The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chalda, yria,

Babylonia, !nd !ssyria "n The #ight Of $ecent %isco&ery, by #'(' )ing and H'$'
Hall
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Title. History Of Egypt, Chalda, yria, Babylonia, !nd !ssyria "n The #ight Of
$ecent %isco&ery
!uthor. #'(' )ing and H'$' Hall
$elease %ate. %ece+ber /0, 1223 4EBook 5/671/8
#anguage. English
Character set encoding. "O-993:-/
;;; T!$T O< TH" P$O=ECT G>TE?BE$G EBOO) H"TO$, O< EG,PT
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Produced by %a&id (idger
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H"TO$, O< EG,PT
CH!#%E!, ,$"!, B!B,#O?"!, !?% !,$"!
"? THE #"GHT O< $ECE?T %"CO@E$,
B, #' (' )"?G and H' $' H!##
%epart+ent of Egyptian and !ssyrian !ntiAuities, British Buseu+
Containing o&er /122 colored plates and illustrations'
Copyright /:20
4"llustration. <rontispiece/8
4"llustration. <rontispiece/-teCt8
4"llustration. Titlepage/8
4"llustration. @ersa/8
P>B#"HE$D ?OTE
"t should be noted that +any of the +onu+ents and sites of eCca&ations
in Egypt, Besopota+ia, Persia, and )urdistan described in this &olu+e
ha&e been &isited by the authors in connection *ith their o*n *ork in
those countries' The greater nu+ber of the photographs here published
*ere taken by the authors the+sel&es' Their thanks are due to B' Ernest
#erouC, of Paris, for his kind per+ission to reproduce a certain nu+ber
of plates fro+ the *orks of B' de Borgan, illustrating his recent
disco&eries in Egypt and Persia, and to Bessrs' (' !' Bansell E Co', of
#ondon, for kindly allo*ing the+ to +ake use of a nu+ber of photographs
issued by the+'
P$E<!CE
The present &olu+e contains an account of the +ost i+portant additions
*hich ha&e been +ade to our kno*ledge of the ancient history of Egypt
and (estern !sia during the fe* years *hich ha&e elapsed since the
publication of Prof' BasperoDs FHistoire !ncienne des Peuples de
lDOrient ClassiAueF, and includes short descriptions of the eCca&ations
fro+ *hich these results ha&e been obtained' "t is in no sense a
connected and continuous history of these countries, for that has
already been *ritten by Prof' Baspero, but is rather intended as an
appendiC or addendu+ to his *ork, briefly recapitulating and describing
the disco&eries +ade since its appearance' On this account *e
ha&e follo*ed a geographical rather than a chronological syste+ of
arrange+ent, but at the sa+e ti+e the atte+pt has been +ade to suggest
to the +ind of the reader the historical seAuence of e&ents'
!t no period ha&e eCca&ations been pursued *ith +ore energy and
acti&ity, both in Egypt and (estern !sia, than at the present ti+e, and
e&ery seasonDs *ork obliges us to +odify for+er theories, and eCtends
our kno*ledge of periods of history *hich e&en ten years ago *ere
unkno*n to the historian' <or instance, a *hole chapter has been added
to Egyptian history by the disco&ery of the ?eolithic culture of the
pri+iti&e Egyptians, *hile the recent eCca&ations at usa are re&ealing
a hitherto totally unsuspected epoch of proto-Ela+ite ci&iliGation'
<urther than this, *e ha&e disco&ered the relics of the oldest
historical kings of Egypt, and *e are no* enabled to reconstitute fro+
+aterial as yet unpublished the inter-relations of the early dynasties
of Babylon' "+portant disco&eries ha&e also been +ade *ith regard to
isolated points in the later historical periods' (e ha&e therefore
atte+pted to include the +ost i+portant of these in our sur&ey of recent
eCca&ations and their results' (e *ould again re+ind the reader that
Prof' BasperoDs great *ork +ust be consulted for the co+plete history of
the period, the present &olu+e being, not a connected history of Egypt
and (estern !sia, but a description and discussion of the +anner in
*hich recent disco&ery and research ha&e added to and +odified our
conceptions of ancient Egyptian and Besopota+ian ci&iliGation'
CO?TE?T
"' The %isco&ery of Prehistoric Egypt
""' !bydos and the <irst Three %ynasties
"""' Be+phis and the Pyra+ids
"@' $ecent ECca&ations in (estern !sia and the %a*n of Chaldan History
@' Ela+ and Babylon, the Country of the ea and the )assites
@"' Early Babylonian #ife and Custo+s
@""' Te+ples and To+bs of Thebes
@"""' The !ssyrian and ?eo-Babylonian E+pires in the #ight of $ecent
$esearch
"H' The #ast %ays of !ncient Egypt
EG,PT !?% BEOPOT!B"!
F"n the #ight of $ecent ECca&ation and $esearchF
CH!PTE$ "--THE %"CO@E$, O< P$EH"TO$"C EG,PT
%uring the last ten years our conception of the beginnings of Egyptian
antiAuity has profoundly altered' (hen Prof' Baspero published the
first &olu+e of his great FHistoire !ncienne des Peuples des lDOrient
ClassiAueF, in /9:3, Egyptian history, properly so called, still began
*ith the Pyra+id-builders, ne-feru, )hufu, and )hafra ICheops and
ChephrenJ, and the legendary lists of earlier kings preser&ed at !bydos
and akkara *ere still Auoted as the only source of kno*ledge of the
ti+e before the "@th %ynasty' Of a prehistoric Egypt nothing *as kno*n,
beyond a fe* flint flakes gathered here and there upon the desert
plateaus, *hich +ight or +ight not tell of an age *hen the ancestors
of the Pyra+id-builders kne* only the stone tools and *eapons of the
pri+e&al sa&age'
?o*, ho*e&er, the &eil *hich has hidden the beginnings of Egyptian
ci&iliGation fro+ us has been lifted, and *e see things, +ore or less,
as they actually *ere, unobscured by the traditions of a later day'
>ntil the last fe* years nothing of the real beginnings of history in
either Egypt or Besopota+ia had been foundK legend supplied the only
+aterial for the reconstruction of the earliest history of the oldest
ci&iliGed nations of the globe' ?or *as it seriously supposed that any
relics of prehistoric Egypt or Besopota+ia e&er *ould be found' The
antiAuity of the kno*n history of these countries already appeared
so great that nobody took into consideration the possibility of our
disco&ering a prehistoric Egypt or Besopota+iaK the idea *as too re+ote
fro+ practical *ork' !nd further, ci&iliGation in these countries had
lasted so long that it see+ed +ore than probable that all traces
of their prehistoric age had long since been s*ept a*ay' ,et the
possibility, *hich see+ed hardly *orth a +o+entDs consideration in /9:3,
is in /:23 an assured reality, at least as far as Egypt is concerned'
Prehistoric Babylonia has yet to be disco&ered' "t is true, for eCa+ple,
that at Bukay-yar, the site of ancient >r of the Chaldees, burials
in earthen*are coffins, in *hich the skeletons lie in the doubled-up
position characteristic of ?eolithic inter+ents, ha&e been foundK but
there is no doubt *hate&er that these are burials of a +uch later date,
belonging, Auite possibly, to the Parthian period' ?othing that +ay
rightfully be ter+ed prehistoric has yet been found in the Euphrates
&alley, *hereas in Egypt prehistoric antiAuities are no* al+ost as *ell
kno*n and as *ell represented in our +useu+s as are the prehistoric
antiAuities of Europe and !+erica'
(ith the eCception of a fe* palasoliths fro+ the surface of the yrian
desert, near the Euphrates &alley, not a single i+ple+ent of the !ge
of tone has yet been found in outhern Besopota+ia, *hereas Egypt
has yielded to us the +ost perfect eCa+ples of the flint-knapperDs
art kno*n, flint tools and *eapons +ore beautiful than the finest that
Europe and !+erica can sho*' The reason is not far to seek' outhern
Besopota+ia is an allu&ial country, and the ancient cities, *hich
doubtless +ark the sites of the oldest settle+ents in the land, are
situated in the allu&ial +arshy plain bet*een the Tigris and the
EuphratesK so that all traces of the ?eolithic culture of the country
*ould see+ to ha&e disappeared, buried deep beneath city-+ounds, clay
and +arsh' "t is the sa+e in the Egyptian %elta, a si+ilar countryK and
here no traces of the prehistoric culture of Egypt ha&e been found' The
atte+pt to find the+ *as +ade last year at Buto, *hich is kno*n to be
one of the +ost antiAue centres of ci&iliGation, and probably *as one of
the earliest settle+ents in Egypt, but *ithout success' The infiltration
of *ater had +ade eCca&ation i+possible and had no doubt destroyed
e&erything belonging to the +ost ancient settle+ent' "t is not going too
far to predict that eCactly the sa+e thing *ill be found by any eCplorer
*ho tries to disco&er a ?eolithic stratu+ beneath a city-+ound of
Babylonia' There is little hope that prehistoric Chalda *ill e&er be
kno*n to us' But in Egypt the conditions are different' The %elta is
like Babylonia, it is trueK but in the >pper ?ile &alley the ri&er flo*s
do*n *ith but a thin border of allu&ial land on either side, through the
rocky and hilly desert, the dry ahara, *here rain falls but once in t*o
or three years' !ntiAuities buried in this soil in the +ost re+ote
ages are preser&ed intact as they *ere first interred, until the +odern
in&estigator co+es along to look for the+' !nd it is on the desert
+argin of the &alley that the re+ains of prehistoric Egypt ha&e been
found' That is the reason for their perfect preser&ation till our o*n
day, and *hy *e kno* prehistoric Egypt so *ell'
The chief *ork of Egyptian ci&iliGation *as the proper irrigation of
the allu&ial soil, the turning of +arsh into culti&ated fields, and the
recla+ation of land fro+ the desert for the purposes of agriculture'
O*ing to the rainless character of the country, the only +eans
of obtaining *ater for the crops is by irrigation, and *here the
fertiliGing ?ile *ater cannot be taken by +eans of canals, there
culti&ation ends and the desert begins' Before Egyptian ci&iliGation,
properly so called, began, the &alley *as a great +arsh through *hich
the ?ile found its *ay north to the sea' The half-sa&age, stone-using
ancestors of the ci&iliGed Egyptians hunted *ild fo*l, crocodiles,
and hippopota+i in the +arshy &alleyK but eCcept in a fe* isolated
settle+ents on con&enient +ounds here and there Ithe forerunners of the
later &illagesJ, they did not li&e there' Their settle+ents *ere on
the dry desert +argin, and it *as here, upon lo* tongues of desert hill
jutting out into the plain, that they buried their dead' Their si+ple
shallo* gra&es *ere safe fro+ the flood, and, but for the depredations
of jackals and hyenas, here they ha&e re+ained intact till our o*n
day, and ha&e yielded up to us the facts fro+ *hich *e ha&e deri&ed our
kno*ledge of prehistoric Egypt' Thus it is that *e kno* so +uch of the
Egyptians of the tone !ge, *hile of their conte+poraries in Besopota+ia
*e kno* nothing, nor is anything further likely to be disco&ered'
But these desert ce+eteries, *ith their cro*ds of o&al shallo* gra&es,
co&ered by only a fe* inches of surface soil, in *hich the ?eolithic
Egyptians lie crouched up *ith their flint i+ple+ents and polished
pottery beside the+, are but +onu+ents of the later age of prehistoric
Egypt' #ong before the ?eolithic Egyptian hunted his ga+e in the
+arshes, and here and there essayed the *ork of recla+ation for the
purposes of an incipient agriculture, a far older race inhabited the
&alley of the ?ile' The *ritten records of Egyptian ci&iliGation go back
four thousand years before Christ, or earlier, and the ?eolithic !ge of
Egypt +ust go back to a period se&eral thousand years before that' But
*e can no* go back +uch further still, to the Palaeolithic !ge of Egypt'
!t a ti+e *hen Europe *as still co&ered by the ice and sno*s of the
Glacial Period, and +an fought as an eAual, hardly yet as a superior,
*ith ca&e-bear and +a++oth, the Palaeolithic Egyptians li&ed on the
banks of the ?ile' Their habitat *as doubtless the desert slopes, often,
too, the plateaus the+sel&esK but that they li&ed entirely upon the
plateaus, high up abo&e the ?ile +arsh, is i+probable' There, it is
true, *e find their flint i+ple+ents, the great pear-shaped *eapons of
the types of Chelles, t' !cheul, and #e Boustier, types *ell kno*n
to all *ho are acAuainted *ith the flint i+ple+ents of the L%riftL in
Europe' !nd it is there that the theory, generally accepted hitherto,
has placed the habitat of the +akers and users of these i+ple+ents'
The idea *as that in Palaeolithic days, conte+porary *ith the Glacial
!ge of ?orthern Europe and !+erica, the cli+ate of Egypt *as entirely
different fro+ that of later ti+es and of to-day' "nstead of dry desert,
the +ountain plateaus bordering the ?ile &alley *ere supposed to ha&e
been then co&ered *ith forest, through *hich flo*ed countless strea+s
to feed the ri&er belo*' "t *as suggested that re+ains of these strea+s
*ere to be seen in the side ra&ines, or *adis, of the ?ile &alley, *hich
run up fro+ the lo* desert on the ri&er le&el into the hills on either
hand' These *adis undoubtedly sho* eCtensi&e traces of strong *ater
actionK they cur&e and t*ist as the strea+s found their easiest *ay
to the le&el through the softer strata, they are heaped up *ith great
*ater-*orn boulders, they are hollo*ed out *here *aterfalls once fell'
They ha&e the appearance of dry *atercourses, eCactly *hat any +ountain
burns *ould be *ere the *ater-supply suddenly cut off for e&er, the
cli+ate altered fro+ rainy to eternal sun-glare, and e&ery plant and
tree blasted, ne&er to gro* again' !cting on the supposition that this
idea *as a correct one, +ost obser&ers ha&e concluded that the cli+ate
of Egypt in re+ote periods *as &ery different fro+ the dry, rainless one
no* obtaining' To pro&ide the *ater for the *adi strea+s, hea&y
rainfall and forests are desiderated' They *ere easily supplied, on the
hypothesis' <orests clothed the +ountain plateaus, hea&y rains fell, and
the *ater rushed do*n to the ?ile, car&ing out the great *atercourses
*hich re+ain to this day, bearing testi+ony to the truth' !nd the
flints, *hich the Palaeolithic inhabitants of the plateau-forests +ade
and used, still lie on the no* treeless and sun-baked desert surface'
4"llustration. 226'jpg THE BE% O< !? !?C"E?T (!TE$CO>$E "? THE
(!%",M?,
THEBE'8
This is certainly a &ery *eak conclusion' "n fact, it seriously da+ages
the *hole argu+ent, the *ater-courses to the contrary not*ithstanding'
The paloliths are there' They can be picked up by any &isitor' There
they lie, great flints of the %rift types, just like those found in the
gra&el-beds of England and Belgiu+, on the desert surface *here they
*ere +ade' >ndoubtedly *here they *ere +ade, for the places *here
they lie are the actual ancient flint *orkshops, *here the flints *ere
chipped' E&ery*here around are innu+erable flint chips and perfect
*eapons, burnt black and patinated by ages of sunlight' (e are taking
one particular spot in the hills of (estern Thebes as an eCa+ple, but
there are plenty of others, such as the (adi esh-hNkh on the right bank
of the ?ile opposite Baghagha, *hence Br' H' eton-)arr has brought
back speci+ens of flint tools of all ages fro+ the Palaeolithic to the
?eolithic periods'
The Palolithic flint *orkshops on the Theban hills ha&e been &isited of
late years by Br' eton-)arr, by Prof' ch*einfurth, Br' !llen turge,
and %r' Blanckenhorn, by Br' Portch, Br' !yrton, and Br' Hall' The
*eapons illustrated here *ere found by Bessrs' Hall and !yrton, and are
no* preser&ed in the British Buseu+' !+ong these flints sho*n *e notice
t*o fine speci+ens of the pear-shaped type of t' !cheul, *ith curious
adGe-shaped i+ple+ents of pri+iti&e type to left and right' Belo*, to
the right, is a &ery pri+iti&e instru+ent of Chellean type, being +erely
a sharpened pebble' !bo&e, to left and right, are t*o speci+ens of the
curious half-+oon-shaped instru+ents *hich are characteristic of
the Theban flint field and are hardly kno*n else*here' !ll ha&e the
beautiful bro*n patina, *hich only ages of sunburn can gi&e' The
LpoignardL type to the left, at the botto+ of the plate, is broken off
short'
4"llustration. 229'jpg Palaeolithic "+ple+ents of the Ouaternary Period'
<ro+ the desert plateau and slopes *est of Thebes'8
"n the s+aller illustration *e see so+e re+arkable types. t*o scrapers
or kni&es *ith strongly +arked Lbulb of percussionL Ithe spot *here the
flint-knapper struck and fro+ *hich the flakes fle* offJ, a &ery regular
Fcoup-de-poingF *hich looks al+ost like a large arro*head, and on the
right a +uch *eathered and patinated scraper *hich +ust be of i++e+orial
age'
4"llustration. 22:'jpg IrightJ. P!#!EO#"TH"C "BP#EBE?T' <ro+ Ban,
Barch, /:23'8
This ca+e fro+ the top plateau, not fro+ the slopes Ior subsidiary
plateaus at the head of the F*adisFJ, as did the great t' !cheulian
*eapons' The circular object is &ery re+arkable. it is the half of the
ring of a L+orpholith LIa round flinty accretion often found in the
Theban li+estoneJ *hich has been split, and the split IflatJ side
carefully be&elled' e&eral of these interesting objects ha&e been
found in conjunction *ith Palolithic i+ple+ents at Thebes' ?o doubt the
flints lie on the actual surface *here they *ere +ade' ?o later *ater
action has s*ept the+ a*ay and co&ered the+ *ith gra&el, no later hu+an
habitation has hidden the+ *ith successi&e deposits of soil, no gradual
deposit of dust and rubbish has buried the+ deep' They lie as they *ere
left in the far-a*ay Palolithic !ge, and they ha&e lain there till
taken a*ay by the +odern eCplorer'
But this is not the case *ith all the Palolithic flints of Thebes' "n
the year /991 Baj'-Gen' Pitt-$i&ers disco&ered Palolithic flints in the
deposit of dilu&ial detritus *hich lies bet*een the culti&ation and the
+ountains on the *est bank of the ?ile opposite #uCor' Bany of these are
of the sa+e type as those found on the surface of the +ountain plateau
*hich lies at the head of the great F*adiF of the To+bs of the )ings,
*hile the dilu&ial deposit is at its +outh' The stuff of *hich the
detritus is co+posed e&idently ca+e originally fro+ the high plateau,
and *as *ashed do*n, *ith the flints, in ancient ti+es'
This is Auite concei&able, but ho* is it that the flints left behind
on the plateau re+ain on the original ancient surfaceP Ho* is it
concei&able that if Ion the old theoryJ these plateaus *ere in
Palolithic days clothed *ith forest, the Palolithic flints could e&en
in a single instance re+ain undisturbed fro+ Palolithic ti+es to the
present day, *hen the forest in *hich they *ere +ade and the forest soil
on *hich they reposed ha&e entirely disappearedP "f there *ere *oods and
forests On the heights, it *ould see+ i+possible that *e should find,
as *e do, Palolithic i+ple+ents lying in situ on the desert surface,
around the actual +anufactories *here they *ere +ade' ,et if the
constant rainfall and the &egetation of the #ibyan desert area in
Palolithic days is all a +yth Ias it +ost probably isJ, ho* ca+e the
e+bedded palaeoliths, found by Gen' Pitt-$i&ers, in the bed of dilu&ial
detritus *hich is apparently FdQbrisF fro+ the plateau brought do*n by
the Palolithic F*adiF strea+sP
(ater erosion has certainly for+ed the Theban F*adisF' But this *ater
erosion *as probably not that *hich *ould be the result of perennial
strea+s flo*ing do*n fro+ *ooded heights, but of torrents like those
of to-day, *hich fill the F*adisF once in three years or so after hea&y
rain, but repeated at +uch closer inter&als' (e +ay in fact suppose
just so +uch difference in +eteorological conditions as *ould +ake it
possible for sudden rain-stor+s to occur o&er the desert at far +ore
freAuent inter&als than at present' That *ould account for the detritus
bed at the +outh of the F*adiF, and its e+bedded flints, and at the
sa+e ti+e +aintain the general probability of the idea that the desert
plateaus *ere desert in Palolithic days as no*, and that early +an only
knapped his flints up there because he found the flint there' He hi+self
li&ed on the slopes and nearer the +arsh'
This ne* &ie* see+s to be +uch sounder and +ore probable than the old
one, +aintained by <linders Petrie and Blanckenhorn, according to *hich
the high plateau *as the ho+e of +an in Palolithic ti+es, *hen the
rainfall, as sho*n by the &alley erosion and *aterfalls, +ust ha&e
caused an abundant &egetation on the plateau, *here +an could li&e and
hunt his ga+e' 4;Petrie, ?agada and Ballas, p' R:'8 (ere this so, it
is patent that the Palolithic flints could not ha&e been found on the
desert surface as they are' Br' H' =' #' Beadnell, of the Geological
ur&ey of Egypt, to *ho+ *e are indebted for the pro+ulgation of the
+ore +odern and probable &ie*, says. L"s it certain that the high
plateau *as then clothed *ith forestsP (hat e&idence is there to sho*
that it differed in any i+portant respect fro+ its present aspectP !nd
if, as " suggest, desert conditions obtained then as no*, and +an +erely
*orked his flints along the edges of the plateaus o&erlooking the
?ile &alley, " see no reason *hy flint i+ple+ents, dating e&en fro+
Palolithic ti+es should not in fa&ourable cases still be found in
the spots *here they *ere left, surrounded by the flakes struck off in
+anufacture' On the flat plateaus the occasional rains *hich fall--once
in three or four years--can effect but little transport of +aterial, and
+erely lo*er the general le&el by dissol&ing the underlying li+estone,
so that the plateau surface is left *ith a coating of nodules and blocks
of insoluble flint and chert' <lint i+ple+ents +ight thus be eCpected
to re+ain in +any localities for indefinite periods, but they *ould
certainly beco+e +ore or less Dpatinated,D pitted on the surface, and
rounded at the angles after long eCposure to heat, cold, and blo*n
sand'L This is eCactly the case of the Palolithic flint tools fro+ the
desert plateau'
4"llustration. 2/1'jpg >PPE$ %EE$T P#!TE!>, (HE$E P!#EO#"TH"C
"BP#EBE?T !$E <O>?%, Thebes. /,R22 leet abo&e the ?ile'8
(e do not kno* *hether Palolithic +an in Egypt *as conte+porary *ith
the ca&e-+an of Europe' (e ha&e no +eans of gauging the age of the
Palolithic Egyptian *eapons, as *e ha&e for the ?eolithic period'
The historical IdynasticJ period of Egyptian annals began *ith the
unification of the kingdo+ under one head so+e*here about R322 B'C' !t
that ti+e copper as *ell as stone *eapons *ere used, so that *e +ay say
that at the beginning of the historical age the Egyptians *ere li&ing
in the LChalcolithicL period' (e can trace the use of copper back for
a considerable period anterior to the beginning of the "st %ynasty,
so that *e shall probably not be far *rong if *e do not bring do*n the
close of the purely ?eolithic !ge in Egypt--the close of the !ge of
tone, properly so called--later than S3222 B'C' Ho* far back in the
re+ote ages the transition period bet*een the Palolithic and ?eolithic
!ges should be placed, it is utterly i+possible to say' The use of stone
for *eapons and i+ple+ents continued in Egypt as late as the ti+e of
the H""th %ynasty, about 1322-1222 B'C' But these H""th %ynasty stone
i+ple+ents sho* by their for+s ho* late they are in the history of the
tone !ge' The aCe heads, for instance, are in for+ i+itations of
the copper and bronGe aCe heads usual at that periodK they are stone
i+itations of +etal, instead of the originals on *hose +odel the +etal
*eapons *ere for+ed' The flint i+ple+ents of the H""th %ynasty *ere
a curious sur&i&al fro+ long past ages' !fter the ti+e of the H""th
%ynasty stone *as no longer used for tools or *eapons, eCcept for the
sacred rite of +aking the first incision in the dead bodies before
beginning the operations of e+bal+ingK for this purpose, as Herodotus
tells us, an LEthiopian stoneL *as used' This *as no doubt a knife of
flint or chert, like those of the ?eolithic ancestors of the Egyptians,
and the continued use of a stone knife for this one purpose only is a
&ery interesting instance of a cere+onial sur&i&al' (e +ay co+pare the
*igs of British judges'
4"llustration. 2/R'jpg <#"?T )?"<E8
(e ha&e no speci+en of a flint knife *hich can definitely be asserted to
ha&e belonged to an e+bal+er, but of the archaistic flint *eapons of the
H""th %ynasty *e ha&e se&eral speci+ens' They *ere found by Prof' Petrie
at the place na+ed by hi+ L)ahun,L the site of a H""th %ynasty to*n
built near the pyra+id of )ing >sertsen Ior enusretJ "" at "llahun,
at the +outh of the canal leading fro+ the ?ile &alley into the
oasis-pro&ince of the Payyu+' These )ahun flints, and others of probably
the sa+e period found by Br' eton-)arr at the &ery ancient flint
*orks in the (adi esh-hNkh, are of &ery coarse and poor *ork+anship
as co+pared *ith the stone-knapping triu+phs of the late ?eolithic and
early Chalcolithic periods' The delicacy of the art had all been lost'
But the best flint kni&es of the early period--dating to just a little
before the ti+e of the "st %ynasty, *hen flint-*orking had attained its
apogee, and copper had just begun to be used--are undoubtedly the +ost
re+arkable stone *eapons e&er +ade in the *orld' The grace and utility
of the for+, the delicacy of the fluted chipping on the side, and
the +inute care *ith *hich the tiny serrations of the cutting edge,
serrations so s+all that often they can hardly be seen *ith the naked
eye, are +ade, can certainly not be parallelled else*here' The art
of flint-knapping reached its Genith in !ncient Egypt' The speci+en
illustrated has a handle co&ered *ith gold decorated *ith incised
designs representing ani+als'
The prehistoric Egyptians +ay also fairly be said to ha&e attained
greater perfection than other peoples in the ?eolithic stage of culture,
in other arts besides the +aking of stone tools and *eapons' Their
pottery is of re+arkable perfection' ?o* that the sites of the Egyptian
prehistoric settle+ents ha&e been so thoroughly eCplored by co+petent
archologists Iand, unhappily, as thoroughly pillaged by inco+petent
nati&esJ, this prehistoric Egyptian pottery has beco+e eCtre+ely *ell
kno*n' "n fact, it is so co++on that good speci+ens +ay be bought
any*here in Egypt for a fe* piastres' Bost +useu+s possess sets of this
pottery, of *hich great Auantities ha&e been brought back fro+ Egypt
by Prof' Petrie and other eCplorers' "t is of &ery great interest,
artistically as *ell as historically' The potterDs *heel *as not yet
in&ented, and all the &ases, e&en those of the +ost perfect shape, *ere
built up by hand' The perfection of for+ attained *ithout the aid of the
*heel is truly +ar&ellous'
The co++onest type of this pottery is a red polished *are &ase *ith
black top, due to its ha&ing been baked +outh do*n*ard in a fire, the
ashes of *hich, according to Prof' Petrie, deoCidiGed the h+atite
burnishing, and so turned the red colour to black' L"n good eCa+ples
the h+atite has not only been reduced to black +agnetic oCide, but
the black has the highest polish, as seen on fine Greek &ases' This is
probably due to the for+ation of carbonyl gas in the s+othered fire'
This gas acts as a sol&ent of +agnetic oCide, and hence allo*s it to
assu+e a ne* surface, like the glassy surface of so+e +arbles subjected
to solution in *ater'L This black and red *are appears to be the +ost
ancient prehistoric Egyptian pottery kno*n' #ater in date are a red
*are and a black *are *ith rude geo+etrical incised designs, i+itating
basket*ork, and *ith the incised lines filled in *ith *hite' #ater again
is a buff *are, either plain or decorated *ith *a&y lines, concentric
circles, and elaborate dra*ings of boats sailing on the ?ile, ostriches,
fish, +en and *o+en, and so on'
4"llustration. 2/6'jpg IrightJ B><< (!$E @!E, Predynastic period,
before R222 B'C'8
These designs are in deep red' (ith this elaborate pottery the ?eolithic
cera+ic art of Egypt reached its highest pointK in the succeeding period
Ithe beginning of the historic ageJ there *as a decline in *ork+anship,
eChibiting clu+sy for+s and bad colour, and it is not until the ti+e of
the "@th %ynasty that good pottery Ia fine polished redJ is once +ore
found' Bean*hile the in&ention of glaGed pottery, *hich *as unkno*n to
the prehistoric Egyptians, had been +ade Ibefore the beginning of the
"st %ynastyJ' The unglaGed *are of the first three dynasties *as bad,
but the ne* in&ention of light blue glaGed faience Inot porcelain
properly so calledJ see+s to ha&e +ade great progress, and *e possess
fine speci+ens at the beginning of the "st %ynasty' The prehistoric
Egyptians *ere also proficient in other arts' They car&ed i&ory and they
*orked gold, *hich is kno*n to ha&e been al+ost the first +etal *orked
by +anK certainly in Egypt it *as utiliGed for orna+ent e&en before
copper *as used for *ork' (e +ay refer to the illustration of a flint
knife *ith gold handle, already gi&en' 4; ee illustration'8
The date of the actual introduction of copper for tools and *eapons into
Egypt is uncertain, but it see+s probable that copper *as occasionally
used at a &ery early period' Copper *eapons ha&e been found in
pre-dynastic gra&es beside the finest buff pottery *ith elaborate red
designs, so that *e +ay say that *hen the flint-*orking and pottery of
the ?eolithic Egyptians had reached its Genith, the use of copper *as
already kno*n, and copper *eapons *ere occasionally e+ployed' (e can
thus speak of the LChalcolithicL period in Egypt as ha&ing already begun
at that ti+e, no doubt se&eral centuries before the beginning of the
historical or dynastic age' trictly speaking, the Egyptians re+ained
in the LChalcolithicL period till the end of the H""th %ynasty, but in
practice it is best to speak of this period, *hen the *ord is used, as
eCtending fro+ the ti+e of the finest flint *eapons and pottery of the
prehistoric age I*hen the L?eolithicL period +ay be said to closeJ till
about the ""d or """d %ynasty' By that ti+e the LBronGe,L or, rather,
LCopper,L !ge of Egypt had *ell begun, and already stone *as not in
co++on use'
The prehistoric pottery is of the greatest &alue to the archologist,
for *ith its help so+e idea +ay be obtained of the succession of periods
*ithin the late ?eolithic-Chalcolithic !ge' The enor+ous nu+ber of
prehistoric gra&es *hich ha&e been eCa+ined enables us to +ake an
eChausti&e co+parison of the different kinds of pottery found in
the+, so that *e can arrange the+ in order according to pottery they
contained' By this +eans *e obtain an idea of the de&elop+ent of
different types of pottery, and the seAuence of the types' Thus it is
that *e can say *ith so+e degree of confidence that the black and red
*are is the +ost ancient for+, and that the buff *ith red designs is one
of the latest for+s of prehistoric pottery' Other objects found in the
gra&es can be classified as they occur *ith different pottery types'
(ith the help of the pottery *e can thus gain a +ore or less reliable
conspectus of the de&elop+ent of the late L?eolithicL culture of Egypt'
This syste+ of LseAuence-datingL *as introduced by Prof' Petrie, and is
certainly &ery useful' "t +ust not, ho*e&er, be pressed too far or be
regarded as an iron-bound syste+, *ith *hich all subseAuent disco&eries
+ust be +ade to fit in by force' "t is not to be supposed that all
prehistoric pottery de&eloped its series of types in an absolutely
orderly +anner *ithout de&iations or thro*s-back' The *ork of +anDs
hands is &ariable and eccentric, and does not de&elop or e&ol&e in an
unde&iating course as the *ork of nature does' "t is a +istake, &ery
often +ade by anthropologists and archologists, *ho forget this
ele+entary fact, to assu+e Lcur&es of de&elop+ent,L and so forth, or
se+i-sa&age culture, on absolutely e&en and regular lines' Hu+an culture
has not de&eloped either e&enly or regularly, as a +atter of fact'
Therefore *e cannot al*ays be sure that, because the Egyptian black and
red pottery does not occur in gra&es *ith buff and red, it is for
this reason absolutely earlier in date than the latter' o+e of the
de&elop+ent-seAuences +ay in reality be conte+porary *ith others instead
of earlier, and allo*ance +ust al*ays be +ade for aberrations and
re&ersions to earlier types'
This ca&eat ha&ing been entered, ho*e&er, *e +ay pro&isionally
accept Prof' PetrieDs syste+ of seAuence-dating as gi&ing the best
classification of the prehistoric antiAuities according to de&elop+ent'
o it +ay fairly be said that, as far as *e kno*, the black and red
pottery ILseAuence-date 72--LJ is the +ost ancient ?eolithic Egyptian
*are kno*nK that the buff and red did not begin to be used till about
LseAuence-date R3KL that bone and i&ory car&ings *ere co++onest in the
earlier period ILseAuence-dates 72-32LJK that copper *as al+ost unkno*n
till LseAuence-date 32,L and so on' The arbitrary nu+bers used range
fro+ 72 to 92, in order to allo* for possible earlier and later
additions, *hich +ay be rendered necessary by the progress of disco&ery'
The nu+bers are of course as purely arbitrary and relati&e as those
of the different ther+o+etrical syste+s, but they afford a con&enient
syste+ of arrange+ent' The products of the prehistoric Egyptians are, so
to speak, distributed on a con&entional plan o&er a scale nu+bered fro+
72 to 92, 72 representing the beginning and 92 the close of the ter+,
so far as its close has as yet been ascertained' "t is probable that
LseAuence-date 92L +ore or less accurately +arks the beginning of the
dynastic or historical period'
This hypothetically chronological classification is, as has been said,
due to Prof' Petrie, and has been adopted by Br' $andall-Bacl&er and
other students of prehistoric Egypt in their *ork' 4;FEl !+ra and
!bydosF, Egypt ECploration <und, /:21'8 To Prof' Petrie then is due the
credit of syste+atiGing the study of Egyptian prehistoric antiAuitiesK
but the further credit of ha&ing Fdisco&eredF these antiAuities
