Imotp 1935 15271

Proceedings.1 MILLER AND SARJANT ON CRUSHERS.
39
20 November, 1934.
Sir RICHARD AUGUSTINE STUDDERT REDMAYNE,
K.C.B., M.Sc., President, in the Chair.
The PRESIDENT announced that the following resolution, with
which he was sure the members would agree, had been passed by the
Council that afternoon :
That the Council have learned with great regret of the
death of their esteemed Past-President, Mr. J ohn
Alexander Brodie, M.Eng., and desire to convey to the
members of his family an expression of deep sympathy
with them in their bereavement.
The following Paper was submitted for discussion, and, on the
motion of the President, the thanks of The Institution were accorded
to the Authors.
(Paper No. 4981.)
The Evolution of Various Types of Crushers for Stone and
Ore, and the Characteristics of Rocks as Affecting
Abrasion in Crushing Machinery.
By WILLIAM THOMAS WARD MILLER, M. Inst. C.E., and
REGINALD JOSIAH SARJ ANT, M.Sc.
PART 1.-TYPES OF CRUSHERS.
INTRODUCTION.
IT is difficult to define exactly the meaning of the terms crushing and
grinding, or crushing and pulverization ; the finer crushing stages
may embody a certain amount of pulverizing or grinding, but in
the main, crushing may be said to cover the reduction of stones or
ores to a size of $ inch, and in some cases slightly less.
It would not be possible, within the scope of this Paper, to describe
all the forms of crusher at present in we ; it is therefore proposed
to select a few of the better-known types and to show how the im-
provements in materials and, in particular, the introduction of the
alloy steels, have aided in their development.
Each type of crusher is considered from the following aspects :-
(U) Its origin.
( b) Intermediate stages in its development.
( c ) Modem examples.
(d) Its special use.
(e) Performance-diagrams.
40 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [hIinutes of
THE DOUBLE-TOGGLE J AW CRUSHER.
The double-toggle mechanism, patented in 1858 by Mr. E. W.
Blake, remains unrivalled for all units of exceptional power and size.
Fi g. I is a cross section of an early Blake crusher. The power was
applied to an eccentric shaft rotated in fixed bearings situated close
to the centre of a heavy cast-iron frame. The eccentric oscillated
a pitman or connecting-rod, which was made with grooved seatings
near its lower end to receive the adjacent ends of two toggle-plates.
The rearmost toggle-plate was pivoted at its back end in an adjust-
able toggle-block mounted to slide in the frame. The outermost
end of the front toggle-plate rested in a groove at the back of the
jawstock which included the moving jaw.
Fig. 1.
CROSS SECTION OF BLAKE CRUSHER.
~ ~~~~~~ ~
The jawstock was pivoted above the feed-mouth in bearings
formed in the main frame, and the double-toggle system imparted
a purely pendulum-like swing to the moving jaw, the crushing stroke
decreasing from a maximum near the outlet to a minimum at the
point of entry for the stone ; that is, the crushing stroke was greatest
on the fine material and least on the big lumps, whilst the leverage
was greatest on the large lumps and least close to the point of exit.
In the early machines there was no renewable jaw in the jawstock,
and no removable seatings or toggle-grooves. The frame, jawstock,
and pitman were made of cast iron, and the parts had to be very
massive and heavy to withstand the severe strains imposed upon them,
For a time the development of the jaw crushers closely followed the
existing designs for Blake breakers. The heavy cast-iron frames
Proceedings.] VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 41
were reinforced by strong longitudinal tie-bolts ; in some instances
they were made in sections to permit of easier handling, but the parts
became so cumbersome that cast steel was used to reduce their
weight.
A notable advance was made in about the year 1890, when steel
castings were introduced for all the important parts of the double-
toggle crushers. An early design for a steel-frame jaw crusher by
Messrs. Hadfields is shown in Pig. 2.
Not only was the margin of strength to resist shock very con-
siderably increased by this change, but the weight of the machine
was also much reduced, a matter of great importance where transport
charges were high. With the change-over to cast steel for the main
components of these machines came the introduction of manganese
Big. 2.
CROSS SEOITON OB STEEL-RUHE J AW CRUSHER.
steel for the crushing faces and other parts, in replacement of the
original chilled iron.1
The introduction of the mechanical shovel into quarries and mines
created a demand for crushers with feed-openings of adequate size
to take the largest pieces of stone or ore that could be handled by
these appliances. Feed-openings have increased to 84 inches by
66 inches and, notwithstanding the use of steel wherever practicable,
a machine of this size may weigh as much as 260 tons and require a
motor of 300 or 350 HP. to drive it.
I n these sledging-machines the jaws and cheek-plates are made of
manganese steel, and in many cases the renewable toggle-seats are
also of the same material. J aws and cheeks are made in sections so
that localized wear does not necessitate the replacement of the whole.
1 The first published description of manganese steel appears in two Papers
by Mr. R. A. Hadfield (now Sir Robert Hadfield), Manganese in its Application
to Metallurgy, and Some Newly-Discovered Properties of Iron and Man-
ganese. Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xciii (1887-88), p. 1 et seg.
42 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [Minutes Of
Springs fitted under the pitman and other means are adopted to
overcome the constant downward thrust on the eccentric shaft, and
permit of free passage of the lubricant ; the bearings are water-
cooled to absorb the excess heat, and automatic lubrication is now
recognized as an essential feature.
J aw crushers of the type shown in Pigs. l and 2 are particularly
suited for crushing harder rocks and ores, although they will break
almost any kind of material that is free-breaking without packing,
or that does not stick or ride in the jaws.
The gradation of the finished product from any crushing-machine
is dependent on the average feed-size and the extent of the work done
in the crushing process. P%. 6, p. 45, shows a series of typical
Fig. 3.
&OSS SECTION OF SINGLE-TOGGLE &USHER.
gradation-curves based on a feed of clean lump material at the
standard reduction-ratio of 5 to 1.
THE SINGLE-TOGGLE JAW CRUSHERS.
Fig. 3 is a cross section of the single-toggle crusher, as introduced
by Mr. G. Dalton of H. R. Marsden & Company in about 1879. It
is quite probable that this patent is not the real origin of this
mechanism, but it is the earliest example known to the Authors that
was developed in practical form.
In this machine the jawstock was carried on the eccentric shaft
which was located above the feed-mouth of the crusher. The travel
of the lower end of the swinging jaw was controlled by a single toggle-
plate, and the movement, commencing m a true circle on the shaft
Proceedings.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 43
centre, changed to an ellipse with a gradual reduction in the minor
axis towards the outlet end of the jaw. By flattening the angle of the
toggle-plate, the effective crushing stroke could be reduced to the
minimum at the sizing point.
As originally constructed, all castings were of iron, and thie
material is in common use to-day for the parts not actually in contact
with the stone. Manganese steel soon became standardized for the
jaws and cheek-plates, as the rolling action of the swing-jaw is liable,
on any abrasive material, to cause heavy wear on the jaw-plates.
With this mechanism the crushing action is more complex than in
the Blake machines. There are two cycles of movement applied to
the swinging jaw, which overlap to some extent, one half of the crush-
Fig. 4.
CROSS SEC~ION OB SINQLE-TOWLE CRUSHER, WITH CAST-STEEL FRAME
AND JAWSTOOK.
ing stroke being due to the eccentric movement at the top of the
jawstock, and the other half to the side-swing from the radial toggle-
plate.
With this mechanism it is necessary, in order to avoid a neutral
zone between two reflex crushing movements, that the centre-line
of the toggle-plate should be level with, or fall below, the bottom of
the moving jaw. It is also advisable that the shaft should turn in
such a direction that the jawstock moves downwards as i t nips the
stone near the top of the feed-mouth, otherwise there is a tendency
to l i ft the material and hinder ita downward travel.
This machine developed as a coarse breaker as well as a fine crusher
or grandator, and the frame and jawstock were also made by Messrs.
Hadfields of cast steel instead of cast iron, as shown in Fig. P. The
44 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [Minutes of
Authors have not been able to trace a machine embodying this type
of mechanism in the sledger class.
The latest improvement in the design of these machines is the
incorporation of roller-bearings for the eccentric-shaft. Not only
do these require much less attention and lubrication, but they enable
the crushers to run at higher speeds, with less internal friction, and
with consequent gain in output.
Pi p. 5 show the Telsmith-Wheeling design for a series of single-
toggle jaw crushers fitted with roller-bearings. These machines are
made in this country by Messrs. Pegson, Limited, of Coalville. The
frames and jawstocks are of cast steel, the eccentric-shaft of special
alloy steel, and the jaws of manganese steel. Dust is excluded from
Figs. 5.
CROSS SECTION. LONGITUDINAL SECTION.
TELSMITH-WHEELING CRUSHER.
the bearings by piston-ring seals, and the hardened rollers are held
in position by bronze retaining-rings. The speed at which these
crushers run is about 50 per cent. faster than that of machines
fitted with ordinary bearings.
J aw crushers of the single-toggle type are most useful for dealing
with the softer rocks or materials having decomposed outer surfaces.
The very lively crushing movement at t,he feed-mouth, combined with
the force-feeding action from the rolling jaw, make it possible to
penetrate quickly and shatter materials that would " ride " in the
short stroke at the top of a pendulum-jaw. They are also entirely
adequate as coarse crushers within the limits as normally manu-
factured, say up to a size of feed-mouth of 36 inches by 12 inches.
Wear and tear of the jaw-plat,es on any abrasire stone is always higher
than in the Blake-type crushers.
The graphs in Fig. 6 may be taken as generally applicable to both
types of jaw crushers.
LONG-SHAFT GYRATORY CRUSHERS.
I n the normal gyratory crusher the inclined shaft carrying the
crushing head is semi-rigidly supported at ibs upper end in a spider
which bridges over the feed-opening, whilst the lower end is inserted
in the bore of an eccentric by which the force and movement are
Fig. 6.
TYPICAL JAW CRUSIIER TESTS.
applied to the shaft and cone. The crushing-head is situated between
the upper bearing and the eccentric, and the shaft becomes a lever
with its fulcrum in the spider-bearing and with the source of power
below the cone.
I n 1877, Mr. Charles M. Brown, of Chicago, filed a patent in the
United States for the breaker illustrated in Fig. 7, which was probably
the prototype of the " long-shaft " gyratory crusher.
The crushing-basin or concave casing was fitted with removable
liners ; the long lever-shaft carried a renewable cone ; a diaphragm-
shoot for collecting the crushed material was incorporated in the
lower part of the frame-casting, and the bearing for the eccentric was
integral with the body. The spider had four arm, and there were
consequently four feed-openings. The upper end of the spindle was
of the ball-and-socket pattern. The upper bearing was free to move
vertically in the bore of the spider, and a footstep-bearing with acrew
adjustment was provided at the lower end of the main shaft to allow
of the head being raised or lowered as required.
These machines were developed in America by the Gates Iron
Works, and for many yeare they were constructed to the design
shown in Fig. 8.
Two changes worthy of mention were made from the Brown
design ; the ball-and-socket bearing for the upper end of the main
shaft was discarded, and the bottom plate supporting the eccentric
bearing and bevel-wheel was made detachable from the body for
convenience in dismantling. The ball-and-socket bearing apparently
gave trouble due to wear, and proved difficult to adjust satisfactorily.
FQ. r.
Fig. 8.
CROSS SECTION OF BROWNS CROSS SECTION OF GYRATORY CRUSHER
GYRATORY CRUSHER.
[GATES h O N WORKS DESIGN].
In service a full bearing is hardly ever obtained between the ball and
the socket, and, with the reduction in diameter of the ball caused by
wear and the simultaneous enlargement of the socket, the bearing
deteriorates practically to a point contact, which cause8 intensified
wear. This upper bearing was changed to a part-conical design, the
spider-bush being made parallel in the bore, and the upper end of the
main shaft coned to a taper coincident with the angle of gyration.
