
compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the
two windings in order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this
example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the
secondary winding, 3-to-1. Then we can see that if the ratio between the number of turns
changes the resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio, and this is true.
A transformer is all about ratios, and the turns ratio of a given transformer will be the
same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: turns ratio = voltage ratio.
The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not important, just the
turns ratio and this relationship is given as:

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A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: PS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns ratio value is
very important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship
and output voltage than one in which the turns ratio is given as: 1:3.

Transformer Basics Example

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for
its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.

This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every
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one secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger number on the left to a smaller
number on the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down in value as shown.

Transformer Action
We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared to the
primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage available from the
secondary coil. But if the two windings are electrically isolated from each other, how is
this secondary voltage produced?
We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound around
a common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage (VP) is applied to the primary coil,
current flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself, called
mutual inductance, by this current flow according to Faradays Law of electromagnetic
induction. The strength of the magnetic field builds up as the current flow rises from zero
to its maximum value which is given as d/dt.
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil
the soft iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux
links the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite directions under
the influence of the AC supply.
However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends upon
the amount of current and the number of turns in the winding. When current is reduced,
the magnetic field strength reduces.
When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the
secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil. The amount
of voltage induced will be determined by: N.d/dt (Faradays Law), where N is the

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number of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the primary
winding voltage.
Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both windings
because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings together. As a result,
the total induced voltage in each winding is directly proportional to the number of turns
in that winding. However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on the
secondary winding will be reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.
If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the cores
magnetic losses, we can either send a larger current through the coil, or keep the same
current flowing, and instead increase the number of coil turns (NP) of the winding. The
product of amperes times turns is called the ampere-turns, which determines the
magnetizing force of the coil.
So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only one turn in
the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary coil, assuming no
losses, enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux generated to induce one volt
in the single turn of the secondary. That is, each winding supports the same number of
volts per turn.
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, =max sint, then the basic relationship
between induced emf, (E) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:

emf = turns x rate of change

Where:
-is the flux frequency in Hertz, =/2
-is the number of coil windings.
-is the flux density in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding emf, N will
be the number of primary turns, (NP) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the
number of secondary turns, (NS).
Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate
correctly, transformers cannot therefore be used to transform or supply DC voltages or
currents, since the magnetic field must be changing to induce a voltage in the secondary
winding. In other words, Transformers DO NOT Operate on DC Voltages, ONLY
AC.
If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive reactance
of the winding would be zero as DC has no frequency, so the effective impedance of the
winding will therefore be very low and equal only to the resistance of the copper used.
Thus the winding will draw a very high current from the DC supply causing it to overheat
and eventually burn out, because as we know I=V/R.

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Electrical Power in a Transformer

Transformers are rated in Volt-amperes, (VA), or in larger units of Kilo Volt-amperes,
(kVA). In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power available in the
secondary winding will be the same as the power in the primary winding, they are
constant wattage devices and do not change the power only the voltage to current ratio.
Thus, in an ideal transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one (unity) as the voltage, V
multiplied by the current, I will remain constant.
That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is transformed
into electric power, at the same frequency, to the same voltage/current level on the
secondary side. Although the transformer can step-up (or step-down) voltage, it cannot
step-up power. Thus, when a transformer steps-up a voltage, it steps-down the current
and vice-versa, so that the output power is always at the same value as the input power.
Then we can say that primary power equals secondary power, (PP=PS).

Power in a Transformer
Where: P is the primary phase angle and S is the secondary phase angle.
Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current being transmitted,
that is: I2R, increasing the voltage, lets say doubling (2) the voltage would decrease the
current by the same amount, (2) while delivering the same amount of power to the load
and therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If the voltage was increased by a factor of
10, the current would decrease by the same factor reducing overall losses by factor of
100.

Basic Representation of the Transformer

The ratio of the transformers primary and secondary windings with respect to each other
produces either a step-up voltage transformer or a step-down voltage transformer with the
ratio between the number of primary turns to the number of secondary turns being called
the turns ratio or transformer ratio.
If this ratio is greater than unity, n>1 then NS is greater than NP and the transformer is
classed as a step-up transformer, if the ratio is less than unity, n<1 the transformer is
classed as a step-down transformer. But note that a single-phase step down transformer
can be used as a step up transformer by reversing its connections making the low voltage
winding its primary, and vice versa.

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If the turns ratio is equal to unity, n=1 then both the primary and secondary have the same
number of windings and the transformer is classed as an isolation transformer. Both the
primary and secondary windings of a transformer have the same number of volts per turn.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power it delivers to the load to the
power it absorbs from the supply. In an ideal transformer there is no loss of power then
Pin = Pout.

90

CHAPTER 14
ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

91

CHAPTER 15
READING ELECTRONIC SCHEMATICS

Electronic schematics are symbolic representations of how a circuit is connected

to make it work. Though electronic schematics look complicated they are really very
basic to work with. The good news is that electronic schematics shows us exactly how
everything in the circuit is connected to make it work. So we might not understand why
certain things look and are connected the way they are, but if we diligently follow a
schematic diagram we can build any kind of device just by placing every component
exactly the way they are shown in the schematics. And with that knowledge as comes
they ability to troubleshoot circuits just by looking at the inter connectivity of the circuit,
the position and the role every component plays. We have addressed most of, if not all
the components of circuit along with their symbols, their functions and their anatomy so
interpreting basic circuits shouldn't be a problem. And if we are good enough, we might
even be able to look at a simple schematic diagram and explain in details how everything
in their works which is something to be proud of at the end of the day.