the+sel&es and settled their date belongs not to hi+ but to the
distinguished <rench archologist, B' =' de Borgan, *ho *as for se&eral
years director of the +useu+ at GiGa, and is no* chief of the <rench
archological delegation in Persia, *hich has +ade of late years so +any
i+portant disco&eries' The proof of the prehistoric date of this class
of antiAuities *as gi&en, not by Prof' Petrie after his eCca&ations at
%endera in /9:6-9, but by B' de Borgan in his &olu+e, F$echerches sur
les Origines de lDTgypte. lDUge de la Pierre et les BQtauCF, published
in /9:3-0' "n this book the true chronological position of the
prehistoric antiAuities *as pointed out, and the eCistence of an
Egyptian tone !ge finally decided' B' de BorganDs *ork *as based on
careful study of the results of eCca&ations carried on for se&eral years
by the Egyptian go&ern+ent in &arious parts of Egypt, in the course
of *hich a large nu+ber of ce+eteries of the pri+iti&e type had been
disco&ered' "t *as soon e&ident to B' de Borgan that these pri+iti&e
gra&es, *ith their unusual pottery and flint i+ple+ents, could be
nothing less than the to+bs of the prehistoric Egyptians, the Egyptians
of the tone !ge'
Objects of the prehistoric period had been kno*n to the +useu+s for +any
years pre&iously, but o*ing to the uncertainty of their pro&enance and
the absence of kno*ledge of the eCistence of the pri+iti&e ce+eteries,
no scientific conclusions had been arri&ed at *ith regard to the+K and
it *as not till the publication of B' de BorganDs book that they *ere
recogniGed and classified as prehistoric' The necropoles in&estigated
by B' de Borgan and his assistants eCtended fro+ )a*V+il in the north,
about t*enty +iles north of !bydos, to Edfu in the south' The chief
ce+eteries bet*een these t*o points *ere those of BVt !lla+, aghel
el-Baglieh, el-D!+ra, ?akVda, TWkh, and GebelNn' !ll the burials *ere
of si+ple type, analogous to those of the ?eolithic races in the rest
of the *orld' "n a shallo*, o&al gra&e, eCca&ated often but a fe* inches
belo* the surface of the soil, lay the body, cra+ped up *ith the knees
to the chin, so+eti+es in a rough boC of pottery, +ore often *ith only
a +at to co&er it' $eady to the hand of the dead +an *ere his flint
*eapons and tools, and the usual red and black, or buff and red, pots
lay beside hi+K originally, no doubt, they had been filled *ith the
funeral +eats, to sustain the ghost in the neCt *orld' Occasionally a
si+ple copper *eapon *as found' (ith the body *ere also buried slate
palettes for grinding the green eye-paint *hich the Egyptians lo&ed e&en
at this early period' These are often car&ed to suggest the for+s of
ani+als, such as birds, bats, tortoises, goats, etc'K on others are
fantastic creatures *ith t*o heads' Co+bs of bone, too, are found,
orna+ented in a si+ilar *ay *ith birdsD or goatsD heads, often double'
!nd +ost interesting of all are the s+all bone and i&ory figures of +en
and *o+en *hich are also found' These usually ha&e little blue beads for
eyes, and are of the Auaintest and nai&est appearance concei&able' Here
*e ha&e an elderly +an *ith a long pointed beard, there t*o *o+en *ith
inane s+iles upon their countenances, here another *o+an, of better *ork
this ti+e, *ith a child slung across her shoulder' This figure, *hich
is in the British Buseu+, +ust be &ery late, as prehistoric Egyptian
antiAuities go' "t is al+ost as good in style as the early "st %ynasty
objects' uch *ere the objects *hich the si+ple piety of the early
Egyptian pro+pted hi+ to bury *ith the bodies of his dead, in order that
they +ight find solace and content+ent in the other *orld'
!ll the prehistoric ce+eteries are of this type, *ith the gra&es pressed
closely together, so that they often i+pinge upon one another' The
nearness of the gra&es to the surface is due to the eCposed positions,
at the entrances to F*adisF, in *hich the pri+iti&e ce+eteries are
usually found' The result is that they are al*ays s*ept by the *inds,
*hich pre&ent the desert sand fro+ accu+ulating o&er the+, and so ha&e
preser&ed the original le&el of the ground' <ro+ their proCi+ity to
the surface they are often found disturbed, +ore often by the agency of
jackals than that of +an'
Conte+poraneously *ith B' de BorganDs eCplorations, Prof' <linders
Petrie and Br' =' Ouibell had, in the *inter of /9:R-3, eCca&ated in
the districts of Tukh and ?akada, on the *est bank of the ?ile opposite
)optos, a series of eCtensi&e ce+eteries of the pri+iti&e type, fro+
*hich they obtained a large nu+ber of antiAuities, published in their
&olu+e ?agada and %allas' The plates gi&ing representations of the
antiAuities found *ere of the highest interest, but the scientific &alue
of the letter-press is &itiated by the fact that the true historical
position of the antiAuities *as not percei&ed by their disco&erers, *ho
ca+e to the conclusion that these re+ains *ere those of a L?e* PaceL of
#ibyan in&aders' This race, they supposed, had entered Egypt after the
close of the flourishing period of the LOld )ingdo+L at the end of the
@"th %ynasty, and had occupied part of the ?ile &alley fro+ that ti+e
till the period of the Hth %ynasty'
This conclusion *as pro&ed erroneous by B' de Borgan al+ost as soon
as +ade, and the <rench archologistDs identification of the pri+iti&e
re+ains as pre-dynastic *as at once generally accepted' "t *as ob&ious
that a hypothesis of the settle+ent of a stone-using barbaric race in
the +idst of Egypt at so late a date as the period i++ediately preceding
the H""th %ynasty, a race *hich +iCed in no *ay *ith the nati&e
Egyptians the+sel&es, and left no trace of their influence upon the
later Egyptians, *as one *hich de+anded greater faith than the si+ple
eCplanation of B' de Borgan'
The error of the British eCplorers *as at once ad+itted by Br' Ouibell,
in his &olu+e on the eCca&ations of /9:6 at el-)ab, published in /9:9';
Br' Ouibell at once found full and adeAuate confir+ation of B' de
BorganDs disco&ery in his diggings at el-)ab' Prof' Petrie ad+itted
the correctness of B' de BorganDs &ie*s in the preface to his &olu+e
%iospolis Par&a, published three years later in /:2/';; The preface to
the first &olu+e of B' de BorganDs book contained a generous recognition
of the +ethod and general accuracy of Prof' PetrieDs eCca&ations, *hich
contrasted fa&ourably, according to B' de Borgan, *ith the eCca&ations
of others, generally carried on *ithout scientific control, and *ith
the sole ai+ of obtaining antiAuities or literary teCts';;; That B' de
BorganDs o*n *ork *as carried out as scientifically and as carefully
is e&ident fro+ the fact that his conclusions as to the chronological
position of the prehistoric antiAuities ha&e been sho*n to be correct'
To describe B' de BorganDs disco&ery as a Lhappy guess,L as has been
done, is therefore beside the +ark'
; El-)ab' Egyptian $esearch !ccount, /9:6, p' //'
;; %iospolis Par&a' Egypt ECploration <und, /:2/, p' 1'
;;; $echerches. !ge de la Pierre, p' Ciii'
!nother +ost i+portant British eCca&ation *as that carried on by
Bessrs' $andall-Bacl&er and (ilkin at el-D!+ra' The i+posing lion-headed
pro+ontory of el-D!+ra stands out into the plain on the *est bank of the
?ile about fi&e +iles south of !bydos' !t the foot of this hill B' de
Borgan found a &ery eCtensi&e prehistoric necropolis, *hich he eCa+ined,
but did not eCca&ate to any great eCtent, and the *ork of thoroughly
eCca&ating it *as perfor+ed by Bessrs' $andall-Bac"&er and (ilkin for
the Egypt ECploration <und' The results ha&e thro*n &ery great light
upon the prehistoric culture of Egypt, and burials of all prehistoric
types, so+e of the+ pre&iously unobser&ed, *ere found' !+ong the +ost
interesting are burials in pots, *hich ha&e also been found by Br'
Garstang in a predynastic necropolis at $agagna, north of !bydos' One
of the +ore re+arkable obser&ations +ade at el-D!+ra *as the progressi&e
de&elop+ent of the to+bs fro+ the si+plest pot-burial to a s+all brick
cha+ber, the e+bryo of the brick to+bs of the "st %ynasty' !+ong the
objects reco&ered fro+ this site +ay be +entioned a pottery +odel of
oCen, a boC in the shape of a +odel hut, and a slate LpaletteL *ith *hat
is perhaps the oldest Egyptian hieroglyph kno*n, a representation of the
fetish-sign of the god Bin, in relief' !ll these are preser&ed in the
British Buseu+' The skulls of the bodies found *ere carefully preser&ed
for cranio+etric eCa+ination'
"n /:2/ an eCtensi&e prehistoric ce+etery *as being eCca&ated by Bessrs'
$eisner and #ythgoe at ?agDed-%Nr, opposite Girga, and at el-!hai*a,
further north, another prehistoric necropolis has been eCca&ated by
these gentle+en, *orking for the >ni&ersity of California'
4"llustration. 216'jpg C!BP O< THE EHPE%"T"O? O< THE >?"@E$"T, O<
C!#"<O$?"! !T ?!GD E%-%M$, /:2/'8
The ce+etery of ?agDed-%Nr is of the usual prehistoric type, *ith its
+ultitudes of s+all o&al gra&es, eCca&ated just a little *ay belo* the
surface' Gra&es of this kind are the +ost pri+iti&e of all' Those at
el-D!+ra are usually +ore de&eloped, often, as has been noted, rising to
the height of regular brick to+bs' They are e&idently later, nearer to
the ti+e of the "st %ynasty' The position of the ?agDed-%Nr ce+etery is
also characteristic' "t lies on the usual lo* ridge at the entrance to a
desert F*adiF, *hich is itself one of the +ost picturesAue in this
part of Egypt, *ith its chaos of great boulders and fallen rocks' !n
illustration of the ca+p of Br' $eisnerDs eCpedition at ?agDed-%Nr is
gi&en abo&e' The eCca&ations of the >ni&ersity of California are carried
out *ith the greatest possible care and are financed *ith the greatest
possible liberality' Br' $eisner has therefore been able to keep an
absolutely co+plete photographic record of e&erything, e&en do*n to
the successi&e stages in the opening of a to+b, *hich *ill be of the
greatest use to science *hen published'
<or a detailed study of the antiAuities of the prehistoric period the
publications of Prof' Petrie, Br' Ouibell, and Br' $andall-Bacl&er are
+ore useful than that of B' de Borgan, *ho does not gi&e enough details'
E&ery ato+ of e&idence is gi&en in the publications of the British
eCplorers, *hereas it is a characteristic of <rench *ork to gi&e
brilliant conclusions, beautifully illustrated, *ithout +uch of the
e&idence on *hich the conclusions are based' This kind of *ork does not
appeal to the !nglo-aCon +ind, *hich takes nothing on trust, e&en
fro+ the +ost reno*ned eCperts, and al*ays *ants to kno* the *hy and
*herefore' The co+plete publication of e&idence *hich +arks the British
*ork *ill no doubt be +et *ith, if possible in e&en +ore co+plete
detail, in the !+erican *ork of Bessrs' $eisner, #ythgoe, and Bace Ithe
last-na+ed is an English+anJ for the >ni&ersity of California, *hen
published' The Auestion of speedy &ersus delayed publication is a &ery
&eCing one' Prof' Petrie prefers to publish as speedily as possibleK siC
+onths after the seasonDs *ork in Egypt is done, the full publication
*ith photographs of e&erything appears' Br' $eisner and the <rench
eCplorers prefer to publish nothing until they ha&e eChausti&ely studied
the *hole of the e&idence, and can eCtract nothing +ore fro+ it' This
*ould be ad+irable if the <rench published their disco&eries fully, but
they do not' E&en B' de Borgan has not approached the fulness of
detail *hich characteriGes British *ork and *hich *ill characteriGe Br'
$eisnerDs publication *hen it appears' The only dra*back to this +ethod
is that general interest in the particular eCca&ations described tends
to pass a*ay before the full description appears'
Prof' Petrie has eCplored other prehistoric sites at !badiya, and Br'
Ouibell at el-)ab' B' de Borgan and his assistants ha&e eCa+ined a large
nu+ber of sites, ranging fro+ the %elta to el-)ab' <urther research has
sho*n that so+e of the sites identified by B' de Borgan as prehistoric
are in reality of +uch later date, for eCa+ple, )ahun, *here the late
flints of H""th %ynasty date *ere found' He notes that Llarge nu+bers
of ?eolithic flint *eapons are found in the desert on the borders of
the <ayyu+, and at Hel*an, south of Cairo,L and that all the i+portant
necropoles and kitchen-+iddens of the predynastic people are to be found
in the districts of !bydos and Thebes, fro+ el-)a*a+il in the ?orth to
el-)ab in the outh' "t is of course too soon to assert *ith confidence
that there are no prehistoric re+ains in any other part of Egypt,
especially in the long tract bet*een the <ayyW+ and the district of
!bydos, but up to the present ti+e none ha&e been found in this region'
This geographical distribution of the prehistoric re+ains fits in
curiously *ith the ancient legend concerning the origin of the ancestors
of the Egyptians in >pper Egypt, and supports the +uch discussed theory
that they ca+e originally to the ?ile &alley fro+ the shores of the $ed
ea by *ay of the (adi Ha++a+at, *hich debouches on to the ?ile in the
&icinity of )optos and )us, opposite Ballas and TWkh' The supposition
see+s a &ery probable one, and it +ay *ell be that the earliest
Egyptians entered the &alley of the ?ile by the route suggested and
then spread north*ards and south*ards in the &alley' The fact that their
re+ains are not found north of el-)a*V+il nor south of el-)ab +ight
perhaps be eCplained by the supposition that, *hen they had eCtended
thus far north and south fro+ their original place of arri&al, they
passed fro+ the pri+iti&e ?eolithic condition to the +ore highly
de&eloped copper-using culture of the period *hich i++ediately preceded
the establish+ent of the +onarchy' The ?eolithic *eapons of the <ayyW+
and Hel-*Vn *ould then be the re+ains of a different people, *hich
inhabited the %elta and Biddle Egypt in &ery early ti+es' This people
+ay ha&e been of Bediterranean stock, akin to the pri+iti&e inhabitants
of Palestine, Greece, "taly, and painK and they no doubt *ere identical
*ith the inhabitants of #o*er Egypt *ho *ere o&erthro*n and conAuered by
)ha-sekhe+ and the other outhern founders of the +onarchy I*ho belonged
to the race *hich had co+e fro+ the $ed ea by the (adi Ha++a+atJ, and
so *ere the ancestors of the later nati&es of #o*er Egypt' (hether the
outherners, *hose pri+iti&e re+ains *e find fro+ el-)a*V+il to el-)ab,
*ere of the sa+e race as the ?ortherners *ho+ they conAuered, cannot
be decided' The skull-for+ of the outherners agrees *ith that of the
Bediterranean races' But *e ha&e no nQcropoles of the ?ortherners to
tell us +uch of their peculiarities' (e ha&e nothing but their flint
arro*heads'
But it should be obser&ed that, in spite of the present absence of all
pri+iti&e re+ains I*hether +ere flints, or actual gra&es *ith bodies and
relicsJ of the pri+e&al population bet*een the <ayyW+ and el-)a*V+il,
there is no proof that the pri+iti&e race of >pper Egypt *as not
coter+inous and identical *ith that of the lo*er country' "t
+ight therefore be urged that the *hole ?eolithic population *as
LBediterraneanL by its skull-for+ and body-structure, and specifically
L?iloticL Iindigenous EgyptianJ in its culture-type' This is Auite
possible, but *e ha&e again to account for the legends of distant origin
on the $ed ea coast, the probability that one ele+ent of the Egyptian
population *as of eCtraneous origin and ca+e fro+ the east into the ?ile
&alley near )optos, and finally the historical fact of an ad&ance of the
early dynastic Egyptians fro+ the outh to the conAuest of the ?orth'
The latter fact +ight of course be eCplained as a ci&il *ar analogous
to that bet*een Thebes and !syWt in the ti+e of the "Hth %ynasty, but
against this eCplanation is to be set the fact that the conte+porary
+onu+ents of the outherners eChibit the +en of the ?orth as of foreign
and non-Egyptian ethnic type, rese+bling #ibyans' "t is possible that
they *ere akin to the #ibyansK and this *ould sAuare &ery *ell *ith the
first theory, but it +ay also be +ade to fit in *ith a de&elop+ent of
the second, *hich has been generally accepted'
!ccording to this &ie*, the *hole pri+iti&e ?eolithic population of
?orth and outh *as Biotic, indigenous in origin, and akin to the
LBediterraneans Lof Prof' ergi and the other ethnologists' "t *as not
this population, the stone-users *hose nQcropoles ha&e been found by
Bessrs' de Borgan, PQtrie, and Bacl&er, that entered the ?ile &alley by
the (adi Ha++a+at' This *as another race of different ethnic origin,
*hich ca+e fro+ the $ed ea to*ard the end of the ?eolithic period,
and, being of higher ci&iliGation than the nati&e ?ilotes, assu+ed the
lordship o&er the+, ga&e a great i+petus to the de&elop+ent of their
culture, and started at once the institution of +onarchy, the kno*ledge
of letters, and the use of +etals' The chiefs of this superior tribe
founded the +onarchy, conAuered the ?orth, unified the kingdo+, and
began Egyptian history' <ro+ +any indications it *ould see+ probable
that these conAuerors *ere of Babylonian origin, or that the culture
they brought *ith the+ Ipossibly fro+ !rabiaJ *as ulti+ately of
Babylonian origin' They the+sel&es *ould see+ to ha&e been e+ites,
or rather proto-e+ites, *ho ca+e fro+ !rabia to !frica by *ay of
the straits of Bab el-Bandeb, and proceeded up the coast to about the
neighbourhood of )usNr, *hence the (adi Ha++a+at offered the+ an open
road to the &alley of the ?ile' By this route they +ay ha&e entered
Egypt, bringing *ith the+ a ci&iliGation, *hich, like that of the other
e+ites, had been profoundly influenced and +odified by that of the
u+erian inhabitants of Babylonia' This e+itic-u+erian culture,
+ingling *ith that of the ?ilotes the+sel&es, produced the ci&iliGation
of !ncient Egypt as *e kno* it'
This is a &ery plausible hypothesis, and has a great deal of e&idence in
its fa&our' "t see+s certain that in the early dynastic period t*o
races li&ed in Egypt, *hich differed considerably in type, and also,
apparently, in burial custo+s' The later Egyptians al*ays buried the
dead lying on their backs, eCtended at full length' %uring the period of
the Biddle )ingdo+ IH"th-H"""th %ynastiesJ the head *as usually turned
o&er on to the left side, in order that the dead +an +ight look through
the t*o great eyes painted on that side of the coffin' !fter*ard the
rigidly eCtended position *as al*ays adopted' The ?eolithic Egyptians,
ho*e&er, buried the dead lying *holly on the left side and in a
contracted position, *ith the knees dra*n up to the chin' The bodies
*ere not e+bal+ed, and the eCtended position and +u++ification *ere
ne&er used' >nder the "@th %ynasty *e find in the necropolis of BNdW+
Inorth of the PayyW+J the t*o positions used si+ultaneously, and the
eCtended bodies are +u++ified' The contracted bodies are skeletons, as
in the case of +ost of the predynastic bodies' (hen these are found *ith
flesh, skin, and hair intact, their preser&ation is due to the dryness
of the soil and the preser&ati&e salts it contains, not to intentional
e+bal+ing, *hich *as e&idently introduced by those *ho e+ployed the
eCtended position in burial' The contracted position is found as late as
the @th %ynasty at %ashasha, south of the EayyW+, but after that date it
is no longer found'
The conclusion is ob&ious that the contracted position *ithout
+u++ification, *hich the ?eolithic people used, *as supplanted in the
early dynastic period by the eCtended position *ith +u++ification, and
by the ti+e of the @"th %ynasty it *as entirely superseded' This points
to the supersession of the burial custo+s of the indigenous ?eolithic
race by those of another race *hich conAuered and do+inated the
indigenes' !nd, since the eCtended burials of the "@th %ynasty are
e&idently those of the higher nobles, *hile the contracted ones are
those of inferior people, it is probable that the custo+s of eCtended
burial and e+bal+ing *ere introduced by a foreign race *hich founded the
Egyptian +onarchical state, *ith its hierarchy of nobles and officials,
and in fact started Egyptian ci&iliGation on its *ay' The conAuerors of
the ?orth *ere thus not the descendants of the ?eolithic people of the
outh, but their conAuerorsK in fact, they do+inated the indigenes both
of ?orth and outh, *ho *ill then appear Isince *e find the custo+ of
contracted burial in the ?orth at %ashasha and BNdW+J to ha&e originally
belonged to the sa+e race'
The conAuering race is that *hich is supposed to ha&e been of e+itic or
proto-e+itic origin, and to ha&e brought ele+ents of u+erian culture
to sa&age Egypt' The reasons ad&anced for this supposition are the
follo*ing.--
I/J =ust as the Egyptian race *as e&idently co+pounded of t*o ele+ents,
of conAuered LBediterraneansL and conAuering C, so the Egyptian language
is e&idently co+pounded of t*o ele+ents, the one ?ilotic, perhaps
related in so+e degree to the Berber dialects of ?orth !frica, the other
not C, but e&idently e+itic'
I1J Certain ele+ents of the early dynastic ci&iliGation, *hich do not
appear in that of the earlier pre-dynastic period, rese+ble *ell-kno*n
ele+ents of the ci&iliGation of Babylonia' (e +ay instance the use of
the cylinder-seal, *hich died out in Egypt in the ti+e of the H@"""th
%ynasty, but *as al*ays used in Babylonia fro+ the earliest to the
latest ti+es' The early Egyptian +ace-head is of eCactly the sa+e
type as the early Babylonian one' "n the British Buseu+ is an Egyptian
+ace-head of red breccia, *hich is identical in shape and siGe *ith
one fro+ Babylonia Ialso in the +useu+J bearing the na+e of
hargani-shar-ali Ii'e' argon, )ing of !gadeJ, one of the earliest
Chaldan +onarchs, *ho +ust ha&e li&ed about the sa+e ti+e as the
Egyptian kings of the ""d-"""d %ynasties, to *hich period the Egyptian
+ace-head +ay also be approCi+ately assigned' The Egyptian art of the
earliest dynasties bears again a re+arkable rese+blance to that of early
Babylonia' "t is not till the ti+e of the ""d %ynasty that Egyptian art
begins to take upon itself the regular for+ *hich *e kno* so *ell, and
not till that of the "@th that this for+ *as finally crystalliGed' >nder
the /st %ynasty *e find the figure of +an or, to take other instances,
that of a lion, or a ha*k, or a snake, often treated in a style &ery
different fro+ that in *hich *e are accusto+ed to see a +an, a lion, a
ha*k, or a snake depicted in *orks of the later period' !nd the striking
thing is that these early representations, *hich differ so +uch fro+
*hat *e find in later Egyptian art, curiously rese+ble the *orks of
early Babylonian art, of the ti+e of the patesis of hirpurla or the
)ings hargani-shar-ali and ?arV+-in' One of the best kno*n relics
of the early art of Babylonia is the fa+ous Ltele of @ulturesL no* in
Paris' On this *e see the ene+ies of Eannadu, one of the early rulers
of hirpurla, cast out to be de&oured by the &ultures' On an Egyptian
relief of slate, e&idently originally dedicated in a te+ple record of
so+e historical e&ent, and dating fro+ the beginning of the "st %ynasty
Ipractically conte+porary, according to our latest kno*ledge, *ith
EannaduJ, *e ha&e an al+ost eCactly si+ilar scene of capti&es being cast
out into the desert, and de&oured by lions and &ultures' The t*o reliefs
are curiously alike in their clu+sy, naX&e style of art' ! further
point is that the official represented on the stele, *ho appears to be
thrusting one of the bound capti&es out to die, *ears a long fringed
gar+ent of Babylonish cut, Auite different fro+ the clothes of the later
Egyptians'
I7J There are e&idently t*o distinct and different +ain strata in the
fabric of Egyptian religion' On the one hand *e find a +ass of +yth and
religious belief of &ery pri+iti&e, al+ost sa&age, cast, co+bining
a *orship of the actual dead in their to+bs--*hich *ere supposed
to co++unicate and thus for+ a &eritable Lunder*orld,L or, rather,
Lunder-EgyptL--*ith &eneration of +agic ani+als, such as jackals, cats,
ha*ks, and crocodiles' On the other hand, *e ha&e a sun and sky *orship
of a +ore ele&ated nature, *hich does not see+ to ha&e a+alga+ated *ith
the earlier fetishis+ and corpse-*orship until a co+parati&ely late
period' The +ain seats of the sun-*orship *ere at Heliopolis in the
%elta and at Edfu in >pper Egypt' Heliopolis see+s al*ays to ha&e been
a centre of light and leading in Egypt, and it is, as is *ell kno*n,
the On of the Bible, at *hose uni&ersity the =e*ish la*gi&er Boses is
related to ha&e been educated Lin all the *isdo+ of the Egyptians'L The
philosophical theories of the priests of the un-gods, $V-Har+achis and
Turn, at Heliopolis see+ to ha&e been the source fro+ *hich sprang the
+onotheistic heresy of the %isk-(orshippers Iin the ti+e of the H@"""th
%ynastyJ, *ho, under the guidance of the refor+ing )ing !khunaten,
*orshipped only the disk of the sun as the source of all life, the door
in hea&en, so to speak, through *hich the hidden One %eity poured
forth heat and light, the origin of life upon the earth' @ery early
in Egyptian history the Heliopolitans gained the upper hand, and the
$V-*orship Iunder the @th %ynasty, the apogee of the Old )ingdo+J ca+e
to the front, and for the first ti+e the kings took the after*ards
ti+e-honoured royal title of Lon of the un'L "t appears then as a
+ore or less foreign i+portation into the ?ile &alley, and bears +ost
undoubtedly a e+itic i+press' "ts t*o chief seats *ere situated, the
one, Heliopolis, in the ?orth on the eastern edge of the %elta,--just
*here an early e+itic settle+ent fro+ o&er the desert +ight be eCpected
to be found,--the other, Edfu, in the >pper Egyptian territory south
of the ThebaXd, )optos, and the (adi Ha+-+a+at, and close to the chief
settle+ent of the earliest kings and the +ost ancient capital of >pper
Egypt'
IRJ The custo+ of burying at full length *as e&idently introduced into
Egypt by the second, or C race' The ?eolithic Egyptians buried in the
cra+ped position' The early Babylonians buried at full length, as far
as *e kno*' On the sa+e Ltele of @ultures,L *hich has already been
+entioned, *e see the burying at full length of dead *arriors' 4; ee
illustration'8 There is no trace of any FearlyF burial in Babylonia in
the cra+ped position' The to+bs at (arka IErechJ *ith cra+ped bodies
in pottery coffins are of &ery late date' ! further point arises *ith
regard to e+bal+ing' The ?eolithic Egyptians did not e+bal+ the dead'
>sually their cra+ped bodies are found as skeletons' (hen they are
+u++ified, it is +erely o*ing to the preser&ati&e action of the salt
in the soil, not to any process of e+bal+ing' The second, or C race,
ho*e&er, e&idently introduced the custo+ of e+bal+ing as *ell as that
of burial at full length and the use of coffins' The ?eolithic Egyptian
used no boC or coffin, the nearest approach to this being a pot, *hich
*as in&erted o&er the coiled up body' >sually only a +at *as put o&er
the body'
4"llustration. 279'jpg Portion of the Ltele of @ulturesL <ound at
Telloh8
4"llustration. 279-teCt'jpg8
?o* it is e&ident that Babylonians and !ssyrians, *ho buried the dead at
full length in chests, had so+e kno*ledge of e+bal+ing' !n !ssyrian king
tells us ho* he buried his royal father.--
L(ithin the gra&e, the secret place,
"n kingly oil, " gently laid hi+'
The gra&e-stone +arketh his resting-place'
(ith +ighty bronGe " sealed its entrance,
!nd " protected it *ith an incantation'L
The Lkingly oilL *as e&idently used *ith the idea of preser&ing the body
fro+ decay' alt also *as used to preser&e the dead, and Herodotus
says that the Babylonians buried in honey, *hich *as also used by the
Egyptians' ?o doubt the Babylonian +ethod *as less perfect than the
Egyptian, but the co+parison is an interesting one, *hen taken in
connection *ith the other points of rese+blance +entioned abo&e'
(e find, then, that an analysis of the Egyptian language re&eals a
e+itic ele+ent in itK that the early dynastic culture had certain
characteristics *hich *ere unkno*n to the ?eolithic Egyptians but are
closely parallelled in early BabyloniaK that there *ere t*o ele+ents in
the Egyptian religion, one of *hich see+s to ha&e originally belonged to
the ?eolithic people, *hile the other has a e+itic appearanceK and that
there *ere t*o sets of burial custo+s in early Egypt, one, that of the
?eolithic people, the other e&idently that of a conAuering race, *hich
e&entually pre&ailed o&er the for+erK these later rites *ere analogous
to those of the Babylonians and !ssyrians, though differing fro+ the+
in points of detail' The conclusion is that the C or conAuering race
*as e+itic and brought to Egypt the e+itic ele+ents in the Egyptian
religion and a culture originally deri&ed fro+ that of the u+erian
inhabitants of Babylonia, the non-e+itic parent of all e+itic
ci&iliGations'
The Auestion no* arises, ho* did this e+itic people reach EgyptP (e
ha&e the choice of t*o points of entry. <irst, Heliopolis in the ?orth,
*here the e+itic sun-*orship took root, and, second, the (adi Ha++a-+at
in the outh, north of Edfu, the southern centre of sun-*orship, and
Hierakonpolis I?ekheb-?ekhenJ, the capital of the >pper Egyptian kingdo+
*hich eCisted before the foundation of the +onarchy' The legends *hich
see+ to bring the ancestors of the Egyptians fro+ the $ed ea coast ha&e
already been +entioned' They are closely connected *ith the *orship
of the ky and un god Horus of Edfu' Hathor, his nurse, the LHouse of
Horus,L the centre of *hose *orship *as at %endera, i++ediately opposite
the +outh of the (adi Ha++a+at, *as said to ha&e co+e fro+ Ta-neter,
LThe Holy #and,L i'e' !byssinia or the $ed ea coast, *ith the co+pany
or FpautF of the gods' ?o* the Egyptians al*ays see+ to ha&e had so+e
idea that they *ere connected racially *ith the inhabitants of the #and
of Punt or Puenet, the +odern !byssinia and o+aliland' "n the ti+e of
the H@"""th %ynasty they depicted the inhabitants of Punt as greatly
rese+bling the+sel&es in for+, feature, and dress, and as *earing the
little turned-up beard *hich *as *orn by the Egyptians of the earliest
ti+es, but e&en as early as the "@th %ynasty *as reser&ed for the
gods' <urther, the *ord FPuntF is al*ays *ritten *ithout the hieroglyph
deter+inati&e of a foreign country, thus sho*ing that the Egyptians did
not regard the Punites as foreigners' This certainly looks as if the
Punites *ere a portion of the great +igration fro+ !rabia, left behind
on the !frican shore *hen the rest of the *andering people pressed on
north*ards to the (adi Ha++a+at and the ?ile' "t +ay be that the +odern
Gallas and !byssinians are descendants of these Punites'
?o* the ky-god of Edfu is in legend a conAuering hero *ho ad&ances do*n
the ?ile &alley, *ith his FBesniuF, or L+iths,L to o&erthro* the people
of the ?orth, *ho+ he defeats in a great battle near %endera' This +ay
be a re+iniscence of the first fights of the in&aders *ith the ?eolithic
inhabitants' The other for+ of Horus, LHorus, son of "sis,L has also a
body of retainers, the Fhe+su-HeruF, or L<ollo*ers of Horns,L *ho are
spoken of in late teCts as the rulers of Egypt before the +onarchy' They
e&idently correspond to the dynasties of FBanesF,
4"llustration. 2R/greek'jpg8
or LGhosts,L of Banetho, and are probably intended for the early kings
of Hierakonpolis'
The +ention of the <ollo*ers of Horus as L+ithsL is &ery interesting,
for it *ould appear to sho* that the e+itic conAuerors *ere notable
as +etal-users, that, in fact, their conAuest *as that old story in the
da*n of the *orldDs history, the utter o&erthro* and subjection of the
stone-users by the +etal-users, the pri+e&al tragedy of the supersession
of flint by copper' This +ay be, but if the L+ithsL *ere the e+itic
conAuerors *ho founded the kingdo+, it *ould appear that the use of
copper *as kno*n in Egypt to so+e eCtent before their arri&al, for *e
find it in the gra&es of the late ?eolithic Egyptians, &ery sparsely
fro+ LseAuence-date 72L to LR3,L but after*ards +ore co++only' "t *as
e&idently beco+ing kno*n' The supposition, ho*e&er, that the L+ithsL
*ere the e+itic conAuerors, and that they *on their *ay by the aid of
their superior *eapons of +etal, +ay be pro&isionally accepted'
"n fa&our of the &ie* *hich *ould bring the conAuerors by *ay of the
(adi Ha++a+at, an interesting disco&ery +ay be Auoted' "++ediately
opposite %en-dera, *here, according to the legend, the battle bet*een
the FBesniuF and the aborigines took place, lies )optos, at the +outh of
the (adi Ha++a+at' Here, in /9:R, underneath the pa&e+ent of the ancient
te+ple, Prof' Petrie found re+ains *hich he then diagnosed as belonging
to the +ost ancient epoch of Egyptian history' !+ong the+ *ere so+e
eCtre+ely archaic statues of the god Bin, on *hich *ere curious
scratched dra*ings of bears, Fcrioceras-shellsF, elephants *alking o&er
hills, etc', of the +ost pri+iti&e description' (ith the+ *ere lionsD
heads and birds of a style then unkno*n, but *hich *e no* kno* to belong
to the period of the beginning of the "st %ynasty' But the statues of
Bin are older' The Fcrioceras-shellsF belong to the $ed ea' !re *e to
see in these statues the holy i+ages of the conAuerors fro+ the $ed ea
*ho reached the ?ile &alley by *ay of the (adi Ha++a+at, and set up the
first +e+orials of their presence at )optosP "t +ay be so, or the Bin
statues +ay be older than the conAuerors, and belong to the ?eolithic
race, since Bin and his fetish I*hich *e find on the slate palette fro+
el-D!+ra, already +entionedJ see+ to belong to the indigenous ?ilotes'
"n any case *e ha&e in these statues, t*o of *hich are in the !sh+olean
Buseu+ at OCford, probably the +ost ancient cult-i+ages in the *orld.