By these means the shaft and bearing maintained line-contact on the
side opposite to the crushing pressure notwithstanding increased clear-
ance due to wear. AIthough apparently both crude and inefficient,
the simplicity and durability of this form of bearing have proved to
be among the outstanding features of merit in the gyratory crueher.
1roceedings.l VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 47
Gyratory crushers of the type shown in Fig. 8 held the field
for a considerable time, during which certain improvements were
made in the materials used for the wearing parts, as in the case
of jaw crushers. The liners for the crushing-basin, known as con-
caves, were originally made of chilled iron, and the crushing-cone was
a solid head in cast iron with a chilled crushing-face. These were
replaced by lighter concaves of manganese steel and a cone made up
of two parh, an outer shell or mantle of manganese steel and an
inner core or centre either of cast steel or cast iron. Cast steel was
also used for the gearing.
The demand for crushers with larger feed-openings, to take
Fig. 9.
CROSS SEOTION OF RUTTERS GYRATORY CRUSHER.
quarry-run stone as shot from the face and loaded by mechanical
shovels, led to a steady growth in the size of gyratory crushers, equal
to that of crushers of the jaw type. The feed-openings increased in
width from 36 inches to 54 inches, and in some instances to 60 inches.
SHORT-SHAFT GYRATORY CRUSHERS.
The excessive height of the long-shaft gyratory crusher, and more
especially the great amount of head-room required for the removal
of the main shaft, when repairs became necessary, favoured the
development of the short-shaft type of crusher.
Mr. R. H. Richards 1 mentions Mr. J ames W. Rutter, of St. Louis,
Missouri, as the probable inventor of the first true gyratory crusher.
Rutters ore-crusher (Fig. g), patented in 1869, consisted of a cone
R. H. Richer&. Ore Drewing, p. 45, vol. 1. New York and London, 1905.
48 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTlON OF [hfitlules of
attached to a square shaft working inside an open cylinder, with
a ball-and-socket joint supporting the upper end of the shaft and an
eccentric wheel rotating in the base-plate, which gyrated the spindle
carrying the crushing-head in a conical orbit about the true axis of
the machine. The crushed product in escaping had to fall through
the spaces in the spider carrying the fixed bearing for the eccentric
as well as through the arms of the gear-wheel, and these hindrances
to free discharge must have proved very undesirable in a breaker
of any size.
Fig. 10 shows the McCully short-shaft crusher, which was the first
Fig. 10.
CROSS SECTION OF THE MCCULLY SHORT-SHAFT CRUSHER.
machine of this design to compete seriously with the then-existing
types of gyratory crushers.
The body of the machine was reduced in height as far as
possible with a free-running discharge-shoot, and the eccentric was
made to revolve inside the chimney passing through the diaphragm-
plate, which was strengthened to withstand the crushing pressure
and further supported by bridge-pieces spanning the space above the
outlet. By raising the eccentric in this manner, the spindle was
considerably shortened, and the reduction in distance between the
supports increased the rigidity of shafts of equal diameter by about
55 per cent.
Proceedings.] VARIOUS mPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 49
About 1926, the Allis-Chalmers Company built two very powerful
60-inch gyratory crushers for the Chile Exploration Company. The
ore to be handled was exceptionally hard, and the machines were
made almost entirely of steel. The concave casing was in three
parts, the lower section consisting of a solid cast-steel ring weighing
57 tons, whilst the upper section, also of cast steel, was made in
halves, each half weighing 46 tons. The bottom shell was in two
parts, and weighed 88 tons. The main shaft was nearly 22 feet long,
and its weight, complete with oversize mantle, approximately 78 tons.
The total weight of the machine was about 500 tons. A 500-HP.
electric motor running at 200 revolutions per minute, was directly
connected to the crusher countershaft through a flexible coupling.
Fig. 11.
The Chile Exploration Company, to whom the Authors are indebted
for the following information, explain that the ore is first dumped
over a grizzley, and the proportion removed before crushing varies
from time to time. With both machines in operation they have
passed 4,900 tons through the plant in 1 hour, of which, as an
average, possibly one-third would not reach the crushers. The
product may be taken as 9 inches and under.
High-arch spiders, frequently made in cast steel, heat-treated main
shafts, cut steel gears, manganese-steel wearing parts, and improved
methods of lubrication, have added greatly to the merits of the
gyratory breaker as one of the most useful crushing-machines now
in service.
[THE INST. C.E. VOL. 239.1 4
Gyratory breakers may be used for crushing all kinds of material
for which a jaw breaker is considered suitable, with one or two rare
exceptions. So far as the gradation of the product is concerned, jaw
and gyratory crushers are similar, particularly when corrugated
mantles and concaves are fitted in the latter machines. Pig. l1
covers a fair range of tests, but for the coarser settings corrugated
wearing parts were fitted.
GEAR-DRIVEN CRUSHING ROLLS.
Records show that crushing rolls were introduced at the mines
in Cornwall in about 1806 : the machines proved so successful that
Figa. 12.
E L E V A T I O N .
CORNISH CRUSECINQ ROLLS.
they became widely used, the designation " Cornish rolls " being
used for many years to define this particular type. Figs. 12 illustrate
an early machine of this type. The rolls were usually from 18 to
30 inches in diameter, and from 14 to 20 inches wide. They were
driven at speeds varying from 5 to 15 r.p.m., the motive power
being frequently obtained from a water-wheel, through a train of
gears. The rolls were mounted on heavy shafts revolving in open
bearings, which were contained within strong cast-iron side frames.
The bearing-blocks were held down on their slides by square-section
rods, which served also to reinforce the end columns of the frames.
One of the rolls was positively driven through coupling-boxes, whilst
the other was usually revolved by frictional contact with the positive
roll. The primitive character of the arrangement for maintaining
pressure between the rolls is shown.
When machinery was introduced into the road-stone quarries,
in about 1895, for the preparation of macadam, the jaw breaker was
used for coarse crushing and heavy slowly-moving rolls were adopted
in some of the quarries for finishing the stone. A few of these
machines are in service to-day.
A number of mills of this type were constructed by Messrs.
Hadfields. For a granite quarry in the Channel Islands the rolls were
33 inches in diameter, and 36 inches long, both being positively driven
through " wobtler-boxes " and short " wobbler-shafts " coupled to a
train of powerful gears. The roll-frames and shafts were of cast steel,
and the bearings were adjusted to alter the setting by removing or
Fig. 13.
PERCENTAQE PASSI NG
TESTS ON GEAR-DRIVEN ROLLS FITFED WITH TOOTHED SHELLS.
inserting packing-shims between the frame-pillars and the bearing-
blocks. Manganese-steel roll-shells, having chequerboard-teeth,
were fitted to these rolls with the intention of repeating by mechanical
means the action of hand-hammers knapping the stone. Used in
the preparation of granite macadam, these rolls, running at 16 r.p.m.,
were fed with slabby pieces averaging 5 inches by 4 inches by 3#
inches, reducing these to pass a 24-inch mesh at the rate of from
40 to 50 tons per hour.
Rolls of a similar type to the foregoing, but of muoh larger size,
are used on the Continent in the crushing of limestone for the blast-
furnaces and lime-kilns.
52 MILLER AND SARJdNT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [lfinutes of
Geared rolls of suitable design will deal with a great variety of
materials. They are used for crushing natural products such as
green bones, oil shales, coal, and all kinds of rocks and ores. They
will also handle many artificial products such as glue, glass, car-
borundum, mattes, and the ferro-alloys. It is probable that no other
type of crushing machine is applicable to so wide a range of purposes
as gear-driven rolls in their many forms. Fig. 13 shows that with
properly designed toothed rolls the percentage of fines is reduced to
the minimum, and the proportions of the intermediate grades are
higher than those made by any other type of crusher.
BELT-DRIVEN CRUSHING ROLLS.
Driving the rolls through gearing was at first almost universal,
and this system is by no means obsolete. When toothed or cor-
rugated shells are used the rolls are frequently connected by equal
gears to ensure the correct meshing of the corrugations and spaces
on opposing rolls, and in some rare instances, where a differential
speed is required to give a tearing action on the material, the positive
rotation by gears is preferred to independent belt-drives.
As rolls came into use for finer crushing, it was found necessary
to run them faster to obtain any reasonable output. The greater
velocity increased the kinetic energy in the rolls, which was augmented
by fitting heavy belt-pulleys directly on to the roll-shafts, and
the drive was simplified by the elimination of gearing with a con-
sequent reduction in internal friction and wear. Mr. S. R. Krom was
a pioneer in the United States of this system of direct belt-driving
for crushing-rolls, and the machine illustrated in Fig. 14 was
recommended by him, about 1874, for the work of medium-fine
crushing.
The bearings for the fbed roll were bolted to a deep bed-plate,
whilst those for the adjustable roll formed part of two rocking-lever
arms hinged to the underframe and connected by strong tie-bolts
to spring-batteries buttressed on extensions of the rigid bearings.
One feature in these rolls, which was applied at a later date to a good
many machines of the same type, requires some explanation, and
that is the practice of fitting one roll with a large pulley and the other
with a pulley of much smaller dimensions. The large pulley, capable
of transmitting the whole of the power required by the rolls, is keyed
on the fixed-roll shaft, whilst the pulley on the movable roll is made
of sufficient size to keep the roll revolving positively in the intervals
between crushing. The rolls are driven at nominally equal speeds,
and, should any differential movement arise: t,he tractive effort of
the larger pulley, transmitted by friction through the material to the
movable roll, is sufficient to overcome all irregularities and to main-
tain equal velocities.
As rolls became more generally used for fine crushing, some of the
operating difficulties were emphasized and the design of the machine
was modified in certain details to overcome them. When the
roll-faces were not matching properly, due to improper alignment,
flanges were formed on the overlapping edges which were a serious
impediment when the spacing had to be changed to compensate for
wear. There was always a tendency for the outermost edges of the
rolls to wear less than the body of the shells. Positive lateral
displacement of one or both rolls, by means of adjustable thrust-
collars, was introduced to minimize these flanging troubles.
Fig. 14.
BELT-DRIVEN CRUSRINQ ROLLS.
[KROM.]
Where rolls are fitted with springs to relieve overstrain, the passage
of any material of unusual hardness causes the movable-roll shaft to
swing out of parallel with the main shaft, and seriously disturbs
the alignment of the bearings, creating one-sided strains dangerous
to the machine. As the spring-pressures and journal-sizes were
increased to meet more arduous working conditions, this tendency
became more pronounced, and swivel bearings were introduced to
allow freedom for irregular movement.
Continual advances in the size of the rolls and their operating
speed necessitated great increases in spring-pressures to meet the
shocks and impacts inseparable from high velocities and choke-
crushing. I n the early days of spring-rolls, for fine crushing 4,000 lbs.
per inch width of face was considered perfectly satisfactory ; as time
54 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [Minutesof
went on and the rolls increased in diameter, this figure grew to
12,000 lbs. per inch, and, in modern machines with rolls 5 or 6 feet
in diameter, the pressure now reaches 30,000 lbs. per inch, and this
limit has in some instances been exceeded.
With the increase in strength of the springs, the defects in the
single tie-rod system for transmitting the pressure to the bearings
for the movable roll became more pronounced, and led to the re-
introduction of the double tie-bar type, notwithstanding the draw-
backs inherent in this form of construction.