Schematics for beginners

People often look at schematics and become immediately intimidated. It becomes the
stuff for very intelligent people, for geniuses. The truth about schematics is they are for
patient people. They are for people who can slow down and just follow the lines
literarily. Trace the path of the current to every component. There is usually a method I
recommend for beginners which I call follow the line of current. We usually start out at
the voltage source and trace the line of current trying to interpret the behavior of each
component as current goes through it. That way we begin to visualize how the behavior
of each component enables us to actualize our final goal.
Every schematic regardless of its volume or complexity it is important for us to
realize that they comprise simply of electronic components and wires period. Any
schematic can be read the same way. We should start out by reading a portion of the
circuit, if we can understand just a part of it, we can gain the confidence to move into
other parts of the circuit and gradually understand it. I usually recommend starting out
with the most crude and basic circuit schematic. Which are very easy to understand. Once

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we do this we can apply that knowledge to a certain portion of a complicated schematic

diagram and then go from there.
Now lets analyze some simple schematics. Firstly we will look at a real representations
of a simple circuit and translate it into schematic. Then we will be able to see how
schematics are basic. With that we can then visualize circuits with more components and
read them the same way.

SIMPLE CIRCUIT SCHEMATICS

We are first going to look at the light bulb circuit. Which is a simple workable
circuit and we will translate it into schematic diagrams.

Components

symbol

Light bulb
Switch

Battery

Schematic diagram for light bulb circuit.

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Now lets add a resistor to this circuit. We know the resistor symbol

Now we added a resistor and called it R1 (usually resistors will be labeled this way in
schematics you will come across in the field). Note how our simple circuit is getting more
advanced. Now we will add a voltmeter across the battery just for the sake of it. Usually
voltmeters are connected across the battery because we want to know the potential
difference between the plates. We connect one end behind the positive plate and the
second end in front of the negative plate. We already know the schematic symbol for a
voltmeter

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And so we see we can easily interpret the meaning of the above schematic and many
other bogus looking schematics aren't any more difficult than what we just did. When
next we pick up a schematic even though it might look complicated all we really need is
patience to understand how the circuit is connected and also how it works.
Tracing the line technique
In tracing the current technique we simply start out at the voltage source tracing the path
of current as it moves through individual components. We are able to tell how each
component will behave when current passes through it that way we are able to understand
the way the circuit works. As we follow the current along its way and back to the positive
end of the power source we should have a good understanding of how the circuit works.
With more practice we will become more familiar with electronic components and their
functions and we'll become better at understanding the operations of circuits and this will
help us a great deal when we eventually start troubleshooting circuits. By using the same
technique we will be able to efficiently diagnose any part of the circuit that is responsible
for the failure of the circuit. Good luck!
The next chapter we will dedicate to electronic component symbols for reference
purposes when dealing with discrete circuits.

95

CHAPTER 16
RADIO FREQUENCY (RF)
Radio frequency (abbreviated RF) is a term that refers to alternating current (AC) having
characteristics such that, if the current is input to an antenna, an electromagnetic (EM)
field is generated suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or communications. These
frequencies cover a significant portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum,
extending from nine kilohertz (9 kHz),the lowest allocated wireless communications
frequency (it's within the range of human hearing), to thousands of gigahertz(GHz).
When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, it gives rise to an electromagnetic field
that propagates through space. This field is sometimes called an RF field; in less
technical jargon it is a "radio wave." Any RF field has a wavelength that is inversely
proportional to the frequency. In the atmosphere or in outer space, if f is the frequency in
megahertz and sis the wavelength in meters, then
s = 300/f
The frequencyof an RF signal is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the EM field
to which it corresponds. At 9 kHz, the free-space wavelength is approximately 33
kilometers (km) or 21 miles (mi). At the highest radio frequencies, the EM wavelengths
measure approximately one millimeter (1 mm). As the frequency is increased beyond that
of the RF spectrum, EM energy takes the form of infrared (IR), visible, ultraviolet (UV),
X rays, and gamma rays.
Many types of wireless devices make use of RF fields. Cordless and cellular telephone,
radio and television broadcast stations, satellite communications systems, and two-way
radio services all operate in the RF spectrum. Some wireless devices operate at IR or
visible-light frequencies, whose electromagnetic wavelengths are shorter than those of
RF fields. Examples include most television-set remote-control boxes, some cordless
computer keyboards and mice, and a few wireless hi-fi stereo headsets.
The RF spectrum is divided into several ranges, or bands. With the exception of the
lowest-frequency segment, each band represents an increase of frequency corresponding
to an order of magnitude (power of 10). The table depicts the eight bands in the RF
spectrum, showing frequency and bandwidth ranges. The SHF and EHF bands are often
referred to as the microwave spectrum.
Designation