This theory, *hich *ould +ake all the ?eolithic inhabitants of Egypt
one people, *ho *ere conAuered by a e+itic race, bringing a culture of
u+erian origin to Egypt by *ay of the (adi Ha++a+at, is that generally
accepted at the present ti+e' "t +ay, ho*e&er, e&entually pro&e
necessary to +odify it' <or reasons gi&en abo&e, it +ay *ell be that the
?eolithic population *as itself not indigenous, and that it reached the
?ile &alley by *ay of the (adi Ha++a+at, spreading north and south
fro+ the +outh of the F*adiF' "t +ay also be considered probable that
a e+itic *a&e in&aded Egypt by *ay of the "sth+us of ueG, *here
the early sun-cultus of Heliopolis probably +arks a pri+e&al e+itic
settle+ent' "n that case it *ould see+ that the FBesniuF or L+iths,L
*ho introduced the use of +etal, *ould ha&e to be referred to the
originally ?eolithic pre-e+itic people, *ho certainly *ere acAuainted
*ith the use of copper, though not to any great eCtent' But this is not
a necessary supposition' The FBesniuF are closely connected *ith the
ky-god Horus, *ho *as possibly of e+itic origin, and another e+itic
*a&e, Auite distinct fro+ that *hich entered Egypt by *ay of the
"sth+us, +ay &ery *ell also ha&e reached Egypt by the (adi Ha++a+at, or,
eAually possibly, fro+ the far south, co+ing do*n to the ?ile fro+ the
!byssinian +ountains' The legend of the co+ing of Hathor fro+ Ta-neter
+ay refer to so+e such *andering, and *e kno* that the Egyptians of the
Old )ingdo+ co++unicated *ith the #and of Punt, not by *ay of the $ed
ea coast as Hatshepsut did, but by *ay of the >pper ?ile' This *ould
tally *ell *ith the +arch of the FBesniuF north*ards fro+ Edfu to their
battle *ith the forces of et at %endera'
"n any case, at the da*n of connected Egyptian history, *e find t*o +ain
centres of ci&iliGation in Egypt, Heliopolis and Buto in the %elta
in the ?orth, and Edfu and Hierakonpolis in the outh' Here *ere
established at the beginning of the Chalcolithic stage of culture, *e
+ay say, t*o kingdo+s, of #o*er and >pper Egypt, *hich *ere e&entually
united by the superior ar+s of the kings of >pper Egypt, *ho i+posed
their rule upon the ?orth but at the sa+e ti+e re+o&ed their capital
thither' The dualis+ of Buto and Hierakonpolis really lasted throughout
Egyptian history' The king *as al*ays called L#ord of the T*o #ands,L
and *ore the cro*ns of >pper and #o*er EgyptK the snakes of Buto and
?ekhebet Ithe goddess of ?ekheb, opposite ?ekhen or HierakonpolisJ
al*ays typified the united kingdo+' This dualis+ of course often led to
actual di&ision and re&ersion to the predynastic order of things, as,
for instance, in the ti+e of the HH"st %ynasty'
"t +ight *ell see+ that both the i+pulses to culture de&elop+ent in the
?orth and outh ca+e fro+ e+itic inspiration, and that it *as to
the e+itic in&aders in ?orth and outh that the founding of the t*o
kingdo+s *as due' This +ay be true to so+e eCtent, but it is at the sa+e
ti+e &ery probable that the first de&elop+ent of political culture at
Hierakonpolis *as really of pre-e+itic origin' The kingdo+ of Buto,
since its capital is situated so near to the seacoast, +ay ha&e o*ed
its origin to o&ersea Bediterranean connections' There is +uch in
the political constitution of later Egypt *hich see+s to ha&e been of
indigenous and pre-e+itic origin' Especially does this see+ to be so in
the case of the di&ision and organiGation of the country into no+es' "t
is ob&ious that so soon as agriculture began to be practised on a large
scale, boundaries *ould be for+ed, and in the uniAue conditions of
Egypt, *here all boundaries disappear beneath the inundation e&ery
year, it is e&ident that the fiCing of di&ision-lines as per+anently as
possible by +eans of land+arks *as early essayed' (e can therefore *ith
confidence assign the for+ation of the no+es to &ery early ti+es' ?o*
the na+es of the no+es and the sy+bols or e+ble+s by *hich they *ere
distinguished are of &ery great interest in this connection' They are
nearly all figures of the +agic ani+als of the pri+iti&e religion, and
fetish-e+ble+s of the older deities' The na+es are, in fact, those of
the territories of the ?eolithic Egyptian tribes, and their e+ble+s are
those of the protecting tribal de+ons' The political di&isions of the
country see+, then, to be of eCtre+ely ancient origin, and if the no+es
go back to a ti+e before the e+itic in&asions, so +ay also the kingdo+s
of the outh and ?orth'
Of these predynastic kingdo+s *e kno* &ery little, eCcept fro+ legendary
sources' The ?ortherners *ho *ere conAuered by !ha, ?ar+er, and
)hVsekhehiui do not look &ery +uch like Egyptians, but rather rese+ble
e+ites or #ibyans' On the Ltele of Paler+o,L a chronicle of early
kings inscribed in the period of the @th %ynasty, *e ha&e a list of
early kings of the ?orth,--eka, %esau, Tiu, Tesh, ?ihab, >atjVntj,
Bekhe' The na+es are pri+iti&e in for+' (e kno* nothing +ore about the+'
#ast year Br' C' T' Currelly atte+pted to eCca&ate at Buto, in order to
find traces of the predynastic kingdo+, but o*ing to the infiltration of
*ater his efforts *ere unsuccessful' "t is i+probable that anything is
no* left of the +ost ancient period at that site, as the conditions in
the %elta are so &ery different fro+ those obtaining in >pper Egypt'
There, at Hierakonpolis, and at el-)ab on the opposite bank of the ?ile,
the sites of the ancient cities ?ekhen and ?ekheb, the eCca&ators ha&e
been &ery successful' The *ork *as carried out by Bessrs' Ouibell and
Green, in the years /9:/-:' Prehistoric burials *ere found on the hills
near by, but the larger portion of the antiAuities *ere reco&ered fro+
the te+ple-ruins, and date back to the beginning of the /st %ynasty,
eCactly the ti+e *hen the kings of Hierakonpolis first conAuered the
kingdo+ of Buto and founded the united Egyptian +onarchy'
The ancient te+ple, *hich *as probably one of the earliest seats of
Egyptian ci&iliGation, *as situated on a +ound, no* kno*n as Fel-)o+
el-ah+arF, Lthe $ed Hill,L fro+ its colour' The chief feature of the
+ost ancient te+ple see+s to ha&e been a circular +ound, re&etted by a
*all of sandstone blocks, *hich *as apparently erected about the end of
the predynastic period' >pon this a shrine *as probably erected' This
*as the ancient shrine of ?ekhen, the cradle of the Egyptian +onarchy'
Close by it *ere found so+e of the +ost &aluable relics of the earliest
Pharaonic age, the great cere+onial +ace-heads and &ases of ?ar+er and
Lthe corpion,L the shields or LpalettesL of the sa+e ?ar+er, the &ases
and stelas of )hVsekhe+ui, and, of later date, the splendid copper
colossal group of )ing Pepi " and his son, *hich is no* at Cairo' Bost
of the /st %ynasty objects are preser&ed in the !sh+o-lean Buseu+ at
OCford, *hich is one of the best centres for the study of early Egyptian
antiAuities' ?ar+er and )hVsekhe+ui are, as *e shall see, t*o of the
first +onarchs of all Egypt' These sculptured and inscribed +ace-heads,
shields, etc', are +onu+ents dedicated by the+ in the ancestral shrine
at Hierakonpolis as records of their deeds' Both kings see+ to ha&e
*aged *ar against the ?ortherners, the F!nuF of Heliopolis and the
%elta, and on these &oti&e +onu+ents fro+ Hierakonpolis *e find
hieroglyphed records of the defeat of the F!nuF, *ho ha&e &ery
definitely e+itic physiogno+ies'
On one shield or palette *e see ?ar+er clubbing a +an of e+itic
appearance, *ho is called the LOnly One of the BarshL I%eltaJ, *hile
belo* t*o other e+ites fly, seeking Lfortress-protection'L !bo&e is a
figure of a ha*k, sy+boliGing the >pper Egyptian king, holding a rope
*hich is passed through the nose of a e+itic head, *hile behind is a
sign *hich +ay be read as Lthe ?orth,L so that the *hole sy+boliGes the
leading a*ay of the ?orth into capti&ity by the king of the outh' "t
is significant, in &ie* of *hat has been said abo&e *ith regard to the
probable e+itic origin of the Heliopolitan ?ortherners, to find the
people typical of the ?orth-land represented by the outherners as
e+ites' EAually e+itic is the o&erthro*n ?ortherner on the other
side of this *ell-kno*n +onu+ent *hich *e are describingK he is being
tra+pled under the hoofs and gored by the horns of a bull, *ho, like the
ha*k, sy+boliGes the king' The royal bull has broken do*n the *all of a
fortified enclosure, in *hich is the hut or tent of the e+ite, and the
bricks lie about pro+iscuously'
"n connection *ith the e+itic origin of the ?ortherners, the for+ of
the fortified enclosures on both sides of this +onu+ent Ithat to *hose
protection the t*o e+ites on one side fly, and that out of *hich the
kingly bull has dragged the chief on the otherJ is noticeable' !s usual
in Egyptian *riting, the hieroglyph of these buildings takes the for+ of
a plan' The plan sho*s a crenelated enclosure, rese+bling the *alls of
a great Babylonian palace or te+ple, such as ha&e been found at Telloh,
(arka, or Bukayyar' The sa+e design is found in Egypt at the huret
eG-Yebib, an Old )ingdo+ fortress at !bydos, in the to+b of )ing !ha at
?akVda, and in +any *alls of +astaba-to+bs of the early ti+e' This is
another argu+ent in fa&our of an early connection bet*een Egypt and
Babylonia' (e illustrate a frag+ent of another &oti&e shield or palette
of the sa+e kind, no* in the +useu+ of the #ou&re, *hich probably ca+e
originally fro+ Hierakonpolis' "t is of eCactly si+ilar *ork+anship to
that of ?ar+er, and is no doubt a frag+ent of another +onu+ent of that
king' On it *e see the sa+e subject of the o&erthro*ing of a ?ortherner
Iof e+itic aspectJ by the royal bull' On one side, belo*, is a
fortified enclosure *ith crenelated *alls of the type *e ha&e described,
and *ithin it a lion and a &aseK belo* this another fort, and a bird
*ithin it' These signs +ay eCpress the na+es of the t*o forts, but,
o*ing to the fact that at this early period Egyptian orthography *as
not yet fiCed, *e cannot read the+' On the other side *e see a ro* of
ani+ated no+e-standards of >pper Egypt, *ith the sy+bols of the god Bin
of )optos, the ha*k of Horus of Edfu, the ibis of Thot of Esh+unNn, and
the jackals of !nubis of !bydos, *hich drag a ropeK had *e the rest
of the +onu+ent, *e should see, bound at the end of the rope, so+e
prisoner, king, or ani+al sy+bolic of the ?orth' On another slate
shield, *hich *e also reproduce, *e see a sy+bolical representation of
the capture of se&en ?orthern cities, *hose na+es see+ to +ean the LT*o
Ben,L the LHeron,L the LO*l,L the LPal+,L and the LGhostL Cities'
LGhost CityL is attacked by a lion, LO*l CityL by a ha*k, LPal+ CityL by
t*o ha*k no+e-standards, and another, *hose na+e *e cannot guess at, is
being opened up by a scorpion'
4"llustration. 232'jpg IleftJ OB@E$E O< ! #!TE $E#"E<'8
The operating ani+als e&idently represent no+es and tribes of the >pper
Egyptians' Here again *e see the sa+e crenelated *alls of the ?orthern
to*ns, and there is no doubt that this slate frag+ent also, *hich is
preser&ed in the Cairo Buseu+, is a +onu+ent of the conAuests of ?ar+er'
"t is eCecuted in the sa+e archaic style as those fro+ Hierakonpolis'
The ani+als on the other side no doubt represent part of the spoil of
the ?orth'
$eturning to the great shield or palette found by Br' Ouibell, *e see
the king co+ing out, follo*ed by his sandal-bearer, the FHen-neterF or
LGodDs er&ant,L; to &ie* the dead bodies of the slain ?ortherners *hich
lie arranged in ro*s, decapitated, and *ith their heads bet*een their
feet' The king is preceded by a procession of no+e-standards'
4"llustration. 23/'jpg IrightJ8
!bo&e the dead +en are sy+bolic representations of a ha*k perched on a
harpoon o&er a boat, and a ha*k and a door, *hich doubtless again refer
to the fights of the royal ha*k of >pper Egypt on the ?ile and at the
gate of the ?orth' The designs on the +ace-heads refer to the sa+e
conAuest of the ?orth'
; "n his co++entary IHierakonpolis, i' p' :J on this scene,
Prof' Petrie supposes that the se&en-pointed star sign +eans
Lking,L and co+pares the eight-pointed star Lused for king
in Babylonia'L The eight-pointed star of the cuneifor+
script does not +ean Lking,L but Lgod'L The star then ought
to +ean Lgod,L and the title Lser&ant of a god,L and this
supposition +ay be correct' FHen-neterF, LgodDs ser&ant,L
*as the appellation of a peculiar kind of priest in later
days, and *as then spelt *ith the ordinary sign for a god,
the picture of an aCe' But in the archaic period, *ith *hich
*e are dealing, a star like the Babylonian sign +ay &ery
*ell ha&e been used for Lgod,L and the title of ?ar+erDs
sandal-bearer +ay read FHen-neterF' He *as the sla&e of the
li&ing god ?ar+er' !ll Egyptian kings *ere regarded as
deities, +ore or less'
The +onu+ents )hVsekhe+ui, a king, sho* us that he conAuered the ?orth
also and sle* R6,12: L?orthern Ene+ies'L The contorted attitudes of the
dead ?ortherners *ere greatly ad+ired and sketched at the ti+e, and *ere
reproduced on the pedestal of the kingDs statue found by Br' Ouibell,
*hich is no* at OCford' "t *as an age of cheerful sa&age energy, like
+ost ti+es *hen kingdo+s and peoples are in the +aking' !bout R222 B'C'
is the date of these &arious +onu+ents'
4"llustration. 231'jpg OB@E$E OP ! #!TE $E#"E<'8
)hVsekhe+ui probably li&ed later than ?ar+er, and *e +ay suppose that
his conAuest *as in reality a re-conAuest' He +ay ha&e li&ed as late
as the ti+e of the ""d %ynasty, *hereas ?ar+er +ust be placed at the
beginning of the "st, and his conAuest *as probably that *hich first
united the t*o kingdo+s of the outh and ?orth' !s *e shall see in
the neCt chapter, he is probably one of the originals of the legendary
LBena,L *ho *as regarded fro+ the ti+e of the H@"""th %ynasty on*ards
as the founder of the kingdo+, and *as first +ade kno*n to Europe by
Herodotus, under the na+e of LBenQs'L
4"llustration. 237'jpg $E@E$E O< ! #!TE $E#"E<, $EP$EE?T"?G
!?"B!#'8
?ar+er is therefore the last of the ancient kings of Hierakonpolis, the
last of BanethoDs Lpirits'L (e +ay possibly ha&e reco&ered the na+es of
one or t*o of the kings anterior to ?ar+er in the eCca&ations at !bydos
Isee Chapter ""J, but this is uncertain' To all intents and purposes *e
ha&e only legendary kno*ledge of the outhern kingdo+ until its close,
*hen ?ar+er the +ighty *ent forth to strike do*n the !nu of the ?orth,
an eCploit *hich he recorded in &oti&e +onu+ents at Hierakonpolis, and
*hich *as co++e+orated hencefor*ard throughout Egyptian history in the
yearly L<east of the +iting of the !nu'L Then *as Egypt for the first
ti+e united, and the fortress of the L(hite (all,L the LGood !bodeL of
Be+phis, *as built to do+inate the lo*er country' The "st %ynasty *as
founded and Egyptian history began'
4"llustration. 23R'jpg 8
CH!PTE$ ""--!B,%O !?% THE <"$T TH$EE %,?!T"E
>ntil the recent disco&eries had been +ade, *hich ha&e thro*n so +uch
light upon the early history of Egypt, the traditional order and na+es
of the kings of the first three Egyptian dynasties *ere, in default of
+ore accurate infor+ation, retained by all *riters on the history of the
period' The na+es *ere taken fro+ the official lists of kings at !bydos
and else*here, and *ere di&ided into dynasties according to the syste+
of Banetho, *hose na+es agree +ore or less *ith those of the lists and
*ere e&idently deri&ed fro+ the+ ulti+ately' (ith regard to the fourth
and later dynasties it *as clear that the king-lists *ere correct, as
their e&idence agreed entirely *ith that of the conte+porary +onu+ents'
But no +eans eCisted of checking the lists of the first three dynasties,
as no conte+porary +onu+ents other than a "@th %ynasty +ention of a ""d
%ynasty king, end, had been found' The lists dated fro+ the ti+e of
the H@"""th and H"Hth %ynasties, so that it *as &ery possible that *ith
regard to the earliest dynasties they +ight not be &ery correct' This
conclusion gained additional *eight fro+ the fact that no +onu+ents of
these earliest kings *ere e&er disco&eredK it therefore see+ed probable
that they *ere purely legendary figures, in *hose ti+e Iif they e&er did
eCistJ Egypt *as still a se+i-barbarous nation' The jejune stories told
about the+ by Banetho see+ed to confir+ this idea' Bena, the reputed
founder of the +onarchy, *as generally regarded as a historical figure,
o*ing to the persistence of his na+e in all ancient literary accounts
of the beginnings of Egyptian historyK for it *as but natural to suppose
that the na+e of the +an *ho unified Egypt and founded Be+phis *ould
endure in the +ouths of the people' But *ith regard to his successors
no such supposition see+ed probable, until the ti+e of neferu and the
pyra+id-builders'
This *as the critical &ie*' !nother school of historians accepted all
the kings of the lists as historical Fen blocF, si+ply because the
Egyptians had registered their na+es as kings' To the+ Teta, !teth, and
!ta *ere as historical as Bena'
Bodern disco&ery has altered our &ie*, and truth is seen to lie bet*een
the opposing schools, as usual' The kings after Bena do not see+ to be
such entirely unhistorical figures as the eCtre+e critics thoughtK
the na+es of se&eral of the+, e'g' Berpeba, of the "st %ynasty, are
correctly gi&en in the later lists, and those of others *ere si+ply
+isread, e' g' that of e+ti of the sa+e dynasty, +isread LHeseptiL by
the list-+akers' On the other hand, Bena hi+self has beco+e a so+e*hat
doubtful Auantity' The real na+es of +ost of the early +onarchs of Egypt
ha&e been reco&ered for us by the latest eCca&ations, and *e can no* see
*hen the list-+akers of the H"Hth %ynasty *ere right and *hen they *ere
*rong, and can distinguish *hat is legendary in their *ork fro+ *hat is
really historical' "t is true that they &ery often appear to ha&e been
*rong, but, on the other hand, they *ere so+eti+es uneCpectedly near
the +ark, and the general nu+ber and arrange+ent of their kings
see+s correctK so that *e can still go to the+ for assistance in the
arrange+ent of the na+es *hich are co++unicated to us by the ne*ly
disco&ered +onu+ents' BanethoDs help, too, need ne&er be despised
because he *as a copyist of copyistsK *e can still use hi+ to direct our
in&estigations, and his arrange+ent of dynasties +ust still re+ain the
fra+e*ork of our chronological sche+e, though he does not see+ to ha&e
been al*ays correct as to the places in *hich the dynasties originated'
Bore than the na+es of the kings ha&e the ne* disco&eries co++unicated
to us' They ha&e shed a flood of light on the beginnings of Egyptian
ci&iliGation and art, supple+enting the recently ascertained facts
concerning the prehistoric age *hich ha&e been described in the
preceding chapter' The i+pulse to these disco&eries *as gi&en by the
*ork of B' de Borgan, *ho eCca&ated sites of the early dynastic as
*ell as of the predynastic age' !+ong these *as a great +astaba-to+b at
?akVda, *hich pro&ed to be that of a &ery early king *ho bore the na+e
of !ha, Lthe <ighter'L The *alls of this to+b are crenelated like
those of the early Babylonian palaces and the forts of the ?ortherners,
already referred to' B' de Borgan early percei&ed the difference bet*een
the ?eolithic antiAuities and those of the later archaic period of
Egyptian ci&iliGation, to *hich the to+b at ?akVda belonged' "n the
second &olu+e of his great *ork on the pri+iti&e antiAuities of Egypt
FI#D!ge des BQtauC et lQ To+beau $oyale de ?QgadehJF, he described
the antiAuities of the "st %ynasty *hich had been found at the ti+e he
*rote' !ntiAuities of the sa+e pri+iti&e period and e&en of an earlier
date had been disco&ered by Prof' <linders Petrie, as has already been
said, at )optos, at the +outh of the (adi Ha++a+at' But though Prof'
Petrie correctly diagnosed the age of the great statues of the god
Bin *hich he found, he *as led, by his +isdating of the L?e* $aceL
antiAuities fro+ Ballas and TWkh, also to +isdate se&eral of the
pri+iti&e antiAuities,--the lions and ha*ks, for instance, found at
)optos, he placed in the period bet*een the @""th and Hth %ynastiesK
*hereas they can no*, in the light of further disco&eries at !bydos, be
seen to date to the earlier part of the "st %ynasty, the ti+e of ?ar+er
and !ha'
"t is these disco&eries at !bydos, coupled *ith those Ialready
describedJ of Br' Ouibell at Hierakonpolis, *hich ha&e told us +ost of
*hat *e kno* *ith regard to the history of the first three dynasties'
!t !bydos Prof' Petrie *as not hi+self the first in the field, the site
ha&ing already been partially eCplored by a <rench Egyptologist, B'
!+Qlineau' The eCca&ations of B' !+Qlineau *ere, ho*e&er, perhaps
not conducted strictly on scientific lines, and his results ha&e been
insufficiently published *ith &ery fe* photographs, so that *ith the
best *ill in the *orld *e are unable to gi&e B' !+Qlineau the full
credit *hich is, no doubt, due to hi+ for his *ork' The syste+ of Prof'
PetrieDs publications has been often, and *ith justice, criticiGed, but
he at least tells us e&ery year *hat he has been doing, and gi&es us
photographs of e&erything he has found' <or this reason the epoch-+aking
disco&eries at !bydos ha&e been coupled chiefly *ith the na+e of Prof'
Petrie, *hile that of B' !+Qlineau is rarely heard in connection *ith
the+' !s a +atter of fact, ho*e&er, B' !+Qlineau first eCca&ated the
necropolis of the early kings at !bydos, and disco&ered +ost of the
to+bs after*ards *orked o&er by Prof' Petrie and Br' Bace' ,et +ost of
the i+portant scientific results are due to the later eCplorers, *ho
*ere the first to atte+pt a classification of the+, though *e +ust
add that this classification has not been entirely accepted by the
scientific *orld'
The necropolis of the earliest kings of Egypt is situated in the great
bay in the hills *hich lies behind !bydos, to the south*est of the +ain
necropolis' Here, at holy !bydos, *here e&ery pious Egyptian *ished to
rest after death, the bodies of the +ost ancient kings *ere buried' "t
is said by Banetho that the original seat of their do+inion *as This,
a to*n in the &icinity of !bydos, no* represented by the +odern GrZrga,
*hich lies a fe* +iles distant fro+ its site Iel-BirbaJ' This +ay be a
fact, but *e ha&e as yet obtained no confir+ation of it' "t +ay *ell be
that the attribution of a Thinite origin to the "st and ""d %ynasties
*as due si+ply to the fact that the kings of these dynasties *ere buried
at !bydos, *hich lay *ithin the Thinite no+e' Banetho kne* that they
*ere buried at !bydos, and so ju+ped to the conclusion that they li&ed
there also, and called the+ LThinites'L
4"llustration. 202'jpg P$O<' PET$"ED C!BP !T !B,%O, /:2/'8
Their real place of origin +ust ha&e been Hierakonpolis, *here the
pre-dynastic kingdo+ of the outh had its seat' The Hid %ynasty *as no
doubt of Be+phite origin, as Banetho says' "t is certain that the
seat of the go&ern+ent of the "@th %ynasty *as at Be+phis, *here the
pyra+id-building kings *ere buried, and *e kno* that the sepulchres
of t*o Hid %ynasty kings, at least, *ere situated in the necropolis of
Be+phis IakkVra-BNdW+J' o that probably the seat of go&ern+ent *as
transferred fro+ Hierakonpolis to Be+phis by the first king of the Hid
%ynasty' Thencefor*ard the kings *ere buried in the Be+phite necropolis'
The t*o great nQcropoles of Be+phis and !bydos *ere originally the
seats of the *orship of the t*o Egyptian gods of the dead, eker and
)henta+enti, both of *ho+ *ere after*ards identified *ith the Busirite
god Osiris' !bydos *as also the centre of the *orship of !nubis, an
ani+al-deity of the dead, the jackal *ho pro*ls round the to+bs at
night' !nubis and Osiris-)henta+enti, LHe *ho is in the (est,L *ere
associated in the +inds of the Egyptians as the protecting deities of
!bydos' The *orship of these gods as the chief outhern deities of the
dead, and the pree+inence of the necropolis of !bydos in the outh, no
doubt date back before the ti+e of the "st %ynasty, so that it *ould
not surprise us *ere burials of kings of the predynastic Hierakonpolite
kingdo+ disco&ered at !bydos' Prof' Petrie indeed clai+s to ha&e
disco&ered actual royal relics of that period at !bydos, but this see+s
to be one of the least certain of his conclusions' (e cannot definitely
state that the na+es L$o,L L)a,L and L+aL Iif they are na+es at all,
*hich is doubtfulJ belong to early kings of Hierakonpolis *ho *ere
buried at !bydos' "t +ay be so, but further confir+ation is desirable
before *e accept it as a factK and as yet such confir+ation has not been
forthco+ing' The oldest kings, *ho *ere certainly buried at !bydos, see+
to ha&e been the first rulers of the united kingdo+ of the ?orth and
outh, !ha and his successors' ?Dar+er is not represented' "t +ay
be that he *as not buried at !bydos, but in the necropolis of
Hierakonpolis' This *ould point to the kings of the outh not ha&ing
been buried at !bydos until after the unification of the kingdo+'
That !ha possessed a to+b at !bydos as *ell as another at ?akVda see+s
peculiar, but it is a pheno+enon not unkno*n in Egypt' e&eral kings,
*hose bodies *ere actually buried else*here, had second to+bs at !bydos,
in order that they +ight FpossessF last resting-places near the to+b
of Osiris, although they +ight not prefer to FuseF the+' >sertsen Ior
enusretJ """ is a case in point' He *as really buried in a pyra+id at
"llahun, up in the ?orth, but he had a great rock to+b cut for hi+ in
the cliffs at !bydos, *hich he ne&er occupied, and probably had ne&er
intended to occupy' (e find eCactly the sa+e thing far back at the
beginning of Egyptian history, *hen !ha possessed not only a great
+astaba-to+b at ?akVda, but also a to+b-cha+ber in the great necropolis
of !bydos' "t +ay be that other kings of the earliest period also had
second sepulchres else*here' "t is note*orthy that in none of the early
to+bs at !bydos *ere found any bodies *hich +ight be considered those
of the kings the+sel&es' B' !+Qlineau disco&ered bodies of attendants
or sla&es I*ho *ere in all probability purposely strangled and buried
around the royal cha+ber in order that they should attend the king
in the neCt *orldJ, but no royalties' Prof' Petrie found the ar+ of a
fe+ale +u++y, *ho +ay ha&e been of royal blood, though there is nothing
to sho* that she *as' !nd the Auaint plait and fringe of false hair,
*hich *ere also found, need not ha&e belonged to a royal +u++y' "t is
therefore Auite possible that these to+bs at !bydos *ere not the actual
last resting-places of the earliest kings, *ho +ay really ha&e been
buried at Hierakonpolis or else*here, as !ha *as' Bessrs' ?e*berry
and Gtarstang, in their Fhort History of EgyptF, suppose that !ha *as
actually buried at !bydos, and that the great to+b *ith objects bearing
his na+e, found by B' de Borgan at ?akVda, is really not his, but
belonged to a royal princess na+ed ?eit-hetep, *hose na+e is found in
conjunction *ith his at !bydos and ?akVda' But the argu+ent is eAually
&alid turned round the other *ay. the ?akVda to+b +ight just as *ell be
!haDs and the !bydos one ?eit-hetepDs' ?eit-hetep, *ho is supposed by
Bessrs' ?e*berry and Garstang to ha&e been ?ar+erDs daughter and !haDs
*ife, *as e&idently closely connected *ith !ha, and she +ay ha&e been
buried *ith hi+ at ?akVda and co++e+orated *ith hi+ at !bydos'; "t is
probable that the H"Hth %ynasty list-+akers and Banetho considered the
!bydos to+bs to ha&e been the real gra&es of the kings, but it is by no
+eans i+possible that they *ere *rong'
; ! princess na+ed Bener-ab IL*eet-heartLJ, *ho +ay ha&e
been !haDs daughter, *as actually buried beside his to+b at
!bydos'
This &ie* of the royal to+bs at !bydos tallies to a great eCtent *ith
that of B' ?a&ille, *ho has energetically +aintained the &ie* that B'
!+Qlineau and Prof' Petrie ha&e not disco&ered the real to+bs of the
early kings, but only their conte+porary co++e+orati&e Lto+bsL at
!bydos' The only real to+b of the "st %ynasty, therefore, as yet
disco&ered is that of !ha at ?akVda, found by B' de Borgan' The fact
that attendant sla&es *ere buried around the !bydos to+bs is no bar to
the &ie* that the to+bs *ere only the +onu+ents, not the real gra&es,
of the kings' The royal ghosts *ould naturally &isit their co++e+orati&e
cha+bers at !bydos, in order to be in the co+pany of the great Osiris,
and ghostly ser&ants *ould be as necessary to their Bajesties at !bydos
as else*here'
"t +ust not be thought that this re&ised opinion of the !bydos to+bs
detracts in the slightest degree fro+ the i+portance of the disco&ery of
B' !+Qlineau and its subseAuent and +ore detailed in&estigation by Prof'
Petrie' These +onu+ents are as &aluable for historical purposes as
the real to+bs the+sel&es' The actual bodies of these pri+e&al kings
the+sel&es *e are ne&er likely to find' The to+b of !ha at ?akVda had
been co+pletely rifled in ancient ti+es'
The co++e+orati&e to+bs of the kings of the "st and ""d %ynasties at
!bydos lie south*est of the great necropolis, far *ithin the bay in the
hills' Their present aspect is that of a *ilderness of sand hillocks,
co&ered *ith +asses of frag+ents of red pottery, fro+ *hich the site has
obtained the +odern !rab na+e of F>++ el-GaDabF, LBother of Pots'L "t
is i+possible to +o&e a step in any direction *ithout crushing so+e
of these potsherds under the heel' They are chiefly the re+ains of the
countless little &ases of rough red pottery, *hich *ere dedicated here
as FeC-&otosF by the pious, bet*een the H"Hth and HH@"th %ynasties, to
the +e+ory of the ancient kings and of the great god Osiris, *hose to+b,
as *e shall see, *as supposed to ha&e been situated here also'
4"llustration. 203'jpg IrightJ THE TOBB O< )"?G %E? !T !B,%O' !bout
R222 B'C'8
"nter+ingled *ith these later frag+ents are pieces of the original
"st %ynasty &ases, *hich *ere filled *ith *ine and pro&isions and *ere
placed in the to+bs, for the refresh+ent and delectation of the royal
ghosts *hen they should &isit their houses at !bydos' These *ere thro*n
out and broken *hen the to+bs *ere &iolated' Here and there one sees a
dip in the sand, out of *hich rise four *alls of great bricks, for+ing
a rectangular cha+ber, half-filled *ith sand' This is one of the royal
to+b-cha+bers of the "st %ynasty' That of )ing %en is illustrated abo&e'
! straight staircase descends into it fro+ the ground-le&el abo&e' "n
se&eral of the to+bs the original flooring of *ooden bea+s is still
preser&ed' %enDs is the +ost +agnificent of all, for it has a floor of
granite blocksK *e kno* of no other instance of stone being used for
building in this early age' !l+ost e&ery to+b has been burnt at so+e
period unkno*n' The brick *alls are burnt red, and +any of the alabaster
&ases are al+ost calcined' This *as probably the *ork of so+e unkno*n
ene+y'
The *ide co+plicated to+bs ha&e around the +ain cha+ber a series of
s+aller roo+s, *hich *ere used to store *hat *as considered necessary
for the use of the royal ghost' Of these necessaries the +ost
interesting to us are the sla&es, *ho *ere, as there is little reason to
doubt, purposely killed and buried round the royal cha+ber so that their
spirits should be on the spot *hen the dead king ca+e to !bydosK thus
they *ould be al*ays ready to ser&e hi+ *ith the food and other things
*hich had been stored in the to+b *ith the+ and placed under their
charge' There *ere stacks of great &ases of *ine, corn, and other foodK
these *ere co&ered up *ith +asses of fat to preser&e the contents,
and they *ere corked *ith a pottery stopper, *hich *as protected by
a conical clay sealing, sta+ped *ith the i+press of the royal
cylinder-seal' There *ere bins of corn, joints of oCen, pottery dishes,
copper pans, and other things *hich +ight be useful for the ghostly
cuisine of the to+b' There *ere nu+berless s+all objects, used, no
doubt, by the dead +onarch during life, *hich he *ould be pleased to see
again in the neCt *orld,--car&ed i&ory boCes, little slabs for grinding
eye-paint, golden buttons, +odel tools, +odel &ases *ith gold tops,
i&ory and pottery figurines, and other Fobjets dDartFK the golden royal
seal of judg+ent of )ing %en in its i&ory casket, and so forth' There
*ere +e+orials of the royal &ictories in peace and *ar, little i&ory
plaAues *ith inscriptions co++e+orating the founding of ne* buildings,
the institution of ne* religious festi&als in honour of the gods, the
bringing of the capti&es of the royal bo* and spear to the palace, the
disco+fiture of the peoples of the ?orth-land'
4"llustration. 206'jpg CO?"C!# @!E-TOPPE$' <ro+ !bydos' /st %ynasty.