Among the later examples of high-speed crushing machines, the
rolls illustrated in Figs. 15, built by the Traylor Engineering and
Manufacturing Company, are among the largest of their class. These
rolls measure 78 inches in diameter by 24 inches in width, and the
shells are 9 inches thick weighing 13,250 lbs. each. The four tension-
rods are 74 inches in diameter, and the spring-pressure 15 tons per
inch width of face. The pulleys are 10 feet in diameter and
21 inches wide, with flywheel-rims and steel-plate centres, the shafts
being fitted with equal pulleys and driven by separate motors. In
one plant, the motors are each of 225 HP. The bearings are of the
solid self-aligning type and are fitted with dust-excluding devices,
the shafts being 214 inches in diameter at the journals and 22 inches
in the body. When running at 110 r.p.m., these rolls are capable of
reducing 14-inch stone to a finished size of Q inch and under at the
rate of 400 to 500 tons per hour.
Belt-driven rolls usually, but not invariably, have smooth shells,
and are more suitable for the work of h e crushing than geared rolls.
With the exception of the Edison type mentioned below, they
are specially suited for secondary-reduction processes, and may
even, in extreme cases, be set to give a product passing 20 mesh.
They will handle any hard or soft material from the artificial
abrasive8 or natural emery to those with the consistency of burnt
lime.
The gradation of the product from belt-driven rolls may be
affected by several extraneous factors. If a proportion of the feed
is too large to be gripped immediately by the rolls, excess hes are
made by attrition. A high ratio of reduction can also cause an
abnormal amount of fines by " packing " and high internal friction
in the final crushing-stage. Given free crushing, well within the
capacity of the rolls, the actual character of the material does not
seem seriously to affect the results obtained so long as i t is homo-
geneous. P%. 16 gives a few test-records taken at random.
Reference to belt-driven rolls would be incomplete without
mention of the series of coarse-crushing machines of this type intro-
duced by Mr. Thomas A. Edison, about 1894, when large jaw and
gyratory crushers were still in their infancy, and the steam-shovel
was just entering into use for mine and quarry work.
Mr. Edison designed a primary crusher consisting of a pair of large
rolls, the crushing surfaces being made in the form of a series of
plates covered with knobs or projections to assist in breaking up the
material. This set of rolls would crush larger pieces of stone than the
jaw breakers then available, but when an extra large stone was
dumped into the hopper it would ride about instead of being gripped.
To overcome this, two rows of knobs, set diametrically opposite,
were lengthened to project about 2 inches above the normal teeth on
one of the rolls. These " slugger " teeth were placed in this way in
order to strike a succession of heavy blows on the larger pieces of
rock, so as to break them down to a size within the angle of nip of the
normal roll-surfaces.
Rolls of this type, with certain improvements in the design of the
hearings, and some modification in the construction of the rollers,
Fig. 16.
TESTS ON BELT-DRIVEN ROLLS FITTED WITH SMOOTH SHELLS.
have found a special field of service in this country in dealing with
some of the ironstones that are particularly troublesome to handle
in jaw or gyratory crushers. Messrs. Hadfields have built a series of
machines for this particular duty, the largest including a pair of rolls 6
feet in diameter and 5 feet wide, Each roll comprises an outer shellin
the form of a casting of high-grade steel, which is machined internally
to fit on a heavy cast-iron centre made up of four sections, two of
which are pressed on to the roll-shaft, while the other two rings are
secured by through-bolts to wedge the outer shell in place. Each
roll-shaft is supported by two bearing-blocks, the bearing proper
consisting of a circular flanged bush made of cast iron and lined with
babbitt metal. Thrust-rings are formed in one end of each shaft,
and a babbitted thrust-collar, made in halves, is secured to two of the
main bearings. The two blocks on each side-frame are tied together
by through-bolts above and below the shafts. A packing-block
Prooeedings.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. b7
partly fills the space between the bearings, and strips of wood are
inserted to make up the distance to the required dimension. Force-
pump lubrication circulates an ample flow of oil through all the
bearings. The rolls revolve at speeds varying from 160 to 200 r.p.m.,
and each roll is driven by a separate motor of 200 HP. Crushing
ironstone in blocks up to 4 feet 6 inches square by 3 feet thick, these
rolls are capable of an output of 500 tons per hour with a product
approximately of &inch size and downwards. Typical grading-tests
are given in Pig. 17.
DISK CRUSHERS.
The outstanding feature of the disk crushers is the utilization of
Fig. 17.
TESTS ON HIGH-SPEED SLEDGING ROLLS.
centrifugal force as a means of spreading the material quickly and
evenly over the crushing face.
The crushing faces, in one series of these machines, take the form
of a pair of saucer-shaped disks revolving at equal speed in the same
direction, one disk travelling in a fixed plane while the other advances
and recedes under the influence of a series of crushing-waves or
impulses.
The machines are constructed of two distinct types, which may be
classified under the heading8 of " horizontal disk " and " vertical
disk '' crushers, these terms having reference to the situation of the
axis of the machine and not to the position of the disk. In the
horizontal disk crusher the axis of the main shaft is horizontal whilst
the disks are vertical, and in the vertical machine these conditions are
reversed.
Pig. 18 shows the disk crusher in its original form, as introduced
about 1908. A hollow shaft was supported in two bearings carried
on a frame or bed-plate. One end of this main shaft was enlarged to
form the cup-shaped seating for a semi-spherical bearing pressed on
a taper-shaft free to move independently within the bore of the
hollow shaft. The outer disk, with a central hole to permit of
entry of the material to be crushed, was attached to a circular
back-plate connected by distance pieces to an angle-ring with internal
threads corresponding with the screw formed on the outside diameter
Fig. 18.
A m t
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HORIZONTAL DISK CRUSHER [ORIGINAL FORM].
of the flange on the hollow shaft. The inner disk was secured by a
large countersunk set-screw to the inner shaft and spherical bearing,
and the inner shaft was lengthened to project through the hollow
shaft at the opposite end to the disk. I n this form of disk crusher
the sleeve on the end of the inner shaft was supported in an adjustable
bearing, in which it was free to rotate, and by means of which the
inner shaft could be set at a variable angle to the axis of the hollow
shaft. The hollow shaft was rotated by means of a central belt-
pulley, causing the outer disk to revolve in a vertical plane, and the
friction of the ball-and-socket bearing, supplemented by the wedging
action of the material contained within the crushing cavity, caused
the inner shaft and disk to revolve at the same speed and in the
same direction. Due to the inclination of the inner shaft, the
crushing face of the inner disk remained at a constant angle with the
face of the outer disk, giving a variable aperture with the minimum
opening in a fixed position in line with the eccentricity of the bearing
for the sleeve.
Material entering the space between the disks was gripped at tLe
point of maximum opening and carried round by and with the disks to
the nipping point, being subjected to a crushing stroke for one half,
and a freeing stroke for the other half, of each revolution. As the
machine only gave one crushing stroke per revolution, it was necessary
to run the hollow shaft at a relatively high speed, and the bearings
for the main shaft were water-cooled and force-pump lubricated.
Pig. 19 illustrates the improved design of horizontal disk crusher
in which an important change was made in the method of applying
the crushing force to the inner disk. An extension piece was bolted
to the end of the main frame, and a pulley with an eccentric boss was
Fig. 19.
LONGITUDIXAL SECTION OF HORIZONTAL DISK CRUSHER [IMPROVED
DESIGX].
fitted over the sleeve on the outer end of the inner shaft ; the pulley-
boss was supported by the bearing attached to the frame. The
lock-nut at the end of the inner shaft was provided with a flange
projecting beyond the end of the sleeve and partly covering the end
of the pulley. This eccentric pulley w-as not attached to the inner
shaft in any way, and any circular movement of the pulley caused
the shaft to gyrate without rotation. When the eccentric pulley
was made to revolve in the opposite direction to the main-shaft
pulley the number of crushing strokes was equal to the revolutions
of both pulleys added together. With this form of construction it
was possible to reduce the speed of the main shaft, and with it the
revolutions of the disks, to the limit imposed by the centrifugal force
necessary to give perfect spreading of the material between the
crushing-faces. Without impairing the crushing-efficiency, this
reduction in speed made water-cooled bearings superfiuous, and the
machine was therefore simplified by their removal.
The horizontal disk crusher is essentially a secondary breaker, the
largest machines of this type taking a feed of up to approximately
7-inch cubes and reducing this to 14 inches or more, whilst the smallest
unit takes a feed of about 12 inch in size and gives a product as fine as
+inch and under. They will crush the hardest grades of ore, and
their centrifugal action is of value in dealing with moist or slippery
substances that require something more positive than a gravity-flow
Pig. 20.
NPe 1.7.8 and 9 on Quartzite. NP8 on Basalt.
* --W?* 2.5 and 6 on ffmnite. NP4 on AnhydRte.-
PERCENTAGE PASSI NG.
REPRESENTATIVE TESTS ON HORIZONTAL DISK CRUSHERS.
to make them pass freely through the crushing-cavity. A com-
prehensive series of tests on various grades of rock is given in Fig. 20.
The vertical disk crusher was originally intended as a large-
capacity unit for finer reduction than was possible with the lerer-
type machines.
Fig. 21 shows this crusher in its latest form. The upper disk was
dished to give the tapering cavity, while the lower or floating disk was
made flat. The crushing-surface of the upper disk was also flattened
at the periphery for a radial distance of about 49 inches on an outside
diameter of 48 inches. This construction made the exit-opening
approximately parallel for the distance indicated so that a piece of
ore, broken near the outer circumference of the tapering cavity, would
have to travel outwards for a distance of at least 5 inches before it
could escape from the disks, and, during that interval, the dish
would have time to close again and subject the particle to another
crushing stroke.
The maximum size of the finished product from the horizontal
disk crusher is determined by the greatest outlet-opening between
the disks at the end of the withdrawing stroke, but, in the vertical
crusher, by reason of the special construction described above, the
maximum size of the product was regulated by the minimum aperture
between the disks, and it was therefore possible to obtain a finer
product without setting the disks too close to each other.
CROSS SECTION OF VERTICAL DISK CRUSHER.
The euperst,ructure carrying the upper disk and spring-cushion
was bolted to the outer flange of the rotating table supporting
the ball-wedge and lower disk. This table was made with a tubular
boss with a babbitted lining forming a bearing outside the centre
stem rising from the base-plate of the crusher, and, in the very early
machines, the entire weight of the revolving parts was taken on ball
thrust-washers placed directly under this boss. This method of
supporting the revolving mass did not prove adequate in practice,
and the design was revised to include a roller-track, of a diameter
practically equal to that of the disks, placed immediately below the
revolving table. Among the latest changes shown in Pi3. 21 this
roller-cage is replaced by a multiple ball-race of special design.
In this machine there were two independent systems of gearing,
both driven from the common countershaft. The smaller bevel-
pinion, close to the outer bearing, engaged with a large gear-ring
attached to the flange on the rotating table, and this imparted a
turning movement to the disks to ensure sufficient centrifugal action
to spread the material evenly between them. The second pair of
bevels connected the countershaft with the eccentric, and caused this
to rotate at a much higher rate, and in the opposite direction to the
table. The sideways displacement of the spherical head of the wedge
caused the anvil-plate containing the lower disk to lie at an angle to
the horizontal, and the rotary eccentric motion imparted to the disk
a series of circular undulatory movements that were free from any
turning effort. The crushing movements were therefore identical
with those in the horizontal disk crusher, the disks revolving together
in the same direction and at the same speed.
Fig. 22.
PERCENTAGE PA SSI NG.
TESTS ON THREE VEBTICAL DISK CRUSHESS.
These vertical disk crushers have been used in some of the largest
plants dealing with copper ores, and practically all of them have been
made of one size, namely, with disks 48 inches in diameter. A
limited number of machines with 36-inch diameter disks have also
been put into service.
Changes in design to meet extremely arduous conditions include the
substitution of cast steel for cast iron for all the essential castings.
Bronze has replaced most of the babbitt linings for the bearings, and
the gears are machined from rolled- or forged-steel blanks. The
disks and other wearing parts in actual contact with the stones are
always made of manganese steel.
Fig. 22 shows the grading obtained in three typical tests on
48-inch and 36-inch vertical disk crushers.