Abbreviation Frequencies

Free-space Wavelengths

Very Low Frequency

VLF

9 kHz - 30 kHz

33 km - 10 km

Low Frequency

LF

30 kHz - 300 kHz 10 km - 1 km

Medium Frequency

MF

300 kHz - 3 MHz 1 km - 100 m

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High Frequency

HF

3 MHz - 30 MHz

100 m - 10 m

Very High Frequency

VHF

30 MHz - 300
MHz

10 m - 1 m

Ultra High Frequency

UHF

300 MHz - 3 GHz 1 m - 100 mm

Super High Frequency SHF

3 GHz - 30 GHz

100 mm - 10 mm

Extremely High
Frequency

30 GHz - 300
GHz

10 mm - 1 mm

EHF

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CHAPTER 17
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Integrated circuits (ICs) as their name would suggest, are small circuits integrated
into a plastic "chip." They provide a handy source of rich functionality in a tiny package.
Think of them as just a compact tiny box of circuits built from regular components.
Enabling us to save plenty of space. Computers and electronics have evolved over the
years. As more discoveries are made along with new and more efficient materials, it
becomes easier to make circuits and electronic components much smaller and more
powerful. Enabling us to save space and build less bulky electronics. Think of the first
cell phone that came into the market in the old days and how big they were and how
difficult it was to carry them about. Now-a-days we have cellphones that can fit into our
pockets and even cellphones that are fitted into watches. All these progression in the size
and ability of our modern electronic have been brought about by Integrated circuits.
Everyday engineers are coming up with new materials and techniques that allow us build
more compact and powerful IC's that enable us to make smaller and more powerful
computers. Because of the function of IC's it is not difficult to consider them the heart of
operation of any circuit. IC's much like the brain contains a lot of small circuits inside it
that gives different instruction on how a particular device should behave, it in essence
controls the function of our circuits. IC's are usually made of millions of transistors that
helps it achieve its function. As a technician it is irrelevant to know the entire make up
for your IC chip. What is most important is that you know how it functions. In this topic
we will introduce your to basic integrated circuits and their basic performances.

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555 Timer IC

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one
package. Introduced in 1971 by Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use, thanks to its
ease of use, low price and good stability, and is now made by many companies in the
original bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1
billion units are manufactured every year.
The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind under contract to Signetics, which
was later acquired by Philips. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package
includes over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP
combining two 555s on one chip), and the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly
modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive
instead of level sensitive).
The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 C to +70 C, and the SE555
part number designated the military temperature range, 55 C to +125 C. These were
available in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V
package) packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE 555V, NE 555T, SE 555V, and
SE 555T. It has been hypothesized that the 555 got its name from the three 5k
resistors used within, but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary.
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Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555.
The 7555 is designed to cause less supply glitching than the classic 555 and the
manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a control capacitor and in many
cases does not require a decoupling capacitor on the power supply. Such a practice
should nevertheless be avoided, because noise produced by the timer or variation in
power supply voltage might interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence its
threshold voltages.

Definition of Pin Functions:

Refer to the internal 555 schematic

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Pin 1 (Ground): The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the
device, which is normally connected to circuit common when operated from positive
supply voltages.
Pin 2 (Trigger):This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch,
which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence
in monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to
below a voltage level of 1/3 V+ (or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5).
The action of the trigger input is level-sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change
waveforms, as well as pulses, to be used as trigger sources.
One precaution that should be observed with the trigger input signal is that it must not
remain lower than 1/3 V+ for a period of time longer than the timing cycle. If this is
allowed to happen, the timer will retrigger itself upon termination of the first output
pulse. Thus, when the timer is driven in the monostable mode with input pulses longer
than the desired output pulse width, the input trigger should effectively be shortened by
differentiation.
The minimum-allowable pulse width for triggering is somewhat dependent upon pulse
level, but in general if it is greater than the 1uS (micro-Second), triggering will be
reliable.
A second precaution with respect to the trigger input concerns storage time in the lower
comparator. This portion of the circuit can exhibit normal turn-off delays of several
microseconds after triggering; that is, the latch can still have a trigger input for this period
of time after the trigger pulse. In practice, this means the minimum monostable output
pulse width should be in the order of 10uS to prevent possible double triggering due to
this effect.
The voltage range that can safely be applied to the trigger pin is between V+ and ground.
A dc current, termed the trigger current, must also flow from this terminal into the
external circuit. This current is typically 500nA (nano-amp) and will define the upper
limit of resistance allowable from pin 2 to ground. For an astable configuration operating
at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 3 Mega-ohm; it can be greater for higher V+ levels.
Pin 3 (Output): The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made
up of transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type
loads, and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7
volts less than the V+ supply level used. Transistor Q24 provides current-sinking
capability for low-state loads referred to V+ (such as typical TTL inputs). Transistor Q24
has a low saturation voltage, which allows it to interface directly, with good noise
margin, when driving current-sinking logic. Exact output saturation levels vary markedly
with supply voltage, however, for both high and low states. At a V+ of 5 volts, for
instance, the low state Vce(sat) is typically 0.25 volts at 5 mA. Operating at 15 volts,
however, it can sink 100mA if an output-low voltage level of 2 volts is allowable (power
dissipation should be considered in such a case, of course). High-state level is typically
3.3 volts at V+ = 5 volts; 13.3 volts at V+ = 15 volts. Both the rise and fall times of the
output waveform are quite fast, typical switching times being 100nS.
The state of the output pin will always reflect the inverse of the logic state of the latch,
and this fact may be seen by examining Fig. 3. Since the latch itself is not directly

101

accessible, this relationship may be best explained in terms of latch-input trigger

conditions. To trigger the output to a high condition, the trigger input is momentarily
taken from a higher to a lower level. [see "Pin 2 - Trigger"]. This causes the latch to be
set and the output to go high. Actuation of the lower comparator is the only manner in
which the output can be placed in the high state. The output can be returned to a low state
by causing the threshold to go from a lower to a higher level [see "Pin 6 - Threshold"],
which resets the latch. The output can also be made to go low by taking the reset to a low
state near ground [see "Pin 4 - Reset"].
Pin 4 (Reset): This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state.
The reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA from this pin is
required to reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+
level; thus the reset input is TTL compatible for any supply voltage.
The reset input is an overriding function; that is, it will force the output to a low state
regardless of the state of either of the other inputs. It may thus be used to terminate an
output pulse prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to "off", etc. Delay time from
reset to output is typically on the order of 0.5 uS, and the minimum reset pulse width is
0.5 uS. Neither of these figures is guaranteed, however, and may vary from one
manufacturer to another. When not used, it is recommended that the reset input be tied to
V+ to avoid any possibility of false resetting.
Pin 5 (Control Voltage): This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider point,
the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the lower
comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider (R8 - R9) from this point to the lower-comparator
reference input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow
extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the
comparator, etc.
When the 555 timer is used in a voltage-controlled mode, its voltage-controlled operation
ranges from about 1 volt less than V+ down to within 2 volts of ground (although this is
not guaranteed). Voltages can be safely applied outside these limits, but they should be
confined within the limits of V+ and ground for reliability.
In the event the control-voltage pin is not used, it is recommended that it be bypassed
with a capacitor of about 0.01uF (10nF) for immunity to noise, since it is a comparator
input.
Pin 6 (Threshold):Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is
used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low.
Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a
voltage level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is
level sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms.
The voltage range that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between V+ and
ground. A dc current, termed the threshold current, must also flow into this terminal from
the external circuit. This current is typically 100nA, and will define the upper limit of
total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+. For either timing configuration operating at
V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 16 Mega-ohm.
Pin 7 (Discharge):This pin is the open collector of an npn transistor (Q14), the emitter of