about R222 B'C'8
!ll these things, *hich ha&e done so +uch to reconstitute for us the
history of the earliest period of the Egyptian +onarchy, *ere placed
under the care of the dead sla&es *hose bodies *ere buried round the
e+pty to+b-cha+ber of their royal +aster in !bydos'
The killing and ento+b+ent of the royal ser&ants is of the highest
anthropological interest, for it thro*s a &i&id light upon the +anners
of the ti+e' "t sho*s the pri+e&al Egyptians as a se+i-barbaric people
of childishly si+ple *ays of thought' The king *as dead' <or all his
kingship he *as a +an, and no +an *as i++ortal in this *orld' But yet
ho* could one really dieP hado*s, drea+s, all kinds of pheno+ena *hich
the pri+iti&e +ind could not eCplain, induced the belief that, though
the outer +an +ight rot, there *as an inner +an *hich could not die
and still li&ed on' The idea of total death *as unthinkable' !nd *here
should this inner +an still li&e on but in the to+b to *hich the outer
+an *as consignedP !nd here, doubtless it *as belie&ed, in the house to
*hich the body *as consigned, the ghost li&ed on' !nd as each ghost had
his house *ith the body, so no doubt all ghosts could co++unicate *ith
one another fro+ to+b to to+bK and so there gre* up the belief in a
to+b-*orld, a subterranean Egypt of to+bs, in *hich the dead Egyptians
still li&ed and had their being' #ater on the boat of the sun, in *hich
the god of light crossed the hea&ens by day, *as thought to pass through
this dead *orld bet*een his setting and his rising, acco+panied by the
souls of the righteous' But of this belief *e find no trace yet in the
ideas of the "st %ynasty' !ll *e can see is that the FsahusF, or bodies
of the dead, *ere supposed to reside in a*ful +ajesty in the to+b,
*hile the ghosts could pass fro+ to+b to to+b through the +aGes of
the under*orld' O&er this dread real+ of dead +en presided a dead god,
Osiris of !bydosK and so the necropolis of !bydos *as the necropolis of
the under*orld, to *hich all ghosts *ho *ere not its rightful citiGens
*ould co+e fro+ afar to pay their court to their ruler' Thus the +an
of substance *ould ha&e a +onu+ental tablet put up to hi+self in this
necropolis as a sort of Fpied-[-terreF, e&en if he could not be buried
thereK for the king, *ho, for reasons chiefly connected *ith local
patriotis+, *as buried near the city of his earthly abode, a second to+b
*ould be erected, a stately +ansion in the city of Osiris, in *hich his
ghost could reside *hen it pleased hi+ to co+e to !bydos'
?o* none could li&e *ithout food, and +en li&ing under the earth needed
it as +uch as +en li&ing on the earth' The royal to+b *as thus pro&ided
*ith an enor+ous a+ount of earthly food for the use of the royal ghost,
and *ith other things as *ell, as *e ha&e seen' The sa+e pro&ision had
also to be +ade for the royal resting-place at !bydos' !nd in both cases
royal sla&es *ere needed to take care of all this pro&ision, and to
ser&e the ghost of the king, *hether in his real to+b at ?akVda, or
else*here, or in his second to+b at !bydos' Ghosts only could ser&e
ghosts, so that of the sla&es ghosts had to be +ade' That *as easily
doneK they died *hen their +aster died and follo*ed hi+ to the to+b'
?o doubt it see+ed perfectly natural to all concerned, to the sla&es as
+uch as to anybody else' But it sho*s the childDs idea of the &alue of
life' !n ani+ate thing *as hardly distinguished at this period fro+ an
inani+ate thing' The +ost ancient Egyptians buried sla&es *ith their
kings as naturally as they buried jars of *ine and bins of corn *ith
the+' Both *ere buried *ith a definite object' The sla&es had to die
before they *ere buried, but then so had the king hi+self' They all had
to die so+eti+e or other' !nd the actual killing of the+ *as no *orse
than killing a dog, no *orse e&en than LkillingL golden buttons and
i&ory boCes' <or, *hen the buttons and boCes *ere buried *ith the king,
they *ere just as +uch dead as the sla&es' Of the sanctity of Fhu+anF
life as distinct fro+ other life, there *as probably no idea at all' The
royal ghost needed ghostly ser&ants, and they *ere pro&ided as a +atter
of course'
But as ci&iliGation progressed, the ideas of the Egyptians changed
on these points, and in the later ages of the ancient *orld they *ere
probably the +ost hu+ane of the peoples, far +ore so than the Greeks,
in fact' The cultured Hellenes +urdered their prisoners of *ar *ithout
hesitation' (ho has not been troubled in +ind by the eCecution of Bkias
and %e+osthenes after the surrender of the !thenian ar+y at yracuseP
(hen *e co+pare this *ith GrantDs refusal e&en to take #eeDs s*ord
at !ppo+attoC, *e see ho* *e ha&e progressed in these +attersK *hile
Gylippus and the yracusans *ere as +uch children as the "st %ynasty
Egyptians' But the Egyptians of GylippusDs ti+e had probably ad&anced
+uch further than the Greeks in the direction of rational +anhood' (hen
!+asis had his ri&al !pries in his po*er, he did not put hi+ to death,
but kept hi+ as his coadjutor on the throne' !pries fled fro+ hi+,
allied hi+self *ith Greek pirates, and ad&anced against his generous
ri&al' !fter his defeat and +urder at Bo+e+phis, !+asis ga&e hi+ a
splendid burial' (hen *e co+pare this generosity to a beaten foe *ith
the sa&agery of the !ssyrians, for instance, *e see ho* far the later
Egyptians had progressed in the paths of hu+anity'
The ancient custo+ of killing sla&es *as first discontinued at the death
of the lesser chieftains, but *e find a possible sur&i&al of it in the
case of a king, e&en as late as the ti+e of the H"th %ynastyK for at
Thebes, in the precinct of the funerary te+ple of )ing ?eb-hapet-$V
Bentuhetep and round the central pyra+id *hich co++e+orated his +e+ory,
*ere buried a nu+ber of the ladies of his FharZ+F' They *ere all buried
at one and the sa+e ti+e, and there can be little doubt that they *ere
all killed and buried round the king, in order to be *ith hi+ in the
neCt *orld' ?o* *ith each of these ladies, *ho had been turned into
ghosts, *as buried a little *aCen hu+an figure placed in a little +odel
coffin' This *as to replace her o*n sla&e' he *ho *ent to acco+pany
the king in the neCt *orld had to ha&e her o*n attendant also' But, not
being royal, a real sla&e *as not killed for herK she only took *ith her
a *aCen figure, *hich by +eans of char+s and incantations *ould, *hen
she called upon it, turn into a real sla&e, and say, LHere a+ ",L and do
*hate&er *ork +ight be reAuired of her' The actual killing and burial
of the sla&es had in all cases eCcept that of the king been long
Lco++uted,L so to speak, into a burial *ith the dead person of
FushabtisF, or L!ns*erers,L little figures like those described abo&e,
+ade +ore usually of stone, and inscribed *ith the na+e of the deceased'
They *ere called L!ns*erersL because they ans*ered the call of their
dead +aster or +istress, and by +agic po*er beca+e ghostly ser&ants'
#ater on they *ere +ade of *ood and glaGed FfaXenceF, as *ell as stone'
By this +eans the greater hu+anity of a later age sought a relief fro+
the pri+iti&e disregard of the death of others'
!nthropologically interesting as are the results of the eCca&ations at
>++ el-GraDab, they are no less historically i+portant' There is no need
here to *eary the reader *ith the details of scientific contro&ersyK it
*ill suffice to set before hi+ as succinctly and clearly as possible the
net results of the *ork *hich has been done'
Bessrs' !+Qlineau and Petrie ha&e found the secondary to+bs and ha&e
identified the na+es of the follo*ing pri+e&al kings of Egypt' (e
arrange the+ in their apparent historical order'
/' !ha Ben IPJ'
1' ?ar+er Ior Betju+erJ +a IPJ'
7' Tjer Ior )hentJ' Besh'
R' Tja !ti'
3' %en e+ti'
0' !tjab Berpeba'
6' e+erkha ?ekht'
9' OV en'
:' )hVsekhe+ I)hVsekhe+uiJ
/2' Hetepsekhe+ui'
//' $\neb'
/1' ?eneter'
/7' ekhe+ab Perabsen'
T*o or three other na+es are ascribed by Prof' Petrie to the
Hierakonpolite dynasty of >pper Egypt, *hich, as it occurs before the
ti+e of Bena and the "st %ynasty, he calls L%ynasty 2'L %ynasty 2,
ho*e&er, is no dynasty, and in any case *e should prefer to call the
LpredynasticL dynasty L%ynasty "'L The na+es of L%ynasty +inus One,L
ho*e&er, re+ain proble+atical, and for the present it *ould see+ safer
to suspend judg+ent as to the place of the supposed royal na+es L$oL and
L)aLIBen-kafJ, *hich Prof' Petrie supposes to ha&e been those of t*o
of the kings of >pper Egypt *ho reigned before Bena' The king
L+aLIL>niterLJ is possibly identical *ith !ha or ?ar+er, +ore
probably the latter' "t is not necessary to detail the process by *hich
Egyptologists ha&e sought to identify these thirteen kings *ith the
successors of Bena in the lists of kings and the "st and ""d %ynasties
of Banetho' The *ork has been &ery successful, though not perhaps Auite
so co+pletely acco+plished as Prof' Petrie hi+self inclines to belie&e'
The first identification *as +ade by Prof' ethe, of Gottingen, *ho
pointed out that the na+es e+ti and Berpeba on a &ase-frag+ent found
by B' !+Qlineau *ere in reality those of the kings Hesepti and Berbap
of the lists, the OusaphaXs and Biebis of Banetho' The perfectly certain
identifications are these.--
3' %en e+ti ] Hesepti, FOusaphaXsF, "st %ynasty'
0' !tjab Berpeba ] Berbap, FBiebisF, "st %ynasty'
6' e+erkha ?ekht] he+su or e+se+ IPJ, Fe+e+presF, "st %ynasty'
9' OV en ] Oebh, FBienehhesF, "st %ynasty'
:' )hVsekhe+ui Besh ] Betju-+er IPJ, FBoethosF, ""d %ynasty'
/2' ?eneter ] Bineneter, FBinothrisF, ""d %ynasty'
iC of the !bydos kings ha&e thus been identified *ith na+es in the
lists and in BanethoK that is to say, *e no* kno* the real na+es of siC
of the earliest Egyptian +onarchs, *hose appellations are gi&en us
under +utilated for+s by the later list-+akers' Prof' Petrie further
identifies IRJ Tja !ti *ith !teth, I7J Tjer *ith Teta, and I/J !ha *ith
Bena' Bena, Teta, !teth, !ta, Hesepti, Berbap, he+su IPJ, and Oebh are
the na+es of the /st %ynasty as gi&en in the lists' The eAui&alent of
!ta Prof' Petrie finds in the na+e LBerneit,L *hich is found at >++
el-GaDab' But there is no proof *hate&er that Berneit *as a kingK he
*as +uch +ore probably a prince or other great personage of the reign
of %en, *ho *as buried *ith the kings' Prof' Petrie accepts the
identification of the personal na+e of !ha as LBen,L and so +akes hi+
the only eAui&alent of Bena' But this reading of the na+e is still
doubtful' !rguing that !ha +ust be Bena, and ha&ing all the rest of the
kings of the "st %ynasty identified *ith the na+es in the lists, Prof'
Petrie is co+pelled to eCclude ?ar+er fro+ the dynasty, and to relegate
hi+ to L%ynasty 2,L before the ti+e of Bena' "t is Auite possible,
ho*e&er, that ?ar+er *as the successor, not the predecessor, of Bena'
He *as certainly either the one or the other, as the style of art in his
ti+e *as eCactly the sa+e as that in the ti+e of !ha' The Lcorpion,L
too, *hose na+e is found at Hierakonpolis, certainly dates to the sa+e
ti+e as ?ar+er and !ha, for the style of his *ork is the sa+e' !nd it
+ay *ell be that he is not to be counted as a separate king, belonging
to L%ynasty 2 LIor L%ynasty -"LJ at all, but as identical *ith ?ar+er,
just as L+aL +ay also be' (e thus find that the t*o kings *ho left the
+ost de&eloped re+ains at Hierakonpolis are the t*o *hose +onu+ents at
!bydos are the oldest of all on that site' That is to say, the kings
*hose +onu+ents record the conAuest of the ?orth belong to the period
of transition fro+ the old Hierakonpolite do+inion of >pper Egypt to the
ne* kingdo+ of all Egypt' They, in fact, represent the LBenaL or BenQs
of tradition' "t +ay be that !ha bore the personal na+e of FBenF, *hich
*ould thus be the original of Bena, but this is uncertain' "n any case
both !ha and ?ar+er +ust be assigned to the "st %ynasty, *ith the result
that *e kno* of +ore kings belonging to the dynasty than appear in the
lists'
?or is this i+probable' BanethoDs list is e&idently based upon old
Egyptian lists deri&ed fro+ the authorities upon *hich the king-lists of
!bydos and akkVra *ere based' These old lists *ere +ade under the
H"Hth %ynasty, *hen an interest in the oldest kings see+s to ha&e been
a*akened, and the ruling +onarchs erected te+ples at !bydos in their
honour' This pheno+enon can only ha&e been due to a disco&ery of >++
el-GaDab and its treasures, the to+bs of *hich *ere recogniGed as
the burial-places Ireal or secondaryJ of the kings before the
pyra+id-builders' eti "' and his son $a+ses then *orshipped the kings
of >++ el-GaDab, *ith their na+es set before the+ in the order, nu+ber,
and spelling in *hich the scribes considered they ought to be inscribed'
"t is highly probable that the nu+ber kno*n at that ti+e *as not Auite
correct' (e kno* that the spelling of the na+es *as &ery +uch garbled
Ito take one eCa+ple only, the signs for FenF *ere read as one sign
FOebhFJ, so that one or t*o kings +ay ha&e been o+itted or displaced'
This +ay be the case *ith ?ar+er, or, as his na+e ought possibly to be
read, FBetju+erF' His +onu+ents sho* by their style that he belongs to
the &ery beginning of the "st %ynasty' ?o na+e in the "st %ynasty list
corresponds to his' But one of the lists gi&es for the first king of the
""d %ynasty Ithe successor of LOebhL ] enJ a na+e *hich +ay also be read
Betju+er, spelt syllabically this ti+e, not ideographically' On this
account Prof' ?a&ille *ishes to regard the Hierakonpolite +onu+ents of
?ar+er as belonging to the ""d %ynasty, but, as *e ha&e seen, they are
a+ong the +ost archaic kno*n, and certainly +ust belong to the beginning
of the "st %ynasty' "t is therefore probable that )hasekhe+ui Besh
and ?ar+er IBetju+erPJ *ere confused by this list-+aker, and the
na+e Betju+er *as gi&en to the first king of the ""d %ynasty, *ho *as
probably in reality )hasekhe+ui' The rese+blance of FBetjuF to FBeshF
+ay ha&e contributed to this confusion'
o ?ar+er Ior Betju+erJ found his *ay out of his proper place at the
beginning of the /st %ynasty' (hether !ha *as also called LBenL or not,
it see+s e&ident that he and ?ar+er *ere jointly the originals of the
legendary Bena' ?ar+er, *ho possibly also bore the na+e of +a, Lthe
>niter,L conAuered the ?orth' !ha, Lthe <ighter,L also ruled both outh
and ?orth at the sa+e period' )hasekhe+ui, too, conAuered the ?orth, but
the style of his +onu+ents sho*s such an ad&ance upon that of the days
of !ha and ?ar+er that it see+s best to +ake hi+ the successor of en
Ior LOebh LJ, and, eCplaining the transference of the na+e Betju+er
to the beginning of the ""d %ynasty as due to a confusion *ith
)hasekhe+uiDs personal na+e Besh, to +ake )hasekhe+ui the founder of the
""d %ynasty' The beginning of a ne* dynasty +ay *ell ha&e been +arked
by a reassertion of the ne* royal po*er o&er #o*er Egypt, *hich +ay ha&e
lapsed so+e*hat under the rule of the later kings of the "st %ynasty'
e+ti is certainly the LHeseptiL of the lists, and Tja !ti is probably
L!teth'L L!taL is thus unidentified' Prof' Petrie +akes hi+ ] Berneit,
but, as has already been said, there is no proof that the to+b of
Berneit is that of a king' LTetaL +ay be Tjer or )hent, but of this
there is no proof' "t is +ost probable that the na+es LTeta,L L!teth,L
and L!taL are all founded on !ti, the personal na+e of Tja' The king
Tjer is then not represented in the lists, and LBenaL is a co+pound of
the t*o oldest !bydos kings, ?ar+er IBetju+erJ +a IPJ and !ha Ben IPJ'
These are the bare historical results that ha&e been attained *ith
regard to the na+es, identity, and order of the kings' The s+aller
+e+orials that ha&e been found *ith the+, especially the i&ory plaAues,
ha&e told us of e&ents that took place during their reignsK but, *ith
the eCception of the constantly recurring references to the conAuest of
the ?orth, there is little that can be considered of historical interest
or i+portance' (e *ill take one as an eCa+ple' This is the tablet ?o'
71,032 of the British Buseu+, illustrated by Prof' Petrie, F$oyal To+bsF
i IEgypt ECploration <undJ, pi' Ci, /R, C&, /0' This is the record of
a single year, the first in the reign of e+ti, )ing of >pper and #o*er
Egypt' On it *e see a picture of a king perfor+ing a religious dance
before the god Osiris, *ho is seated in a shrine placed on a dais' This
religious dance *as perfor+ed by all the kings in later ti+es' Belo* *e
find hieroglyphic IideographicJ records of a ri&er eCpedition to fight
the ?ortherners and of the capture of a fortified to*n called !n' The
capture of the to*n is indicated by a broken line of fortification,
half-encircling the na+e, and the hoe *ith *hich the e+ble+atic ha*ks
on the slate reliefs already described are ar+edK this signifies the
opening and breaking do*n of the *all'
On the other half of the tablet *e find the &iceroy of #o*er Egypt,
He+aka, +entionedK also Lthe Ha*k Ii' e' the kingJ seiGes the seat of
the #ibyans,L and so+e unintelligible record of a je*eller of the palace
and a kingDs carpenter' On a si+ilar tablet Iof enJ *e find the *ords
Lthe kingDs carpenter +ade this record'L !ll these little tablets are
then the records of single years of a kingDs life, and others like the+,
preser&ed no doubt in royal archi&es, for+ed the base of regular annals,
*hich *ere occasionally car&ed upon stone' (e ha&e an eCa+ple of one of
these in the Ltele of Paler+o,L a frag+ent of black granite, inscribed
*ith the annals of the kings up to the ti+e of the @th %ynasty, *hen
the +onu+ent itself *as +ade' "t is a +atter for intense regret that the
greater portion of this priceless historical +onu+ent has disappeared,
lea&ing us but a piece out of the centre, *ith part of the records
of only siC kings before nefru' Of these siC the na+e of only one,
?eneter, of the lid %ynasty, *hose na+e is also found at !bydos, is
+entioned' The only i+portant historical e&ent of ?eneterDs reign see+s
to ha&e occurred in his thirteenth year, *hen the to*ns or palaces of
FHaF IL?orthLJ and he+-$V ILThe un proceedsLJ *ere founded' ?othing
but the institution and celebration of religious festi&als is recorded
in the siCteen yearly entries preser&ed to us out of a reign of
thirty-fi&e years' The annual height of the ?ile is gi&en, and the
occasions of nu+bering the people are recorded Ie&ery second yearJ.
nothing else' Banetho tells us that in the reign of Binothris, *ho
is ?eneter, it *as decreed that *o+en could hold royal honours and
pri&ileges' This first concession of *o+enDs rights is not +entioned on
the strictly official LPaler+o tele'L
Bore regrettable than aught else is the absence fro+ the LPaler+o teleL
of that part of the original +onu+ent *hich ga&e the annals of the
earliest kings' !t any rate, in the lines of annals *hich still eCist
abo&e that *hich contains the chronicle of the reign of ?eneter no
entry can be definitely identified as belonging to the reigns of !ha
or ?ar+er' "n a line belo* there is a +ention of the Lbirth of
)hVsekhe+ui,L apparently a festi&al in honour of the birth of that king
celebrated in the sa+e *ay as the reputed birthday of a god' This sho*s
the great honour in *hich )hVsekhe+ui *as held, and perhaps it *as he
*ho really finally settled the Auestion of the unification of ?orth and
outh and consolidated the *ork of the earlier kings'
!s far as *e can tell, then, !ha and ?ar+er *ere the first conAuerors
of the ?orth, the unifiers of the kingdo+, and the originals of the
legendary Bena' "n their ti+e the kingdo+Ds centre of gra&ity *as still
in the outh, and ?ar+er I*ho is probably identical *ith Lthe corpionLJ
dedicated the +e+orials of his deeds in the te+ple of Hierakonpolis' "t
+ay be that the legend of the founding of Be+phis in the ti+e of LBenQsL
is nearly correct Ias *e shall see, historically, the foundation +ay
ha&e been due to BerpebaJ, but *e ha&e the authority of Banetho for
the fact that the first t*o dynasties *ere LThiniteL Ithat is, >pper
EgyptianJ, and that Be+phis did not beco+e the capital till the ti+e of
the Hid %ynasty' (ith this state+ent the e&idence of the +onu+ents fully
agrees' The earliest royal to+bs in the pyra+id-field of Be+phis date
fro+ the ti+e of the Hid %ynasty, so that it is e&ident that the kings
had then taken up their abode in the ?orthern capital' (e find that soon
after the ti+e of )hVsekhe+ui the king Perabsen *as especially connected
*ith #o*er Egypt' His personal na+e is unkno*n to us Ithough he +ay
be the L>atjnesL of the listsJ, but *e do kno* that he had t*o
banner-na+es, ekhe+-ab and Perabsen' The first is his ha*k or
Horus-na+e, the second his et-na+eK that is to say, *hile he bore the
first na+e as )ing of >pper Egypt under the special patronage of Horus,
the ha*k-god of the >pper Country, he bore the second as )ing of #o*er
Egypt, under the patronage of et, the deity of the %elta, *hose fetish
ani+al appears abo&e this na+e instead of the ha*k' This sho*s ho*
definitely Perabsen *ished to appear as legiti+ate )ing of #o*er as *ell
as >pper Egypt' "n later ti+es the Theban kings of the H""th %ynasty,
*hen they de&oted the+sel&es to *inning the allegiance of the
?ortherners by li&ing near Be+phis rather than at Thebes, see+ to ha&e
been i+itating the successors of )hVsekhe+ui'
Boreo&er, *e no* find &arious e&idences of increasing connection *ith
the ?orth' ! princess na+ed ?e-+aat-hap, *ho see+s to ha&e been the
+other of a-nekht, the first king of the Hid %ynasty, bears the na+e of
the sacred !pis of Be+phis, her na+e signifying LPossessing the right of
!pis'L !ccording to Banetho, the kings of the Hid %ynasty are the first
Be+phites, and this see+s to be Auite correct' (ith ?e-+aat-hap the
royal right see+s to ha&e been transferred to a Be+phite house' But the
Be+phites still had associations *ith >pper Egypt. t*o of the+, Tjeser
)het-neter and a-nekht, *ere buried near !bydos, in the desert at BNt
)hallVf, *here their to+bs *ere disco&ered and eCca&ated by Br' Garstang
in /:22' The to+b of Tjeser is a great brick-built +astaba, forty feet
high and +easuring 722 feet by /32 feet' The actual to+b-cha+bers are
eCca&ated in the rock, t*enty feet belo* the ground-le&el and siCty feet
belo* the top of the +astaba' They had been &iolated in ancient ti+es,
but a nu+ber of clay jar-sealings, alabaster &ases, and bo*ls belonging
to the to+b furniture *ere found by the disco&erer' a-nekhtDs to+b is
si+ilar' "n it *as found the preser&ed skeleton of its o*ner, *ho *as a
giant se&en feet high'
4"llustration. 291'jpg THE TOBB O< )"?G T=EE$ !T BMT )H!##U<' !bout
7622 B'C'8
"t is re+arkable that Banetho chronicles a+ong the kings of the early
period a king na+ed esokhris, *ho *as fi&e cubits high' This +ay ha&e
been a-nekht'
Tjeser had t*o to+bs, one, the abo&e-+entioned, near !bydos, the
other at akkVra, in the Be+phite pyra+id-field' This is the fa+ous
tep-Pyra+id' ince a-nekht see+s really to ha&e been buried at BNt
)hal-laf, probably Tjeser *as, too, and the tep-Pyra+id +ay ha&e been
his secondary or sha+ to+b, erected in the necropolis of Be+phis as a
co+pli+ent to eker, the ?orthern god of the dead, just as !ha had his
secondary to+b at !bydos in co+pli+ent to )henta+enti' ne-feru, also,
the last king of the Hid %ynasty, see+s to ha&e had t*o to+bs' One of
these *as the great Pyra+id of BNdW+, *hich *as eCplored by Prof' Petrie
in /9:/, the other *as at %ashWr' ?ear by *as the interesting necropolis
already +entioned, in *hich *as disco&ered e&idence of the continuance
of the cra+ped position of burial and of the absence of +u++ification
a+ong a certain section of the population e&en as late as the ti+e of
the "@th %ynasty' This has been taken to i+ply that the fusion of the
pri+iti&e ?eolithic and in&ading sub-e+itic races had not been effected
at that ti+e'
(ith the "@th %ynasty the connection of the royal house *ith the outh
see+s to ha&e finally ceased' The go&ern+ental centre of gra&ity *as
finally transferred to Be+phis, and the kings *ere thenceforth for
se&eral centuries buried in the great pyra+ids *hich still stand in
serried order along the *estern desert border of Egypt, fro+ the %elta
to the pro&ince of the <ayyu+' (ith the latest disco&eries in this
Be+phite pyra+id-field *e shall deal in the neCt chapter'
The transference of the royal po*er to Be+phis under the Hid %ynasty
naturally led to a great increase of Egyptian acti&ity in the ?orthern
lands' (e read in Banetho of a great #ibyan *ar in the reign of
?eche-rophes, and both a-nekht and Tjeser see+ to ha&e finally
established Egyptian authority in the inaitic peninsula, *here their
rock-inscriptions ha&e been found'
"n /:2R Prof' Petrie *as despatched to inai by the Egypt ECploration
<und, in order finally to record the inscriptions of the early kings
in the (adi Baghara, *hich had been lately &ery +uch da+aged by the
operations of the turAuoise-+iners' "t see+s al+ost incredible that
ignorance and &andalis+ should still be so ra+pant in the t*entieth
century that the +ost i+portant historical +onu+ents are not safe fro+
desecration in order to obtain a fe* turAuoises, but it is so' Prof'
PetrieDs eCpedition did not start a day too soon, and at the suggestion
of ir (illia+ Garstin, the ad&iser to the Binistry of the "nterior, the
+ajority of the inscriptions ha&e been re+o&ed to the Cairo Buseu+ for
safety and preser&ation' !+ong the ne* inscriptions disco&ered is one of
a-nekht, *hich is no* in the British Buseu+' Tjeser and a-nekht *ere
not the first Egyptian kings to &isit inai' !lready, in the days of the
/st %ynasty, e+erkha had entered that land and inscribed his na+e upon
the rocks' But the regular anneCation, so to speak, of inai to Egypt
took place under the Be+phites of the Hid %ynasty'
(ith the Hid %ynasty *e ha&e reached the age of the pyra+id-builders'
The +ost typical pyra+ids are those of the three great kings of the "@th
%ynasty, )hufu, )hafra, and Benkaura, at GiGa near Cairo' But, as
*e ha&e seen, the last king of the Hid %ynasty, nefru, also had one
pyra+id, if not t*oK and the +ost ancient of these buildings kno*n to
us, the tep-Pyra+id of akkVra, *as erected by Tjeser at the beginning
of that dynasty' The e&olution of the royal to+bs fro+ the ti+e of the
/st %ynasty to that of the "@th is &ery interesting to trace' !t the
period of transition fro+ the predynastic to the dynastic age *e ha&e
the great +astaba of !ha at ?akVda, and the si+plest cha+ber-to+bs
at !bydos' !ll these *ere of brickK no stone *as used in their
construction' Then *e find the cha+ber-to+b of %en e+ti at !bydos
*ith a granite floor, the *alls being still of brick' !bo&e each of the
!bydos to+bs *as probably a lo* +ound, and in front a s+all chapel, fro+
*hich a flight of steps descended into the si+ple cha+ber' On one of the
little plaAues already +entioned, *hich *ere found in these to+bs, *e
ha&e an archaic inscription, entirely *ritten in ideographs, *hich
see+s to read, LThe Big-Heads Ii' e' the chiefsJ co+e to the to+b'L The
ideograph for Lto+bL see+s to be a rude picture of the funerary chapel,
but fro+ it *e can deri&e little infor+ation as to its construction'
To*ards the end of the "st %ynasty, and during the lid, the royal to+bs
beca+e +uch +ore co+plicated, being surrounded *ith nu+erous cha+bers
for the dead sla&es, etc' )hVsekhe+uiDs to+b has thirty-three such
cha+bers, and there is one large cha+ber of stone' (e kno* of no other
instance of the use of stone *ork for building at this period eCcept in
the royal to+bs' ?o doubt the +asonDs art *as still so difficult that it
*as reser&ed for royal use only'
>nder the Hid %ynasty *e find the last brick +astabas built for royalty,
at BNt )hallVf, and the first pyra+ids, in the Be+phite necropolis'
"n the +astaba of Tjeser at BNt )hallVf stone *as used for the great
portcullises *hich *ere intended to bar the *ay to possible plunderers
through the passages of the to+b' The tep-Pyra+id at akkVra is, so to
speak, a series of +astabas of stone, i+posed one abo&e the otherK it
ne&er had the continuous casing of stone *hich is the +ark of a true
pyra+id' The pyra+id of nefru at BNdW+ is +ore de&eloped' "t also
originated in a +astaba, enlarged, and *ith another +astaba-like
erection on the top of itK but it *as gi&en a continuous sloping casing
of fine li+estone fro+ botto+ to top, and so is a true pyra+id' !