Disk crushers are particularly serviceable for the intermediate
processes in phnts of moderate capacity ; the number of sizes in the
horizontal machines is adequate to cover a wide range of outputs,
and, within specified limits, the size of the finished product can be
readily adjusted and maintained until the disks are completely
worn out. The horizontal machines are made in this country by
Messrs. Hadfields, Limited, and the vertical crushers by Messrs.
Sandycroft, Limited.
~I NGLE-ROLL BREAKERS.
Roller-and-breast mills have been used for many years for reducing
grains, beans, and similar friable materials, and attempts were made
to apply the same principle to the crushing of stone, when, as far
Fig. 23.
v
bos s SECTION OB SINGLE-ROLL CRUSHER.
back as 1864, Mr. A. Thomas obtained a British patent for the
machine illustrated in Pig. 23 for crushing stone.
The roller-and-breast mill, or single-roll crusher, became a very
useful machine for the crushing of coal. For many years, double-
roller mills with toothed rolls had been used for this duty, but it
was found that, when the teeth were reduced in size to give a re-
latively fine product, the rolls would not properly grip the large
lumps. The concave breaker-plate in the single-roll crusher acted
in conjunction with the roll to make a wedge-shaped opening with a
small included angle, so that this machine would grip much larger
lumps than the two-roller mill.
Pig. 24 illustrates a single-roll coal-crusher, which consists of a
crushing-roll and a breaker-plate mounted in a cast-iron frame.
64 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [nlinutes of
The breaker-plate is hinged at its upper end, and is held in position
by a pair of adjusting-rods threaded on a pin passing through its
lower end. These tension-rods are carried through the end of the
frame, and springs are fitted between the nuts and the bed-plate.
Coal is frequently contaminated by pyrites and shale, and the
working parts of the machine had to be strengthened to meet such
conditions. I n the larger crushers the breaker-plate is usually made
of cast steel. The toothed segmental wearing-plates covering the roll
are made of manganese steel, as is the renewable shoe at the bottom
end of the breaker-plate. Steel gearing is also standard.
Concurrently with the development of the single-roll machine
as a coal-crusher, it was being slowly adapted in America for the
crushing of slippery or weathered materials, such as phosphate rock,
gypsum, the friable iron-ores, and limestone rocks coated with clay.
Fig. 24.
CROSS SECTION OF SINQLE-ROLL COAL-CRUSHER.
Fig. 25 shows the single-roll crusher in its most highly developed
form, as made by the Allis-Chalmers Company for the crushing of
limestone for fluxing purposes. The framework was made of two
cast-iron side pieces of heavy box-section in which were incorporated
the bearings for the roller and countershaft and the pivot-bearings
for the hinged anvil-plate or jawstock. The tensile stresses imposed
on the side-frames when crushing large pieces of rock were taken by
two upper tension-bolts, which tied the pivot-bearings to the main
bearings for the roll-shaft. The lower end of the breaker-plate was
supported on a cross-bar secured by two pairs of diagonal tie-bolts,
which passed through internal cavities in the frame-castings and were
continued through double washer-plates enclosing nests of powerful
springs, the latter being introduced as a measure of safety against
accident due to a piece of steel or other uncrushable material passing
between the roll and the anvil-plate. The roller was 60 inches in
diameter by 84 inches long. The roll was built up of a cast-iron
centre, to which was keyed a cast-steel shell with inserted teeth of
manganese steel. The crusher weighed 225 tons and was belt-
driven by a 250-B.HP. motor to give a speed of 23 r.p.m. to the
crushing-roll. The feed-size reached a maximum of 4 feet by 7 feet
and the crusher, when adjusted for a 7-inch product, gave an output
of 700 tons per hour.
AS previously stated, the single-roll crusher, as a stone-breaker, is
suitable for dealing with rocks coated or mixed wit,h clay, or for
substances the outer surfaces of which decompose under the weather,
and, so
long as the material to be crushed is not harder than
Fig. 25.
CROSS SECTION OF ALLIS-CEALYERS SINQLE-ROLL CRUSHER.
moderately hard limestone, and does not contain a high percentage
of silica, it will handle effectively a number of earthy or shaley
substances that cannot be crushed with certainty in any of the
reciprocating breakers.
SWING-HAMMER CRUSHERS.
There are many types of impact pulverizers, some with revolving
cages, some with paddles, some with fixed beaters in circular
rotors, and others with loose or pivoted hammers as the striking
media.
The name of Mr. Milton P. Williams is inseparably associated
with the development of this machine, and one of his early patents
[THE INST. C.E. VOL. 239.1 5
66 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [Bfinutes of
is illustrated in P@. 26. This design appeared in 1895, but it had
many features in common with the swing-hammer crushers of to-day.
The multiple hammers, made from narrow rectangular bars, were
pivoted on pins passing through holes in a series of disks mounted
on the main shaft, which was carried in bearings supported on a
timber framework. A series of bars, passing through slots in the
lower walls of the chamber, were arranged as a grating to span the
opening in the base, the spaces coinciding with the paths of the
hammers, whilst the bars were in line with the separating disks in
the rotor. The material to be crushed entered the chamber through
the feed-spout, lodged on or across the grate-bars, and was struck
by the descending flail-like hammers until it was fine enough to
pass the openings and escape to the outlet. As the screen-slots
Fig. 26.
CROSS SECTION OB WILLIAMSS CRUSHER.
had to be of considerable length to leave clear tracks for the hammers,
the bars could not be strengthened by cross bearers, and were liable
to get bent by material wedging in the apertures.
Several methods of feeding were adopted for this type of crusher.
Sometimes the material was made to slide under the descending
hammers ; with others it fell directly on to the ascending hammers.
I n some instances the preliminary blows were struck by the descend-
ing hammers on a stream falling vertically, whilst in others the stone
fell immediately on top of the rotating drum. There appears to be
a definite relationship between the method of feeding, the internal
shape of the chamber, and the system adopted for absorbing the
energy of the hammers.
F,ig. 27 illustrates a type of swing-hammer crusher introduced
in France and England about 1904, and now made by the Patent
Proceedingrr.] VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND OBE. 67
Lightning Crusher Company. This machine was fitted with U-shaped
or " stirrup " hammers instead of rows of multiple bars with
narrow striking faces. The length of each hammer-head was
approximately equal to the width inside the chamber. The rect-
angular shape of the upper half of the casing allowed ample
clearance space above the path of the rotor, and the material was
lifted by the hammers and dashed against the roof-plate, from which
i t rebounded to be driven again and again to the breaker-plates
until i t passed into the lower part of the chamber. By adjusting the
speed i t is also possible to work the machine without grid-bars,
which gives a greater output with reduced maintenance charges.
Although the cage-bars are omitted in rare instances, they are
usually retained when a fine product is required, to effect a secondary
reduction of the material after the preliminary crushing on the
Fig. 27.
CROSS SECTION OF SWINO-HAMMER CRUSHER.
breaker-plate or in the upper part of the chamber. This second
crushing process may be completed in the lower half of the chamber,
or the oversize material may be driven round and re-broken by
impact against the roof-plates, so that both large and small particles
are subjected to the same shattering action.
As in the case of jaw and gyratory rock-breakers, swing-hammer
crushers have gradually been adapted to take larger feed-sizes, and
give greater outputs.
Fig. 28 shows the construction adopted by the Pennsylvania
Crusher Company for their steel-frame hammer-mill suitable for
taking large blocks of limestone and reducing them to a small product
in a single operation. The frame is built of heavy steel plates strongly
riveted together to withstand the severity of the shocks from the
primary crushing. The framework for supporting the grid-bars
and the backing-plates are made of cast steel. The rotor-shaft
68 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [Minutes Of
and disks are of alloy steels, and the hammers and grid-bars of
manganese steel.
On many kinds of rocks the blows of the heavy hammers seem to
cause the larger lumps to explode into a multitude of smaller frag-
ments. Reduction, except on a relatively small portion of feed,
is not a gradual process, but immediate and complete. The result
of this explosive action is a material containing a high proportion of
powder, making it difficult to estimate beforehand the character and
gradation of the product.
Although the field of service of swing-hammer crushers is usually
limited to the breaking down of the less abrasive materials such as
limestone, shale, phosphates, gypsum, barytes, and asbestos rocks,
Pig. 28.
CROSS SECTION OF STEEL-FRAME CRUSHER.
they have been found to work well on some of the harder stones and
ores.
SPECIAL GYRATORY MACHINES FOR SECONDARY CRUSHING.
The outstanding feature of more recent developments in crushers
has been the improvements made in gyratory machines for secondary
crushing, including certain radical changes in constructional details,
and the introduction of new principles of operation. The crusher-
makers soon realized that a fine product necessitated a short stroke
at the outlet-point. They also found that, when the movement at
the bottom of the cone was restricted, the cone must be shorter than
standard. A series of short-head gyratory crushers, based on the
standard designs of coarse breakers, were only moderately successful,
as they were very liable to choking and packing near the point of
exit. They were ultimately replaced by machines mostly of the
short-shaft type, as shown by the McCully design in Fig. 29. The
concaves were vertical, and the head was made with a wide flare to
give the greatest possible diameter at the bottom of the cone and SO
increase the area of the outlet. They were also speeded up to run
faster than the coarse crushers in order to overcome, as far as
practicable, the restriction in output brought about by the reduction
in the width of aperture at the sizing-point.
It was known that, when the lower part of the crushing-zone was
made practically parallel for a given length, and the number of
crushing strokes increased beyond a certain limit, the time taken
up by each crushing stroke was less than that occupied by the material
Fig. 29.
CROSS SECTION OF THE MCCULLY FINE-REDUCTIOX GYRATORY CRUSHER.
in passing through the sizing-zone. Under these conditions it was
possible to ensure that, instead of the size of product being limited
by the width of aperture on the open side of the head, its thickness
could be determined by the minimum aperture on the closed side
at the completion of the crushing stroke. This principle of crushing
was not entirely new ; it had been applied to some of the roll-jaw
crushers, and was used in vertical disk crushers, and it was thought,
at one time, that it would enable reciprocating machines to replace
rolls entirely.
The Newhouse crusher (Pig. 30), built under licence in this country
by Messrs. Edgar Allen B: Company, Limited, of Sheffield, is a good
example of the application of high-speed reduction with an approxi-
mately parallel sizing-zone. The eccentric in this machine is situated
close under the head, and is direct-driven from the electric motor with-
out the intervention of gearing. The number of crushing strokes per
minute is about four times as great as in the ordinary coarse-crushing
gyratory. The main shaft is suspended from the spider in the
orthodox manner, but the shaft is bored hollow, which not only helps
to relieve any internal strain, but also provides a passageway for the
driving-shaft from the motor, situated directly above the spider, to
the driver-plate on the eccentric. The concaves are reversible, and
are so shaped that the crushing-angle changes in three progressive
steps until, in the lowest stage, the lines of the head and concave
are nearly parallel. This machine has a heat-treated main shaft,
Pig. 30.
Caoss SEOTION OF NEWHOUSE CRUSHER.
a high-carbon-steel coupling-shaft, and is usually fitted with mantle
and concaves of manganese steel. Fig. 31 gives a few typical sizing
tests.
In any breaker with rigid crushing members, there is always a
danger that work may be impeded by stoppage due to the presence
of unbreakable substances in the feed. Should nothing worse
occur, a piece of metal may have to be cut or burnt away before the
crusher can be restarted. This danger increases rapidly as the outlet
setting is reduced to obtain the finer products, and, from the very
earliest days of he-crushing gyratories, efforts have been made to
introduce springs or other yielding appliances to overcome this
trouble.
Prooeedings.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 71
The Kennedy gearless fine-crusher (Fig. 32) shows how the neces-
sary flexibility has been provided in one case, in the breaker made,
in England, by the Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company. This is a
Fig. 31.