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which goes to ground. The conduction state of this transistor is identical in timing to that
of the output stage. It is "on" (low resistance to ground) when the output is low and "off"
(high resistance to ground) when the output is high.
In both the monostable and astable time modes, this transistor switch is used to clamp the
appropriate nodes of the timing network to ground. Saturation voltage is typically below
100mV (milli-Volt) for currents of 5 mA or less, and off-state leakage is about 20nA
(these parameters are not specified by all manufacturers, however).
Maximum collector current is internally limited by design, thereby removing restrictions
on capacitor size due to peak pulse-current discharge. In certain applications, this open
collector output can be used as an auxiliary output terminal, with current-sinking
capability similar to the output (pin 3).
Pin 8 (V +):The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of
the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to
+16 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and + 15 volts.
The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in
timing period. Actually, the most significant operational difference is the output drive
capability, which increases for both current and voltage range as the supply voltage is
increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per
volt.
Operating Modes: The 555 timer has two basic operational modes: one shot and astable.
In the one-shot mode, the 555 acts like a monostable multivibrator. A monostable is said
to have a single stable state--that is the off state. Whenever it is triggered by an input
pulse, the monostable switches to its temporary state. It remains in that state for a period
of time determined by an RC network. It then returns to its stable state. In other words,
the monostable circuit generates a single pulse of a fixed time duration each time it
receives and input trigger pulse. Thus the name one-shot. One-shot multivibrators are
used for turning some circuit or external component on or off for a specific length of
time. It is also used to generate delays. When multiple one-shots are cascaded, a variety
of sequential timing pulses can be generated. Those pulses will allow you to time and
sequence a number of related operations.
The other basic operational mode of the 555 is as and astable multivibrator. An astable
multivibrator is simply and oscillator. The astable multivibrator generates a continuous
stream of rectangular off-on pulses that switch between two voltage levels. The
frequency of the pulses and their duty cycle are dependent upon the RC network values.
Applications:
There are literally thousands of different ways that the 555 can be used in electronic
circuits. In almost every case, however, the basic circuit is either a one-shot or an astable.
The application usually requires a specific pulse time duration, operation frequency, and
duty-cycle. Additional components may have to be connected to the 555 to interface the
device to external circuits or devices.

CHAPTER 18
103

UNDERSTANDING CIRCUIT BOARDS

Electronic circuits in schools and industry are normally manufactured through the
use of PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards). The boards are made from glass reinforced plastic
with copper tracks in the place of wires. Components are fixed in position by drilling
holes through the board, locating the components and then soldering them in place. The
copper tracks link the components together forming a circuit.
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non-conductive substrate . PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer),
double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are
connected with plated-through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain
components - capacitors, resistors or active devices - embedded in the substrate.
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to
PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the additional
design effort to lay out the circuit but manufacturing and assembly can be automated.
Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods
as components are mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring
errors are eliminated.
When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components it is more
correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Although more
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accurate, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with
electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board
assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is
circuit card assembly (CCA), for a back plane assemblies. The term PCB is used
informally both for bare and assembled boards.

Circuit properties of the PCB

Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. The
resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be sufficiently low for
the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than
signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as
a ground plane for shielding and power return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines
can be laid out in the form of strip line and micro strip with carefully controlled
dimensions to assure a consistent iimpedance. In radio-frequency and fast switching
circuits the inductance and ccapacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become
significant circuit elements, usually undesired; but they can be used as a deliberate part of
the circuit design, obviating the need for additional discrete components.

CHAPTER 19
105

SOLDERING

In this chapter we will learn:

. Proper Use of a soldering iron
. How to correctly solder electronic components
. Why and how to properly clean our soldering iron.

Soldering is the joining together of two metals to give physical bonding and good
electrical conductivity. Solder is a combination of metals, which are solid at normal room

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temperatures and become liquid at between 180 and 200C. Solder bonds well to various
metals, and extremely well to copper.
Soldering has many uses. It is used primarily to assemble electronic components such as
resistors, capacitors and ICs onto printed circuit boards. However, it can also be used to
join wires, and metals.
In electronics a 60/40 fluxed core solder is used. This consists of 60% lead and 40% Tin,
with flux cores added through the length of the solder.
Flux is an aggressive chemical that removes oxides and impurities from the parts to be
soldered. This ensures a good physical and electrical joint is made. Fluxes enable good
wetting or tinning. Wetting is a term that describes good adhesion of the solder to the
components being soldered. Tinning is a term that describes the application of solder to
the soldering iron tip, or to a component being prepared for soldering.
Soldering Iron
is the tool which heat the solder to its melting point. A modern basic electrical soldering
iron consists of the following: The heating element can be either a resistance wire wound around a ceramic tube, or a
thick film resistance element printed onto a ceramic base. The element is then insulated
and placed into a metal tube for strength and protection. This is then thermally insulated
from the handle. The element reaches temperatures of around 370 to 400C.
The soldering bit is a specially shaped piece of copper plated with iron and then usually
plated with chrome. Copper is used for good thermal conductivity. Iron is very resistant
to aggressive solders and fluxes. The bit then fits over or inside the heating element
dependent on the design of the soldering iron. The handle and power cord completes the
soldering iron. Various handle styles are available. The power cord is often insulated with
PVC, but this can be damaged and will melt if touched by a hot soldering iron. Therefore
silicone rubber insulated power leads are extremely popular for long life and electrical
safety.