discussion of recent theories as to the building of the later pyra+ids
of the "@th %ynasty *ill be found in the neCt chapter'
"n the ti+e of the "st %ynasty the royal to+b *as kno*n by the na+e of
LProtection-around-the-Ha*k, i'e' the kingLIFa-ha-heruFJK but under
the Hid and "@th %ynasties regular na+es, such as Lthe <ir+,L Lthe
Glorious,L Lthe !ppearing,L etc', *ere gi&en to each pyra+id'
4"llustration. 290'jpg <!#E %OO$ O< THE TOBB O< TET!, about 7022 B'C'8
(e +ust not o+it to note an interesting point in connection *ith the
royal to+bs at !bydos, "n that of )ing )hent or Tjer Ithe reading of
the ideograph is doubtfulJ B' !+Qlineau found a large bed or bier of
granite, *ith a figure of the god Osiris lying in state sculptured in
high relief upon it' This led hi+ to ju+p to the conclusion that he
had found the to+b of the god Osiris hi+self, and that a skull he found
close by *as the &eritable craniu+ of the pri+e&al folk-hero, *ho,
according to the euhe+erist theory, *as the deified original of the god'
The true eCplanation is gi&en by %r' (allis Budge in his FHistory of
EgyptF, i, p' /:' "t is a fact that the to+b of Tjer *as regarded by
the Egyptians of the H"Hth %ynasty as the &eritable to+b of Osiris'
They thought they had disco&ered it, just as B' !+Qlineau did' (hen the
ancient royal to+bs of >++ el-GaDab *ere redisco&ered and identified at
the beginning of the H"Hth %ynasty, and eti " built the great te+ple of
!bydos to the di&ine ancestors in honour of the disco&ery, e+bellishing
it *ith a relief of hi+self and his son $a+ses +aking offerings to the
na+es of his predecessors Ithe LTablet of !bydos LJ, the na+e of )ing
)hent or Tjer I*hich is perhaps the really correct original for+J *as
read by the royal scribes as L)hentL and hastily identified *ith the
first part of the na+e of the god F)hent-a+entiF Osiris, the lord of
!bydos' The to+b *as thus regarded as the to+b of Osiris hi+self, and
it *as furnished *ith a great stone figure of the god lying on his bier,
attended by the t*o ha*ks of "sis and ?ephthysK e&er after the site *as
&isited by cro*ds of pilgri+s, *ho left at >++ el-GaDab the thousands of
little &oti&e &ases *hose frag+ents ha&e gi&en the place its na+e of the
LBother of Pots'L This is the eCplanation of the disco&ery of the LTo+b
of Osiris'L (e ha&e not found *hat B' !+Qlineau see+s rather nai&ely to
ha&e thought possible, a confir+ation of the ancient &ie* that Osiris
*as originally a +an *ho ruled o&er Egypt and *as deified after his
deathK but *e ha&e found that the Egyptians the+sel&es *ere +ore or less
euhe+erists, and did think so'
"t +ay see+ re+arkable that all this ne* kno*ledge of ancient Egypt is
deri&ed fro+ to+bs and has to do *ith the resting-places of the kings
*hen dead, rather than *ith their palaces or te+ples *hen li&ing' Of
te+ples at this early period *e ha&e no trace' The oldest te+ple in
Egypt is perhaps the little chapel in front of the pyra+id of nefru at
BNdW+' (e first hear of te+ples to the gods under the "@th %ynasty, but
of the actual buildings of that period *e ha&e reco&ered nothing but one
or t*o inscribed blocks of stone' Prof' Petrie has traced out the plan
of the oldest te+ple of Osiris at !bydos, *hich +ay be of the ti+e of
)hufu, fro+ scanty e&idences *hich gi&e us but little infor+ation' "t is
certain, ho*e&er, that this te+ple, *hich is clearly one of the oldest
in Egypt, goes back at least to his ti+e' "ts site is the +ound
called )o+ es-ultan, LThe Bound of the )ing,L close to the &illage of
el-)herba, and on the borders of the culti&ation northeast of the royal
to+bs at >++ el-OaDab'
Of royal palaces *e ha&e +ore definite infor+ation' ?orth of the )o+
es-ultan are t*o great fortress-enclosures of brick. the one is kno*n
as FWnet es-YebZbF, Lthe torehouse of %ried OrapesKL the other is
occupied by the Coptic +onastery of %Nr !nba BusVs' Both are certainly
fortress-palaces of the earliest period of the Egyptian +onarchy' (e
kno* fro+ the s+all record-plaAues of this period that the kings *ere
constantly founding or repairing places of this kind, *hich *ere al*ays
great rectangular enclosures *ith crenelated brick *alls like those of
early Babylonian buildings'
(e ha&e seen that the ?orthern Egyptian possessed si+ilar
fortress-cities *hich *ere captured by ?ar+er' These *ere the seats of
the royal residence in &arious parts of the country' Behind their *alls
*as the kingDs house, and no doubt also a to*n of nobles and retainers,
*hile the peasants li&ed on the arable land *ithout'
4"llustration. 29:'jpg THE H>?ET EY-YEB"B. THE <O$T$E-TO(?, !bout
7:22 B'C'8
The hWnet eG-YebZb and its co+panion fortress *ere e&idently the royal
cities of the /st and ""d %ynasties at !bydos' The for+er has been
eCca&ated by Br' E' $' !yrton for the Egypt ECploration <und, under the
super&ision of Prof' Petrie' He found jar-sealings of )hVsekhe+ui and
Perabsen' "n later ti+es the place *as utiliGed as a burial-place for
ibis-+u++ies Iit had already been abandoned as a city before the ti+e of
the H""th %ynastyJ, and fro+ this fact it recei&ed the na+e of Fhenet
deb-hibF, or Ltorehouse of "bis Burials'L The !rab in&aders adapted
this na+e to their o*n language in the nearest for+ *hich *ould ha&e
any +eaning, as FhWnet eG-YebXbF, Lthe torehouse of %ried Grapes'L
The !rab *ord FshWnaF ILBarnL or LtorehouseLJ *as, it should be noted,
taken o&er fro+ the Coptic Fsheune,F *hich is the old-Egyptian FshenetF'
The identity of FsheuneF or FshWnaF *ith the Ger+an LcheuneL is a
Auaint and curious coincidence' "n the illustration of the hWnet
eG-Yebib the cur&ed line of crenelated *all, follo*ing the contour of
the hill, should be noted, as it is a re+arkable eCa+ple of the building
of this early period'
"t *ill ha&e been seen fro+ the foregoing description of *hat
far-reaching i+portance the disco&eries at !bydos ha&e been' ! ne*
chapter of the history of the hu+an race has been opened, *hich contains
infor+ation pre&iously undrea+t of, infor+ation *hich Egyptologists
had ne&er dared to hope *ould be reco&ered' The sand of Egypt indeed
conceals ineChaustible treasures, and no one kno*s *hat the +orro*Ds
*ork +ay bring forth'
FEC !frica se+per aliAuid no&i^F
CH!PTE$ """--BEBPH" !?% THE P,$!B"%
Be+phis, the Lbeautiful abode,L the LCity of the (hite (all,L is said
to ha&e been founded by the legendary BenQs, *ho in order to build it
di&erted the strea+ of the ?ile by +eans of a great dyke constructed
near the +odern &illage of )oshNsh, south of the &illage of BitrahNna,
*hich +arks the central point of the ancient +etropolis of ?orthern
Egypt' "t +ay be that the city *as founded by !ha or ?ar+er, the
historical originals of Bena or BenQsK but *e ha&e another theory *ith
regard to its foundation, that it *as originally built by )ing Berpeba
!tjab, *hose to+b *as also disco&ered at !bydos near those of !ha and
?ar+er' Berpeba is the oldest king *hose na+e is absolutely identified
*ith one occurring in the H"Hth %ynasty king-lists and in Banetho' He
is certainly the LBerbapL or LBerbepaL ILBerbapenLJ of the lists and the
FBiebisF of Banetho' "n both the lists and in Banetho he stands fifth in
order fro+ Bena, and he *as therefore the siCth king of the "st %ynasty'
The lists, Banetho, and the s+all +onu+ents in his o*n to+b agree in
+aking hi+ the i++ediate successor of e+ti %en IOusaphaXsJ, and fro+
the style of these latter it is e&ident that he co+es after Tja, Tjer,
?ar+er, and !ha' That is to say, the conte+porary e&idence +akes hi+ the
fifth king fro+ !ha, the first original of LBenQs'L
?o* after the piety of eti " had led hi+ to erect a great te+ple at
!bydos in +e+ory of the ancient kings, *hose sepulchres had probably
been brought to light shortly before, and to co+pile and set up in the
te+ple a list of his predecessors, a certain pious snobbery or snobbish
piety i+pelled a *orthy na+ed Tunure, *ho li&ed at Be+phis, to put up in
his o*n to+b at akkVra a tablet of kings like the royal one at !bydos'
"f Osiris-)henta+enti at !bydos had his tablet of kings, so should
Osiris-eker at akkVra' But Tunure does not begin his list *ith BenaK
his initial king is Berpeba' <or hi+ Berpeba *as the first +onarch to be
co++e+orated at akkVra' %oes not this look &ery +uch as if the strictly
historical Berpeba, not the rather legendary and confused Bena, *as
regarded as the first Be+phite kingP "t +ay *ell be that it *as in
the reign of Berpeba, not in that of !ha or ?ar+er, that Be+phis *as
founded'
The H"Hth %ynasty lists of course say nothing about Bena or Berpeba
ha&ing founded Be+phisK they only gi&e the na+es of the kings, nothing
+ore' The earliest authority for the ascription of Be+phis to LBenQsL,
is Herodotus, *ho *as follo*ed in this ascription, as in +any other
+atters, by BanethoK but it +ust be re+e+bered that Banetho *as *riting
for the edification of a Greek king IPtole+y PhiladelphusJ and his Greek
court at !leCandria, and had therefore to e&ince a respect for the great
Greek classic *hich he +ay not al*ays ha&e really felt' Herodotus is
not, of course, accused of any *ilful +isstate+ent in this or in any
other +atter in *hich his accuracy is suspected' He +erely *rote
do*n *hat he *as told by the Egyptians the+sel&es, and Berpeba *as
sufficiently near in ti+e to !ha to be easily confounded *ith hi+ by
the scribes of the Persian period, *ho no doubt ascribed e&erything
to LBenaL that *as done by the kings of the "st and ""d %ynasties'
Therefore it +ay be considered Auite probable that the LBenQsL *ho
founded Be+phis *as Berpeba, the fifth or siCth king of the "st %ynasty,
*ho+ Tunure, a thousand years before the ti+e of Herodotus and his
infor+ants, placed at the head of the Be+phite L#ist of akkVra'L
The reconAuest of the ?orth by )hVsekhe+ui doubtless led to a further
strengthening of Be+phisK and it is Auite possible that the deeds of
this king also contributed to +ake up the su+ total of those ascribed to
the Herodotean and Banethonian BenQs'
"t +ay be that a to*n of the ?ortherners eCisted here before the ti+e of
the outhern ConAuest, for Phtah, the local god of Be+phis, has a &ery
+arked character of his o*n, Auite different fro+ that of )hen-ta+enti,
the Osiris of !bydos' He is al*ays represented as a little bo*-legged
hydrocephalous d*arf &ery like the Phoenician F)abeiroiF' "t +ay be
that here is another connection bet*een the ?orthern Egyptians and the
e+ites' The na+e LPhtah,L the LOpener,L is definitely e+itic' (e +ay
then regard the d*arf Phtah as originally a non-Egyptian god of the
?ortherners, probably e+itic in origin, and his to*n also as antedating
the conAuest' But it e&idently *as to the outherners that Be+phis o*ed
its i+portance and its e&entual pro+otion to the position of capital of
the united kingdo+' Then the d*arf Phtah sa* hi+self ri&alled by another
Phtah of outhern Egyptian origin, *ho had been installed at Be+phis by
the outherners' This Phtah *as a sort of +odified edition of Osiris, in
+u++y-for+ and holding crook and *hip, but *ith a refined edition of
the )abeiric head of the indigenous Phtah' The actual god of Lthe (hite
(allL *as undoubtedly confused &ith the dead god of the necropolis,
*hose na+e *as eker or ekri IokariJ, Lthe Coffined'L The original
for+ of this deity *as a +u++ied ha*k upon a coffin, and it is &ery
probable that he *as i+ported fro+ the outh, like the second Phtah, at
the ti+e of the conAuest, *hen the great ?orthern necropolis began
to gro* up as a duplicate of that at !bydos' #ater on *e find eker
confused *ith the ancient d*arf-god, and it is the latter *ho *as
after*ards chiefly re&ered as Phtah-ocharis-Osiris, the protector of
the necropolis, the +u++ied Phtah being the generally recogniGed ruler
of the City of the (hite (all'
"t is fro+ the na+e of eker that the +odern ak-kVra takes its title'
akkVra +arks the central point of the great Be+phite necropolis, as it
is the nearest point of the *estern desert to Be+phis' ?orth*ards the
necropolis eCtended to GriGa and !bu $oVsh, south*ards, to %asl+rK
e&en the nQcropoles of #isht and BNdW+ +ay be regarded as appanages of
akkVra' !t akkVra itself Tjeser of the """d %ynasty had a pyra+id,
*hich, as *e ha&e seen, *as probably not his real to+b I*hich *as
the great +astaba at BNt )hallVfJ, but a secondary or sha+ to+b
corresponding to the Lto+bsL of the earliest kings at >++ el-GaDab in
the necropolis of !bydos' Bany later kings, ho*e&er, especially of the
@ith %ynasty, *ere actually buried at akkVra' Their to+bs ha&e all been
thoroughly described by their disco&erer, Prof' Baspero, in his history'
The last king of the Hid %ynasty, nefru, *as buried a*ay do*n south at
BNdW+, in splendid isolation, but he +ay also ha&e had a second pyra+id
at akkVra or !bu $oash'
The kings of the "@th %ynasty *ere the greatest of the pyra+id builders,
and to the+ belong the huge edifices of GriGa' The @th %ynasty fa&oured
!busZr, bet*een CZGa and akkVraK the @ith, as *e ha&e said, preferred
akkVra itself' (ith the+ the end of the Old )ingdo+ and of Be+phite
do+inion *as reachedK the sceptre fell fro+ the hands of the Be+phite
kings and *as taken up by the princes of Herakleopolis I!hnasyet
el-Bedina, near BQni uNf, south of the EayyW+J and Thebes' (here the
Herakleopolite kings *ere buried *e do not kno*K probably so+e*here in
the local necropolis of the Gebel es-ed+ent, bet*een !hnasya and the
<ayyW+' The first Thebans Ithe H"th %ynastyJ *ere certainly buried at
Thebes, but *hen the Herakleopolites had finally disappeared, and all
Egypt *as again united under one strong sceptre, the Theban kings see+
to ha&e been dra*n north*ards' They re+o&ed to the seat of the do+inion
of those *ho+ they had supplanted, and they settled in the neighbourhood
of Herakleopolis, near the fertile pro&ince of the <ayyW+, and bet*een
it and Be+phis' Here, in the royal fortress-palace of "tht-taui,
LControlling the T*o #ands,L the kings of the H""th %ynasty li&ed,
and they *ere buried in the nQcropoles of %ashWr, #isht, and "llahun
IHa*araJ, in pyra+ids like those of the old Be+phite kings' These facts,
of the situation of "tht-taui, of their burial in the southern an eC of
the old necropolis of Be+phis, and of the fori of their to+bs Ithe
true >pper Egyptian and Thebian for+ *as a rock-cut gallery and cha+ber
dri&en deep into the hillJ, sho* ho* solicitous *ere the !+ene+hats
and enusrets of the suffrages of #o*er Egypt, ho* anCious they *ere to
conciliate the ancient royal pride of Be+phis'
(here the kings of the H"""th %ynasty and the Hyksos or LhepherdsL *ere
buried, *e do not kno*' The kings of the restored Theban e+pire *ere
all interred at Thebes' There are, in fact, no kno*n royal sepulchres
bet*een the <ayyW+ and !bydos' The great kings *ere +ostly buried in
the neighbourhood of Be+phis, !bydos, and Thebes' The sepulchres of the
LBiddle E+pireL--the H"th to H"""th %ynasties--in the neighbourhood
of the <ayyW+ +ay fairly be grouped *ith those of the sa+e period at
%ashWr, *hich belongs to the necropolis of Be+phis, since it is only a
+ile or t*o south of akkVra'
"t is chiefly *ith regard to the sepulchres of the kings that the +ost
+o+entous disco&eries of recent years ha&e been +ade at Thebes, and at
akkVra, !busZr, %ashWr, and #isht, as at !bydos' <or this reason *e
deal in succession *ith the finds in the nQcropoles of !bydos, Be+phis,
and Thebes respecti&ely' !nd *ith the sepulchres of the LOld )ingdo+,L
in the Be+phite necropolis proper, *e ha&e naturally grouped those of
the LBiddle )ingdo+L at %ashWr, #isht, "llahun, and Ha*ara'
o+e of these +odern disco&eries ha&e been co++ented on and illustrated
by Prof' Baspero in his great history' But the disco&eries that ha&e
been +ade since this publication ha&e been &ery i+portant,--those at
!busZr, indeed, of first-rate i+portance, though not so +o+entous as
those of the to+bs of the "st and ""d %ynasties at !bydos, already
described' !t !bu $oash and at GZGa, at the northern end of the Be+phite
necropolis, se&eral eCpeditions ha&e had considerable success, notably
those of the !+erican %r' $eisner, assisted by Br' Bace, *ho eCca&ated
the royal to+bs at >++ el-GaDab for Prof' Petrie, those of the
Ger+an %rs' teindorff and Borchardt,--the latter *orking for the
FBeutsch-Orient GesellschaftF,--and those of other !+erican eCca&ators'
>ntil the full publication of the results of these eCca&ations appears,
&ery little can be said about the+' Bany +astaba-to+bs ha&e, it is
understood, been found, *ith interesting re+ains' ?othing of great
historical i+portance see+s to ha&e been disco&ered, ho*e&er' "t is
other*ise *hen *e co+e to the disco&eries of Bessrs' Borchardt and
chVfer at !busZr, south of GZGa and north of akkVra' !t this place
results of first-rate historical i+portance ha&e been attained'
The +ain group of pyra+ids at !busir consists of the to+bs of the kings
ahur[, ?eferarikarV, and ?e-user-$V, of the @th %ynasty' The pyra+ids
the+sel&es are s+aller than those of GZGa, but larger than those of
akkVra' "n general appearance and effect they rese+ble those of GZGa,
but they are not so i+posing, as the desert here is lo*' Those of GZGa,
akkVra, and %ashWr o*e +uch of their i+pressi&eness to the fact that
they are placed at so+e height abo&e the culti&ated land' The eCca&ation
and planning of these pyra+ids *ere carried out by Bessrs' Borchardt and
chVfer at the eCpense of Baron &on Bissing, the *ell-kno*n Egyptologist
of Bunich, and of the F%eutsch-Orient Gesell-schaftF of Berlin' The
antiAuities found ha&e been di&ided bet*een the +useu+s of Berlin and
Cairo'
One of the +ost note*orthy disco&eries *as that of the funerary te+ple
of ?e-user-$V, *hich stood at the base of his pyra+id' The plan is
interesting, and the granite lotus-bud colu+ns found are the +ost
ancient yet disco&ered in Egypt' Buch of the pa&ing and the *ainscoting
of the *alls *as of fine black +arble, beautifully polished' !n
interesting find *as a basin and drain *ith lionDs-head +outh, to
carry a*ay the blood of the sacrifices' o+e sculptures in relief *ere
disco&ered, including a gigantic representation of the king and the
goddess "sis, *hich sho*s that in the early days of the @th %ynasty the
king and the gods *ere already depicted in eCactly the sa+e costu+e as
they *ore in the days of the $a+ses and the Ptole+ies' The hieratic art
of Egypt had, in fact, no* taken on itself the final out*ard appearance
*hich it retained to the &ery end' There is no +ore of the archais+
and absence of con&entionality, *hich +arks the art of the earliest
dynasties'
(e can trace by successi&e steps the s*ift de&elop+ent of Egyptian art
fro+ the rude archais+ of the "st %ynasty to its final consu++ation
under the @th, *hen the con&entions beca+e fiCed' "n the ti+e of
)h\sekhe+ui, at the beginning of the ""d %ynasty, the archaic character
of the art has already begun to *ear off' >nder the sa+e dynasty *e
still ha&e styles of uncon&entional naX&etQ, such as the fa+ous tatue
L?o' /L of the Cairo Buseu+, bearing the na+es of )ings Hetepahaui,
?eb-rV, and ?eneter' But *ith the "@th %ynasty *e no longer look for
uncon&entionality' Prof' Petrie disco&ered at !bydos a s+all i&ory
statuette of )hufu or Cheops, the builder of the Great Pyra+id of GZGa'
The portrait is a good one and carefully eCecuted' "t *as not till
the ti+e of the H@"""th %ynasty, indeed, that the Egyptians ceased
to portray their kings as they really *ere, and ga&e the+ a purely
con&entional type of face' This con&ention, against *hich the heretical
)ing !+enhetep "@ I!khunatenJ rebelled, in order to ha&e hi+self
portrayed in all his real ungainliness and ugliness, did not eCist till
long after the ti+e of the "@th and @th %ynasties'
4"llustration. /22'jpg T!T>E ?O' / O< THE C!"$O B>E>B, !bout 7:22
B'C'8
The kings of the H""th %ynasty especially *ere +ost careful that their
statues should be accurate portraitsK indeed, the portraits of >sertsen
IenusretJ """ &ary fro+ a young face to an old one, sho*ing that the
king *as faithfully depicted at different periods of his life'
But the general con&entions of dress and deport+ent *ere finally fiCed
under the @th %ynasty' !fter this ti+e *e no longer ha&e such absolutely
faithful and original present+ents as the other little i&ory statuette
found by Prof' Petrie at !bydos Ino* in the British Buseu+J, *hich sho*s
us an aged +onarch of the "st %ynasty' "t is ob&ious that the features
are absolutely true to life, and the figure *ears an uncon&entionally
party-coloured and bordered robe of a kind *hich kings of a later day
+ay ha&e *orn in actual life, but *hich they *ould assuredly ne&er be
depicted as *earing by the artists of their day' To the end of Egyptian
history, the kings, e&en the $o+an e+perors, *ere represented on the
+onu+ents clothed in the official costu+e of their ancestors of the "@th
and @th %ynasties, in the sa+e +anner as *e see )hufu *earing his robe
in the little figure fro+ !bydos, and ?e-user-$[ on the great
relief fro+ !busZr' There are one or t*o eCceptions, such as the
representations of the original genius !khunaten at Tell el-!+arna and
the beautiful statue of $a+ses "" at Turin, in *hich *e see these kings
*earing the real costu+e of their ti+e, but such eCceptions are &ery
rare'
The art of !busZr is therefore of great interest, since it +arks the end
of the de&elop+ent of the priestly art' ecular art +ight de&elop as it
liked, though the crystalliGing influence of the ecclesiastical canon is
al*ays e&ident here also' But hencefor*ard it *as an i+piety, *hich only
an !khunaten could co++it, to depict a king or a god on the *alls of a
te+ple other*ise IeCcept so far as, the portrait *as concernedJ than as
he had been depicted in the ti+e of the @th %ynasty'
Other buildings ha&e been eCca&ated by the Ger+ans at !busZr, notably
the usual to*n of +astaba-to+bs belonging to the chief dignitaries of
the reign, *hich is al*ays found at the foot of a royal pyra+id of this
period' !nother building of the highest interest, belonging to the sa+e
age, *as also eCca&ated, and its true character *as deter+ined' This is
a building at a place called er-$Zgha or !bW Ghuraib, L<ather of Cro*s,L
bet*een !busZr and GZGa' "t *as for+erly supposed to be a pyra+id, but
the Ger+an eCca&ations ha&e sho*n that it is really a te+ple of the
un-god $V of Heliopolis, specially &enerated by the kings of the @th
%ynasty, *ho *ere of Heliopolitan origin' The great pyra+id-builders of
the "@th %ynasty see+ to ha&e been the last true Be+phites' !t the end
of the reign of hepseskaf, the last +onarch of the dynasty, the sceptre
passed to a Heliopolitan fa+ily' The follo*ing @"th %ynasty +ay again
ha&e been Be+phite, but this is uncertain' The capital continued to be
Be+phis, and fro+ the beginning of the Hid %ynasty to the end of the Old
)ingdo+ and the rise of Herakle-opolis and Thebes, Be+phis re+ained the
chief city of Egypt'
The Heliopolitans *ere naturally the ser&ants of the un-god abo&e all
other gods, and they *ere the first to call the+sel&es Lons of the
un,L a title retained by the Pharaohs throughout all subseAuent
history' "t *as ?e-user-$V *ho built the un-te+ple of !bu Ghuraib,
on the edge of the desert, north of his pyra+id and those of his t*o
i++ediate predecessors at !busir' !s no* laid bare by the eCca&ations of
/:22, it is seen to consist of an artificial +ound, *ith a great court
in front to the east*ard' On the +ound *as erected a truncated obelisk,
the stone e+ble+ of the un-god' The *orshippers in the court belo*
looked to*ards the unDs stone erected upon its +ound in the *est,
the Auarter of the sunDs settingK for the un-god of Heliopolis *as
pri+arily the setting sun, Tu+-$V, not $V Har+achis, the rising sun,
*hose e+ble+ is the Great phinC at GZGa, *hich looks to*ards the east'
The sacred e+ble+ of the Heliopolitan un-god re+inds us forcibly of the
e+itic FbethelsF or FbaetyliF, the sacred stones of Palestine, and +ay
gi&e yet another hint of the e+itic origin of the Heliopolitan cult'
"n the court of the te+ple is a huge circular altar of fine alabaster,
se&eral feet across, on *hich slain oCen *ere offered to the un, and
behind this, at the eastern end of the court, are siC great basins of
the sa+e stone, o&er *hich the beasts *ere slain, *ith drains running
out of the+ by *hich their blood *as carried a*ay' This te+ple is a +ost
interesting +onu+ent of the ci&iliGation of the LOld )ingdo+L at the ti+e
of the @th %ynasty'
!t akkVra itself, *hich lies a short distance south of !busir, no ne*
royal to+bs ha&e, as has been said, been disco&ered of late years' But a
great deal of *ork has been done a+ong the pri&ate +astaba-to+bs by the
officers of the Fer&ice des !ntiAuitQsF, *hich reser&es to itself the
right of eCca&ation here and at %ashWr' The +astaba of the sage and
*riter )agernna Ior rather Ge+nika, L"-ha&e-found-a-ghost,L *hich
sounds &ery like an !+erican "ndian appellationJ is &ery fine'
L"-ha&e-found-a-ghostL li&ed in the reign of the king TatkarV !ssa, the
LTancheresL of Banetho, and he *rote +aCi+s like his great conte+porary
Phtahhetep ILOffered to PhtahLJ, *ho *as also buried at akkVra' The
officials of the Fer&ice des !ntiAuitQsF *ho cleaned the to+b unluckily
+isread his na+e )a-bi-n Ian i+possible for+ *hich could only +ean,
literally translated, LGhost-soul-ofL or LGhost-soul-to-+eLJ, and they
ha&e placed it in this for+ o&er the entrance to his to+b' This +astaba,
like those, already kno*n, of Bereruka Iso+eti+es +isna+ed LBeraLJ
and the fa+ous Ti, both also at akkVra, contains a large nu+ber of
cha+bers, orna+ented *ith reliefs' "n the &icinity B' GrQbaut, then
%irector of the er&ice of !ntiAuities, disco&ered a &ery interesting
treet of To+bs, a regular @ia acra, *ith ro*s of to+bs of the
dignitaries of the @"th %ynasty on either side of it' They are generally
&ery +uch like one anotherK the *ork+anship of the reliefs is fine, and
the portrait of the o*ner of the to+b is al*ays in e&idence'
e&eral of the s+aller +astabas ha&e lately been disposed of to the
&arious +useu+s, as they are liable to da+age if they re+ain *here they
standK +oreo&er, they are not of great &alue to the Buseu+ of Cairo,
but are of considerable &alue to &arious +useu+s *hich do not already
possess co+plete speci+ens of this class of to+bs' ! fine one, belonging
to the chief >erarina, is no* eChibited in the !ssyrian Base+ent of the
British Buseu+K another is in the Buseu+ of #eydenK a third at Berlin,
and so on' Bost of these are si+ple to+bs of one cha+ber' "n the centre
of the rear *all *e al*ays see the FsteleF or gra&estone proper,
built into the fabric of the to+b' Before this stood the lo* table
of offerings *ith a bo*l for oblations, and on either side a tall
incense-altar' <ro+ the altar the di&ine s+oke IFsenetrFJ arose *hen
the Fhen-kaF, or priest of the ghost Iliterally, LGhostDs er&antLJ,
perfor+ed his duty of &enerating the spirits of the deceased, *hile the
F)her-hebF, or cantor, en&eloped in the +ystic folds of the leopard-skin
and *ith bronGe incense-burner in hand, sang the holy litanies and
spells *hich should propitiate the ghost and enable hi+ to *in his *ay
to ulti+ate perfection in the neCt *orld'
The stele is al*ays in the for+ of a door *ith pyloni-for+ cornice' On
either side is a figure of the deceased, and at the sides are car&ed
prayers to !nubis, and at a later date to Osiris, *ho are i+plored to
gi&e the funerary +eats and Le&erything good and pure on *hich the god
there Ias the dead +an in the to+b has been constitutedJ li&esKL often
*e find that the biography and list of honorary titles and dignities of
the deceased ha&e been added'
akkVra *as used as a place of burial in the latest as *ell as in the
earliest ti+e' The Egyptians of the HH@"th %ynasty, *earied of the long
decadence and de&astating *ars *hich had follo*ed the glorious epoch of
the conAuering Pharaohs of the H@"""th and H"Hth %ynasties, turned for
a ne* and refreshing inspiration to the *orks of the +ost ancient kings,
*hen Egypt *as a si+ple self-contained country, holding no intercourse
*ith outside lands, bearing no outside burdens for the sake of po+p and
glory, and kno*ing nothing of the decay and decadence *hich follo*s in
the train of earthly po*er and grandeur' They deliberately turned their
backs on the *orn-out and discredited i+perial trappings of the Thoth+es
and $a+ses, and they took the supposed pri+iti&e si+plicity of the
nefrus, the )hufus, and the ?e-user-$Vs for a +odel and ensa+pler to
their li&es' "t *as an age of conscious and intended archais+, and in
pursuit of the archaistic ideal the Be+-phites of the aXte age had
the+sel&es buried in the ancient necropolis of akkVra, side by side
*ith their ancestors of the ti+e of the @th and @"th %ynasties' e&eral
of these to+bs ha&e lately been disco&ered and opened, and fitted *ith
+odern i+pro&e+ents' One or t*o of the+, of the Persian period, ha&e
*ells Ileading to the sepulchral cha+berJ of enor+ous depth, do*n *hich
the +odern tourist is enabled to descend by a spiral iron staircase' The
erapeu+ itself is lit *ith electricity, and in the To+bs of the )ings
at Thebes nothing disturbs the silence but the steady thu+ping pulsation
of the dyna+o-engine *hich lights the ancient sepulchres of the
Pharaohs' Thus do +odern ideas and in&entions help us to see and so to
understand better the *orks of ancient Egypt' But it is perhaps a little
too +uch like the ,ankee at the Court of )ing !rthur' The interiors of
the later to+bs are often decorated *ith reliefs *hich i+itate those of
the early period, but *ith a kind of delicate grace *hich at once +arks
the+ for *hat they are, so that it is i+possible to confound the+ *ith
the genuine ancient originals fro+ *hich they *ere adapted'
$iding fro+ akkVra south*ards to %ashWr, *e pass on the *ay the
gigantic stone +astaba kno*n as the FBastabat el-<araDWnF, LPharaohDs
Bench'L This *as considered to be the to+b of the @th %ynasty king,
>nas, until his pyra+id *as found by Prof' Baspero at akkVra' <ro+ its
for+ it +ight be thought to belong to a +onarch of the Hid %ynasty, but
the great siGe of the stone blocks of *hich it is built see+s to point
rather to the H""th' !ll atte+pts to penetrate its secret by actual
eCca&ation ha&e been una&ailing'
<urther south across the desert *e see fro+ the Bastabat el-<araDWn
four distinct pyra+ids, sy++etrically arranged in t*o lines, t*o in each
line' The t*o to the right are great stone erections of the usual
type, like those of GZGa and !busZr, and the southern+ost of the+ has a
peculiar broken-backed appearance, due to the alteration of the angle
of inclination of its sides during construction' <urther, it is co&ered
al+ost to the ground by the original casing of polished *hite li+estone
blocks, so that it gi&es a &ery good idea of the original appearance
of the other pyra+ids, *hich ha&e lost their casing' These t*o
pyra+ids &ery probably belong to kings of the Hid %ynasty, as does the
tep-Pyra+id of akkVra' They strongly rese+ble the GZGa type, and
the northern+ost of the t*o looks &ery like an understudy of the Great
Pyra+id' "t see+s to +ark the step in the de&elop+ent of the royal
pyra+id *hich *as i++ediately follo*ed by the Great Pyra+id' But no
eCca&ations ha&e yet pro&ed the accuracy of this &ie*' Both pyra+ids
ha&e been entered, but nothing has been found in the+' "t is &ery
probable that one of the+ is the second pyra+id of nefru'
The other t*o pyra+ids, those nearest the culti&ation, are of &ery
different appearance' They are half-ruined, they are black in colour,
and their *hole effect is Auite different fro+ that of the stone
pyra+ids' <or they are built of brick, not of stone' They are pyra+ids,
it is true, but of a different +aterial and of a different date fro+
those *hich *e ha&e been describing' They are built abo&e the sepulchres
of kings of the H""th %ynasty, the Theban house *hich transferred
its residence north*ards to the neighbourhood of the ancient ?orthern
capital' (e ha&e, in fact, reached the end of the Old )ingdo+ at
akkVraK at %ashWr begin the sepulchres of the Biddle )ingdo+' Pyra+ids
are still built, but they are not al*ays of stoneK brick is used,
usually *ith stone in the interior' The general effect of these brick
pyra+ids, *hen ne*, +ust ha&e been indistinguishable fro+ that of the
stone ones, and e&en no*, *hen it has beco+e half-ruined, such a great
brick pyra+id as that of >sertsen IenusretJ """ at %ashWr is not
*ithout i+pressi&eness' !fter all, there is no reason *hy a brick
building should be less ad+irable than a stone one' !nd in its o*n *ay
the construction of such colossal +asses of bricks as the t*o eastern
pyra+ids of %ashWr +ust ha&e been as arduous, e&en as difficult, as that
of building a +oderate-siGed stone pyra+id' The photograph of the brick
pyra+ids of %ashWr on this page sho*s *ell the great siGe of these
+asses of brick*ork, *hich are as i+pressi&e as any of the great brick
structures of Babylonia and !ssyria'
4"llustration. /2:'jpg EHTE$"O$ O< THE O>THE$? B$"C) P,$!B"% O<
%!H>$8
H""TH %,?!T,' ECca&ated by B' de Borgan, /9:3' This is the
secondary to+b of !+ene+hat """K about 1122 B'C'
The H""th %ynasty use of brick for the royal to+bs *as a return to the
custo+ of earlier days, for fro+ the ti+e of !ha to that Tjeser, fro+
the /st %ynasty to the Hid, brick had been used for the building of the
royal +astaba-to+bs, out of *hich the pyra+ids had de&eloped'
!t this point, *here *e take lea&e of the great pyra+ids of the Old
)ingdo+, *e +ay notice the latest theory as to the building of these
+onu+ents, *hich has of late years been enunciated by %r' Borchardt, and
is no* generally accepted' The great Prussian eCplorer #epsius, *hen he
eCa+ined the pyra+ids in the Dforties, ca+e to the conclusion that each
king, *hen he ascended the throne, planned a s+all pyra+id for hi+self'
This *as built in a fe* yearsD ti+e, and if his reign *ere short, or if
he *ere unable to enlarge the pyra+id for other reasons, it sufficed for
his to+b' "f, ho*e&er, his reign see+ed likely to be one of so+e length,
after the first plan *as co+pleted he enlarged his pyra+id by building
another and a larger one around it and o&er it' Then again, *hen this
addition *as finished, and the king still reigned and *as in possession
of great resources, yet another coating, so to speak, *as put on to the
pyra+id, and so on till colossal structures like the <irst and econd
Pyra+id of GiGa, *hich, *e kno*, belonged to kings *ho *ere unusually
long-li&ed, *ere co+pleted' !nd finally the aged +onarch died, and *as
buried in the huge to+b *hich his long life and his great po*er had
enabled hi+ to erect' This &ie* appeared e+inently reasonable at the
ti+e, and it see+ed al+ost as though *e ought to be able to tell *hether
a king had reigned long or not by the siGe of his pyra+id, and e&en
to obtain a rough idea of the length of his reign by counting the
successi&e coats or accretions *hich it had recei&ed, +uch as *e tell
the age of a tree by the rings in its bole' ! pyra+id see+ed to ha&e
been constructed so+ething after the +anner of an onion or a Chinese
puGGle-boC'
Prof' PQtrie, ho*e&er, *ho eCa+ined the GriGa pyra+ids in /99/, and
carefully +easured the+ all up and finally settled their trigono+etrical
relation, ca+e to the conclusion that #epsiusDs theory *as entirely
erroneous, and that e&ery pyra+id *as built and no* stands as it *as
originally planned' %r'
4"llustration. ///'jpg THE P,$!B"% O< G"Y! %>$"?G THE "?>?%!T"O?'8
Borchardt, ho*e&er, *ho is an architect by profession, has eCa+ined
the pyra+ids again, and has co+e to the conclusion that Prof' PQtrieDs
state+ent is not correct, and that there is an ele+ent of truth in
#epsiusDs hypothesis' He has sho*n that se&eral of the pyra+ids, notably
the <irst and econd at GiGa, sho* un+istakable signs of a +odified,
altered, and enlarged planK in fact, long-li&ed kings like )hufu see+
to ha&e added considerably to their pyra+ids and e&en to ha&e entirely
re+odelled the+ on a larger scale' This has certainly been the case *ith
the Great Pyra+id' (e can, then, accept #epsiusDs theory as +odified by
%r' Borchardt'
!nother interesting point has arisen in connection *ith the Great
Pyra+id' Considerable difference of opinion has al*ays eCisted bet*een
Egyptologists and the professors of European archaeology *ith regard
to the antiAuity of the kno*ledge of iron in Egypt' The +ajority of
the Egyptologists ha&e al*ays +aintained, on the authority of the
inscriptions, that iron *as kno*n to the ancient Egyptians fro+ the
earliest period' They argued that the *ord for a certain +etal in old
Egyptian *as the sa+e as the Coptic *ord for Liron'L They stated that in
the +ost ancient religious teCts the Egyptians spoke of the fir+a+ent
of hea&en as +ade of this +etal, and they ca+e to the conclusion that it
*as because this +etal *as blue in colour, the hue of iron or steelK and
they further pointed out that so+e of the *eapons in the to+b-paintings
*ere painted blue and others red, so+e being of iron, that is to
say, others of copper or bronGe' <inally they brought for*ard as
incontro&ertible e&idence an actual frag+ent of *orked iron, *hich had
been found bet*een t*o of the inner blocks, do*n one of the air-shafts,
in the Great Pyra+id' Here *as an actual piece of iron of the ti+e of
the "@th %ynasty, about 7322 B'C'
This conclusion *as ne&er accepted by the students of the de&elop+ent of
the use of +etal in prehistoric Europe, *hen they ca+e to kno* of it'
?o doubt their incredulity *as partly due to *ant of appreciation of the
Egyptological e&idence, partly to disinclination to accept a conclusion
*hich did not at all agree *ith the kno*ledge they had deri&ed fro+
their o*n study of prehistoric Europe' "n outhern Europe it *as Auite
certain that iron did not co+e into use till about /222 B'C'K in Central
Europe, *here the disco&eries at Hallstatt in the alGka++ergut eChibit
the transition fro+ the !ge of BronGe to that of "ron, about 922 B'C'
The eCclusi&ely "ron !ge culture of #a T_ne cannot be dated earlier than
the eighth century, if as early as that' Ho* then *as it possible that,
if iron had been kno*n to the Egyptians as early as 7322 B'C', its
kno*ledge should not ha&e been co++unicated to the Europeans until o&er
t*o thousand years laterP ?oK iron could not ha&e been really kno*n to
the Egyptians +uch before /222 B'C' and the Egyptological e&idence *as
all *rong' This line of argu+ent *as taken by the distinguished
*edish archaeologist, Prof' Oscar Bontelius, of >psala, *hose pre&ious
eCperience in dealing *ith the antiAuities of ?orthern Europe, great as
it *as, *as hardly sufficient to enable hi+ to pronounce *ith authority
on a point affecting far-a*ay !frican Egypt' !nd *hen dealing *ith Greek
prehistoric antiAuities Prof' BonteliusDs &ie*s ha&e hardly +et *ith
that ready agree+ent *hich all ackno*ledge to be his due *hen he is
gi&ing us the results of his ripe kno*ledge of ?orthern antiAuities' He
has, in fact, forgotten, as +ost LprehistoricL archaeologists do forget,
that the antiAuities of candina&ia, Greece, Egypt, the e+ites,
the bronGe-*orkers of Benin, the +iners of Yi+bab*e, and the Ohio
+ound-builders are not to be treated all together as a *hole, and that
hard and fast lines of de&elop+ent cannot be laid do*n for the+, based
on the eCperience of candina&ia'
(e +ay perhaps trace this +isleading habit of thought to the influence
of the professors of natural science o&er the students of tone !ge and
BronGe !ge antiAuities' Because nature +o&es by steady progression and
de&elops on e&en lines--Fnihil facit per sal-tu+F--it see+s to ha&e been
assu+ed that the *orks of +anDs hands ha&e de&eloped in the sa+e *ay,
in a regular and e&en sche+e all o&er the *orld' On this supposition it
*ould be i+possible for the great disco&ery of the use of iron to ha&e
been kno*n in Egypt as early as 7322 B'C' for this kno*ledge to ha&e
re+ained dor+ant there for t*o thousand years, and then to ha&e
been suddenly co++unicated about /222 B'C' to Greece, spreading *ith
lightning-like rapidity o&er Europe and displacing the use of bronGe
e&ery*here' ,et, as a +atter of fact, the *ork of +an does de&elop
in eCactly this haphaGard *ay, by fits and starts and sudden leaps of
progress after +illennia of stagnation' Thro*sback to barbaris+ are just
as freAuent' The analogy of natural e&olution is co+pletely inapplicable
and +isleading'
Prof' Bontelius, ho*e&er, follo*ing the Le&olutionaryL line of thought,
belie&ed that because iron *as not kno*n in Europe till about /222 B'C'
it could not ha&e been kno*n in Egypt +uch earlierK and in an i+portant
article *hich appeared in the *edish ethnological journal F,+erF in
/997, entitled FBronsaldrn i EgyptenF ILThe BronGe !ge in EgyptLJ, he
essayed to pro&e the contrary argu+ents of the Egyptologists *rong' His
+ain points *ere that the colour of the *eapons in the frescoes *as of
no i+portance, as it *as purely con&entional and arbitrary, and that the
e&idence of the piece of iron fro+ the Great Pyra+id *as insufficiently
authenticated, and therefore &alueless, in the absence of other definite
archaeological e&idence in the shape of iron of supposed early date' To
this article the *edish Egyptologist, %r' Piehl, replied in the sa+e
periodical, in an article entitled FBronsalde+ i EgyptenF, in *hich he
tra&ersed Prof' BonteliusDs conclusions fro+ the Egyptological point of
&ie*, and adduced other instances of the use of iron in Egypt, all,
it is true, later than the ti+e of the "@th %ynasty' But this protest
recei&ed little notice, o*ing to the fact that it re+ained buried in
a *edish periodical, *hile Prof' BonteliusDs original article *as
translated into <rench, and so beca+e *ell-kno*n'
<or the ti+e Prof' BonteliusDs conclusions *ere generally accepted, and
*hen the disco&eries of the prehistoric antiAuities *ere +ade by B' de