CROSS SECTION ox KENNEDY FINE-CRUSHER.
machine of the long-shaft type. It incorporates two special features
peculiar to this range of crushers. The inner bushing has a ball-and-
socket connection to the eccentric sleeve, and there are no bevel-
gears, a pulley hcing coupled to the eccentric for direct drive by 3
twisted belt.
This breaker is also of interest because its designers were among
the first of the gyratory-crusher builders to realize the advantage
obtained by a progressive reduction in the crushing-angle as the
material spreads out under the influence of the crushing strokes.
The main shaft is extended for some distance above the spider-
bushing, and a battery of spiral springs is inserted between the sus-
pension-nut and the top of the sleeve, which bears on the ledge in
the bore of the spider. When any piece of metal enters the space
between the cone and the concaves the springs are further compressed,
and the head and shaft move downwards to enlarge the gap sufficiently
Fig. 33.
TESTS ON KENNEDY FINE-CRUSHER.
for the obstruction to pass with safety. Fig. 33 gives the proportions
of the various screen-sizes as obtained from four selected tests made
in one of the smaller crushers.
The cone crusher (Fi g. 34) has proved to be very successful as a
secondary breaker, and is remarkable for certain radical departures
from the normal principles of gyratory-crusher operation.
I n other gyratory machines the crushing process comprises reduc-
tion by pressure between two confining faces, and a subsequent
freeing movement during which the material settles by gravity
nntil it is caught and subjected to further pressure and again released.
I n the normal gyratory the crushing stroke or travel of the head has
usually an important bearing on the size of the finished product.
The movement of the head in the cone crusher is similar to that in
the ordinary gyratory with the exception that, towards the bottom
of the cone, it travels through a much greater distance and gyrates
faster. This long movement lower down the cone changes the
crushing stroke from pressure to impact, and the increased clearance
on the freeing stroke allows the stone to fall away vertically after
each impact, the extent of the travel down the cone during the
drawback stroke being controlled by the speed of gyration. The
wide gap at the end of the opening movement permits the stone to
move freely for the greater part of the time occupied in passing
through the crushing-zone. The periods of confinement are therefore
limited. The angle between the faces of the bowl-liner and the cone
decreases gradually, and these faces are parallel near the outlet
for a sufficient distance to ensure that the head must make one com-
Fig. 34.
CROSS SECTION OF CONE CRUSHER.
plete gyration before the material can pass through this sizing-zone,
which again means that it is the opening on the closed side of the
crushing-head that regulates one dimension of the product. The
length of the crushing stroke has therefore no direct bearing on the
size of product.
The machine departs from the usual design in that there is no
upper bearing for the gyratory shaft and no spider to bridge over the
feed-opening. The head is supported in a part-spherical seating, and
the tapering main shaft is actuated by an exceptionally long eccentric.
The crushing-bowl, inverted over the cone and screw-threaded to
permit of vertical adjustment inside a clamping ring, is held down to
the body by a series of powerful springs that allow the bowl to rise
the full movement of the head when tramp-iron or other un-
crushable material enters the crushing-cavity.
With this machine the rate of feed should be carefully contiolled,
and the material should be evenly distributed round the circum-
ference if regular and even wear is to be obtained : a feed-distributing
and regulating plate is therefore mounted on top of the main shaft,.
with a vertically-adjustable spout above it.
This machine was designed to obtain full advantage from con-
structional materials of the highest grade. Main frame, bowl,
adjustment-ring, and ball-thrust-bearings are all of cast steel. The
gears are also of steel with machine-cut teeth. The mantle and bowl-
Fig. 35.
PERCENTAGE PASSING.
TYPICAL TESTS ON CONE CRUSHERS.
liner are of manganese steel. F+. 35 gives a series of representative
grading tests, for which the Authors are indebted to the Nordberg
Manufacturing Company.
ALLOY AND OTHER STEELS USED IN CRUSHERS.
Manganese steel is mainly used for crushing-faces and other parts
in actual contact with the stone. This alloy owes its pre-eminence
to the property of work-hardening on its wearing face under the
effects of pressure to a greater extent than any other metal ; i t also
possesses exceptional tenacity and ductility. Although it can only
be machined with difficulty, it is not essentially a hard material ;
in its treated condition it is very ductile and tends to spread or
burr over under any excessive hammering or squeezing action.
Hardening of a manganese-steel working-face can only take place
when crushing is accompanied by a certain intensity of hammering
or pressure. When the material is abrasive but friable, the pressures
developed may be insufficient to cause appreciable work-hardening,
and rapid wear, under apparently easy conditions, should not always
be taken as reflecting on the quality of the steel. Manganese-steel
castings rarely exceed 5 inches in thickness, and, to obtain full value
from the water-treatment, they are better kept within these limits.
Chromium steel is often used for large forged roll-shells as it is
comparatively easily machined. To forestall the effects of the tem-
perature rise that occurs under the severe working conditions, these
shells have to be heated up when they are being fixed in position.
I n extreme cases the rings may be 9 inches thick and they should
continue in service until they are worn down to approximately 1 inch
in thickness. Unless the plant has special facilities for machining
the parts, roll-shells should always be made of chromium or high-
carbon steel where it is found necessary to machine their surfaces
at frequent intervals to maintain their true alignment. Chromium
steel is greatly improved by proper heat-treatment and its value
is thereby greatly increased. These valuable properties may be
destroyed by careless handling before being put into service.
Heat-treated steels are also of considerable advantage in those
cases where crusher-shafts are liable to fatigue under constant
reversals of stress. I n some of the latest high-speed crushers the
main shafts are of nickel steel suitably treated.
Crusher-frames and parts not subjected to direct abrasion are
usually made from a good grade of carbon steel. Careful attention
during the annealing process is of great value in enhancing shock-
resisting properties.
PART I I .4HARACTERI STI CS OF ROCKS AS AFFECTING
ABRASION I N CRUSHING MACHINERY.
INTRODUCTION.
This section of the Paper deals with the abrasive character of rocks
affecting crushing machinery. The investigation has followed two
courses, firstly, an analysis of the existing data relating to the testing
of road-making stones from its bearing on the abrasive wear of
crusher-parts, and secondly, an experimental investigation into the
correlation of abrasive wear as encountered in practice, and the
physical and petrological characters of rocks.
COMPARISON OF THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND ROCK WHICH
IKFLUENCE WEAR.
In the case of metals the property required to produce resistance
to wear is a combination of hardness and toughness in the maximum
practical development. In the materials crushed, the greatest
resist,ance to disintegration is given by the rock with the optimum
combination of these same properties. I n the case of metals the
kind of hardness manifested varies according to the form of stress
to which the metal is subjected, and is generally referred to in terms
of some distinctive method of determination, either elastic (sclero-
scope) or deformation (Brinell, etc.). Mineralogical hardness,
applicable to the constituents of rocks, on the other hand, is regarded
as the resistance offered by a smooth surface to abrasion. It is
measured by a scratch test in which particles of the softer substance
are torn away by the harder. An ordinary diamond hardness-test
as applicable to metals does not give a measurable impression with
rocks, but merely causes shattering of the neighbouring brittle
crystalline material. Accordingly the most satisfactory means of
expressing hardness, namely by a complete stress-strain curve, is
not applicable to rocks.
Hardness as determined in the testing of road-making stones,
is measured by the Dorry machine, in which the material to be tested
is pressed against a rotating steel disk, an abrasive, quartz, being fed
on to the disk. The test is generally known as the abrasive test,
but its interpretation as such must be entirely confined to the problem
of road-service. It does not define sufficiently the abrasive character
of stone in relation to wear of metal parts in crushing-machinery.
The diamond-scratch test for the determination of tEe hardness
of rocks was found to be imprac,ticable. The width of the scratch
in rocks was found to vary with the orientation of the crystals, the
grain-size, the degree of decomposition and the state of finish of the
surface, although a perfectly satisfactory relationship could be traced
between the minerals of Mohs scale and the width of the scratch.
The machine used was one previously employed by Sir Robert
Hadfield, Bart., M. Inst. C.E., and Mr. S. A. Main in researches on the
hardness of metals.1
Toughness in metals is deduced from the tensile strength, the
elastic limit, and the ductility. Toughness may also be defined as
Sir Hobert Hadtield and 8. A. Main, Brinell and Scratch Tests for Steel.
Proc. I. Mech. E., 1919, p. 581; and Sir Robert Hadfield. Memorandum on
Hardness, Appendix 11. Report of the Hardness Test Research Com-
mittee. Proc. I. Mech. E., 1916, p. 707.
Iroceeding8.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE , ~ ND ORE. 77
the total energy per unit volume that can be absorbed up to rupture,
and is giren by the area of the entire stress-strain diagram. Man-
ganese steel (11-13 per cent.) has been proved from extensive prac-
tical experience to give extreme durability in many classes of operation
where resistance to abrasive wear is required. It has, as an out-
standing characteristic, a high degree of toughness combined with an
acquired hardness produced by deformation. It also has considerable
resistance to impact.
I n the case of rocks, toughness is determined solely by impact.
The machine used was devised by Mr. L. W. Page, and is built on the
pile-driver principle. A standard weight is dropped from succ,essive
heights on to a test-piece carried on a block of standard inertia.
The height in centimetres of the blow causing rupture of the test-
piece represents the toughness of the specimen.
MECHANISM OF ABRASION.
I n crushing, the abrasion occurs chiefly as direct rubbing under
the interposition of an abrasive in the form of free particles, either
of the metal or the rock, chiefly the latter. It becomes complicated
by variations of physical properties, dimensions and distribution
of the free abrasive agent. on the wearing surface of the metal. The
principal factor affecting durability is the surface-pressure exerted.
In certain cases this may be favourable to the metal, as, for instance,
in the case of manganese steel. In an investigation of abrasion of
metals, Mr. Main has shown the importance of acquired hardness
by work-hardening in abrasive wear.1 Without work-hardening,
metals can only tend to show the resistance to abrasion which is
commensurate with the influence of the initial hardness.
Generally, the wear of metals in this connection depends primarily
upon the character of the abrasion, and particularly upon the nature
and distribution of the free abrasive. Other significant factors are
speed of relative motion, cont,act-prcssure, temperature, time and
surface-conditions.
No successful method has been developed of testing materials for
use in crushing machinery. Most methods that have been tried
have produced a condition of excessive abrasion, and have not repro-
duced the work-hardening conditions usually met with in rock-
crushers. Results have accordingly not been consistent with those
encountered in the crushing of the rock in the quarry or mine.
But accurate field records are seldom available. I n many instal-
1 s. A. Main, Resistance to Abrasion in Relation to Hardness, Proo.
I. Mech.E., 1931, p. 623.
lations crushing is done in two or more stages, and intermediate
screens are used for taking out sizeable materials, thus relieving the
crusher of unnecessary work. Also the plants are often worked in
closed circuit, and the oversize automatically returned to the crushers.
Under such conditions, the only reliable figures of tonnage are
obtained from the input to the primary breaker. The amount pass-
ing to the other machines varies with the setting and size of feed.
ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DATA RELATING TO ROAD-MAKING STONES.
The Authors have correlated the physical and petrological data
available with their practical experience of abrasive wear in crushing
machinery. ThroughDr. BernardSmith and the lateDr. H. H. Thomas,
of H.M. Geological Survey, they have been able to obtain additional
petrological data relating to some of the published mechanical tests.
The conclusions from this analysis coniirm the results of the ex-
perimental data. In general, only those tests have been included
which from experience can be regarded as germane to the subject,
namely the direct crushing test, Page impact, Dorry abrasion and
dr y attrition (Deval and Lovegrove) tests. The Lovegrove attrition
testing apparat.us consists of three hollow rot.ating cast-iron hori-
zontal cylinders, fitted with angle-iron ribs, which give in egect
a combination of attrition and slight impact. The Deval machine
has smooth inclined cylinders on a diagonal axis. I n each case the
percentage wear is deduced from the weight of dust of a speciflc size
obtained from a given number of revolutions at a specified speed on
material of fixed grading. The comparison of these two methods
of determining wear by attrition has been made on the basis of the
formula proposed by Mr. R. G. C. Batson, M. Inst. C.E., and the late
Mr. J . H. Hyde, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.1
The Authors have correlated the earlier classical work of Messrs.