How to choose a good soldering iron

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The strength or power of a soldering iron is usually expressed in Watts. Irons

generally used in electronics are typically in the range 12 to 25 Watts. The most popular
irons for use in schools or for hobbyist electronics are the 18 and 25 Watt versions.
It must be remembered that a 25 Watt iron will not run hotter than a 12 Watt iron, but it
will have more power available to quickly replace heat drained from the iron during
soldering. Therefore, the bigger the component being soldered, the greater the need for
quantity of heat, the higher the power needed.
Most irons are available in a variety of voltages. 12V, 24V, 115V, and 230V are the most
popular. You should always use much safer.
As your soldering skills improve, you may work with temperature sensitive devices such
as integrated circuits. For these applications a temperature-controlled soldering iron
(TCS) should be used.
For bench work a soldering station may be used. This incorporates temperature selection,
optional digital temperature readout, 24V transformer, an iron holder, and a sponge, all
within a neat bench unit.

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Soldering
1. Switch on the soldering iron and feed solder to the tip of the iron as it heats up.
2. Wipe off excess solder onto a damp sponge.
3. Place the hot iron on the component lead and the PCB pad. Feed the solder into
the far side of the component lead. Solder will begin to flow around the lead. Do
not use too much solder.
4. Next, remove the solder source followed by the iron.
5. Do not disturb the component for a few seconds until the solder has solidified.
6. Trim the component leads to within 1mm of the soldered joint.

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GOOD SOLDERING PRACTICE

1. Plan the component layout.
2. Mount the smallest components first.
3. Try to leave component identification markings visible.
4. Support heat-producing components above the PCB with ceramic beads.
5. Keep soldering time to a minimum to reduce the risk of heat damage to the component.
6. Beware of solder bridging across tracks. This could cause a short circuit.
7. If working with static sensitive components, always use a wrist strap connected to an
earthing point.
AFTER SOLDERING
1. Always wipe the bit on a damp sponge prior to making a soldered joint. Most bench
stands incorporate a sponge for this purpose.
2. Always apply solder to the bit of an iron as it heats up. This will ensure good tinning
and long life of the bit.
3. A solder bit that will not wet can be cleaned by lightly rubbing the bit with a nylon
pad. Ensure the iron is switched off and do not use wire wool or emery paper as this will
remove protective plating and shorten the bit life. .
4. Always keep a hot iron in a bench stand.
5. Never put a soldering iron into liquid.
6. Regularly check the cable for burns. Alternatively use an iron that is supplied with
silicone cable which is resistant to burns from the soldering iron.

110

PROPER SOLDERING TECHNIQUE

111

CHAPTER 20
HOW TO USE A MULTIMETER

Along with a good soldering iron, a good multimeter is the most important item in your
electronics toolbox. Your electronic exploits will be much more fruitful, if you learn how
to use it properly.
Digital multimeters display their values using a digital display that shows the actual
numbers for the measurements being taken. The alternative to a digital multimeter is an
analog multimeter, which shows its readings by moving a needle across a printed scale.

112

To determine the value of a measurement, you simply read the scale behind the needle.
Alternatively, you can get an Analog multimeter where you have to actually read the
scale to get the value. Either one is fine so just choose what you are most comfortable
with.

Parts of a multimeter

Display or meter: Indicates the value of the measurement being taken. In a digital
multimeter, the display is a number that indicates the amperage (current), voltage, or
resistance being measured. In an analog meter, the current, voltage, or resistance is
indicated by a needle that moves across a printed scale. To read the value, you look
straight down at the needle and read the scale printed behind it.
Selector: Most multimeters digital or analog have a dial that you can turn to
tell the meter what you want to measure. The various settings on this dial indicate
not only the type of measurement you want to make (voltage, current, or
resistance) but also the range of the expected measurements. The range is
indicated by the maximum amount of voltage, current, or resistance that can be
measured.
Higher ranges let you measure higher values, but with less precision. For
example, the analog multimeter has the following ranges for reading DC voltage:
2.5 V, 10 V, 50 V, 250 V, and 500 V.
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If you use the 2.5 V range, you can easily tell differences of a tenth of a volt, such
as the difference between 1.6 and 1.7 V. But when the range is set to the 500 V
range, you'll be lucky to pick out differences of 10 volts.
On/off switch: Some multimeter don't have an on/off switch. Instead, one of the
positions on the selector dial is Off. Other multimeters have a separate on/off
switch. If your meter doesn't give you any readings, check to make sure the power
switch is turned on.
Test leads: The test leads are a pair of red and black wires with metal probes on
their ends. One end of these wires plugs into the meter. You use the other end to
connect to the circuits you want to measure. The red lead is positive; the black
lead is negative.

How to Use a Multimeter to Measure Resistance?

Step 1
To use a multimeter to measure the resistance of a circuit, the first thing that you need to
do is set the meter to the Resistance or Ohms mode.
Step 2
Connect the black or negative lead of the device to the ground lead of the meter which
can also be labeled negative or -.
Step 3
Connect the positive or red lead of the multimeter to the positive side of the meter or if
labeled, the part of the device annotated with the Ohm symbol.
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Step 4
Set the range of the multimeter to that you are intending to measure. Most of the time this
will be the R x 100 range.