Borgan, it see+ed +ore probable than e&er that Egypt had gone through a
regular progressi&e de&elop+ent fro+ the !ge of tone through those of
copper and bronGe to that of iron, *hich *as reached about //22 or /222
B'C' The e&idence of the iron frag+ent fro+ the Great Pyra+id *as put on
one side, in spite of the circu+stantial account of its disco&ery
*hich had been gi&en by its finders' E&en Prof' PQtrie, *ho in /99/
had accepted the pyra+id frag+ent as undoubtedly conte+porary *ith that
building, and had gone so far as to adduce additional e&idence for its
authenticity, ga&e *ay, and accepted BonteliusDs &ie*, *hich held its
o*n until in /:21 it *as directly contro&erted by a disco&ery of Prof'
PQtrie at !bydos' This disco&ery consisted of an undoubted frag+ent of
iron found in conjunction *ith bronGe tools of @"th %ynasty dateK and it
settled the +atter'; The @"th %ynasty date of this piece of iron, *hich
*as +ore probably *orked than not Isince it *as buried *ith toolsJ, *as
held to be undoubted by its disco&erer and by e&erybody else, and, if
this *ere undoubted, the "@th %ynasty date of the Great Pyra+id frag+ent
*as also fully established' The disco&erers of the earlier frag+ent had
no doubt *hate&er as to its being conte+porary *ith the pyra+id, and
*ere supported in this by Prof' PQtrie in /99/' Therefore it is no*
kno*n to be the fact that iron *as used by the Egyptians as early as
7322 B'C';;
; ee H' $' HallDs note on LThe Early >se of "ron in Egypt,L
in FBanF Ithe organ of the !nthropological ociety of
#ondonJ, iii I/:27J, ?o' 90'
;; Prof' Bontelius objected to these conclusions in a re&ie*
of the British Buseu+ LGuide to the !ntiAuities of the
BronGe !ge,L *hich *as published in Ban, /223 I=an'J, ?o 6'
<or an ans*er to these objections, see Hall, ibid', ?o' R2'
"t *ould thus appear that though the Egyptians cannot be said to ha&e
used iron generally and so to ha&e entered the L"ron !geL before about
/722 B'C' Ireign of $a+ses ""J, yet iron *as *ell kno*n to the+ and had
been used +ore than occasionally by the+ for tools and building purposes
as early as the ti+e of the "@th %ynasty, about 7322 B'C' Certainly
dated eCa+ples of its use occur under the "@th, @"th, and H"""th
%ynasties' (hy this kno*ledge *as not co++unicated to Europe before
about /222 B'C' *e cannot say, nor are Egyptologists called upon to find
the reason' o the Great Pyra+id has played an interesting part in the
settle+ent of a &ery i+portant Auestion'
"t *as supposed by Prof' PQtrie that the piece of iron fro+ the Great
Pyra+id had been part of so+e arrange+ent e+ployed for raising the
stones into position' Herodotus speaks of the +achines, *hich *ere used
to raise the stones, as +ade of little pieces of *ood' The generally
accepted eCplanation of his +eaning used to be that a s+all crane or
si+ilar *ooden +achine *as used for hoisting the stone by +eans
of pulley and ropeK but B' #egrain, the director of the *orks of
restoration in the Great Te+ple of )arnak, has eCplained it differently'
!+ong the Lfoundation depositsL of the H@"""th %ynasty at %Nr el-Bahari
and else*here, beside the little plaAues *ith the kingDs na+e and the
+odel hoes and &ases, *as usually found an enig+atic *ooden object like
a s+all cradle, *ith t*o sides +ade of se+icircular pieces of *ood,
joined along the cur&ed portion by round *ooden bars' B' #egrain has no*
eCplained this as a +odel of the +achine used to raise hea&y stones fro+
tier to tier of a pyra+id or other building, and illustrations of
the +ethod of its use +ay be found in ChoisyDs F!rt de BVtir cheG les
anciens EgyptiensF' There is little doubt that this pri+iti&e +achine
is that to *hich Herodotus refers as ha&ing been used in the erection of
the pyra+ids'
The later historian, %iodorus, also tells us that great +ounds or ra+ps
of earth *ere used as *ell, and that the stones *ere dragged up these
to the reAuisite height' There is no doubt that this state+ent also is
correct' (e kno* that the Egyptians did build in this &ery *ay, and
the syste+ has been re&i&ed by B' #egrain for his *ork at )arnak, *here
still eCist the re+ains of the actual +ounds and ra+ps by *hich the
great *estern pylon *as erected in Ptole+aXc ti+es' (ork carried on
in this *ay is slo* and eCpensi&e, but it is e+inently suited to the
country and understood by the people' "f they *ish to put a great stone
architra&e *eighing +any tons across the top of t*o colu+ns, they do not
hoist it up into positionK they rear a great ra+p or e+bank+ent of earth
against the t*o pillars, half-burying the+ in the process, then drag
the architra&e up the ra+p by +eans of ropes and +en, and put it into
position' Then the ra+p is cleared a*ay' This is the ancient syste+
*hich is no* follo*ed at )arnak, and it is the syste+ by *hich, *ith the
further aid of the *ooden +achines, the Great Pyra+id and its co+peers
*ere erected in the days of the "@th %ynasty' FPlus cela change, plus
cDest la +N+e choseF'
The brick pyra+ids of the H""th %ynasty *ere erected in the sa+e *ay,
for the Egyptians had no kno*ledge of the +odern co+bination of *ooden
scaffolding and ladders' There *as originally a s+all stone pyra+id of
the sa+e dynasty at %ashWr, half-*ay bet*een the t*o brick ones, but
this has no* al+ost disappeared' "t belonged to the king !+ene+hat "",
*hile the others belonged, the northern to >sertsen Ien-usretJ """, the
southern to !+ene+hat """' Both these latter +onarchs had other to+bs
else*here, >sertsen a great rock-cut gallery and cha+ber in the cliff at
!bydos, !+ene+hat a pyra+id not &ery far to the south, at Ha*ara, close
to the <ayyW+' "t is uncertain *hether the Ha*ara pyra+id or that of
%ashWr *as the real burial-place of the king, as at neither place is his
na+e found alone' !t Ha*ara it is found in conjunction *ith that of his
daughter, the Aueen-regnant e-bekneferurV Ike+iophrisJ, at %ashWr *ith
that of a king !uabrV Hor, *ho *as buried in a s+all to+b near that of
the king, and adjoining the to+bs of the kingDs children' (ho )ing Hor
*as *e do not Auite kno*' His na+e is not gi&en in the lists, and *as
unkno*n until B' de BorganDs disco&eries at %ashWr' "t is +ost probable
that he *as a prince *ho *as gi&en royal honours during the lifeti+e of
!+ene+hat """, *ho+ he predeceased'; "n the beautiful *ooden statue
of hi+ found in his to+b, *hich is no* in the Cairo Buseu+, he is
represented as Auite a youth' !+ene+hat """ *as certainly succeeded by
!+ene+hat "@, and it is i+possible to intercalate Hor bet*een the+'
; ee belo*, p' /1/' Possibly he *as a son of !+ene+hat """'
The identification of the o*ners of the three *estern pyra+ids of %ashWr
is due to B' de Borgan and his assistants, Bessrs' #egrain and =QAuier,
*ho eCca&ated the+ fro+ /9:R till /9:0' The northern pyra+id, that of
>sertsen IenusretJ """, is not so *ell preser&ed as the southern' "t is
+ore *orn a*ay, and does not present so i+posing an appearance' "n
both pyra+ids the outer casing of *hite stone has entirely disappeared,
lea&ing only the bare black bricks' Each stood in the +idst of a great
necropolis of dignitaries of the period, as *as usually the case'
Bany of the +astabas *ere eCca&ated by B' de Borgan' o+e are of older
periods than the H""th %ynasty, one belonging to a priest of )ing
nefru, !ha-f-ka ILGhost-fighterLJ, *ho bore the additional titles of
Ldirector of prophets and general of infantry'L There *ere pluralists
e&en in those days' !nd the distinction bet*een the pri&y councillor
IGehei+ratJ and real pri&y councillor I(irk-licher-Grehei+ratJ *as Auite
fa+iliarK for *e find it actually +ade, +any an old Egyptian officially
priding hi+self in his to+b on ha&ing been a real pri&y councillor^ The
Egyptian bureaucracy *as already ancient and had its sur&i&als and its
ano+alies e&en as early as the ti+e of the pyra+id-builders'
"n front of the pyra+id of >sertsen IenusretJ """ at one ti+e stood the
usual funerary te+ple, but it has been totally destroyed' By the side of
the pyra+id *ere buried so+e of the princesses of the royal fa+ily, in
a series of to+bs opening out of a subterranean gallery, and in this
gallery *ere found the *onderful je*els of the princesses it-hathor and
Berit, *hich are a+ong the greatest treasures of the Cairo Buseu+' Those
*ho ha&e not seen the+ can obtain a perfect idea of their appearance
fro+ the beautiful *ater-colour paintings of the+ by B' #egrain, *hich
are published in B' de BorganDs *ork on the L<ouilles [ %ahchourL
I@ienna, /9:3J' !ltogether one hundred and se&en objects *ere reco&ered,
consisting of all kinds of je*elry in gold and coloured stones' !+ong
the +ost beautiful are the great Lpectorals,L or breast-orna+ents, in
the shape of pylons, *ith the na+es of >sertsen "", >sertsen """, and
!+ene+hat """K the na+es are surrounded by ha*ks standing on the sign
for gold, gryphons, figures of the king striking do*n ene+ies, etc', all
in FcloisonnQF *ork, *ith beautiful stones such as lapis laGuli, green
felspar, and carnelian taking the place of coloured ena+els' The +assi&e
chains of golden beads and co*ries are also &ery re+arkable' These
treasures had been buried in boCes in the floor of the subterranean
gallery, and had luckily escaped the notice of plunderers, and so by a
fortunate chance ha&e sur&i&ed to tell us *hat the Egyptian je*ellers
could do in the days of the H""th %ynasty' Here also *ere found t*o
great ?ile barges, full-siGed boats, *ith their oars and other gear
co+plete' They also +ay be seen in the Buseu+ of Cairo' "t can only be
supposed that they had ser&ed as the biers of the royal +u++ies, and had
been brought up in state on sledges' The actual royal cha+ber *as not
found, although a subterranean gallery *as dri&en beneath the centre of
the pyra+id'
The southern brick pyra+id *as constructed in the sa+e *ay as the
northern one' !t the side of it *ere also found the to+bs of +e+bers of
the royal house, including that of the king Hor, already +entioned, *ith
its interesting contents' The re+ains of the +u++y of this ephe+eral
+onarch, kno*n only fro+ his to+b, *ere also found' The entrails of the
king *ere placed in the usual Lcanopic jars,L *hich *ere sealed *ith the
seal of !+ene+hat """K it is thus that *e kno* that Hor died before hi+'
"n +any of the inscriptions of this king, on his coffin and stelo, a
peculiarly affected +anner of *riting the hieroglyphs is found,--the
birds are *ithout their legs, the snake has no tail, the bee no head'
Birds are found *ithout their legs in other inscriptions of this periodK
it *as a te+porary fashion and soon discarded'
"n the to+b of a princess na+ed ?ubhetep, near at hand, *ere found +ore
je*els of the sa+e style as those of it-hathor and Berit' The pyra+id
itself contained the usual passages and cha+bers, *hich *ere reached
*ith +uch difficulty and considerable tunnelling by B' de Borgan' "n
fact, the search for the royal death-cha+bers lasted fro+ %ece+ber 3,
/9:R, till Barch /6, /9:3, *hen the eCca&atorsD gallery finally struck
one of the ancient passages, *hich *ere found to be unusually eCtensi&e,
contrasting in this respect *ith the northern pyra+id' The royal
to+b-cha+ber had, of course, been e+ptied of *hat it contained' "t +ust
be re+e+bered that, in any case, it is probable that the king *as not
actually buried here, but in the pyra+id of Ha*ara'
The pyra+id of !+ene+hat "", *hich lies bet*een the t*o brick pyra+ids,
*as built entirely of stone' ?othing of it re+ains abo&e ground, but the
in&estigation of the subterranean portions sho*ed that it *as re+arkable
for the +assi&eness of its stones and the care *ith *hich the +asonry
*as eCecuted' The sa+e characteristics are found in the dependent to+bs
of the princesses Ha and )hnu+et, in *hich +ore je*elry *as found' This
splendid stone*ork is characteristic of the Biddle )ingdo+K *e find it
also in the te+ple of Bentuhetep """ at Thebes'
o+e distance south of %ashWr is BNdW+, *here the pyra+id of neferu
reigns in solitude, and beyond this again is #isht, *here in the
years /9:R-0 BB' Gautier and =QAuier eCca&ated the pyra+id of >sertsen
Ien-usretJ "' The +ost re+arkable find *as a cache of the seated
statues of the king in *hite li+estone, in absolutely perfect condition'
They *ere found lying on their sides, just as they had been hidden' iC
figures of the king in the for+ of Osiris, *ith the face painted red,
*ere also found' uch figures see+ to ha&e been regularly set up in
front of a royal sepulchreK se&eral *ere found in front of the funerary
te+ple of Bentu-hetep """, Thebes, *hich *e shall describe later' !
fine altar of gray granite, *ith representations in relief of the no+es
bringing offerings, *as also reco&ered' The pyra+id of #isht itself is
not built of bricks, like those of %ashWr, but of stone' "t *as not,
ho*e&er, erected in so solid a fashion as those of earlier days at GZGa
or !busZr, and nothing is left of it no* but a heap of dQbris' The H""th
%ynasty architects built *alls of +agnificent +asonry, as *e ha&e
seen, and there is no doubt that the stone casing of their pyra+ids
*as originally &ery fine, but the interior is of brick or rubbleK the
*onderful syste+ of building e+ployed by kings of the "@th %ynasty at
GiGa *as not practised'
outh of #isht is "llahun, and at the entrance to the pro&ince of the
<ayyW+, and *est of this, nearer the <ayyW+, is Ha*ara, *here Prof'
Petrie eCca&ated the pyra+ids of >sertsen IenusretJ "" and !+ene+-hat
"""' His disco&eries ha&e already been described by Prof' Baspero in his
history, so that it *ill suffice here +erely to co+pare the+ *ith the
results of B' de BorganDs later *ork at %ashWr and that of BB' Gautier
and =QAuier at #isht, to note recent conclusions in connection *ith
the+, and to describe the ne*est disco&eries in the sa+e region'
Both pyra+ids are of brick, lined *ith stone, like those of %ashWr, *ith
so+e differences of internal construction, since stone *alls eCist in
the interior' The central cha+bers and passages leading to the+ *ere
disco&eredK and in both cases the passages are peculiarly co+pleC, *ith
du+b cha+bers, great stone portcullises, etc', in order to +islead
and block the *ay to possible plunderers' The eCtraordinary sepulchral
cha+ber of the Ha*ara pyra+id, *hich, though it is o&er t*enty-t*o feet
long by ten feet *ide o&er all, is he*n out of one solid block of hard
yello* AuartGite, gi&es so+e idea of the re+arkable facility of dealing
*ith huge stones and the lo&e of utiliGing the+ *hich is especially
characteristic of the H""th %ynasty' The pyra+id of Ha*ara *as pro&ided
*ith a funerary te+ple the like of *hich had ne&er been kno*n in Egypt
before and *as ne&er kno*n after*ards' "t *as a huge building far larger
than the pyra+id itself, and built of fine li+estone and crystalline
*hite AuartGite, in a style e+inently characteristic of the H""th
%ynasty' "n actual superficies this te+ple co&ered an eCtent of ground
*ithin *hich the te+ples of )arnak, #uCor, and the $a+esseu+, at Thebes,
could ha&e stood, but has no* al+ost entirely disappeared, ha&ing been
used as a Auarry for t*o thousand years' "n $o+an ti+es this destroying
process had already begun, but e&en then the building *as still
+agnificent, and had been noted *ith *onder by all the Greek &isitors to
Egypt fro+ the ti+e of Herodotus do*n*ards' E&en before his day it
had recei&ed the na+e of the L#abyrinth,L on account of its supposed
rese+blance to the original labyrinth in Crete'
That the Ha*ara te+ple *as the Egyptian labyrinth *as pointed out by
#epsius in the Dforties of the last century' (ithin the last t*o or
three years attention has again been dra*n to it by Br' !rthur E&ansDs
disco&ery of the Cretan labyrinth itself in the shape of the Binoan
or early Bycenan palace of )nossos, near Candia in Crete' "t is
i+possible to enter here into all the argu+ents by *hich it has been
pro&ed that the )nossian palace is the &eritable labyrinth of the
Binotaur legend, nor *ould it be strictly ger+ane to our subject *ere *e
to do soK but it +ay suffice to say here that the *ord
4"llustration. /13'jpg IGreek *ordJ8
has been pro&ed to be of Greek-or rather of pre-Hellenic-origin, and
*ould +ean in )arian LPlace of the %ouble-!Ce,L like #a-braunda in
)aria, *here Yeus *as depicted *ith a double aCe IlabrysJ in his hand'
The non-!ryan, L!sianic,L group of languages, to *hich certainly #ycian
and probably )arian belong, has been sho*n by the Ger+an philologer
)retsch+er to ha&e spread o&er Greece into "taly in the period before
the !ryan Greeks entered Hellas, and to ha&e left undoubted traces of
its presence in Greek place-na+es and in the Greek language itself'
Before the true Hellenes reached Crete, an !sianic dialect +ust ha&e
been spoken there, and to this language the *ord LlabyrinthL +ust
originally ha&e belonged' The classical labyrinth *as Lin the )nossian
territory'L The palace of )nossos *as e+phatically the chief seat of the
*orship of a god *hose e+ble+ *as the double-aCeK it *as the )nossian
LPlace of the %ouble-!Ce,L the Cretan L#abyrinth'L
"t used to be supposed that the Cretan labyrinth had taken its na+e fro+
the Egyptian one, and the, *ord itself *as supposed to be of Egyptian
origin' !n Egyptian ety+ology *as found for it as LF$o-pi-ro-henetF,L
LTe+ple-+outh-canal,L *hich +ight be interpreted, *ith so+e &iolence to
Egyptian construction, as LThe te+ple at the +outh of the canal,L i'e'
the Bahr ,usuf, *hich enters the <ayyW+ at Ha*ara' But unluckily this
*ord *ould ha&e been pronounced by the nati&es of the &icinity as
LElphilahune,L *hich is not &ery +uch like
4"llustration. /10'jpg IGreek *ordJ8
LF$o-pi-ro-henetFL is, in fact, a +ere fig+ent of the philological
i+agination, and cannot be pro&ed e&er to ha&e eCisted' The ele+ent
F$o-henetF, Lcanal-+outhL Iaccording to the local pronunciation of the
<ayyW+ and Biddle Egypt, called F#a-hun_FJ, is genuineK it is the
origin of the +odern "llahun IFel-#ahunFJ, *hich is situated at the
Lcanal-+outh'L Ho*e&er, no* that *e kno* that the *ord labyrinth can be
eCplained satisfactorily *ith the help of )arian, as e&idently of Greek
Ipre-!ryanJ origin, and as e&idently the original na+e of the )nossian
labyrinth, it is ob&ious that there is no need to seek a far-fetched
eCplanation of the *ord in Egypt, and to suppose that the Greeks called
the Cretan labyrinth after the Egyptian one'
The contrary is e&idently the case' Greek &isitors to Egypt found a
rese+blance bet*een the great Egyptian building, *ith its nu+erous halls
and corridors, &ast in eCtent, and the )nossian palace' E&en if &ery
little of the latter *as &isible in the classical period, as see+s
possible, yet the site see+s al*ays to ha&e been kept holy and free fro+
later building till $o+an ti+es, and *e kno* that the tradition of the
+aGy halls and corridors of the labyrinth *as al*ays clear, and *as
e&idently based on a &i&id re+iniscence' !ctually, one of the +ost
pro+inent characteristics of the )nossian palace is its +aGy and
labyrinthine syste+ of passages and cha+bers' The parallel bet*een the
t*o buildings, *hich originally caused the Greek &isitors to gi&e the
pyra+id-te+ple of Ha*ara the na+e of Llabyrinth,L has been traced still
further' The *hite li+estone *alls and the shining portals of LParian
+arble,L described by trabo as characteristic of the Egyptian
labyrinth, ha&e been co+pared *ith the shining *hite selenite or gypsu+
used at )nossos, and certain general rese+blances bet*een the Greek
architecture of the Binoan age and the al+ost conte+porary Egyptian
architecture of the H""th %ynasty ha&e been pointed out'; uch
rese+blances +ay go to s*ell the a+ount of e&idence already kno*n, *hich
tells us that there *as a close connection bet*een Egyptian and Binoan
art and ci&iliGation, established at least as early as 1322 B'C'
; ee H' $' Hall, =ournal of Hellenic tudies, /:23 IPt'
iiJ' The Te+ple of the phinC at GZGa +ay also be co+pared
*ith those of Ha*ara and )nossos' "t see+s +ost probable
that the Te+ple of the phinC is a H""th %ynasty building'
<or it +ust be re+e+bered that *ithin the last fe* years *e ha&e learned
fro+ the eCca&ations in Crete a ne* chapter of ancient history, *hich,
it +ight al+ost see+, sho*s us Greece and Egypt in regular co++unication
fro+ nearly the beginnings of Egyptian history' !s the eCca&ations *hich
ha&e told us this *ere carried on in Crete, not in Egypt, to describe
the+ does not lie *ithin the scope of this book, though a short sketch
of their results, so far as they affect Egyptian history in later days,
is gi&en in Chapter @""' Here it +ay suffice to say that, as far as
the early period is concerned, Egypt and Crete *ere certainly in
co++unication in the ti+e of the H""th %ynasty, and Auite possibly in
that of the @"th or still earlier' (e ha&e """d %ynasty Egyptian &ases
fro+ )nossos, *hich *ere certainly not i+ported in later days, for no
ancient nation had antiAuarian tastes till the ti+e of the aXtes in
Egypt and of the $o+ans still later' "n fact, this co++unication see+s
to go so far back in ti+e that *e are gradually being led to percei&e
the possibility that the Binoan culture of Greece *as in its origin an
offshoot fro+ that of pri+e&al Egypt, probably in early ?eolithic ti+es'
That is to say, the ?eolithic Greeks and ?eolithic Egyptians *ere both
+e+bers of the sa+e LBediterraneanL stock, *hich Auite possibly +ay ha&e
had its origin in !frica, and a portion of *hich +ay ha&e crossed the
sea to Europe in &ery early ti+es, taking *ith it the seeds of culture
*hich in Egypt de&eloped in the Egyptian *ay, in Greece in the Greek
*ay' !ctual co++unication and connection +ay not ha&e been +aintained
at first, and probably they *ere not' Prof' Petrie thinks other*ise, and
*ould see in the boats painted on the predynastic Egyptian &ases Isee
Chapter "J the identical galleys by *hich, in late ?eolithic
ti+es, co++erce bet*een Crete and Egypt *as carried on across the
Bediterranean' "t is certain, ho*e&er, that these boats are ordinary
little ri&er craft, the usual ?ile FfelWkasF and FgyassasF of the ti+eK
they are depicted together *ith e+ble+s of the desert and culti&ated
land,-ostriches, antelopes, hills, and pal+-trees,-and the thoroughly
inland and >pper Egyptian character of the *hole design springs to the
eye' There can be no doubt *hate&er that the predynastic boats *ere not
seagoing galleys'
"t *as probably not till the ti+e of the pyra+id-builders that
connection bet*een the Greek Bediterraneans and the ?ilotes *as
re-established' Thence-for*ard it increased, and in the ti+e of the
H""th %ynasty, *hen the labyrinth of !+ene+hat """ *as built, there
see+s to ha&e been so+e kind of +ore or less regular co++unication
bet*een the t*o countries'
"t is certain that artistic ideas *ere eCchanged bet*een the+ at this
period' Ho* co++unication *as carried on *e do not kno*, but it *as
probably rather by *ay of Cyprus and the yrian coast than directly
across the open sea' (e shall re&ert to this point *hen *e co+e to
describe the connection bet*een Crete and Egypt in the ti+e of the
H@"""th %ynasty, *hen Cretan a+bassadors &isited the Egyptian court and
*ere depicted in to+b paintings at Thebes' Bet*een the ti+e of the H""th
%ynasty and that of the H@"""th this connection see+s to ha&e been &ery
considerably strengthenedK for at )nossos ha&e been found an Egyptian
statuette of an Egyptian na+ed !bnub, *ho fro+ his na+e +ust ha&e li&ed
about the end of the H"""th %ynasty, and the top of an alabastron *ith
the royal na+e of )hian, one of the Hyksos kings'
Ouite close to Ha*ara, at "llahun, in the ruins of the to*n *hich *as
built by >sertsenDs *ork+en *hen they *ere building his pyra+id, Prof'
Petrie found frag+ents of pottery of types *hich *e no* kno* *ell fro+
eCca&ations in Crete and Cyprus, though they *ere then unkno*n' They are
frag+ents of the polychro+e Cretan *are called, after the na+e of the
place *here it *as first found in Crete, )a+ares *are, and of a black
*are orna+ented *ith s+all punctures, *hich are often filled up *ith
*hite' This latter *are has been found else*here associated *ith H"""th
%ynasty antiAuities' The for+er is kno*n to belong in Crete to the
Learly BinoanL period, long anterior to the Llate BinoanL or LPalaceL
period, *hich *as conte+porary *ith the Egyptian H@"""th %ynasty'
(e ha&e here another interesting proof of a connection bet*een H""th
%ynasty Egypt and early Binoan Crete' The later connection, under the
H@"""th and follo*ing dynasties, is also illustrated in the sa+e reign
by Prof' PetrieDs finds of late Bycenaean objects and foreign gra&es at
Bedinet Gurob';
; One +an *ho *as buried here bore the na+e !n-Tursha,
LPillar of the Tursha'L The Tursha *ere a people of the
Bediterranean, possibly Tylissians of Crete'
These eCca&ations at Ha*ara, "llahun, )ahun, and Gurob *ere carried out
in the years /996-:' ince then Prof' Petrie and his co-*orkers ha&e
re&isited the sa+e district, and Gurob has been re-eCa+ined Iin /:2RJ
by Bessrs' #oat and !yrton, *ho disco&ered there a shrine de&oted to
the *orship of fish' This *ork *as carried on at the sa+e ti+e as Prof'
PetrieDs +ain eCca&ation for the Egypt ECploration <und at !nnas, or
!hnas-yet el-Bedina, the site of the ancient Henensu, the Herakleopolis
of the Greeks' Prof' ?a&ille had eCca&ated there for the Egypt
ECploration <und in /9:1, but had not co+pletely cleared the te+ple'
This *ork *as no* taken up by Prof' Petrie, *ho laid the *hole building
bare' "t is dedicated to Hershefi, the local deity of Herakleopolis'
This god, *ho *as called !r-saphes by the Greeks, and identified *ith
Herakles, *as in fact a for+ of Horus *ith the head of a ra+K his na+e
+eans LTerrible-<ace'L The greater part of the te+ple dates to the ti+e
of the H"Hth %ynasty, and nothing of the early period is left' (e kno*,
ho*e&er, that the Biddle )ingdo+ *as the flourishing period of the
city of Hershefi' <or a co+parati&ely brief period, bet*een the age of
Be+phite hege+ony and that of Theban do+inion, Herakleopolis *as the
capital city of Egypt' The kings of the "Hth and Hth %ynasties *ere
Herakleopolites, though *e kno* little of the+' One, )heti, is said to
ha&e been a great tyrant' !nother, ?ebkaurV, is kno*n only as a figure
in the L#egend of the EloAuent Peasant,L a classical story +uch in &ogue
in later days' !nother, BerikarV, is a +ore real personage, for *e ha&e
conte+porary records of his days in the inscriptions of the to+bs at
!syWt, fro+ *hich *e see that the princes of Thebes *ere already *earing
do*n the ?ortherners, in spite of the resistance of the adherents of
Herakleopolis, a+ong *ho+ the +ost &aliant *ere the chiefs of !syWt' The
ci&il *ar e&entuated in fa&our of Thebes, and the Theban H"th %ynasty
assu+ed the double cro*n' The sceptre passed fro+ Be+phis and the ?orth,
and Thebes enters upon the scene of Egyptian history'
(ith this e&ent the ?ile-land also entered upon a ne* era of
de&elop+ent' The +etropolis of the kingdo+ *as once +ore shifted to the
outh, and, although the kings of the H""th %ynasty actually resided
in the ?orth, their Theban origin *as ne&er forgotten, and Thebes
*as regarded as the chief city of the country' The H"th %ynasty kings
actually reigned at Thebes, and there the later kings of the H"""th
%ynasty retired after the conAuest of the Hyksos' The fact that *ith
Thebes *ere associated all the heroic traditions of the struggle against
the Hyksos ensured the final stability of the capital there *hen the
hated e+ites *ere finally dri&en out, and the national kingdo+
*as re-established in its full eCtent fro+ north to south' But for
occasional inter&als, as *hen !khunaten held his court at Tell el-!+arna
and $a+ses "" at Tanis, Thebes re+ained the national capital for siC
hundred years, till the ti+e of the HH""d %ynasty'
!nother great change *hich differentiates the Biddle )ingdo+
IH"th-H"""th %ynastiesJ fro+ the Old )ingdo+ *as caused by EgyptDs
co+ing into contact *ith other outside nations at this period' %uring
the *hole history of the Old )ingdo+, Egyptian relations *ith the outer
*orld had been nil' (e ha&e so+e inkling of occasional connection
*ith the Bediterranean peoples, the FHa-nebuF or ?orthernersK *e ha&e
accounts of *ars *ith the people of inai and other Beda*in and negroesK
and eCpeditions *ere also sent to the land of Punt Io+alilandJ by *ay
of the >pper ?ile' But *e ha&e not the slightest hint of any connection
*ith, or e&en kno*ledge of, the great nations of the Euphrates &alley
or the peoples of Palestine' The Babylonian king ?arV+-in in&aded the
inaitic peninsula Ithe land of BaganJ as early as 7632 b' c, about
the ti+e of the """d Egyptian %ynasty' The great )ing Tjeser, of that
dynasty, also in&aded inai, and so did nefru, the last king of the
dynasty' But *e ha&e no hint of any collision bet*een Babylonians and
Egyptians at that ti+e, nor do either of the+ betray the slightest
kno*ledge of one anotherDs eCistence' "t can hardly be that the t*o
ci&iliGed peoples of the *orld in those days *ere really absolutely
ignorant of each other, but *e ha&e no trace of any connection bet*een
the+, other than the possible one before the founding of the Egyptian
+onarchy'
This early connection, ho*e&er, is &ery proble+atical' (e ha&e seen that
there see+s to be in early Egyptian ci&iliGation an ele+ent ulti+ately
of Babylonian origin, and that there are t*o theories as to ho* it
reached Egypt' One supposes that it *as brought by a e+itic people of
!rab affinities Irepresented by the +odern GrallasJ, *ho crossed the
traits of Bab el-Ban-deb and reached Egypt either by *ay of the (adi
Ha++a+at or by the >pper ?ile' The other *ould bring it across the
"sth+us of ueG to the %elta, *here, at Heliopolis, there certainly
see+s to ha&e been a settle+ent of a e+itic type of &ery ancient
culture' "n both cases *e should ha&e e+ites bringing Babylonian
culture to Egypt' This, as *e +ay re+ind the reader, *as not itself of
e+itic origin, but *as a de&elop+ent due to a non-e+itic people,
the u+erians as they are called, *ho, so far as *e kno*, *ere the
aboriginal inhabitants of Babylonia' The u+erian language *as of
agglutinati&e type, radically distinct both fro+ the pure e+itic idio+s
and fro+ Egyptian' The Babylonian ele+ents of culture *hich the early
e+itic in&aders brought *ith the+ to Egypt *ere, then, ulti+ately of
u+erian origin' u+erian ci&iliGation had profoundly influenced the
e+itic tribes for centuries before the e+itic conAuest of Babylonia,
and *hen the u+erians beca+e +ore and +ore a conAuered race, finally
a+alga+ating *ith their conAuerors and losing their racial and
linguistic indi&iduality, they *ere conAuered by an alien race but not
by an alien culture' <or the culture of the e+ites *as u+erian, the
e+itic races o*ing their ci&iliGation to the u+erians' That is as
+uch as to say that a great deal of *hat *e call e+itic culture is
funda+entally non-e+itic'
"n the earliest days, then, Egypt recei&ed ele+ents of u+erian culture
through a e+itic +ediu+, *hich introduced e+itic ele+ents into the
language of the people, and a e+itic racial strain' "t is possible'
that both theories as to the routes of these pri+e&al conAuerors are
true, and that t*o *a&es of e+ites entered the ?ile &alley to*ards
the close of the ?eolithic period, one by *ay of the >pper ?ile or (adi
Ha++a+at, the other by *ay of Heliopolis'
!fter the reconsolidation of the Egyptian people, *ith perhaps an
autocratic class of e+itic origin and a populace of indigenous ?ilotic
race, *e ha&e no trace of further connection *ith the far-a*ay centre of
e+itic culture in Babylonia till the ti+e of the Theban hege+ony'
>nder the H""th %ynasty *e see Egyptians in friendly relations *ith the
Beda*in of "du+sea and outhern Palestine' Thus anehat, the younger son
of !+ene+hat ", *hen the death of his royal father *as announced, fled
fro+ the ne* king >sertsen IenusretJ into Palestine, and there +arried
the daughter of the chief !++uanshi and beca+e a yrian chief hi+self,
only finally returning to Egypt as an old +an on the assurance of the
royal pardon and fa&our' (e ha&e in the reign of >sertsen IenusretJ ""
the fa+ous &isit of the !rab chief !bisha I!bNshuDJ *ith his follo*ing
to the court of )hnu+hetep, the prince of the OryC no+e in Biddle Egypt,
as *e see it depicted on the *alls of )hnu+hetepDs to+b at Beni Hasan'
(e see >sertsen IenusretJ """ in&ading Palestine to chastise the land
of ek+e+ and the &ile yrians';
; (e kno* of this ca+paign fro+ the interesting historical
stele of the general ebek-khu I*ho took part in itJ, *hich
*as found during Br' GarstangDs eCca&ations at !bydos, not
pre&iously referred to abo&e' They *ere carried out in /:22,
and resulted in the co+plete clearance of a part of the
great ce+etery *hich had been created during the H""th
%ynasty' The group of objects fro+ the to+bs of this
ce+etery, and those of H@"""th %ynasty to+bs also found, is
especially &aluable as sho*ing the styles of objects in use
at these t*o periods Isee Garstang, el-!rdbah, /:2/J'
The ar+ of Egypt *as gro*ing longer, and its *eight *as being felt in
regions *here it had pre&iously been entirely unkno*n' E&entually the
collision ca+e' Egypt collided *ith an !siatic po*er, and got the *orst
of the encounter' o +uch the *orse that the Theban +onarchy of the
Biddle )ingdo+ *as o&erthro*n, and ?orthern Egypt *as actually conAuered
by the !siatic foreigners and ruled by a foreign house for se&eral
centuries' (ho these conAuering Hyksos, or hepherd )ings, *ere no
recent disco&ery has told us' !n old idea *as that they *ere Bongols' "t
*as supposed that the re+arkable faces of the sphinCes of Tanis, no*
in the Cairo Buseu+, *hich bore the na+es of Hyksos kings, *ere of
Bongolian type, as also those of t*o colossal royal heads disco&ered
by B' ?a&ille at Bubastis' But B' GolQnischeff has no* sho*n that these
heads are really those of H""th %ynasty kings, and not of Hyksos at all'
Bessrs' ?e*berry and Garstang ha&e lately endea&oured to sho* that this
type *as foreign, and probably connected *ith that of the )heta, or
Hittites, of ?orthern yria, *ho ca+e into pro+inence as ene+ies of
Egypt at a later period' They think that the type *as introduced into
the Egyptian royal fa+ily by ?efret, the Aueen of >sertsen IenusretJ
"", *ho+ they suppose to ha&e been a Hittite princess' !t the sa+e ti+e
they think it probable that the type *as also that of the Hyksos, *ho+
they consider to ha&e been practically Hittites' They therefore re&i&e
the theory of de Cara, *hich connects the Hyksos *ith the Hittites and
these *ith the Pelasgi and Tyrseni'
This is a &ery interesting theory, *hich, *hen carried out to its
logical conclusion, *ould connect the Hyksos and Hittites racially *ith
the pre-Hellenic LBinoanL Bycenseans of Greece, as *ell as *ith the
Etruscans of "taly' But there is little of certainty in it' "t is by no
+eans i+possible that *e +ay e&entually co+e to kno* that the Hittites
IF)hetaF, the F)hatteF of the !ssyriansJ and other tribes of !sia
Binor *ere racially akin to the LBinoansL of Greece, but the connection
bet*een the Hyksos and the Hittites is to seek' The countenances of the
)heta on the Egyptian +onu+ents of $a+ses ""Ds ti+e ha&e an angular
cast, and so ha&e those of the Tanis sphinCes, of Oueen ?efret, of
the Bubastis statues, and the statues of >sertsen IenusretJ """
and !+ene+hat """' (e +ight then suppose, *ith Bessrs' ?e*berry and
Garstang, that ?efret *as a )heta princess, *ho ga&e her peculiar racial
traits to her son >sertsen IenusretJ """ and his son !+ene+-hat, *ere
it not far +ore probable that the rese+blance bet*een this peculiar
H""th %ynasty type and the )heta face is purely fortuitous'
There is really no reason to suppose that the type of face presented by
?efret, >sertsen, and !+ene+hat is not purely Egyptian' "t +ay be seen
in +any a +odern fellah, and the truth probably is that the sculptors
ha&e in the case of these rulers &ery faithfully and carefully depicted
their portraits, and that their faces happen to ha&e been of a rather
hard and forbidding type' But, if *e grant the contention of Bessrs'
?e*berry and Garstang for the +o+ent, *here is the connection bet*een
these H""th %ynasty kings and the HyksosP !ll the Tanite +onu+ents *ith
this peculiar facial type *hich *ould be considered Hyksos are certainly
of the H""th %ynasty' The only statue of a Hyksos king, *hich *as
undoubtedly originally +ade for hi+ and is not one of the H""th %ynasty
usurped, is the s+all one of )hian at Cairo, disco&ered by B' ?a&ille at
Bubastis, and this has no head' o that *e ha&e not the slightest idea
of *hat a Hyksos looked like' Boreo&er, the e&idence of the Hyksos na+es
*hich are kno*n to us points in Auite a different direction' The )heta,
or Hittites, *ere certainly not e+ites, yet the Hyksos na+es are
definitely e+itic' "n fact it is +ost probable that the Hyksos, or
hepherd )ings, *ere, as the classical authorities say they *ere, and as
their na+e IFhiku-se+utF or Fhihu-shasuF,J Lprinces of the desertsL or
ILprinces of the Beda*ZnLJ also testifies, purely and si+ply !rabs'
?o* it is not a little curious that al+ost at the sa+e ti+e that a no+ad
!rab race conAuered #o*er Egypt and settled in it as rulers Ijust as
D!+r and the follo*ers of "sla+ did o&er t*o thousand years laterJ,
another !rab race +ay ha&e i+posed its rule upon Babylonia' ,et this
+ay ha&e been the caseK for the <irst %ynasty of Babylon, to *hich the
fa+ous Ha++urabi belonged, *as &ery probably of !rab origin, to judge by
the for+s of so+e of the royal na+es' "t is by no +eans i+possible that
there *as so+e connection bet*een these t*o conAuests, and that both
Babylonia and Egypt fell, in the period before the year 1222 B'C' before
so+e great +igratory +o&e+ent fro+ !rabia, *hich o&erran Babylonia,
Palestine, and e&en the Egyptian %elta'
"n this +anner Egypt and Babylonia +ay ha&e been brought together
in co++on subjection to the !rab' (e do not kno* *hether any regular
co++unication bet*een Egypt, under e+itic rule, and Babylonia *as no*
establishedK but *e do kno* that during the Hyksos period there *ere
considerable relations bet*een Egypt and o&er-sea Crete, and relations
*ith Besopota+ia +ay possibly ha&e been established' !t any rate, *hen
the *ar of liberation, *hich *as directed by the princes of Thebes, *as
finally brought to a successful conclusion and the !rabs *ere eCpelled,
*e find the Egyptians a +uch changed nation' They had adopted for *ar
the use of horse and chariot, *hich they learnt fro+ their e+itic
conAuerors, *hose &ictory *as in all probability largely gained by their
use, and, generally speaking, they had beco+e +uch +ore like the (estern
!siatic nations' Egypt *as no longer isolated, for she had been forcibly
brought into contact *ith the foreign *orld, and had learned +uch'
he *as no longer self-contained *ithin her o*n borders' "f the e+ites
could conAuer her, so could she conAuer the e+ites' !r+ed *ith horse
and chariot, the Egyptians *ent forth to battle, and their re&enge *as
co+plete' !ll Palestine and yria *ere Egyptian do+ains for fi&e hundred
years after the conAuest by Thoth+es " and """, and !shur and Babel sent
tribute to the Pharaoh of Egypt'
The reaction ca+e, and Egypt *as thro*n prostrate beneath the feet of
!ssyriaK but her clai+ to do+inion o&er the (estern !siatics *as ne&er
abandoned, and *as re&i&ed in all its po+p by Ptole+y Euergetes, *ho
brought back in triu+ph to Egypt the i+ages of the gods *hich had been
re+o&ed by !ssyrians and Babylonians centuries before' This clai+ *as
ne&er allo*ed by the !siatics, it is true, and their kings *rote to the
proudest Pharaoh as to an absolute eAual' E&en the )ing of Cyprus calls
the )ing of Egypt his brother' But Palestine *as ad+itted to be
an Egyptian possession, and the Phoenicians *ere al*ays energetic
supporters of the Egyptian rQgi+e against the la*less Beda*Zn tribes,
*ho *ere constantly intriguing *ith the )heta or Hittite po*er to the
north against Egypt'
The eCistence of this eCtra-Egyptian i+perial possession +eant that the
eyes of the Egyptians *ere no* per+anently turned in the direction of
(estern !sia, *ith *hich they *ere henceforth in constant and inti+ate
co++unication' The first Theban period and the Hyksos in&asion,
therefore, +ark a turning-point in Egyptian history, at *hich *e +ay
fitly lea&e it for a ti+e in order to turn our attention to those
peoples of (estern !sia *ith *ho+ the Egyptians had no* co+e into
per+anent contact'
=ust as ne* disco&eries ha&e been +ade in Egypt, *hich ha&e +odified our
pre&ious conception of her history, so also ha&e the eCca&ators of
the ancient sites in the Besopota+ian &alley +ade, during the last fe*
years, far-reaching disco&eries, *hich ha&e enabled us to add to and
re&ise +uch of our kno*ledge of the history of Babylonia and !ssyria' "n
Palestine and the inaitic peninsula also the spade has been used *ith
effect, but a detailed account of *ork in inai and Palestine falls
*ithin the li+its of a description of Biblical disco&eries rather than
of this book' The follo*ing chapters *ill therefore deal chiefly *ith
+odern disco&eries *hich ha&e told us ne* facts *ith regard to the
history of the ancient u+erians the+sel&es, and of the Babylonians,
Ela+ites, )assites, and !ssyrians, the inheritors of the ancient
u+erian ci&iliGation, *hich *as older than that of Egypt, and *hich, as
*e ha&e seen, probably contributed so+e*hat to its for+ation' These
*ere the t*o pri+al ci&iliGations of the ancient *orld' <or t*o thousand
years each +arched upon a solitary road, *ithout +eeting the other'
E&entually the t*o roads con&erged' (e ha&e hitherto dealt *ith the road
of the EgyptiansK *e no* describe that of the Besopota+ians, up to the
point of con&ergence'
CH!PTE$ "@--$ECE?T EHC!@!T"O? "? (ETE$? !"! !?% THE %!(?
