Describe the major rock types & methods of formation: igneous,

sedimentary & metamorphic (with examples of each type).

The major rock types include igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

For igneous rocks, they are formed from magma which is molten rock
beneath the surface. It solidifies and crystallizes from a molten state.
There are two types: intrusive/plutonic and extrusive/volcanic rock.
Intrusive igneous rocks are
buried inside crust with very slow cooling of magma.
They are crystalline, hard and resistant.
Examples are granite, feldspar, quartz and mica.
Extrusive igneous rocks are
formed during lava cooling-volcanic eruption with rapid cooling.
They are tiny crystal and with vesicular structure or no crystal.
Examples are basalt, pumice and obsidian.

For sedimentary rocks, they are formation of sedimentary rock involves
lithification processes of cementation, compaction and a hardening of
sediments. They are derived from fragments of existing rock or oganic
materials. They are mechanically transported by water ice, wind and gravity.
Layers are stratified. They are fossils.
There are three types: physical, chemical and organic.
Physical sedimentary rocks are
from compaction, harding, glue together-cementation.
Rocks are transported fragment to older rock. Minerals dissolve into
solution and form sedimentary deposits by precipitating from those
solutions to form rock.
Examples are sandstone, mudstone and claystone.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are
formed from dissolved minerals, transported in solution and
chemically precipitated from solution.
They are from ocean species of body tissue decomposition.
They are compound of elements.
They evaporate and exist as salts.
They are dissolved minerals and transported in solution chemically
precipitated.
Examples are limestone (calcium carbonate), dolomite
Organic sedimentary are
Derived from shell and bone produced by biological activity
Formed from dead plants & animals were at seabed, after high
pressure and temperature.
Examples are coal, petroleum and natural gas

For metamorphic rocks, any rock, either igneous or sedimentary may be
transformed into a metamorphic rock by going through profound physical
mechanical changes under pressure and increased temperature.
Metamorphic rocks are
Harder and more resistant to weathering and erosion.
Form under high pressure and increased temperature.
More compact than the original rock.
Comprise the ancient roots of mountains.
Examples of metamorphosis:
- granite => gneiss
- sandstone => quartzite
- limestone => marble
- coal => diamond
- shale => slate

Describe the process of igneous rock formation. What are the differences
between intrusive & extrusive igneous rocks? Describe how they form and
give examples of each type.

Igneous rocks are formed from magma, which is molten rock beneath the
surface. It solidifies and crystalizes from a molten state. They are hard and
resistant to erosion.

Intrusive igneous rocks cooled from magma and solidifies below the surface
of the planet, however, and generally display larger crystals due to the
increased amount of time spend to cool since they are within the earth.
The cooling rate of intrusive rocks enables the crystals to form that are
visible to the naked eye.
Examples: granite, feldspar, quartz, mica.

Extrusive igneous rocks are formed form magma at or above the surface of
the planet. When lava is exposed to the atmosphere or water outside of the
earth, this causes the lava to cool very rapidly in comparison to intrusive
rocks. This rapid cooling does not allow rock time to form large crystals like
the intrusive rocks do. Extrusive rocks generally display smaller mineral
crystals, or no crystals at all because of the rapid cooling environment in
which they formed.
Examples: basalt, pumice, obsidian.

Chemically, an intrusive and extrusive rock could be identical, the difference
are the size of the mineral crystal they contain, their cooling time and the
places they form.

Sedimentary rocks: clastic or physical (include the process of lithification),
chemical sedimentary rocks & hydrocarbon / organic sedimentary rocks
(how they are formed, examples of each)

Physical sedimentary rocks are formed when minerals dissolved into
solution and form sedimentary deposits by precipitating from those solutions
to form rock. They are from compaction, harding, glue together-cementation.
Rocks are transported fragment to older rock.
Examples are sandstone, mudstone, claystone.

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from dissolved minerals,
transported in solution and chemically precipitated from solution. They are
compound of elements. They evaporate and exist as salts. They are dissolved
minerals and transported in solution chemically precipitated.
Examples are limestone (calcium carbonate), dolomite.

Organic sedimentary rocks are derived from shell and bone produced by
biological activity. Dead plants and animals were at seabed after high
pressure and temperature, organic sedimentary formed.
Examples are coal, petroleum, natural gas.



What is physical weathering? Describe the process of frost action, salt-
crystal growth, hydration (mechanical or physical weathering), pressure
release jointing, sheeting and exfoliation.

When rock is broken and disintegrated without any chemical alternation, the
process is physical weathering. By breaking up rock, physical weathering
produces more surface area on which chemical weathering may operate.
It is under the condition of dry climate. Sharp angles and facets are presented in
rocks.

For frost action, when water freezes, its volume expands. Such expansion creates
a powerful mechanical force, frost action, which can exceed the tensional
strength of rock. Repeated expanding and contracting of water breaks rock apart.
Cracking and breaking create varied shapes in the rocks.

For salt crystal growth, it happens under the dry climate, dry weather draws
moisture to the surface of rocks. As the water evaporates, dissolved minerals in
the water grow crystals, a process called crystallization. Over time, as the
crystals grow and enlarge, they exert a force great enough to spread apart
individual mineral grains and begin breaking up the rock.

For hydration, when some minerals hydrate, they expand, creating a strong
mechanical effect, a wedging pressure, that stresses the rock, forcing grains apart
as in physical weathering. Hydration works together with carbonation and
oxidation to convert feldspar to clay minerals and silica.

For pressure release jointing, it is the process when layer after layer of rocks
peels off in curved slabs or plates, thinner at the top of the rock structure and
thicker at the sides. As these slabs weather, they slop off in the process of
sheeting. This exfoliation process creates arch-shaped and dome-shaped features
on the exposed landscape, forming an exfoliation dome.