Step 5
Test for a 0 Ohm Reading by holding the two test leads together. If the measurement is
no 0, then consider replacing the meters batteries before proceeding with testing.
Step 6
Measure the resistance across the circuit you are troubleshooting by placing the black
probe towards the ground end of the circuit and the red probe one the opposite side of the
suspected bad circuit or gear and annotate the output.
Setting UP the Voltmeter to Test for Voltage
Step 1
Choose the meter setting for testing for the highest range of voltage permitted. When set
too low on an initial test, the voltmeter can become damaged if the voltage in a circuit
exceeds the limits placed on the voltmeter.
Step 2
Insert the ground lead in the negative or - position.
Step 3
Insert the red lead in the Voltage or positive terminal.
Step 4
Test a known voltage output such as a wall socket that in the United States should read
between 120 and 240 volts. Note, that many voltmeters will also require you to select the
type of current (AC or DC) as well and can give a false reading of 0 voltage if the
incorrect current type is selected on the meter.
Setting up the Voltmeter to Test for Current
Step 1
Choose the appropriate amperage type to test for on the multimeter, AC or DC
Step 2
Choose the highest most range on the meter for testing. The majority of multimeters test
in extremely small measures of current so ensure you are using a meter rated for the
equipment that you are going to test to avoid damage to the meter.
Step 3
Insert the ground probe into the negative or - terminal on the meter.
Step 4
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Insert the positive or red probe into the amperage or A terminal on the meter.
Step 5
Turn off the power to the circuit you are testing
Step 6
Insert the meter in series with the circuit following the polarity (positive lead to the
positive end of the circuit) and apply power to the circuit.

MULTIMETER SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

As with other meters, the incorrect use of a multimeter could cause injury or damage. The
following safety precautions are the MINIMUM for using a multimeter.
Deenergize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or
disconnecting a multimeter.
Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance with a multimeter.
Connect the multimeter in series with the circuit for current measurements, and in
parallel for voltage measurements.
Be certain the multimeter is switched to ac before attempting to measure ac
circuits.
Observe proper dc polarity when measuring dc.
When you are finished with a multimeter, switch it to the OFF position, if
available. If there is no OFF position, switch the multimeter to the highest ac
voltage position.
Always start with the highest voltage or current range.
Select a final range that allows a reading near the middle of the scale.
Adjust the "0 ohms" reading after changing resistance ranges and before making a
resistance measurement.
Be certain to read ac measurements on the ac scale of a multimeter.
Observe the general safety precautions for electrical and electronic devices.

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CHAPTER 21
Glossary Of Common Electronic Terms
Algorithm: a set of mathematical "rules" applied to an input. Generally used to describe
a section of computer code which performs a specific function
Alternating Current (AC): A current whose polarity alternates from positive to negative
over time. The rate of such "alternations" is measured in cycles per second - more
commonly known as Hertz (Hz)
Amp / Ampere: The basic unit of current flow
Ampere Hour (Amp hour, Ah): a measurement of the capacity of a storage medium (a
single cell or a battery). A cell which can supply 1 Amp for 1 hour before it is discharged
to a specified minimum level is said to have a capacity of 1 Amp hour
Amplification: a method for increasing the amplitude (or loudness) of electrical signals
Amplifier: An electronic device which generates a high power signal based on the
information supplied by a lower powered signal. A perfect amplifier would add or
subtract nothing from the original except additional power - these have not been invented
yet
Amplitude: the loudness of sound waves and electrical signals. Amplitude is measured
in decibels (dB) or volts
Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC): A device that converts the infinite range of an
analogue signal into discrete "steps". Normally, a good audio ADC will use sufficient
"steps" to resolve the smallest musical detail. For CD, this is a 16 bit converter, having
65,536 discrete levels covering the most negative signal level to the most positive
Attenuation: the decrease of a signal's amplitude level over any distance during
transmission or through purpose designed attenuators. Attenuation measures signal loss
in decibels (dB)

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Bandwidth: the measure of a range of frequencies containing an upper and lower limit
Battery: a bank of individual cells connected together to provide the required voltage
Binary: the basic counting system used in computer logic. Two values are available - 0
and 1. A zero is normally represented by a 0 Volt signal, and a one by a voltage of
approximately 5 Volts - these levels are dependent upon the type of logic used
Binary Code: a coding scheme that communicates information by using a series of "1s"
and "Os" that are represented, respectively, by the digital "ON" and "OFF" states
Bit Stream: the bit rate, or flow of information, between a sender and receiver in digital
communication. Also called Digital Bit Stream
Bit: a unit of the binary code that consists of either a single "1" or "O."
Bus: a pathway that connects devices, enabling them to communicate. May be digital or
analogue, including power and earth (ground)
Bypass: the practice of using (typically) low value capacitors to conduct high frequency
signals either to earth or around a device with limited frequency range
Byte: a unit of the binary code that consists of eight bits. One byte is required to code an
alphabetic or numeric character, using an eight-bit character set code

Cable: a type of linear transmission medium. Some of the common types of cables
include: hook up wire, coaxial (shielded) cables, lamp and mains cable, figure-8 (zip)
cable and fiber optics
Capacitor: A pair of parallel "plates" separated by an insulator (the dielectric). Stores an
electric charge, and tends to pass higher frequencies more readily than low frequencies.
Does not pass direct current, and acts as an insulator. Electrically it is the opposite to an
inductor. Basic unit of measurement is the Farad, but is typically measured in micro-6
-9
farads (uF = 1 x 10 F) or nano-farads (nF - 1 x 10 F)
Cell: one section of a battery. The common carbon or "alkaline" cells used in battery
operated equipment is an example
CMOS: (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) - one "family" of digital logic
devices. Some CMOS devices can operate with power supplies from 3 Volts to 15 Volts others are limited to the traditional logic 5 Volt power supply
Coaxial Cable: a metallic cable constructed in such a way that the inner conductor is
shielded from EMR (electromagnetic radiation) interference by the outer conductor.
Coaxial cable is less susceptible to more transmission impairments than twisted pair
cable, and it has a much greater bandwidth; thus coaxial cable is used by most analogue
and digital systems for the transmission of low level signals
CODEC: COder / DECoder - the component of any digital subsystem which performs
analogue to digital and digital to analogue conversions
Color Code: used to identify resistors and some capacitors, as well as wires in telephony.