O< CH!#%`!? H"TO$,
"n the preceding pages it has been sho*n ho* recent eCca&ations in Egypt
ha&e re&ealed an entirely ne* chapter in the history of that country,
and ho*, in conseAuence, our theories *ith regard to the origin of
Egyptian ci&iliGation ha&e been entirely re+odelled' ECca&ations ha&e
been and are being carried out in Besopota+ia and the adjacent countries
*ith no less enthusias+ and energy than in Egypt itself, and, although
it cannot be said that they ha&e resulted in any s*eeping +odification
of our conceptions *ith regard to the origin and kinship of the early
races of (estern !sia, yet they ha&e lately added considerably to our
kno*ledge of the ancient history of the countries in that region of the
*orld' This is particularly the case in respect of the u+erians, *ho,
so far as *e kno* at present, *ere the earliest inhabitants of the
fertile plains of Besopota+ia' The beginnings of this ancient people
stretch back into the re+ote past, and their origin is still shrouded in
the +ists of antiAuity' (hen first *e co+e across the+ they ha&e already
attained a high le&el of ci&iliGation' They ha&e built te+ples and
palaces and houses of burnt and unburnt brick, and they ha&e reduced
their syste+ of agriculture to a science, intersecting their country
*ith canals for purposes of irrigation and to ensure a good supply of
*ater to their cities' Their sculpture and pottery furnish abundant
e&idence that they ha&e already attained a co+parati&ely high le&el in
the practice of the arts, and finally they ha&e e&ol&ed a co+plicated
syste+ of *riting *hich originally had its origin in picture-characters,
but after*ards had been de&eloped along phonetic lines' To ha&e attained
to this pitch of culture argues long periods of pre&ious de&elop+ent,
and *e +ust conclude that they had been settled in outhern Babylonia
+any centuries before the period to *hich *e +ust assign the earliest of
their re+ains at present disco&ered'
That this people *ere not indigenous to Babylonia is highly probable,
but *e ha&e little data by *hich to deter+ine the region fro+ *hich
they originally ca+e' Pro+ the fact that they built their Giggurats, or
te+ple to*ers, of huge +asses of unburnt brick *hich rose high abo&e
the surrounding plain, and that their ideal *as to +ake each Llike a
+ountain,L it has been argued that they *ere a +ountain race, and the
ho+e fro+ *hich they sprang has been sought in Central !sia' Other
scholars ha&e detected signs of their origin in their language and
syste+ of *riting, and, fro+ the fact that they spoke an agglutinati&e
tongue and at the earliest period arranged the characters of their
script in &ertical lines like the Chinese, it has been urged that
they *ere of Bongol eCtraction' Though a case +ay be +ade out for this
hypothesis, it *ould be rash to dog+atiGe for or against it, and it is
*iser to a*ait the disco&ery of further +aterial on *hich a +ore certain
decision +ay be based' But *hate&er their origin, it is certain that the
u+erians eCercised an eCtraordinary influence on all races *ith
*hich, either directly or indirectly, they ca+e in contact' The ancient
inhabitants of Ela+ at a &ery early period adopted in principle
their +ethod of *riting, and after*ards, li&ing in isolation in the
+ountainous districts of Persia, de&eloped it on lines of their o*n' 4;
ee Chap' @, and note'8 On their in&asion of Babylonia the e+ites
fell absolutely under u+erian influence, and, although they e&entually
conAuered and absorbed the u+erians, their ci&iliGation re+ained
u+erian to the core' Boreo&er, by +eans of the e+itic inhabitants of
Babylonia u+erian culture continued to eCert its influence on other
and +ore distant races' (e ha&e already seen ho* a Babylonian ele+ent
probably enters into Egyptian ci&iliGation through e+itic infiltration
across the traits of Bab el-Bandeb or by *ay of the "sth+us of ueG,
and it *as u+erian culture *hich these e+ites brought *ith the+'
"n like +anner, through the e+itic Babylonians, the !ssyrians, the
)assites, and the inhabitants of Palestine and yria, and of so+e
parts of !sia Binor, !r+enia, and )urdistan, all in turn eCperienced
indirectly the influence of u+erian ci&iliGation and continued in a
greater or less degree to reproduce ele+ents of this early culture'
"t *ill be seen that the influence of the u+erians furnishes us *ith
a key to +uch that *ould other*ise pro&e puGGling in the history of the
early races of (estern !sia' "t is therefore all the +ore striking to
recall the fact that but a fe* years ago the &ery eCistence of this
ancient people *as called in Auestion' !t that ti+e the eCca&ations in
Besopota+ia had not re&ealed +any traces of the race itself, and its
pre&ious eCistence had been +ainly inferred fro+ a nu+ber of u+erian
co+positions inscribed upon !ssyrian tablets found in the library
of !shur-bani-pal at ?ine&eh' These co+positions *ere furnished *ith
!ssyrian translations upon the tablets on *hich they *ere inscribed,
and it *as correctly argued by the late ir Henry $a*linson, the late B'
Oppert, Prof' chrader, Prof' ayce, and other scholars that they *ere
*ritten in the language of the earlier inhabitants of the country *ho+
the e+itic Babylonians had displaced' But B' HalQ&y started a theory to
the effect that u+erian *as not a language at all, in the proper sense
of the ter+, but *as a cabalistic +ethod of *riting in&ented by the
e+itic Babylonian priests'
4"llustration. /R6'jpg #"T O< !$CH!"C C>?E"<O$B "G?'
%ra*n up by an !ssyrian scribe to assist hi+ in his studies
of early teCts' Photograph by Bessrs' Bansell E Co'
The argu+ent on *hich the upholders of this theory +ainly relied *as
that +any of the phonetic &alues of the u+erian signs *ere ob&iously
deri&ed fro+ e+itic eAui&alents, and they hastily ju+ped to the
conclusion that the *hole language *as si+ilarly deri&ed fro+ e+itic
Babylonian, and *as, in fact, a purely arbitrary in&ention of the
Babylonian priests' This theory ignored all Auestions of inherent
probability, and did not atte+pt to eCplain *hy the Babylonian priests
should ha&e troubled the+sel&es to +ake such an in&ention and after*ards
ha&e stultified the+sel&es by carefully appending !ssyrian translations
to the +ajority of the u+erian co+positions *hich they copied out'
Boreo&er, the nature of these co+positions is not such as *e should
eCpect to find recorded in a cabalistic +ethod of *riting' They contain
no secret lore of the Babylonian priests, but are +erely hy+ns and
prayers and religious co+positions si+ilar to those e+ployed by the
Babylonians and !ssyrians the+sel&es'
But in spite of its inherent i+probabilities, B' HalQ&y succeeded in
+aking +any con&erts to his theory, including Prof' <riedrich %elitGsch
and a nu+ber of the younger school of Ger+an !ssyriologists' Bore
conser&ati&e scholars, such as ir Henry $a*linson, B' Oppert, and Prof'
chrader, stoutly opposed the theory, +aintaining that u+erian *as a
real language and had been spoken by an earlier race *ho+ the e+itic
Babylonians had conAueredK and they eCplained the rese+blance of so+e of
the u+erian &alues to e+itic roots by supposing that u+erian had
not been suddenly superseded by the language of the e+itic in&aders
of Babylonia, but that the t*o tongues had been spoken for long periods
side by side and that each had been strongly influenced by the other'
This &ery probable and sane eCplanation has been fully corroborated
by subseAuent eCca&ations, particularly those that *ere carried out at
Telloh in outhern Babylonia by the late B' de arGec' "n these +ounds,
*hich +ark the site of the ancient u+erian city of hirpurla, *ere
found thousands of clay tablets inscribed in archaic characters and in
the u+erian language, pro&ing that it had actually been the language of
the early inhabitants of BabyloniaK *hile the eCa+ples of their art and
the representations of their for+ and features, *hich *ere also afforded
by the diggings at Telloh, pro&ed once for all that the u+erians *ere
a race of strongly +arked characteristics and could not be ascribed to a
e+itic stock'
The syste+ of *riting in&ented by the ancient u+erians *as adopted by
the e+itic Babylonians, *ho +odified it to suit their o*n language'
Boreo&er, the archaic for+s of the characters, +any of *hich under the
u+erians still retained rese+blances to the pictures of objects fro+
*hich they *ere descended, *ere considerably changed' The lines, of
*hich they *ere originally co+posed, ga&e *ay to *edges, and the nu+ber
of the *edges of *hich each sign consisted *as gradually di+inished, so
that in the ti+e of the !ssyrians and the later Babylonians +any of the
characters bore s+all rese+blance to the ancient u+erian for+s
fro+ *hich they had been deri&ed' The reading of u+erian and early
Babylonian inscriptions by the late !ssyrian scribes *as therefore an
acco+plish+ent only to be acAuired as the result of long study, and it
is interesting to note that as an assistance to the reading of these
early teCts the scribes co+piled lists of archaic signs' o+eti+es
opposite each archaic character they dre* a picture of the object fro+
*hich they i+agined it *as deri&ed' This fact is significant as pro&ing
that the !ssyrian scribes recogniGed the pictorial origin of cuneifor+
*riting, but the pictures they dre* opposite the signs are rather
fanciful, and it cannot be said that their guesses *ere &ery successful'
That *e are able to criticiGe the theories of the !ssyrians as to the
origin and for+s of the early characters is in the +ain due to B' de
arGecDs labours, fro+ *hose eCca&ations +any thousands of inscriptions
of the u+erians ha&e been reco&ered'
The +ain results of B' de arGecDs diggings at Telloh ha&e already been
described by B' Baspero in his history, and therefore *e need not go
o&er the+ again, but *ill here confine oursel&es to the results *hich
ha&e been obtained fro+ recent eCca&ations at Telloh and at other sites
in (estern !sia' (ith the death of B' de arGec, *hich occurred in his
siCty-fifth year, on Bay 7/, /:2/, the *onderfully successful series of
eCca&ations *hich he had carried out at Telloh *as brought to an end' "n
conseAuence it *as feared at the ti+e that the <rench diggings on this
site +ight be interrupted for a considerable period' uch an e&ent *ould
ha&e been regretted by all those *ho are interested in the early history
of the East, for, in spite of the treasures found by B' de arGec in the
course of his &arious ca+paigns, it *as ob&ious that the site *as far
fro+ being eChausted, and that the tells as yet uneCplored contained
inscriptions and antiAuities eCtending back to the &ery earliest periods
of u+erian history'
4"llustration. /32'jpg <$!GBE?T O< ! #"T O< !$CH!"C C>?E"<O$B
"G?'8
Opposite each the scribe has dra*n a picture of the object
fro+ *hich he i+agined it *as deri&ed' Photograph by Bessrs'
Bansell E Co'
The announce+ent *hich *as +ade in /:21, that the <rench go&ern+ent had
appointed Capt' Gaston Cros as the late B' de arGecDs successor, *as
therefore recei&ed *ith general satisfaction' The fact that Capt' Cros
had already successfully carried out se&eral difficult topographical
+issions in the region of the ahara *as a sufficient guarantee that the
ne* diggings *ould be conducted on a syste+atic and eChausti&e scale'
The ne* director of the <rench +ission in Chalda arri&ed at Telloh in
=anuary, /:27, and one of his first acts *as to shift the site of the
+issionDs settle+ent fro+ the bank of the hatt el-Hai, *here it had
al*ays been established in the ti+e of B' de arGec, to the +ounds *here
the actual digging took place' The hatt el-Hai had been pre&iously
chosen as the site of the settle+ent to ensure a constant supply of
*ater, and as it *as +ore easily protected against attack by night'
But the fact that it *as an hourDs ride fro+ the diggings caused an
unnecessary loss of ti+e, and rendered the strict super&ision of the
diggers a +atter of considerable difficulty' %uring the first seasonDs
*ork rough huts of reeds, surrounded by a *all of earth and a ditch,
ser&ed the ne* eCpedition for its enca+p+ent a+ong the +ounds of Telloh,
but last year these +akeshift arrange+ents *ere superseded by a regular
house built out of the burnt bricks *hich are found in abundance on the
site' ! reser&oir has also been built, and cara&ans of asses bring *ater
in skins fro+ the hatt el-Hai to keep it filled *ith a constant supply
of *ater, *hile the eCcellent relations *hich Capt' Cros has established
*ith the )aragul !rabs, *ho occupy Telloh and its neighbourhood, ha&e
pro&ed to be the best kind of protection for the +ission engaged in
scientific *ork upon the site'
The group of +ounds and hillocks, kno*n as Telloh, *hich +arks the site
of the ancient u+erian city of hirpurla, is easily distinguished fro+
the flat surrounding desert' The +ounds eCtend in a rough o&al for+ation
running north and south, about t*o and a half +iles long and one and a
Auarter broad' "n the early spring, *hen the desert is co&ered *ith a
light green &erdure, the ruins are clearly +arked out as a yello* spot
in the surrounding green, for &egetation does not gro* upon the+' "n the
centre of this o&al, *hich approCi+ately +arks the li+its of the ancient
city and its suburbs, are four large tells or +ounds running, roughly,
north and south, their sides descending steeply on the east, but *ith
their *estern slopes rising by easier undulations fro+ the plain' These
four principal tells are kno*n as the LPalace Tell,L the LTell of the
<ruit-house,L the LTell of the Tablets,L and the LGreat Tell,L and,
rising as they do in the centre of the site, they +ark the position of
the te+ples and the other principal buildings of the city'
!n indication of the richness of the site in antiAuities *as afforded
to the ne* +ission before it had started regular eCca&ation and *hile
it *as yet engaged in le&elling its enca+p+ent and surrounding it *ith a
*all and ditch' The spot selected for the ca+p *as a s+all +ound to the
south of the site of Telloh, and here, in the course of preparing the
site for the enca+p+ent and digging the ditch, objects *ere found at
a depth of less than a foot beneath the surface of the soil' These
included daggers, copper &ases, seal-cylinders, rings of lapis and
cornelian, and pottery' B' de arGec had carried out his latest
diggings in the Tell of the Tablets, and here Capt' Cros continued
the eCca&ations and ca+e upon the re+ains of buildings and reco&ered
nu+erous objects, dating principally fro+ the period of Gudea and
the kings of >r' The finds included s+all terra-cotta figures, a
boundary-stone of Ga+il-in, and a ne* statue of Gudea, to *hich *e *ill
refer again presently'
"n the Tell of the <ruit-house B' de arGec had already disco&ered
nu+bers of +onu+ents dating fro+ the earlier periods of u+erian history
before the conAuest and consolidation of Babylonia under argon of
!gade, and had eCca&ated a pri+iti&e terrace built by the early king
>r-?inV' Both on and around this large +ound Capt' Cros cut an eCtensi&e
series of trenches, and in digging to the north of the +ound he found a
nu+ber of objects, including an alabaster tablet of Ente-+ena *hich had
been blackened by fire' !t the foot of the tell he found a copper hel+et
like those represented on the fa+ous tele of @ultures disco&ered by
B' de arGec, and a+ong the tablets here reco&ered *as one *ith an
inscription of the ti+e of >rukagina, *hich records the co+plete
destruction of the city of hirpurla during his reign, and *ill be
described in greater detail later on in this chapter' On the +ound
itself a considerable area *as unco&ered *ith re+ains of buildings
still in place, the use of *hich appears to ha&e been of an industrial
character' They included flights of steps, canals *ith raised banks,
and basins for storing *ater' ?ot far off are the pre&iously disco&ered
*ells of Bannadu, so that it is legiti+ate to suppose that Capt' Cros
has here co+e upon part of the *orks *hich *ere erected at a &ery early
period of u+erian history for the distribution of *ater to this portion
of the city'
4"llustration. /3R'jpg Obelisk of Banishtusu'8
!n early e+itic king of the city of )ish in Babylonia' The
photograph is taken fro+ B' de BorganDs %elegation en Perse,
BDe+', t' i, pi' iC'
"n the Palace Tell Capt' Cros has sunk a series of deep shafts to
deter+ine precisely the relations *hich the buildings of >r-Bau and
Gudea, found already on this part of the site, bear to each other, and
to the building of !dad-nadin-akhN, *hich had been erected there at
a +uch later period' Pro+ this slight sketch of the *ork carried out
during the last t*o years at Telloh it *ill ha&e been seen that the
Prench +ission in Chalda is at present engaged in eCca&ations of a
+ost i+portant character, *hich are being conducted in a regular and
scientific +anner' !s the area of the eCca&ations +arks the site of the
chief city of the u+erians, the diggings there ha&e yielded and
are yielding +aterial of the greatest interest and &alue for the
reconstruction of the early history of Chalda' !fter briefly describing
the character and results of other recent eCca&ations in Besopota+ia and
the neighbouring lands, *e *ill return to the disco&eries at Telloh and
sketch the ne* infor+ation they supply on the history of the earliest
inhabitants of the country'
!nother <rench +ission that is carrying out *ork of the &ery greatest
interest to the student of early Babylonian history is that *hich is
eCca&ating at usa in Persia, under the direction of B' =' de Borgan,
*hose *ork on the prehistoric and early dynastic sites in Egypt has
already been described' B' de BorganDs first seasonDs digging at usa
*as carried out in the years /9:6-9, and the success *ith *hich he +et
fro+ the &ery first, *hen cutting trenches in the +ound *hich +arks
the acropolis of the ancient city, has led hi+ to concentrate his +ain
efforts in this part of the ruins e&er since' Pro&isional trenches cut
in the part of the ruins called Lthe $oyal City,L and in others of the
+ounds at usa, indicate that +any re+ains +ay e&entually be found there
dating fro+ the period of the !ch+enian )ings of Persia' But it is in
the +ound of the acropolis at usa that B' de Borgan has found +onu+ents
of the greatest historical interest and &alue, not only in the history
of ancient Ela+, but also in that of the earliest rulers of Chalda'
"n the diggings carried out during the first seasonDs *ork on the site,
an obelisk *as found inscribed on four sides *ith a long teCt of so+e
siCty-nine colu+ns, *ritten in e+itic Babylonian by the orders
of Banishtusu, a &ery early e+itic king of the city of )ish in
Babylonia'4; ee illustration'8 The teCt records the purchase by the
)ing of )ish of i++ense tracts of land situated at )ish and in
its neighbourhood, and its length is eCplained by the fact that it
enu+erates full details of the siGe and position of each estate, and the
nu+bers and so+e of the na+es of the d*ellers on the estates *ho *ere
engaged in their culti&ation' !fter details ha&e been gi&en of a nu+ber
of estates situated in the sa+e neighbourhood, a su++ary is appended
referring to the *hole neighbourhood, and the fact is recorded that the
district dealt *ith in the preceding catalogue and su++ary had been duly
acAuired by purchase by Banishtusu, )ing of )ish' The long teCt upon
the obelisk is entirely taken up *ith details of the purchase of the
territory, and therefore its subject has not any great historical &alue'
Bention is +ade in it of t*o personages, one of *ho+ +ay possibly
be identified *ith a Babylonian ruler *hose na+e is kno*n fro+ other
sources' "f the proposed identification t should pro&e to be correct,
it *ould enable us to assign a +ore precise date to Banishtusu than has
hitherto been possible' One of the personages in Auestion *as a certain
>rukagina, the son of Engilsa, patesi of hirpurla, and it has been
suggested that he is the sa+e >rukagina *ho is kno*n to ha&e occupied
the throne of hirpurla, though this identification *ould bring
Banishtusu do*n so+e*hat later than is probable fro+ the general
character of his inscriptions' The other personage +entioned in the teCt
is the son of Banishtusu, na+ed Besali+, and there is +ore to be said
for the identification of this prince *ith Besili+, the early )ing of
)ish, *ho reigned at a period anterior to that of Eannadu, patesi of
hirpurla'
The +ere fact of so large and i+portant an obelisk, inscribed *ith a
e+itic teCt by an early Babylonian king, being found at usa *as
an indication that other +onu+ents of e&en greater interest +ight be
forthco+ing fro+ the sa+e spotK and this i+pression *as intensified *hen
a stele of &ictory *as found bearing an inscription of ?ara+-in, the
early e+itic )ing of !gade, *ho reigned about 7632 B'C' One face of
this stele is sculptured *ith a representation of the king conAuering
his ene+ies in a +ountainous country' 4; ee illustration'8 The king
hi+self *ears a hel+et adorned *ith the horns of a bull, and he carries
his battle-aCe and his bo* and an arro*' He is nearly at the su++it of
a high +ountain, and up its steep sides, along paths through the
trees *hich clothe the +ountain, cli+b his allies and *arriors bearing
standards and *eapons' The kingDs ene+ies are represented suing for
+ercy as they turn to fly before hi+' One grasps a broken spear, *hile
another, crouching before the king, has been s+itten in the throat by an
arro* fro+ the kingDs bo*' On the plain surface of the stele abo&e the
kingDs head +ay be seen traces of an inscription of ?arV+-in engra&ed
in three colu+ns in the archaic characters of his period' <ro+ the fe*
signs of the teCt that re+ain, *e gather that ?arV+-in had conducted
a ca+paign *ith the assistance of certain allied princes, including the
Princes of idur, aluni, and #ulubi, and it is not i+probable that
they are to be identified *ith the *arriors represented on the stele as
cli+bing the +ountain behind ?arV+-in'
"n reference to this +ost interesting stele of ?arV+-in *e +ay here
+ention another inscription of this king, found Auite recently at
usa and published only this year, *hich thro*s additional light on
?arV+-inDs allies and on the e+pire *hich he and his father argon
founded' The ne* inscription *as engra&ed on the base of a diorite
statue, *hich had been broken to pieces so that only the base *ith
a portion of the teCt re+ained' <ro+ this inscription *e learn that
?arV+-in *as the head of a confederation of nine chief allies, or
&assal princes, and *aged *ar on his ene+ies *ith their assistance'
!+ong these nine allies of course the Princes of idur, aluni, and
#ulubi are to be included' The ne* teCt further records that ?arV+-in
+ade an eCpedition against Bagan Ithe inaitic peninsulaJ, and defeated
Baniu+, the lord of that region, and that he cut blocks of stone in the
+ountains there and transported the+ to his city of !gade, *here
fro+ one of the+ he +ade the statue on the base of *hich the teCt *as
inscribed' "t *as already kno*n fro+ the so-called LO+ens of argon
and ?arV+-inL Ia teCt inscribed on a clay tablet fro+ !shur-bani-palDs
library at ?ine&eh *hich associates the deeds of these t*o early rulers
*ith certain augural pheno+enaJ that ?arV+-in had +ade an eCpedition
to inai in the course of his reign and had conAuered the king of the
country' The ne* teCt gi&es conte+porary confir+ation of this assertion
and furnishes us *ith additional infor+ation *ith regard to the na+e of
the conAuered ruler of inai and other details of the ca+paign'
That +onu+ents of such great interest to the early history of Chalda
should ha&e been found at usa in Persia *as sufficiently startling,
but an easy eCplanation *as at first forthco+ing fro+ the fact that
?arV+-inDs stele of &ictory had been used by the later Ela+ite king,
hutruk-?akhkhunte, for an inscription of his o*nK this he had engra&ed
in se&en long lines along the great cone in front of ?arV+-in, *hich is
probably intended to represent the peak of the +ountain' <ro+ the fact
that it had been used in this *ay by hutruk-?akhkhunte, it see+ed
per+issible to infer that it had been captured in the course of a
ca+paign and brought to usa as a trophy of *ar' But *e shall see later
on that the eCistence of early Babylonian inscriptions and +onu+ents in
the +ound of the acropolis at usa is not to be eCplained in this *ay,
but *as due to the *ide eCtension of both u+erian and e+itic influence
throughout (estern !sia fro+ the &ery earliest periods' This subject
*ill be treated +ore fully in the chapter dealing *ith the early history
of Bla+'
The upper surface of the tell of the acropolis at usa for a depth of
nearly t*o +etres contains re+ains of the buildings and antiAuities
of the !ch+enian kings and others of both later and earlier dates'
"n these upper strata of the +ound are found re+ains of the
!rab, assanian, Parthian, eleucian, and Persian periods, +iCed
indiscri+inately *ith one another and *ith Ela+ite objects and +aterials
of all ages, fro+ that of the earliest patesis do*n to that of the
usian kings of the se&enth century B'C'
4"llustration. /02'jpg B!B"#'8
The +ost northern of the +ounds *hich no* +ark the site of
the ancient city of BabylonK used for centuries as a Auarry
for building +aterials'
The reason of this +iCture of the re+ains of +any races and periods is
that the later builders on the +ound +ade use of the earlier building
+aterials *hich they found preser&ed *ithin it' !long the skirts of the
+ound +ay still be seen the foundations of the *all *hich for+ed the
principal defence of the acropolis in the ti+e of HerCes, and in +any
places not only are the foundations preser&ed but large pieces of the
*all itself still rise abo&e the surface of the soil'
4"llustration. /02a'jpg LTE#E O< @"CTO$,L8
4"llustration. /02a-teCt'jpg TEHT <O$ LTE#E O< @"CTO$,L8
tele of ?arV+-in, an early e+itic )ing of !gade in
Babylonia, *ho reigned about B' C' 7632' <ro+ the photograph
by Bessrs' Bansell E Co'
The plan of the *all is Auite irregular, follo*ing the contours of the
+ound, and, though it is probable that the *all *as strengthened and
defended at inter&als by to*ers, no trace of these no* re+ains' The
*all is &ery thick and built of unburnt bricks, and the syste+ of
fortification see+s to ha&e been eCtre+ely si+ple at this period'
4"llustration. /0/'jpg $O>GH#, HE(? C>#PT>$E O< ! #"O? T!?%"?G
O@E$ !