E. J. Lovegrove, M. Inst. C.E., and L. W. Page,2 the petrological
studies of Sir J ohn Flett and Mr. J . A. Howe,2 and the records of
tests carried out at the National Physical Laboratory.3 An inter-
pretation of the mechanical properties can be made generally in
terms of mineral composition, mode of origin and structure. The
following is a summary of the salient features indicated in the
diagrams, Figs. 36 to 48, Plate 1.
R. G. C. Batson and J. H. Hyde, Mechanical Testing, vol. 1, p. 430,
a E. J. Lovegrove, Attrition Tests of British Road-Stones, with notes by
Results of Tests on Stones having varied Petrological Characteristics.
London, 1931.
J. Allen Howe and Sir J ohn Flett. H.M. Stationery Office, 1929.
H.M. Stationery Office, 1929.
Granites, Pmphyries alzd Linaestones.-These have been correlated
in Figs. 36 to 39, Plate 1. The general trends of relationship have
been indicated by the lines marked on the diagrams. Dominant
features are :-the definite relationship shown between the crushing
strength and the impact (Pig. 36, Plate l), when classified into groups
indicated by the lines AB and CD ; the extremely favourable position
as regards hardness and toughness of the porphyries ; the low
impact and severe attrition of the limestones.
In the granites, the resistance to grinding, as indicated by the
Dorry machine, is generally high and uniform, but there may be
considerable variation in resistance to impact, or toughness. No.
298, with a high impact value, is a diorite (Colwall Park, Malvern),
this type of rock usually being fine-grained with augite, biotite and
hornblende, which are often fibrous and thereby give impact strength
to the rock. The gneisses being igneous or sedimentary rocks that
have been subjected to alteration, re-crystallizat,ion and folding, have
for this reason lines of weakness, giving low toughness (Nos. 241,
243, Inchberry and Balchraggan, Inverness).
The porphyries have a structure and composition which, from
the analogy of the grinding-wheel, discussed later, would be expected
to reveal mechanical properties of a most abrasive nature in crushing-
machinery. Such is found to be the case. They are characterized
by large porphyritic crystals of quartz or felspar, and sometimes of
biotite, augite or hornblende, cemented into a fine-grained matrix,
which has frequently a particularly tough structure.
I n certain cases the attrition loss (Lovegrove) bears a direct
relation to the Dorry value for the same values of impact, instanced
by Nos. 343, 172, 221, 178 of Mr. Lovegroves series taken from the
base Df the triangle in which they are grouped in Pig. 37, Plate 1 ;
the comparison is made in Table I.
TABLE I.-ATTRITION (LOVEOROVE) AND ABRASION (DORRY) RELATIONS WITH
CONSTAKT INPACT IN PORPHYRIES.
groves
Love-
number.
pact :
Im-
metres
centi-
343
Porphyrite (Tyddyn Howell,
Granophyre (Llangynog, Os-
172
Carnarvonshire) . . . .
Midlothian) . . . . .
Granite-porphyry (Broadlaw,
221
westry) . . . . . . .
shire) . . . . . . .
Felsite (Lesmahagow, Lanark-
178
18
18
17/19
18
g
pcilcCiul,-
I hardness. I
Of
cubic foot.
WS. per
3.27 0.44 19.2
3.71 0.15 19.3
5.96
0.62 18 7.13
0.17/0*22 18.2/18.5
At the base of this triangle in Fig. 37, Plate 1, it will be noted that
there are four porphyries, Nos. 24, 29, 31, 32, from the National
Physical Laboratory list,l which show a gradual increase of impact,
a remarkably uniform and high Dorry abrasion and crushing-strength
(with the exception of No. 31, which gives somewhat lower values),
but an increasing attrition in the direction opposite to the general
improvement in physical properties. There are also inexplicable
variations in water-absorption, which are indicated in Table I1 :-
TABLE ~~. - ROCKS SHOWING INCREASE OF ATTRITION (DIVILL) IN PORPRYHIES,
IN A DIRECTION OPPOSITE TO NORMAL TREND OF PROPERTIES.
National
Physical
Lahra-
torfs
I I
Abrasior
(Dorry)
Wet attrition:
hardness
efficient
per cent.
co-
of
-I I -
31
32
24
29
Ceratophyre (blerioneth)
Quartz-ceratophyre tuff
Quartz-biotite-porphyry
(Merioneth) . . .
Quartz-albite-cerato-
(Argyllshire) . . .
phyre (Breconshire) .
Dry.
2.0
2.6
3-2
3.6
I
1.8
19.5 2.5
19.3 2.7
19.5
Crushing
tion:
Llbs, per
mpact:
Water
I
square
S&,
absorp-
4trength.
Page
inch.
foot.
16 23,000 0.39
17
0.50
29,200
19
0.42
30,700
18
1.74
29,200
At the Authors request Dr. Thomas examined the rock sections
in the official collection relating to these cases in order to determine
if these variations could be explained by the composition and
structure, and his conclusions are as follows :-
No. 31 contains small crystals of albite in a quartz-felsite fine-
grained matrix, and the tests seem consistent with type.
No. 32 is a fragmental rock, well cemented, with close texture and
fine grain. There is some interstitial calcite, which points to a
somewhat cavernous condition of the rock, the only explanation of
the abnormal water-absorption.
No. 24, a rather coarse quartz-biotite-porphyry, is a normal
igneous rock, and the tests seem consistent.
No. 29 is a moderately coarse porphyritic quartz-albite-cerato-
phyre, allied to the quartz-porphyries.
I n the case of the last two rocks, the presence of larger crystals
would probably account for the larger attrition values.
The low mechanical properties of the limestones arc due to the soft-
1 LOC. cit.
~'rocecditlgs.] VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 81
ness and ready cleavage of the constituent mineral, calcite. The
abrasion (Dorry) varies over a wide range from 18.4 to 8.8. Sir
J ohn Flett and Mr. Howe 1 have shown that the characters of lime-
stones as revealed by the Lovegrove attrition test varied with
geological age, which governed the conditions of formation, and that
the toughest limestones were those which were the least crystalline,
and consisted of broken fossil fragments cemented by secondary
calcite. Practical experience with these rocks in crushing indicates
that there is very little wear on jaws in breakers.
It will be noted that No. 105, a limestone from Gloucestershire,
is remarkable for its toughness, and would be expected to have an
interesting structure. This rock is an organic limestone, much
veined with calcite with a fine calcareous dolomitized matrix. There
is no obvious reason for the toughness of this rock, unless it be the
dolomitization that has generally affected the rock.
Basalt.-The class covers intrusive igneous rocks essentially of
basic chemical composition, and containing as dominant minerals
plagioclase felspar, augite and olivine. They are specially interesting
from a crushing standpoint because of their wide distribution, and
varied range of composition, structure and degree of alteration. An
analysis of certain rocks reported in the National Physical Laboratory
tests (Nos. 36, 38, 43, 46, 47, 50, 52, 53) shows that for a number of
dolerites and basalts of the same toughness there was a range of values
for both attrition (Deval) and abrasion (Dorry) of apparently
inexplicable confusion. When, however, the crushing-strength
was compared with the wet attrition and water-absorption
(Pig. 44, Plate l), excluding the rocks with a dominant content of
olivine, namely, Nos. 50,52 and 53, there was a direct relation between
the absorption value and the crushing-strength, thereby indicating
that the porosity produced by decomposition was mainly responsible
for the variation in direct crushing-strength.
Two of these rocks with abnormal wet attrition values, namely,
Nos. 43 (quartz-dolerite, Perthshire) and 53 (olivine-tholeiite, Angus)
were referred to Dr. Thomas. They had wet attrition values (per-
centage wear) respectively of 7.8 and 11.5. No. 43 proved to be a
good sound quartz-dolerite with a strongly developed lath structure.
From the structure it should be hard, tough and not porous. There
is a small amount of interstitial matter, but the explanation of the
higher wet attrition value is not evident. No. 53, on the ohher hand,
is a fine-grained rock with small decomposed crystals of olivine,
augite and plagioclase in a glassy base. The high water-absorption
Loc. ei t .
[THE INST. C.E. VOL. 239.1 G
(1.49) is possibly due to the porous nature of the decomposition pro-
ducts and also possibly to fissures in the base.
From a critical examination of the tests of Messrs. Lovegrove
and Page (Figs. 41 and 43, Plate l), i t is apparent that where the
impact-value is constant the rocks showing the lower Lovegrove
attrition and Dorry abrasion are altered and decomposed. Taking
values for five rocks falling on either side of the curve of general
relationship between Dorry abrasion and Deval attrition (Fig. 42,
Plate 1) namely those of low Dorry abrasion, Nos. 153, 231, 294,
154, 230, as against those of high Dorry abrasion, Nos. 155, 305,
285, 6 and 164, the average absorption-values for each group are
respectively 0-33 and 0.21. The average toughness-values corres-
ponding to these are respectively 10.4 and 14. The toughness in the
second set is very variable (Figs. 41 and 43, Plate 1).
There is reason to believe that the Dorry abrasion-test is not of
critical significance in this problem, and that the wide variation of
Dorry values in these rocks has little bearing on their behaviour in
crushing.
Metamorphic a d Xedimentury Rocks.-Rocks of Classes G and H
of the National Physical Laboratory classification, namely quartzites
and grits, are included for convenience in Figs. 45 to 48, Plate l ,
with hornfels, andesites and metamorphic rocks of the investigations
of Sir J ohn Flett and Mr. Howe. The essential features of the
hornfels and metamorphic rocks arise from their origin, and subjection
to metamorphic agency, whereby they may have become recrystal-
lized and foliated, and there may have resulted a dense mechanically
strong structure, or a weak fissile character. The composition and
structure of the andesites is such as to produce rocks of great tough-
ness (Fig. 46, Plate l ) , the only rocks having low toughness, Nos.
161, 50 (Forret and Foodie respectively, Cupar, Fifeshire) revealing
evidence of mineralogical decomposition.
The distribution of the quartzites in the diagrams shows the
closest grouping as a class, relations arising from their relatively
uniform composition. They have a moderately high toughness,
high resistance to Dorry abrasion and attrition, and a remarkably
uniform relation between impact and crushing-strength. They
are generally abrasive in the practical sense in crushing-machinery,
provided the impact-value approaches 15 and over.
I n the grits the cementing material largely governs the properties,
but since the nature of the aggregation and the bond varies so widely,
the mechanical properties of the rocks considered do not show any
characteristic relationships.
Rocks Nos. 86,87, 78 and 91, which, from Figs. 45 and 46, Plate 1,
are of opposite properties as regards impact, attrition, and crushing-
Proceedinga.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 83
strength, were referred to H.M. Geological Survey for evidence of
petrological characters. Nos. 86, 87 have approximately the same
Dorry hardness-coefficient, the same attrition, but widely different
impact- and crushing-values. The petrological examination indicates
that 86, the stronger and tougher, is a coarse-grained sandstone,
loosely cemented with a good deal of sericitic matter in the inter-
stices, whereas 87 is a fine-grained sandstone with the quartz grains
almost all the same size. The cement appears complete, and is
mainly secondary silica. A high water-absorption figure of 1-87
must be due to water entering along bedding-planes or other planes
of lamellation. Nos. 78 and 91 have the same toughness, but different
values of attrition and abrasion-hardness. No. 78, the harder, is
coarse and irregular in grain. There is more interstitial matter and
the cement does not appear so strong. No. 91 is a fine-grained
sandstone with constituent grains not tightly packed. It has a
sericitic matrix. Contrary to the evidence of the igneous rocks
there are accordingly in these sedimentary rocks wide divergences in
properties not readily related to distinguishable characters of the
rocks. The character of the cement is the overruling factor of the
properties, which is only revealed by the physical tests.