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For telephone cables, the basic color code for the first group of pairs is Blue, Orange,
Green, Brown, Slate (grey), with white "Mates". The Mate is the most positive lead, and
is the Tip connection
Compression (1): the component that joins together with a rarefaction to make a sound
wave
Compression (2): the act of compressing (making smaller) a digital data stream - e.g.
converting from 16 bit signals to 8bit signals. Most compression schemes are "lossy",
which is to say that some of the original data is discarded and cannot be reconstructed
Compression (3): a circuit used to restrict the amplitude variations of a signal (often
combined with a limiter to set an absolute limit). Unlike digital compression, analogue
compression can be "undone" to restore the original signal with little degradation
Crossover: A filter network which separates frequencies into "bands" which match the
capabilities of the loudspeaker drivers within an enclosure
Crosstalk: a noise impairment when a signal from one pair of wires affects adjacent
wires or one channel affects the adjacent channel
Cutoff Frequency: Normally defined as the frequency where the output from a filter has
fallen by 3dB from the maximum level obtainable through the filter

dB - Decibel - (0.1 Bel): defined (more or less) as the smallest variation of volume
detectable by ear. This is measured on a logarithmic scale, so a change of 3dB from 1
Watt is equivalent to 0.5 Watt or 2 Watts. A change of 10dB from 1 Watt is equivalent to
100mW or 10 Watts. In electronics, 0dBm is a reference value corresponding to 1mW at
600 Ohms - this equates to approximately 775mV. The threshold of sound is 0dB, and
typical sounds can reach 140dB or more. Any prolonged sound above 90dB may cause
hearing damage
Digital/Analogue Conversion: a method used to recreate an analogue signal that has
been coded into binary data and transmitted as a digital signal.
Digital/Analogue Converter (DAC): a device used to generate a replica of the original
analogue signal that has been coded into binary data and transmitted as a digital signal
Direct Current (DC): A current flow which is steady with time, and flows in one
direction only
Distortion (1): Any modification to a signal which results in the generation of
frequencies which were not present in the original
Distortion (2): Of phase, any modification of the phase relationship between two or more
signals which causes the observed waveform to differ from the original
DSP: Digital Signal Processor - a dedicated computer circuit which performs complex
changes or analysis on a digital signal, generally encoded from an analogue source

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Electronic: The use of active electronic components (integrated circuits, transistors,

valves etc) which require a power supply to function. Such "active" components will
always be used in conjunction with passive components
Earth (1): also known as ground - commonly used to describe the chassis and other
materials that provide a return path for power supplies and signals within any electronic
device
Earth (2): also known as ground - a protective connection from wall outlet to equipment
chassis to conduct fault currents away from human contact
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): an unwanted (possibly interfering) signal emitted
by any electronic apparatus. The emission of EMI is heavily regulated in most countries.
Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR): a transmission medium that includes radio waves
and light waves.

Farad: the base unit of capacitance - equal to the capacitance of a capacitor having an
equal and opposite charge of 1 coulomb on each plate and a potential difference of 1 volt
between the plates (Abbreviation - F). The Farad is a very large value, and is more
commonly referred to as the pico-Farad (pF, 1 x 10-12 Farad), nano-Farad (nF, 1 x 10-9
Farad), micro-Farad (uF, 1 x 10-6 Farad), and (less common) milli-Farad (mF, 1 x 10-3
Farad)
Filter: a circuit which is frequency dependent. The "pass band" is the range of
frequencies allowed through, and the "stop band" is that range of frequencies which are
blocked
Filtering: a process used to remove or accentuate specific frequencies or frequency
ranges of a signal
Frequency: The rate at which an alternating current changes in a cyclic manner from
positive to negative and back again (one cycle). The basic unit of measurement is the
Hertz (Hz), which equates to one cycle per second
Frequency Modulation (FM): a modulation technique that records changes in an
information signal by modifying the frequency of the carrier signal according to changes
in the amplitude of the information signal.

Henry: The basic unit of inductance in which an induced electromotive force of one volt
is produced when the current is varied at the rate of one ampere per second (Abbreviation
- H)
High-pass: A filter which allows high frequencies to pass while blocking low
frequencies
Hertz (Hz): the measurement of frequency. Hertz represents the number of cycles of an

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electrical signal measured in one second