What is chemical weathering? Describe the principal chemical weathering
processes: spheroidal weathering, hydrolysis, oxidation and carbonation /
solution.

The chemical breakdown of the constituent minerals in rock is chemical
weathering. The chemical decomposition and decay become more intense as
both temperature and precipitation increase.

For spheroidal weathering, the sharp edges and corners of rocks are rounded as
the alteration of minerals progresses through the rock. Joints in the rock offer
more surfaces of opportunity for weathering. Water penetrates joints and
fractures and dissolves the rocks weaker minerals. A boulder can be attacked
from all sides, shedding spherical shells of decayed rock.
The resulting rounded edges are the basis for the name spheroidal.

For hydrolysis, it is a decomposition process that breaks down silicate minerals
in rocks. The hydrolysis process involves water and elements in chemical
reactions to produce different compounds.

For oxidation, it is the process when certain metallic elements combine with
oxygen to form oxides. The rusty color is visible on the surface of rock and in
heavily oxidized soils. For example, iron oxidizes in oxygen produces iron oxide
(rust).

For carbonation, it is the process when a carbon combines with minerals,
dissolving them. For example, water vapor readily dissolves carbon dioxide,
yielding precipitation containing carbonic acid, which is strong enough to
dissolve many minerals.


Plate tectonics
The plate tectonics and plate boundaries movement involve with the changes in
the configuration of earths crust as a result of internal forces. It includes the
processes of upwelling of magma to the lithosphere crust and the convection
current deep inside the mantle cause movement of plate, leading to features of
sea-floor spreading, lithospheric subduction, earthquakes, volcanic activity and
lithospheric deformation such as warping, folding, and faulting. There are three
types of boundaries, which are convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries and
the transform boundaries.

Convergent boundaries: (3types)
-SIMA VS SIMA (oceanic crust VS oceanic crust)
-SIAL VS SIMA (continental crust VS oceanic crust)
-SIAL VS SIAL (continental crust VS continental crust)
-Two adjunct plate collide with one another
-One plate forced under the other and the lithospheric material form the
descending plate is recycled within the mantle are call subduction

SIMA VS SIMA (oceanic crust VS oceanic crust)
-Subduction
-Two oceanic plate collide each other
-Intense volcanic activity in these areas as a result formation of long volcanic
island chains. Pressure and friction, magma chamber push up magma leading
volcanic eruption, usually parallel to trenches
-Pacific plate and Philippine plate (both moving to north west/west)
-Pacific plate moving faster, faster speed, huge in size, more dense than
Philippine Plate
-Pacific plate subduct under Philippine plate
-Pressure build and friction
-Forming oceanic trench (Mariana Trench)
-Stress between two plates leading to destructive earthquake
-Earthquake leading to tsunami

SIAL VS SIMA (continental crust VS oceanic crust)
-Subduction
-Continental plate collides with an oceanic plate
-Denser ocean floor grind beneath the lighter continental crust
-Nazca Plate (SIMA) moving east and South American Plate (SIAL) moving to
west
-Nazca Plate subduct under South American Plate
-Creating long, deep Peru-Chile trench form by Nazca plate sinking smoothly
-The Andes mountain chain form by overriding South American plate lifted up
due to pressure and friction.
-Subducting plate break into pieces become locked in place and generate
earthquake
-Earthquakes leading Tsunamis
-Continental plate form fault line
-Magma pushes up form volcanoes

SIAL VS SIAL (continental crust VS continental crust)
-Collision
-Due to light density
-No plate subduct due rocks are relatively light and resist downward motion
-Eurasian plate moving to south east/east and Indian Australian plate moving
north east/north
-Two continental plate collide
-Compression of lithospheric material causes large mountain ranges
-Himalayas folded mountain
-No volcanoes form as none subduction
-Tremendous stresses build up within the earth crust and the fault line lead
destructive earthquakes.

Divergent boundaries (2types)
-SIAL VS SIAL (continental crust VS continental crust)
-SIMA VS SIMA (oceanic crust VS oceanic crust)
-Two adjacent plates move away each split from each other

SIMA VS SIMA (oceanic crust VS oceanic crust)
-Sea floor spreading
-Upwelling magma from the mantle solidifies, new crust form
-Plates spread magma exposure
-North American Plate moving north west/west and Eurasia plate moving to
south east/east
-Magma rises fill gaps and accumulates in magma chambers
-Rise up to the sea level, it cools down hardening create pillow lava eventually
form new crust
-Form mid oceanic ridge (mid Atlantic ridge)
-Create a volcanic country of Iceland

SIAL VS SIAL (continental crust VS continental crust)
-Rifting
Rifting is a process during which the earth's lithosphere stretches and breaks
apart. As the lithosphere stretches, faults occur and break apart the earth's outer
brittle crust. Rifting produces volcanoes and mountain ranges. If rifting
continues, the lithosphere breaks apart and new continents are formed.

Transform boundaries (two types)
-Occur when two plates slide laterally and horizontally past each other with no
divergence and convergence
-Offset the active spreading ridges of divergent boundaries on the ocean floor
-Continental crust
Pacific plate moving northwest and North American plate moving southeast
-San Andreas Fault zone
-Leading to earthquakes
-On Mid Oceanic Ridges (ocean crust) (not straight)
-SIMA VS SIMA Divergent (sea floor spreading)
-Horizontal offset sliding pass each other

Hotspot
Upwelling magma rises to surface to create tall volcanoes, overtime, as plate
moves, long islands chains form. It occurs beneath both oceanic and continental
crust. Some hot spots are anchored deep in the stiff lower mantle, tending to
remain fixed relative to migrating plates, others appear to be above plumes that
move themselves or shift with plate motion