Dr. B. H. Knight, Assoc. M. Inst. C. E., has made an extensive
study of various types of rock encountered during the construction
of the new Glencoe road in Argyllshire, and has published a classifica-
tion of serviceability of road-making stones on the basis of petrological
study. Particular stress is laid upon the occurrence of incipient
fissuring due to the phenomenal faulting of rocks encountered in
the district surveyed.1
Minerals.-Minerals constitute a simpler problem, because the
heterogeneity of aggregation of many dissimilar minerals, and the
influence of structural planes of weakness in rock masses arising from
geological agents of change, are generally absent.
The Authors are indebted to Dr. L. J. Spencer for suggesting the
investigation of the properties of nephrite in connection with their
study of the specific influence of toughness. The subject is referred
to in the experimental section, p. 89.
Most natural minerals are brittle, but there are a number that
develop increased toughness with modification of mode and fineness
of crystallinity. Associated with this production of toughness
there is introduced a greater resistance to abrasive wear, and accord-
ingly an increase in the range of utility of the mineral. Thus the
diamond, when found as a single crystalj has a highly perfect cleavage
1 B. H. Knight, The Road-Making Stones of Argyllshire. Jour. Inst.
Municipal and County Engrs., vol. lix, No. 4 (1932), pp. 278, 305, 331.
and is brittle, whereas its variety, carbonado, is without cleavage
and is described as noncrystalline. That is to say its degree of
crystallinity is beyond the resolving power of the microscope.
Carbonado is used in diamond rock-drills, whereas crystalline
diamond would shatter in such use. Quartz, which is capable of
being brittle, is tough in the cryptocrystalline form, examples of such
occurrence being agate, a variegated chalcedony, and flint. The
mineral is highly abrasive, and the property is utilized in the ceramic
industry for grinding purposes. Garnets are brittle when occurring
as coarse and well-defined crystals, but when cryptocrystalline, as
from the Adirondack mountains, the mineral is used as an abrasive.
Augite, as prevalent in many igneous rocks, has a distinct system of
interrupted cleavage-cracks. J adeite, however, a fibrous foliated
variety of monoclinic pyroxene, is extremely tough, and is highly
prized, particularly amongst eastern nations, as an ornamental
stone suited to fine workmanship. Sillimanite, occurring with
corundum as fibrolite, another fibrous massive rock, is hard and
tough, and the Authors have experienced its severe abrasive action
in crushing machinery. I n crushing emery variations of abrasiveness
according to the degree of toughness developed have been noted.
The value of toughness in governing abrasive qualities is also instanced
in the application of abrasive temper in the product,ion of
artificial corundum.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF ABRASIVE ROCKS.
For the experimental study of abrasive wear in crushing, data
have been collected from field experience of rocks known to give
severe abrasive wear, typical cases have been selected in a range
of varying character, and their behaviour in service correlated with
their composition, structure and physical properties.
Table 111gives a series of rocks approximately in their order of
abrasiveness. All the rocks in Series I are known to be more or
less strongly abrasive in practice, The materials in Series 11are of
less or uncertain severity.
The following is a discussion of the correlation of these features,
the mechanical tests indicated in Table 111, and the composition and
structure as determined from petrological examination.
CORRELATION OF STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.
Generally a relationship is revealed between mineral composition,
structure, mechanical properties and abrasive character under
Proc~dings.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 85
crushing. The abrasiveness depends primarily upon the presence of
a fine-grained matrix or cement, or the equivalent interlocking or
morticing-together of the constituent crystals, and the manner in
which defined crystal-aggregates are oriented in the matrix. The
natural hardness and toughness of these defined crystals is an
accessory factor. A tough interlocked structure is noteworthy in the
following rocks detailed below-Penmaenmawr granophyre(R.F. 831),
Penlee diabase (R.F. 826), Magheramorne basalt (R.P. 769), and
Northumberland Whinstone (R.F. 824). Porphyritic crystals in a
fine-grained matrix operate in abrasion in the manner of the grinding-
wheel, the analogy of which is discussed later. Hard cutting-edges
are held in a tough matrix. The Crarae granite (R.F. 800) is an
illustration of the case. The rocks of lower mechanical properties
and less abrasiveness are shown in the rock sections to have, as
contributory factors, an absence of morticcd structures, coarse grain,
occurrence of fissures or veins, the presence of softer products of
alteration, or, as in the case of limestones, a distinct change of
constituent mineral.
Penlee (Cornwall), Gwavas Quwrry, R.F. 826.-A contact-altered
albite-diabase composed largely of albite felspar in interlocking
crystals with chlorite, biotite and hornblende. The great strength
and toughness of the rock is due to the nature of the structure and
to the recrystallization produced by contact metamorphism.
A marked keying of the crystals into one another is to be noted.
The alteration-products occur in veins and irregular aggregates of
finer crystals surrounding the boundaries of the dominant crystals,
frequently penetrating them.
Magheramorne, Northern Ireland, R.F. 769.-A fine-grained non-
porphyritic basalt. This has fine-grained interlocking crystals of
augite (present as small elongated prism and rhombs in the ground-
mass) and laths of plagioclase. The structure has the appearance
of inter-penetrating fine rods oriented in all directions, and is
consistent with the high crushing-strength and toughness found.
It contains also finely divided iron ore, and a little interstitial
matter, mainly consisting of decomposition-products. The iron
oxide occurs in the ground-mass between the rod-like crystals, and
is to be associated with the rather high value for the Deval
attrition.
Argyllshire Granite, R.F. 800.-A biotite-hornblende-porphyrite.
The rock is typical of the occurrence of porphyritic crystals in a
fine-grained ground-mass ; good physical properties accompany
this structure. It is definitely known to be strongly abrasive in
crushers.
Bonawe Granite, R.F. 827.-Of high crushing-strength and
86 MILLER AND SARTANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [Minutes of
TABLE
SERIES
826
769
800
827
824
830
787
83 1
694
693
SERIES
841
828
829
786
773
Trade name.
Penlee Granite
Basalt
Argyllshire
Granite
(reddish)
(greyish)
Bonawe Granite
Whinstone
Redstone
Quartzite
Penmaenmawr
Festiniog Granite
Granite
Mountaorrel
Granite
1.
Diorite
Cruachan Granite
Nickel Matte
Limestone
Limestone
Description.
classiflcation.
Petrological
Albite-diabase
Basalt
Biotite-hornblende
porphyrite
Biotite-granit,e
Quartz-dolerite
Felsite
Quartzite
Augite-enstatite-
granophyre
Microgranite
Granophyre
Granite
Biotite-granite
Ni = 61.3
S = 15.5
Organic
Organic
7-
Lorality.
Gwavas Quarry,
Magheramorne,
Penlee, Cornwall
N. Ireland
Crarae, Loch Tyne
Bonawe
Northumberland
Luchlawhill A
B
C
Portsoy, Banff
Penmaenmawr
Blaenau Festiniog
Mount Sorrel
Aberdeen
Cruachan
Falconbridge,
Ontario
Buxton
Warmsworth
111.
Compressive
strength :
square inch.
tons per
24.8
28.1
21.7
13.2
17.9
19.2
14.5
15.8
13.4
17.0
17-6
17.8
13.8
15.1
15.4
14.6
14.7
17.1
15.3
12.7
18-8
10.5
11.0
7.5
8.25
'age impact
:entimetres.
26.5
25
25
13
17
24
19
25
14
15
15
11
12
8.5
10
9
4
4.5
Physical properties.
D?V,d
attnnon,
percentage
dry :
wear.
1.3
2.8
1.5
1.46
1.2
1.7
1.3
1.6
1.7
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.4
3.0
2.2
absorption :
Water
Ibs. per cubic
foot.
0.34
0.39
1.17
0.94
0.62
0.56
0.26
0.89
2.03
0.06
0.55
0.16
0.03
0.24
0.46
11.25
0.88
0.54
0.022
Apparent
density :
grams
per cubic
centimetre.
2.81
2.68
2.57
2.58
2.65
2-95
2-46
2-50
2.48
2-64
2.71
2.71
2.64
2.92
2.71
6.02
2-68
2.69
2.68
grain-size of
Average
product:
attrition
millimetres.
0.0795
0-0671
0.0691
0.0741
0.0669
0.0475
0.0408
88 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF Winutes of
muclerately tough, it is ;L high-gradc granitc and defined as a finc-
grained biotitc-granibe. The constituents, orthoclase, plagioclase,
and quartz, are securely interlocked.
The size of the grain is fairly uniform and intermediate between
that of the fine-grained ground-mass of the Crarae rock (R.F. 800)
and of the coarser Cruachan granite (R.F. 828).
Northumberland Whinstone, R.F. 824.-The typical quartz-doleritc
of the Whin Sill, it is composed of two varieties of augite, plagioclase,
and iron ore as black isotropic masses. A little interstitial quartz and
decomposition-products are present. The grains of the dominant
minerals are generally of acicular or rod-like habit. The grain-size
is much coarser than that of the basalt (R.P. 769), but finer than that
of the Bonawe granite (R.F. 827). The felspar is somewhat decom-
posed, and the rock has a closely-felted structure. This structure
accounts for its great toughness, but the decomposed character
accounts for the moderate crushing-strength (14.5 tons per square
inch).
Fife Redstone, Lucklazukill, R.P. 830.-A most interesting rock,
for, although it is generally of an extremely hard and tough nature,
there is found in different commercial qualities a variation of the
combination of hardness and toughness (see Table IV), which is
related to the formation of the crypto-crystalline ground-mass of
quartz and felspar, the fine nature of which is best indicated under
a high-power objective. It breaks up into angular fragments and
is very abrasive in its effect on crushing machinery.
Banff Quartzite, R.F. 787.-This is a fine-grained rock with the
constituent quartz grains closely morticed together.
The grain-size is somewhat irregular and the rock shows evidence
of lamination in the larger crystals.
Penmaenmawr Granite, R.F. 831.-This is an augite-enstatite-
granophyre, a fine-textured rock composed of augite, bastite pseudo-
morphs after enstatite (bastite being a term to define fibrous pseudo-
morphs of serpentine after orthorhombic pyroxenes), and a little
hornblende in a coarse granophyric matrix of quartz and felspar.
It is noteworthy for a characteristic micrographic intergrowth of
quartz and felspar known as micro-pegmatite. The structure of
the rock resulting from this intergrowth is in keeping with the high
resistance to wear in the Deval attrition test.
Blaenau Pestiniog, R.F. 694.--Is a fine-grained microgranite
approaching aplite. It is composed of quartz, alkali-felspar and
plagioclase, a good deal of white mica, a little chlorite and some
interstitial calcite. The moderately fine grain and some interlocking
of crystals suggests good mechanical properties, but the presence of
chlorite and calcite in the grain-boundaries undoubtedly accounts
rroceedings.] VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 89
for this rock having a lower toughness than the rocks previously
discussed.
Mount Sorrel Granite, R.F. 693.-This rock, which resembles the
previous in the physical tests given, is a somewhat decomposed
granophyric granite of medium to fine grain. It consists of decom-
posed albitic felspars, chloritized biotite, and a residuum of alkali-
felspar and quartz in graphic intergrowth. There is secondary
epidote and much sericitic mica. Some fissuring occurs.