Impedance: A load applied to an amplifier (or other source) which is not a pure
resistance. This is to say that its loading characteristics are frequency dependent.
Impedance consists of some value of resistance in conjunction with capacitance and/or
inductance. The equivalent circuits can vary from two components to hundreds.
In-Phase: a condition of two waveforms when they cross the reference line at the same
time and in the same direction.
Inductor: A coil of wire which exhibits a resistance to any change of amplitude or
direction of current flow through itself. Inductance is inherent in any conductor, but is
"concentrated" by winding into a coil. An inductor tends to pass low frequencies more
readily than high frequencies. Electrically it is the opposite of a capacitor. Basic unit of
measurement is the Henry (H), in crossover networks it will typically be measured in
-3
milli-henrys (mH = 1 x 10 H) and for RF micro-henrys (uH) are common
Insulator: A material that prevents the passage of electricity, heat or sound. The plastic
coating on wires is an insulator, preventing the wires from coming into electrical contact
with each other. Insulators are extensively used in electronics. Most good electrical
insulators are also good thermal insulators
Integrated Circuit (IC): A collection of active and passive devices (e.g. transistors and
resistors) mounted on a single slice of silicon and packaged as a single component.
Examples include operational amplifiers, Central Processing Units (CPUs), random
access memory (RAM), etc.
Intermodulation Distortion (IMD): the intermixing of two frequencies. It is often
caused by non-linear distortion within an amplifier or loudspeaker system

Laser: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Originally, lasers were

either gas or precious stone (e.g. ruby), but are now made using semiconductors. Laser
light is coherent, meaning that the emitted light waves are in phase, which gives the light
a strange appearance since our eyes were never designed to observe coherent light
Low-pass: A filter which allows low frequencies to pass while blocking high frequencies
Mixer: A circuit that generates output frequencies equal to the sum and difference of two
input frequencies.

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Modulation: The process of modifying some characteristic of a wave (called a carrier) so

that it varies in step with the instantaneous value of another wave (called the modulating
wave or signal).

Octave: Musical terminology, meaning the doubling (or halving) of frequency. For
example, one octave above "Concert pitch" A440 Hz is 880Hz, and one below is 220Hz.
Musically, each of these frequencies is "A"
Oscilloscope: An electronic measurement tool which allows one to view a waveform.
The vertical axis shows amplitude and the horizontal axis shows time
Passive: Containing no devices which require a power supply. Passive devices include
resistors, capacitors and inductors
Phase: musical signals, where some signals have a "phase angle" (phase is measured in
degrees of rotation) which is different from other signals
Power Amp: An amplifier that is designed to drive loudspeakers or other relatively low
impedance loads. Usually combines voltage and current amplification. May be integrated
with the preamp (see below)
Preamp: Multiple meanings, but in hi-fi generally refers to a separate section of circuitry
that includes source switching, volume and balance controls (as well as tone controls in
many cases). Used to raise the level from tape decks, turntables, CD players and other
music sources to a level suited to the power amplifier
Quasi: to some degree or in some manner, resembling. For example, a quasi
complementary-symmetry output stage in an amplifier is not in fact complementarysymmetry, but appears to be, and acts in a similar manner
Quiescent: being still or at rest, in an inactive state. The quiescent current in an amplifier
is that current drawn when the amplifier is "at rest" - i.e. not amplifying a signal, but
supplied with power
Resistor: An electrical device which impedes (resists) current flow regardless of
frequency. Basic unit of measurement is the Ohm
Resonance: The natural frequency at which a physical body will oscillate. An example is
when you blow gently across the top of a bottle, the enclosed air resonates at a frequency
determined by the internal volume. Also refers to the natural resonance of loudspeaker
drivers, cabinets and ports, or the frequency where an inductance and capacitance have
the same impedance (this causes maximum impedance with a parallel circuit, and
minimum impedance for series circuits)

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rms: Root Mean Squared. Applies to voltage and current, but is commonly (although
incorrectly) applied to power. Defined as an alternating voltage (or current) which has
exactly the same energy content (power) as the same value of direct current

Thermal Coefficient (1): Of expansion, describes the amount by which a material

expands when heated. Commonly expressed as a percentage per degree Celcius so the
exact size at various temperatures may be calculated. Knowledge of the expansion
characteristics of different materials is important in high power semiconductor
manufacture, since differing expansion rates may cause device failure due to temperature
cycling fractures
Thermal Coefficient (2): Of resistance, describes the change in resistance at various
temperatures. Most metals have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance, which
means that the resistance increases with increasing temperature. Carbon and some alloys
have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, so as temperature is increased,
resistance decreases
Thermal Resistance: The resistance of various materials to the passage of heat energy.
Most electrical conductors are also thermal conductors, with the higher electrical
conductivity materials usually having higher thermal conductivity. Important in the
design of high power electronics, heat sinks, semiconductor casings, etc.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): the sum of all amplifier distortion components, plus
system noise. THD measurements are sometimes quoted as THD+noise. Usually
measured at specified frequencies and power levels

Velocity: speed or rapidity. In audio and electronics, we are concerned with the speed of
a signal in air and a conductor. Speed (velocity) of sound in air is approximately 345
meters per second at sea level, but it varies with temperature and humidity. Speed of an
electrical signal in a wire is approximately 3 x 108 meters per second, but may be
influenced by ...
Velocity Factor: a situation that occurs in conductors that are close to another
conducting material. For example, a coaxial cable has an inner and outer conductor, with
insulation between the two. The velocity factor of such cables varies from 0.7 to 0.9 (i.e.
the signal travels slower than in free space)
Volt: The basic unit of "electromotive force". One Volt applied to a resistance of one
Ohm will force a current of one Ampere to flow (Abbreviation - V)
Watt: The basic unit of power. 1 Volt across 1 Ohm (giving 1 Amp) dissipates 1 Watt
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(all as heat with a resistive load)

Wavelength: the length of one cycle of an AC signal. Determined by Wavelength = c / f
where "c" is velocity and "f" is frequency. The wavelength of a 345Hz audio signal in air
is one meter
Zener Diode: A two-layer device that, above a certain reverse voltage, has a sudden rise
in current. If forward biased, the diode is an ordinary rectifier. But, when reversed-biased,
the diode exhibits a typical knee, or sharp break, in its current-voltage graph. the voltage
remains essentially constant for any further increase of reverse current, up to the
allowable dissipation rating.

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