Aberdeen Diorite, R.F. 841 .-This is a rock of high crushing-strength
but not tough, and of relatively low resistance to attrition. The
rock is dominantly composed of plagioclase felspars and green
fibrous hornblende, tending towards actinolite. The grain-size of
these minerals is coarse. There is a minor amount of orthoclase and
very little quartz. The rock is noteworthy for the degree of altera-
tion, particularly in the amphiboles, with the production of iron ore,
chlorite, and epidote. The rock is strongly veined, and this feature
accounts in some measure for the low values for resistance to attrition
and impact. Apart from the fissures a strong rock is indicated by the
fibrous constituents.
Cruuchan Granite, R.F. 828.-This is a moderately coarse biotite-
granite. The rock is fissured, and this fact together with the coarse-
ness of the grain and large size of cleavable minerals, such as felspars
and micas, explain the reputed poor character of the rock and the
variable features encountered in the impact-tests shown in Fig. 50,
Plate 1. A little micropegma,tite occurs.
Warnzsworth Limestone, R.F. 773.-This organic limestone is com-
posed of the tests of organisms, both large and small, in a fine-grained
muddy calcareous matrix. The grain is uneven, and the larger
organisms are represented by single crystals of calcite. It is of course
a soft rock as indicated by the attrition test, and has low crushing
strength and impact.
Buxton Limestone, R.F. 786.-This organic limestone is very similar
to R.F. 773, but more uniform in grain and finer than the former,
and this factor doubtless explains the difference in mechanical
properties.
Nephrite OT Jade, R.F. 844.-The most characteristic features of a
tough structure are exemplified by the examination of the transverse
and longitudinal sections of this mineral. The section taken trans-
versely to the direction of the fibres shows them to be exceedingly
fine, even when viewed with the &inch objective. I n the longitudinal
section also, between the darker boundaries of the fibres, this extreme
fineness of thread-like grain is exhibited. The Authors have deter-
mined the Page impact of this mineral to be 40 centimetres in a
direction normal to the fibre, which characterizes it as an exceedingly
90 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF [Minuteaof
tough mineral. Nephrite is a compact, fine-grained tremolite (or
actinolite), and is allied in composition and mineralogical characters
to asbestos.
The Authors conclusion from the study of these rocks and their
behaviour on crushing is that the abrasive value of the rock is
indicated best by a consideration of the crushing-strength and
impact-value. The percentage wear in the Deval attrition-test is
an inverse indication of abrasiveness in the case of a rock of high
crushing-strength, and of particular value where, due to excessive
occurrence of cleavage- and parting-planes, the impact-value is of
doubtful significance.
The design of the machine has an important influence on the
amount of wear for any specific type of rock. The critical features
depend upon whether the motion consists of a direct blow or nip,
as distinct from a purely abrasive rubbing. That is, the provision
for work-hardening of the crushing-members is an essential factor
for good resistance to wear.
As regards the abrasive wear encountered, it is concluded that
the nature of the action is similar to that of the grinding-wheel,
that is to say, in order to grind a hard metal, it is necessary to have
a tough as well as hard material, for example, the tough mineral
corundum as the grit, cemented into a suitable bond, the I grade.
To grind materials of low tensile strength a material of higher intrinsic
hardness, for example, silicon carbide, is required. The breaking
away and exposure of new cutting-edges is necessary for efficient
grinding, and this demands a softness of the bond in grinding
hard materials, but a hardness in cutting soft materials in order
to hold the cutting grain, which does not dull so readily. Similarly,
in rock-drilling, a hard rock demands a tough tool, whereas a soft
rock demands a hard tool. These facts are quite in agreement with
the experience that a tough rock causes most abrasion on a hardened
steel, but if the steel is soft, or work-hardening has not occurred, then
a hard brittle material may be very abrasive.
In the course of the investigation, other possible factors were also
studied. Thus, as regards the shape of the chippings produced,
it was concluded that the natural occurrence of any planes of weakness
was of dominant influence in governing shape. Apart from this,
shape could be influenced by the nature and direction of the blow.
From Figs. 7, 11, 15, 16, 20, 22, 31, 33 and 35 showing uniformity of
grading of product for widely different classes of material crushed,
it is apparent that the sizing capabilities of the machines on which
the tests were taken primarily govern the shape and size of the
material crushed. Since the forces brought into operation must be
governed mainly by the size of the material, it remains for the rock
to be of influence only through the resistance i t can offer to the
disintegrating force, and therefore by virtue only of i ta mechanical
properties and frictional resistance to slipping.
The influence of sharp edges in abrasion was studied by increasing
the length of time of the Deval attrition-test, and noting any change
in the rate of attrition. It would be expected that, if sharp edges
are of consequence, in the tougher and harder rocks any slowing-
up in the rate of attrition due to wearing down of the corners would
occur later than in the softer rocks. Fig. 52, Plate 1, shows that no
definite relationship of this kind is revealed in the cases studied.
I n order to indicate that the rock has a specific action in this test,
the following experiment for improved means of testing abrasive
wear under conditions encountered in crushing may be quoted.
Steel cubes of l-inch side, accurately weighed and measured, were
inserted with the rock in an extended run of the Deval machine.
From time to time the cubes were removed, weighed and measured.
Two types of steel, and two classes of rock, Bonawe granite, hard
and tough, and Cruachan granite, fissile and weaker, were used.
At the completion of the experiment after 500,000 revolutions of the
machine the percentage wear was ascertained and was as given in
Table I V :-
TABLE IV.-PERCENTAQE WEAR OF ~- I NCH CUBES IN DEVAL MACHINE A ~ E R
500,000 REVOLUTIONS.
13 per cent. manganese steel,
water-toughened . . . .
Chromium steel (C = 0.8, Cr
= 1.0, hardened and tempered
to 60-ton condition) . . .
Bonawe granite.
By weight.
~
0.085
0*088
By dimen-
sions of
diagonals.
3.50
5.12
Cruachan granite.
By weight.
0.031
0.030
By dimen-
sions of
diagonals.
2.70
5-15
It is apparent, therefore, that a specific influence of the rock is
evident, which must be more marked when the tremendous pressures
used in crushing are active.
An attempt has been made to correlate the grain-size of the
product of the attrition-test with the nature of the rock. I n the
case of the rocks Nos. 831, 824, 841 and 786, a relationship between
the grain-size produced and the amount of product was obtained,
but in the case of the Penlee diabase a larger grain than expected
92 MILLER AND SARJANT ON THE EVOLUTION OF Winutes of
was obtained, an instance of the effect of metamorphism, and in
the comparison of Bonawe and Cruachan granites there was a similar
relation, but generally a smaller grain, indicating that the composition
of the rock had a specific influence.
THE IMPACT-TEST.
I n regard to the existence of veins or partings in the rock, the
Authors have studied the influence of the size and direction of
cutting of the test-piece on the character particularly of the impact-
test. The influence of the height of the test-piece in the crushing-
test has been investigated, in collaboration with Dr. Knight, in
connection with two classes of granite, namely Bonawe and Cruachan
(Fig. 51, Plate l), with which he kindly supplied the Authors.1
The results of a further investigation on the impact-test arc
shown graphically in Figs. 49 and 50, Plate 1, those in Fig. 49,
Plate 1, being fine-grained rocks with the except,ion of Mount
Sorrel granite, which could be grouped equally well with the rocks
in Fig. 50, Plate 1. These rocks show that at critical lengths
of test-piece a maximum is obtained in the relation of the impact
and length of test-piece. With the longer test-pieces the fracture
does not pass to the bottom of the cylinder, but shelves ofi to the
side, indicating a limit to the depth of the influence of the impact.
The rocks in Fig. 50, Plate 1, are all coarser-grained with the exception
of the Magheramorne basalt, in regard to which the experimental
data are incomplete. A maximum must be reached in the relation
shown, but from the shape of the curve it is undoubtedly at a higher
value of the length of the test-piece, implying a greater depth of
penetration of the influence of the impact blow. A significant
feature of these curves is that the rocks which show impact-values
above 15 centimetres on a l-inch standard test-piece are generally
rocks of more marked abrasive nature in crushing.
A further noteworthy factor consistent with the view that high
toughness is associated with an abrasive quality, and which offers
an explanation of many complaints of wear in service, is the wide
range of impact- and crushing-values that may be found in the same
rock in different parts of a quarry. Thus in every sample of the
felsite rock, R.F. 830, there is an excellent quality, but extreme
toughness may be found with a diminution of direct crushing-strength
in one piece of the rock, and the properties may not be equally
developed in another sample of the same type of rock. Variation
of rock in the same way has been indicated in the work of Messrs.
B. H. Knight, The Interpretation of Physical Tests of Road-Making
Stones. Good Roads, Nov., 1933.
~roccodings.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF CRUSHERS FOR STONE AND ORE. 93
Lovegrove and Page, Nos. 282, 284,329a and b, 230, and 231. Wide
variations of impact-value arc shown in t,he impact-values of the
fissured rock Cruachan granite, R.F. 828, which are not revealed
generally in most of the other rocks of a more compact nature.
I n regard to the direct crushing-strength these differences are not
revealed (Fig. 51, Plate 1). Critical examination of the character
of the curve of relationship between crushing-strength and height
of test-piece on the basis of the usual Rankine-Gordon formula 1
for crippling stress showed that the formula did not apply to the
materials in question, and that a more complicated set of conditions
applied to crushing rocks than to homogeneous and ductile solids
such as metals.
CONCLUSION.
I n these investigations the Authors have endeavoured to indicate
an important aspect of the subject as applied to the design and
operation of crushing-machinery. Accordingly in putting forward this
information it is hoped to arouse interest and to stimulate engineers
who have a wide experience in the practical conditions of crushing
to contribute their views. The Authors have found that many
of the complaints of wear in service in crushing-machinery are not
traceable to mechanical defect or design, construction or material,
but to a variable and hitherto disregarded abrasiveness of the
material crushed.
ACKICOWLEDGEMENTS.
The Authors tender their thanks to Sir Robert Hadfield, Bart.,
D.Sc., D.Met., F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E., who originally instigated the in-
vestigations described in the second part of the Paper, forhis continued
interest and encouragement ; to Mr. P. B. Brown, M. Inst. C.E., for
similar support and suggestions ; and to the late Dr. H. H. Thomas,
M.A., &.D., F.R.S., Petrographer to H.M. Geological Survey, for
invaluable assistance in the provision of petrological evidence both
in regard to the rock-sections and in the correct petrological descrip-
tion of the rocks dealt with. Grateful acknowledgment is made to
the Nordberg Manufacturing Company, of London, for the records
of tests made in their cone crushers; to the Kennedy-Van Saun
Manufacturing and Engineering Corporation for information regard-
ing tests on the Kennedy crushers ; and to Messrs. Sandycroft,,
Limited, for similar details relating to the vertical disk crushers.
D. A. Low, Applied Mechanics, p. 166. London, 1929.
Amongst their colleagues the Authors wish to thank specially
Mr. S. A. Main, B.Sc., for helpful suggestions in the selection of
material and preparation of the Paper ; Mr. G. Badger for help in
regard to the practical aspects of the subject ; Mr. T. G. Elliot and
Mr. T. Arnold for the preparation of the photomicrographs ; and
Mr. W. H. Salmon for assistance in the experimental work.
The Paper is accompanied by thirty-six prints and four sheets
of diagrams, from which Plate 1 and the Figures in the text have
been prepared, and by seven photographs and five sheets of photo-
micrographs.
1MP4CT: CCt 4TI META ES.
Fig; 38.
0 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 8
A TTRI TI ON ( ORY) PL u CL Nr A GC WEA R.
Fig: 38.
I MPA CT , C E N T I MC T R E S
I MPA CT; C H T I ME T R E S .
A o : 42. Pia: 43.
hlinutcs uf Proceedings of The Institution of Civd Engineers. Vol. 239. Session 1934.35. Part I.
Fia: 46..
I MP A CT : CENTI Wd ETQEQ
Fiu: 48..
I MP A CT - CEWTI MI ETRES
W. T. W. UlLLEK ANI ? R. J . 3AI;JANT.

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