<!##E? B!?, <O>?% !T B!B,#O?'8
The group probably represents Babylon or the Babylonian king
triu+phing o&er the countryDs ene+ies' The !rabs regard the
figure as an e&il spirit, and it is pitted *ith the +arks of
bullets shot at it' They also s+ear it *ith filth *hen they
can do so unobser&edK in the photograph so+e ne*ly s+eared
filth +ay be seen adhering to the side of the lion'
The earlier citadel or fortress of the city of usa *as built at the top
of the +ound and +ust ha&e been a +ore for+idable stronghold than that
of the !ch+enian kings, for, besides its *alls, it had the additional
protection of the steep slopes of the +ound'
Belo* the depth of t*o +etres fro+ the surface of the +ound are found
strata in *hich Ela+ite objects and +aterials are, no longer +iCed *ith
the re+ains of later ages, but here the latest Ela+ite re+ains are found
+ingled *ith objects and +aterials dating fro+ the earliest periods of
Ela+Ds history' The use of un-burnt bricks as the principal +aterial
for buildings erected on the +ound in all ages has been another cause
of this +iCture of +aterials, for it has little po*er of resistance to
*ater, and a considerable rain-stor+ *ill *ash a*ay large portions
of the surface and cause the re+ains of different strata to be +iCed
indiscri+inately *ith one another' "n proportion as the trenches *ere
cut deeper into the +ound the strata *hich *ere laid bare sho*ed re+ains
of earlier ages than those in the upper layers, though here also re+ains
of different periods are considerably +iCed' The only building that has
hitherto been disco&ered at usa by B' de Borgan, the ground plan of
*hich *as in a co+parati&ely good state of preser&ation, *as a s+all
te+ple of the god hu-shinak, and this o*ed its preser&ation to the
fact that it *as not built of unburnt brick, but *as largely co+posed of
burnt brick and plaAues and tiles of ena+elled terra-cotta'
But although the diggings of B' de Borgan at usa ha&e so far afforded
little infor+ation on the subject of Ela+ite architecture, the separate
objects found ha&e enabled us to gain considerable kno*ledge of the
artistic achie&e+ents of the race during the different periods of
its eCistence' Boreo&er, the stel and stone records that ha&e been
reco&ered present a *ealth of +aterial for the study of the long history
of Ela+ and of the kings *ho ruled in Babylonia during the earliest
ages'
4"llustration. /07'jpg GE?E$!# @"E( O< THE EHC!@!T"O? O? THE )!$
!T
B!B,#O?'8
ho*ing the depth in the +ound to *hich the diggings are
carried'
The +ost fa+ous of B' de BorganDs recent finds is the long code of
la*s dra*n up by Ha++urabi, the greatest king of the <irst %ynasty of
Babylon'; This *as engra&ed upon a huge block of black diorite, and
*as found in the tell of the acropolis in the *inter of /:2/-1' This
docu+ent in itself has entirely re&olutioniGed current theories as to
the gro*th and origin of the principal ancient legal codes' "t pro&es
that Babylonia *as the fountainhead fro+ *hich +any later races borro*ed
portions of their legislati&e syste+s' Boreo&er, the subjects dealt
*ith in this code of la*s e+brace +ost of the different classes of the
Babylonian people, and it regulates their duties and their relations
to one another in their ordinary occupations and pursuits' "t therefore
thro*s +uch light upon early Babylonian life and custo+s, and *e shall
return to it in the chapter dealing *ith these subjects'
; "t *ill be noted that the Babylonian dynasties are
referred to throughout this &olu+e as L<irst %ynasty,L
Lecond %ynasty,L LThird %ynasty,L etc' They are thus
distinguished fro+ the Egyptian dynasties, the order of
*hich is indicated by $o+an nu+erals, e'g' L"st %ynasty,L
L""d %ynasty,L L"""d %ynasty'L
The !+erican eCca&ators at ?ippur, under the direction of Br' Haynes,
ha&e done +uch in the past to increase our kno*ledge of u+erian and
early Babylonian history, but the *ork has not been continued in
recent years, and, unfortunately, little progress has been +ade in the
publication of the +aterial already accu+ulated' "n fact, the leadership
in !+erican eCca&ation has passed fro+ the >ni&ersity of Pennsyl&ania to
that of Chicago' This progressi&e uni&ersity has sent out an eCpedition,
under the general direction of Prof' $' <' Harper I*ith %r' E' =' Banks
as director of eCca&ationsJ, *hich is doing eCcellent *ork at Bis+ya,
and, although it is too early yet to eCpect detailed accounts of their
achie&e+ents, it is clear that they ha&e already +et *ith considerable
success' One of their recent finds consists of a *hite +arble statue of
an early u+erian king na+ed %audu, *hich *as set up in the te+ple of
E-shar in the city of >dnun, of *hich he *as ruler' <ro+ its archaic
style of *ork+anship it +ay be placed in the earliest period of u+erian
history, and +ay be regarded as an earnest of *hat +ay be eCpected to
follo* fro+ the future labours of Prof' HarperDs eCpedition'
4"llustration. /03'jpg ("TH"? THE P!#!CE O< ?EB>CH!%?EYY!$ ""'8
!t <Vra and at !bW Hatab in Babylonia, the %eutsch-Orient Gesellschaft,
under %r' )olde*eyDs direction, has eCca&ated u+erian and Babylonian
re+ains of the early period' !t the for+er site they unearthed the
re+ains of +any pri&ate houses and found so+e u+erian tablets of
accounts and co++ercial docu+ents, but little of historical interestK
and an inscription, *hich see+s to ha&e co+e fro+ !bu Hatab, probably
pro&es that the u+erian na+e of the city *hose site it +arks *as
)ishurra' But the +ain centre of Ger+an acti&ity in Babylonia is the
city of Babylon itself, *here for the last se&en years %r' )olde*ey has
conducted eCca&ations, unearthing the palaces of ?ebuchadneGGar "" on
the +ound ter+ed the )asr, identifying the te+ple of E-sagila under the
+ound called Tell !+ran ibn-!li, tracing the course of the sacred *ay
bet*een E-sagila and the palace-+ound, and eCca&ating te+ples dedicated
to the goddess ?in+akh and the god ?inib'
4"llustration. /00'jpg EHC!@!T"O? "? THE TEBP#E OP ?"?"B !T
B!B,#O?'8
"n the +iddle distance +ay be seen the +etal trucks running
on light rails *hich are e+ployed on the *ork for the
re+o&al of the dQbris fro+ the diggings'
%r' !ndrae, %r' )olde*eyDs assistant, has also co+pleted the eCca&ation
of the te+ple dedicated to ?abW at Birs ?i+rud' On the principal +ound
at this spot, *hich +arks the site of the ancient city of Borsippa,
traces of the Giggurat, or te+ple to*er, +ay still be seen rising fro+
the soil, the te+ple of ?abW lying at a lo*er le&el belo* the steep
slope of the +ound, *hich is +ainly +ade up of dQbris fro+ the
Giggurat' %r' !ndrae has recently left Babylonia for !ssyria, *here
his eCca&ations at her-ghat, the site of the ancient !ssyrian city of
!shur, are confidently eCpected to thro* considerable light on the early
history of that country and the custo+s of the people, and already he
has +ade nu+erous finds of considerable interest'
4"llustration. /06'jpg THE P$"?C"P!# BO>?% O< B"$ ?"B$>%, (H"CH
B!$)
THE "TE OP THE !?C"E?T C"T, OP BO$"PP!'8
ince the early spring of /:27 eCca&ations ha&e been conducted at
)uyunjik, the site of the city of ?ine&eh, by Bessrs' #' (' )ing and $'
C' Tho+pson on behalf of the Trustees of the British Buseu+, and ha&e
resulted in the disco&ery of +any early re+ains in the lo*er strata of
the +ound, in addition to the finding of ne* portions of the t*o palaces
already kno*n and partly eCca&ated, the identification of a third
palace, and the finding of an ancient te+ple dedicated to ?abW, *hose
eCistence had already been inferred fro+ a study of the !ssyrian
inscriptions'; !ll these diggings at Babylon, at !shur, and at ?ine&eh
thro* +ore light upon the history of the country during the !ssyrian and
?eo-Babylonian periods, and *ill be referred to later in the &olu+e'
; "t +ay be noted that eCca&ations are also being acti&ely
carried on in Palestine at the present ti+e' Br' Bacalister
has for so+e years been *orking for the Palestine
ECploration <und at GeGerK %r' chu+acher is digging at
Begiddo for the Ger+an Palestine ocietyK and Prof' ellin
is at present eCca&ating at Taanach ITaDannakJ and *ill
shortly start *ork at %othan' Good *ork on re+ains of later
historical periods is also being carried on under the
auspices of the %eutsch-Orient Gesellschaft at BaDalbek and
in Galilee' "t *ould be te+pting to include here a su++ary
of the &ery interesting results that ha&e recently been
achie&ed in this fruitful field of archaeological research,
for it is true that these eCca&ations +ay strictly be said
to bear on the history of a portion of (estern !sia' But the
proble+s *hich they raise *ould +ore naturally be discussed
in a *ork dealing *ith recent eCca&ation and research in
relation to the Bible, and to ha&e su++ariGed the+
adeAuately *ould ha&e increased the siGe of the present
&olu+e considerably beyond its natural li+its' They ha&e
therefore not been included *ithin the scope of the present
*ork'
4"llustration. /09'jpg THE P$"?C"P!# BO>?% !T HE)GH!T, (H"CH
B!$) THE
"TE O< !H>), THE !?C"E?T C!P"T!# O< THE !,$"!?'8
Bean*hile, *e *ill return to the diggings described at the beginning
of this chapter, as affording ne* infor+ation concerning the earliest
periods of Chaldan history'
! +ost interesting inscription has recently been disco&ered by Capt'
Cros at Telloh, *hich thro*s considerable light on the ri&alry *hich
eCisted bet*een the cities of hirpurla and Gishkhu, and at the sa+e
ti+e furnishes &aluable +aterial for settling the chronology of the
earliest rulers *hose inscriptions ha&e been found at Bppur and their
relations to conte+porary rulers in hirpurla'
4"llustration. /0:'jpg THE BO>?% O< )>,>?="), (H"CH <O$BE% O?E O<
THE
P!#!CE BO>?% O< THE !?C"E?T !,$"!? C"T, O< ?"?E@EH'8
The cities of Gishkhu and hirpurla *ere probably situated not far fro+
one another, and their ri&alry is typical of the history of the early
city-states of Babylonia' The site of the latter city, as has already
been said, is +arked by the +ounds of Telloh on the east bank of the
hatt el-Hai, the natural strea+ joining the Tigris and Euphrates, *hich
has been i+pro&ed and canaliGed by the d*ellers in outhern Babylonia
fro+ the earliest period'
4"llustration. /62'jpg ("?GE% B>## "? THE P!#!CE O< E??!CHE$"B O?
)>,>?="), THE P$"?C"P!# BO>?% B!$)"?G THE "TE O< ?"?E@EH'8
The site of Gishkhu +ay be set *ith considerable probability not far to
the north of Telloh on the opposite bank of the hatt el-Hai' These
t*o cities, situated so close to one another, eCercised considerable
political influence, and though less is kno*n of Gishkhu than of
the +ore fa+ous Babylonian cities such as >r, Brech, and #arsa+, her
proCi+ity to hirpurla ga&e her an i+portance *hich she +ight not
other*ise ha&e possessed' The earliest kno*ledge *e possess of the
relations eCisting bet*een Gishkhu and hirpurla refers to the reign of
Besili+, )ing of )ish, the period of *hose rule +ay be pro&isionally set
before that of argon of !gade, i'e, about R222 B'C'
!t this period there *as ri&alry bet*een the t*o cities, in conseAuence
of *hich Besili+, )ing of )ish, *as called in as arbitrator' ! record of
the treaty of deli+itation that *as dra*n up on this occasion has been
preser&ed upon the recently disco&ered cone of Ente+ena' This docu+ent
tells us that at the co++and of the god Enlil, described as Lthe king
of the countries,L ?ingirsu, the chief god of hirpurla, and the god of
Gishkhu decided to dra* up a line of di&ision bet*een their respecti&e
territories, and that Besili+, )ing of )ish, acting under the direction
of his o*n god )adi, +arked out the frontier and set up a stele bet*een
the t*o territories to co++e+orate the fiCing of the boundary'
This policy of fiCing the boundary by arbitration see+s to ha&e been
successful, and to ha&e secured peace bet*een hirpurla and Gishkhu
for so+e generations' But after a period *hich cannot be accurately
deter+ined a certain patesi of Gishkhu, na+ed >sh, *as filled *ith
a+bition to eCtend his territory at the eCpense of hirpurla' He
therefore re+o&ed the stele *hich Besili+ had set up, and, in&ading the
plain of hirpurla, succeeded in conAuering and holding a district na+ed
Gu-edin' But >shDs successful raid *as not of any per+anent benefit to
his city, for he *as in his turn defeated by the forces of hirpurla,
and his successor upon the throne, a patesi na+ed Enakalli, abandoned a
policy of aggression, and concluded *ith Eannadu, patesi of hirpurla, a
sole+n treaty concerning the boundary bet*een their real+s, the teCt of
*hich has been preser&ed to us upon the fa+ous tele of @ultures in the
#ou&re';
; ! frag+ent of this stele is also preser&ed in the British
Buseu+' "t is published in Cuneifor+ TeCts in the British
Buseu+, Pt' &ii'
!ccording to this treaty Gu-edin *as restored to hirpurla, and a deep
ditch *as dug bet*een the t*o territories *hich should per+anently
indicate the line of de+arcation' The stele of Besili+ *as restored to
its place, and a second stele *as inscribed and set up as a +e+orial
of the ne* treaty' Enakalli did not negotiate the treaty on eAual ter+s
*ith Eannadu, for he only secured its ratification by consenting to pay
hea&y tribute in grain for the supply of the great te+ples of ?in-girsu
and ?inV in hirpurla' "t *ould appear that under Eannadu the po*er
and influence of hirpurla *ere eCtended o&er the *hole of outhern
Babylonia, and reached e&en to the borders of Ela+' !t any rate, it is
clear that during his lifeti+e the city of Gishkhu *as content to re+ain
in a state of subjection to its +ore po*erful neighbour' But it *as
al*ays ready to seiGe any opportunity of asserting itself and of
atte+pting to regain its independence'
4"llustration. /61'jpg C#!, BEBO$"!#-T!B#ET O< E!??!%>'8
The characters of the inscription *ell illustrate the
pictorial origin of the u+erian syste+ of *riting'
Photograph by Bessrs' Bansell E Co'
!ccordingly, after EannaduDs death the +en of Gishkhu again took the
offensi&e' !t this ti+e >rlu++a, the son and successor of Enakalli, *as
on the throne of Gishkhu, and he organiGed the forces of the city
and led the+ out to battle' His first act *as to destroy the frontier
ditches na+ed after ?ingirsu and ?inV, the principal god and goddess of
hirpurla, *hich Eannadu, the po*erful foe of Gishkhu, had caused to be
dug' He then tore do*n the stele on *hich the ter+s of EannaduDs treaty
had been engra&ed and broke it into pieces by casting it into the fire,
and the shrines *hich Eannadu had built near the frontier, and had
consecrated to the gods of hirpurla, he raGed to the ground' But
again hirpurla in the end pro&ed too strong for Gishkhu' The ruler
in hirpurla at this ti+e *as Enannadu, *ho had succeeded his brother
Eannadu upon the throne' He +arched out to +eet the in&ading forces
of the +en of Gishkhu, and a battle *as fought in the territory of
hirpurla' !ccording to one account, the forces of hirpurla *ere
&ictorious, *hile on the cone of Ente-+ena no +ention is +ade of
the issue of the co+bat' The result +ay not ha&e been decisi&e, but
EnannaduDs action at least checked >rlu++aDs encroach+ents for the ti+e'
"t *ould appear that the death of the reigning patesi in hirpurla *as
al*ays the signal for an attack upon that city by the +en of Gishkhu'
They +ay ha&e hoped that the ne* ruler *ould pro&e a less successful
leader than the last, or that the accession of a ne* +onarch +ight gi&e
rise to internal dissensions in the city *hich *ould *eaken hirpurlaDs
po*er of resisting a sudden attack' !s EannaduDs death had encouraged
>rlu++a to lead out the +en of Gishkhu, so the death of Enannadu see+ed
to hi+ a good opportunity to +ake another bid for &ictory' But this ti+e
the result of the battle *as not indecisi&e' Ente+ena had succeeded his
father Enannadu, and he led out to &ictory the forces of hir-purla' The
battle *as fought near the canal #u++a-girnun-ta, and *hen the +en of
Gishkhu *ere put to flight they left siCty of their fello*s lying dead
upon the banks of the canal' Ente+ena tells us that the bones of these
*arriors *ere left to bleach in the open plain, but he see+s to ha&e
buried those of the +en of Gishkhu *ho fell in the pursuit, for he
records that in fi&e separate places he piled up burial-+ounds in *hich
the bodies of the slain *ere interred' Ente+ena *as not content *ith
+erely inflicting a defeat upon the ar+y of Gishkhu and dri&ing it back
*ithin its o*n borders, for he follo*ed up his initial ad&antage and
captured the capital itself' He deposed and i+prisoned >rlu++a, and
chose one of his o*n adherents to rule as patesi of Gishkhu in his
stead' The +an he appointed for this high office *as na+ed Hi, and he
had up to that ti+e been priest in ?inVb' Ente+ena su++oned hi+ to his
presence, and, after +arching in a triu+phal procession fro+ Girsu
in the neighbourhood of hirpurla to the conAuered city, proceeded to
in&est hi+ *ith the office of patesi of Gishkhu'
Ente+ena also repaired the frontier ditches na+ed after ?ingirsu and
?inV, *hich had been e+ployed for purposes of irrigation as *ell as for
+arking the frontierK and he ga&e instructions to Hi to e+ploy the +en
d*elling in the district of )arkar on this *ork, as a punish+ent for
the acti&e part they had taken in the recent raid into the territory of
hirpurla' Ente+ena also restored and eCtended the syste+ of canals
in the region bet*een the Tigris and the Euphrates, lining one of the
principal channels *ith stone'
4"llustration. /63'jpg B!$B#E G!TE8
ocket Bearing !n "nscription Of Ente+ena, ! Po*erful
Patesi, Or @iceroy, Of hirpurla' "n the photograph the
gate-socket is resting on its side so as to sho* the
inscription, but *hen in use it *as set flat upon the ground
and partly buried belo* the le&el of the pa&e+ent of the
building in *hich it *as used' "t *as fiCed at the side of a
gate*ay and the pi&ot of the hea&y gate re&ol&ed in the
shallo* hole or depression in its centre' !s stone is not
found in the allu&ial soil of Babylonia, the blocks for
gate-sockets had to be brought fro+ great distances and they
*ere conseAuently highly priGed' The kings and patesis *ho
used the+ in their buildings generally had their na+es and
titles engra&ed upon the+, and they thus for+ a &aluable
class of inscriptions for the study of the early history'
Photograph by Bessrs' Ban-sell E Co'
He thus added greatly to the *ealth of hirpurla by increasing the area
of territory under culti&ation, and he continued to eCercise authority
in Gishkhu by +eans of officers appointed by hi+self' ! record of his
&ictory o&er Gishkhu *as inscribed by Ente+ena upon a nu+ber of clay
cones, that the fa+e of it +ight be preser&ed in future days to the
honour of ?ingirsu and the goddess ?inV' He ends this record *ith a
prayer for the preser&ation of the frontier' "f e&er in ti+e to co+e the
+en of Gishkhu should break out across the frontier-ditch of ?ingirsu,
or the frontier-ditch of ?inV, in order to seiGe or lay *aste the lands
of hirpurla, *hether they be +en of the city of Gishkhu itself or +en
of the +ountains, he prays that Enlil +ay destroy the+ and that ?ingirsu
+ay lay his curse upon the+K and if e&er the *arriors of his o*n city
should be called upon to defend it, he prays that they +ay be full of
courage and ardour for their task'
The greater part of this infor+ation *ith regard to the struggles
bet*een Gishkhu and hirpurla, bet*een the period of Besili+, )ing of
)ish, and that of Ente+ena, is supplied by the inscription of the latter
ruler *hich has been found *ritten around a s+all cone of clay' There is
little doubt that the teCt *as also engra&ed by the orders of Ente+ena
upon a stone stele *hich *as set up, like those of Besili+ and Eannadu,
upon the frontier' Other copies of the inscription *ere probably
engra&ed and erected in the cities of Gishkhu and hirpurla, and to
ensure the preser&ation of the record Ente+ena probably had nu+erous
copies of it +ade upon s+all cones of clay *hich *ere preser&ed and
possibly buried in the structure of the te+ples of hirpurla' Ente+enaDs
foresight in this +atter has been justified by results, for, *hile his
great +e+orials of stone ha&e perished, the preser&ation of one of his
s+all cones has sufficed to +ake kno*n to later ages his o*n and his
forefathersD pro*ess in their continual contests *ith their ancient ri&al
Gishkhu'
!fter the reign of Ente+ena *e ha&e little infor+ation *ith regard to
the relations bet*een Gishkhu and hirpurla, though it is probable that
the effects of his decisi&e &ictory continued to eCercise a +oderating
influence on GishkhuDs desire for eCpansion and secured a period
of peaceful de&elop+ent for hirpurla *ithout the continual fear of
encroach+ents on the part of her turbulent neighbour' (e +ay assu+e that
this period of tranAuillity continued during the reigns of Enannadu "",
EnlitarGi, and #ugal-anda, but, *hen in the reign of >rukagina the +en
of Gishkhu once +ore e+erge fro+ their te+porary obscurity, they appear
as the authors of deeds of rapine and bloodshed co++itted on a scale
that *as rare e&en in that pri+iti&e age'
"n the earlier stages of their ri&alry Gishkhu had al*ays been defeated,
or at any rate checked, in her actual conflicts *ith hirpurla' (hen
taking the aggressi&e the +en of Gishkhu see+ generally to ha&e confined
the+sel&es to the seiGure of territory, such as the district of Gu-edin,
*hich *as situated on the *estern bank of the haft el-Hai and di&ided
fro+ their o*n lands only by the frontier-ditch' "f they e&er actually
crossed the haft el-Hai and raided the lands on its eastern bank, they
ne&er &entured to attack the city of hirpurla itself' !nd, although
their raids *ere attended *ith so+e success in their initial stages, the
ruling patesis of hirpurla *ere al*ays strong enough to check the+K and
on +ost occasions they carried the *ar into the territory of Gishkhu,
*ith the result that they readjusted the boundary on their o*n ter+s'
But it *ould appear that all these pri+iti&e Chalan cities *ere subject
to alternate periods of eCpansion and defeat, and hirpurla *as not an
eCception to the rule' "t *as probably not due so +uch to >rukaginaDs
personal Aualities or defects as a leader that hirpurla suffered
the greatest re&erse in her history during his reign, but rather to
GishkhuDs gradual increase in po*er at a ti+e *hen hirpurla herself
re+ained inacti&e, possibly lulled into a false sense of security by the
+e+ory of her &ictories in the past' (hate&er +ay ha&e been the cause of
GishkhuDs final triu+ph, it is certain that it took place in >rukaginaDs
reign, and that for +any years after*ards the hege+ony of outhern
Babylonia re+ained in her hands, *hile hirpurla for a long period
passed co+pletely out of eCistence as an independent or se+i-independent
state'
The e&idence of the catastrophe that befell hirpurla at this period is
furnished by a s+all clay tablet recently found at Telloh during Captain
CrosDs eCca&ations on that site' The docu+ent on *hich the facts in
Auestion are recorded had no official character, and in all probability
it had not been stored in any library or record cha+ber' The actual spot
at Telloh *here it *as found *as to the north of the +ound in *hich
the +ost ancient buildings ha&e been reco&ered, and at the depth of t*o
+etres belo* the surface' ?o other tablets appear to ha&e been found
near it, but that fact in itself *ould not be sufficient e&idence on
*hich to base any theory as to its not ha&ing originally for+ed part of
the archi&es of the city' "ts unofficial character is attested by the
for+ of the tablet and the +anner in *hich the infor+ation upon it is
arranged' "n shape there is little to distinguish the docu+ent fro+ the
tablets of accounts inscribed in the reign of >rukagina, great nu+bers
of *hich ha&e been found recently at Telloh' $oughly sAuare in shape,
its edges are slightly con&eC, and the teCt is inscribed in a series of
narro* colu+ns upon both the ob&erse and the re&erse' The teCt itself
is not a carefully arranged co+position, such as are the &oti&e and
historical inscriptions of early u+erian rulers' "t consists of a
series of short sentences enu+erating briefly and *ithout detail the
separate deeds of &iolence and sacrilege perfor+ed by the +en of Gishkhu
after their capture of the city' "t is little +ore than a catalogue or
list of the shrines and te+ples destroyed during the sack of the city,
or defiled by the blood of the +en of hirpurla *ho *ere slain therein'
?o +ention is +ade in the list of the palace of the >rukagina, or of any
secular building, or of the d*ellings of the citiGens the+sel&es' There
is little doubt that these also *ere despoiled and destroyed by the
&ictorious ene+y, but the *riter of the tablet is not concerned for the
+o+ent *ith the fate of his city or his fello* citiGens' He appears to
be o&erco+e *ith the thought of the deeds of sacrilege co++itted against
his godsK his +ind is entirely taken up *ith the +agnitude of the
insult offered to the god ?ingirsu, the city-god of hirpurla' His bare
enu+eration of the deeds of sacrilege and &iolence loses little by its
bre&ity, and, *hen he has ended the list of his accusations against the
+en of Gishkhu, he curses the goddess to *hose influence he attributes
their success'
?o co+position at all like this docu+ent has yet been reco&ered, and as
it is not &ery long *e +ay here gi&e a translation of the teCt' "t *ill
be seen that the *riter plunges at once into the subject of his
charges against the +en of Gishkhu' ?o historical FrQsu+QF prefaces
his accusations, and he gi&es no hint of the circu+stances that ha&e
rendered their deli&ery possible' The te+ples of his city ha&e been
profaned and destroyed, and his indignation finds &ent in a +ere
enu+eration of their titles' To his +ind the facts need no co++ent,
for to hi+ it is barely concei&able that such sacred places of ancient
*orship should ha&e been defiled' He launches his indict+ent against
Gishkhu in the follo*ing ter+s. LThe +en of Gishkhu ha&e set fire to the
te+ple of E-ki 4''' 8, they ha&e set fire to !ntashura, and they ha&e
carried a*ay the sil&er and the precious stones therefro+^ They ha&e
shed blood in the palace of Tirash, they ha&e shed blood in !bGubanda,
they ha&e shed blood in the shrine of Enlil and in the shrine of the
un-god, they ha&e shed blood in !khush, and they ha&e carried a*ay the
sil&er and the precious stones therefro+^ They ha&e shed blood in the
Gikana of the sacred gro&e of the goddess ?in+akh, and they ha&e carried
a*ay the sil&er and the precious stones therefro+^ They ha&e shed blood
in Baga, and they ha&e carried a*ay the sil&er and the precious stones
therefro+^ They ha&e shed blood in !bGu-ega, they ha&e set fire to
the te+ple of Gatu+dug, and they ha&e carried a*ay the sil&er and the
precious stones therefro+, and ha&e destroyed her statue^ They ha&e set
fire to the'''' of the te+ple E-anna of the goddess ?inni, and they
ha&e carried a*ay the sil&er and the precious stones therefro+, and ha&e
destroyed her statue^ They ha&e shed blood in hapada, and they ha&e
carried a*ay the sil&er and precious stones therefro+^ They ha&e''''
in )henda, they ha&e shed blood in the te+ple of ?indar in the to*n
of )iab, and they ha&e carried a*ay the sil&er and the precious stones
therefro+^ They ha&e set fire to the te+ple of %u+uGi-abGu in the to*n
of )inunir, and they ha&e carried a*ay the sil&er and the precious
stones therefro+^ They ha&e set fire to the te+ple of #ugaluru, and they
ha&e carried a*ay the sil&er and the precious stones therefro+^ They
ha&e shed blood in E-engura, the te+ple of the goddess ?inV, and they
ha&e carried a*ay the sil&er and the precious stones therefro+^ They
ha&e shed blood in ag''', the te+ple of !+ageshtin, and the sil&er
and the precious stones of !+ageshtin ha&e they carried a*ay^ They ha&e
re+o&ed the grain fro+ Ginarbaniru, the field of the god ?ingirsu,
so +uch of it as *as under culti&ation^ The +en of Gishkhu, by the
despoiling of hirpurla, ha&e co++itted a transgression against the god
?ingirsu^ The po*er that is co+e unto the+, fro+ the+ shall be taken
a*ay^ Of transgression on the part of >rukagina, )ing of Girsu, there
is none' !s for #ugalGaggisi, patesi of Gishkhu, +ay his goddess ?i-daba
bear on her head Ithe *eight ofJ this transgression^L
uch is the account, *hich has co+e do*n to us fro+ the rough tablet of
so+e unkno*n scribe, of the greatest +isfortune eCperienced by hirpurla
during the long course of her history' Bany of the great te+ples
+entioned in the teCt as a+ong those *hich *ere burnt do*n and despoiled
of their treasures are referred to +ore than once in the &oti&e and
historical inscriptions of earlier rulers of hirpurla, *ho occupied the
throne before the ill-fated >rukagina' The na+es of so+e of the+, too,
are to be found in the teCts of the later pate-sis of that city, so
that it +ay be concluded that in course of ti+e they *ere rebuilt and
restored to their for+er splendour' But there is no doubt that the
despoiling and partial destruction of hirpurla in the reign of
>rukagina had a lasting effect upon the fortunes of that city, and
effecti&ely curtailed her influence a+ong the greater cities of outhern
Babylonia'
(e +ay no* turn our attention to the leader of the +en of Gishkhu, under
*hose direction they achie&ed their final triu+ph o&er their ancient,
and for long years +ore po*erful, ri&al hirpurla' The *riter of our
tablet +entions his na+e in the closing *ords of his teCt *hen he curses
hi+ and his goddess for the destruction and sacrilege that they ha&e
*rought' L!s for #ugalGaggisi,L he says, Lpatesi of Gishkhu, +ay his
goddess ?idaba bear on her head Ithe *eight of J this transgression^L
?o* the na+e of #ugalGaggisi has been found upon a nu+ber of frag+ents
of &ases +ade of *hite calcite stalag+ite *hich *ere disco&ered by Br'
Haynes during his eCca&ations at ?ippur' !ll the &ases *ere engra&ed
*ith the sa+e inscription, so that it *as possible by piecing the
frag+ents of teCt together to obtain a +ore or less co+plete copy of
the records *hich *ere originally engra&ed upon each of the+' <ro+
these records *e learned for the first ti+e, not only the na+e of
#ugalGaggisi, but the fact that he founded a po*erful coalition of
cities in Babylonia at *hat *as ob&iously a &ery early period in the
history of the country' "n the teCt he describes hi+self as L)ing of
Erech, king of the *orld, the priest of !na, the hero of ?idaba, the
son of >kush, patesi of Gishkhu, the hero of ?idaba, the +an *ho *as
fa&ourably regarded by the sure eye of the )ing of the #ands Ii'e'
the god EnlilJ, the great patesi of Enlil, unto *ho+ understanding *as
granted by Enki, the chosen of the un-god, the eCalted +inister of
EnGu, endo*ed *ith strength by the un-god, the *orshipper of ?inni, the
son *ho *as concei&ed by ?idaba, *ho *as nourished by ?inkharsag *ith
the +ilk of life, the attendant of >+u, priestess of Erech, the ser&ant
*ho *as trained by ?inVgidkhadu, the +istress of Erech, the great
+inister of the gods'L #ugalGaggisi then goes on to describe the eCtent
of his do+inion, and he says. L(hen the god Enlil, the lord of the
countries, besto*ed upon #ugalGaggisi the kingdo+ of the *orld, and
granted unto hi+ success in the sight of the *orld, *hen he filled the
lands *ith his po*er, and conAuered the+ fro+ the rising of the sun unto
the setting of the sa+e, at that ti+e he +ade straight his path fro+ the
#o*er ea of the Tigris and Euphrates unto the >pper ea, and he granted
hi+ do+inion o&er all fro+ the rising of the sun unto the setting of the
sa+e, so that he caused the lands to d*ell in peace'L
?o* *hen first the teCt of this inscription *as published there eCisted
only &ague indications of the date to be assigned to #ugalGaggisi and
the kingdo+ that he founded' "t *as clear fro+ the titles *hich he bore,
that, though Gishkhu *as his nati&e place, he had eCtended his authority
far beyond that city and had chosen Erech as his capital' Boreo&er,
he clai+ed an e+pire eCtending fro+ Lthe #o*er ea of the Tigris and
Euphrates unto the >pper ea'L There is no doubt that the #o*er ea here
+entioned is the Persian Gulf, and it has been suggested that the >pper
ea +ay be taken to be the Bediterranean, though it +ay possibly ha&e
been #ake @an or #ake >r+i' But *hiche&er of these &ie*s +ight be
adopted, it *as clear that #ugalGaggisi *as a great conAueror, and had
achie&ed the right to assu+e the high-sounding title of lugal hala+a,
Lking of the *orld'L "n these circu+stances it *as of the first
i+portance for the study of pri+iti&e Chaldan history and chronology
to ascertain approCi+ately the period at *hich #ugalGaggisi reigned'
The e&idence on *hich such a Auestion could be pro&isionally settled *as
of the &aguest and +ost uncertain character, but such as it *as it
had to suffice, in the absence of +ore reliable data' "n settling all
proble+s connected *ith early Chaldan chronology, the starting-point
*as, and in fact still is, the period of argon ", )ing of !gade,
inas+uch as the date of his reign is settled, according to the reckoning
of the scribes of ?abonidus, as about 7922 B'C' "t is true that this
date has been called in Auestion, and ingenious suggestions for a+ending
it ha&e been +ade by so+e *riters, *hile others ha&e rejected it
altogether, holding that it +erely represented a guess on the part of
the late Babylonians and could be safely ignored in the chronological
sche+es *hich they brought for*ard' But nearly e&ery fresh disco&ery
+ade in the last fe* years has tended to confir+ so+e point in the
traditions current a+ong the later Babylonians *ith regard to the
earlier history of their country' ConseAuently, reliance +ay be placed
*ith increased confidence on the truth of such traditions as a
*hole, and *e +ay continue to accept those state+ents *hich yet a*ait
confir+ation fro+ docu+ents +ore nearly conte+porary *ith the early
period to *hich they refer' "t is true that such a date as that assigned
by ?abonidus to argon is not to be regarded as absolutely fiCed, for
?abonidus is ob&iously speaking in round nu+bers, and *e +ay allo* for
so+e +inor inaccuracies in the calculations of his scribes' But it is
certain that the later Babylonian priests and scribes had a *ealth of
historical +aterial at their disposal *hich has not co+e do*n to us' (e
+ay therefore accept the date gi&en by ?abonidus for argon of !gade
and his son ?arV+-in as approCi+ately accurate, and this is also the
opinion of the +ajority of *riters on early Babylonian history'
The diggings at ?ippur furnished indications that certain inscriptions
found on that site and *ritten in a &ery archaic for+ of script *ere
to be assigned to a period earlier than that of argon' One class of
e&idence *as obtained fro+ a careful study of the different le&els at
*hich the inscriptions and the re+ains of buildings *ere found' !t a
co+parati&ely deep le&el in the +ound inscriptions of argon hi+self
*ere reco&ered, along *ith bricks sta+ped *ith the na+e of ?arV+-in,
his son' "t *as, therefore, a reasonable conclusion roughly to date the
particular stratu+ in *hich these objects *ere found to the period of
the e+pire established by argon, *ith its centre at !gade' #ater on
eCca&ations *ere carried to a lo*er le&el, and re+ains of buildings
*ere disco&ered *hich appeared to belong to a still earlier period
of ci&iliGation' !n altar *as found standing in a s+all enclosure
surrounded by a kind of curb' ?ear by *ere t*o i++ense clay &ases *hich
appeared to ha&e been placed on a ra+p or inclined plane leading up to
the altar, and re+ains *ere also found of a +assi&e brick building in
*hich *as an arch of brick' ?o inscriptions *ere actually found at this
le&el, but in the upper le&el assigned to argon *ere a nu+ber of teCts
*hich +ight &ery probably be assigned to the pre-argonic period' ?one
of these *ere co+plete, and they had the appearance of ha&ing been
intentionally broken into s+all frag+ents' There *as therefore so+ething
to be said for the theory that they +ight ha&e been inscribed by the
builders of the construction in the lo*est le&els of the +ound, and that
they *ere destroyed and scattered by so+e conAueror *ho had laid their
city in ruins'
But all such e&idence deri&ed fro+ noting the le&els at *hich
inscriptions are found is in its nature eCtre+ely uncertain and liable
to +any different interpretations, especially if the strata sho* signs
of ha&ing been disturbed' (here a pa&e+ent or building is still intact,
*ith the inscribed bricks of the builder re+aining in their original
positions, conclusions +ay be confidently dra*n *ith regard to the age
of the building and its relati&e antiAuity to the strata abo&e and belo*
it' But the strata in the lo*est le&els at ?ippur, as *e ha&e seen, *ere
not in this condition, and such e&idence as they furnished could only be
accepted if confir+ed by independent data' uch confir+ation *as to be
found by eCa+ination of the early inscriptions the+sel&es'
"t has been re+arked that +ost of the+ *ere broken into s+all pieces,
as though by so+e in&ader of the countryK but this *as not the case *ith
certain gate-sockets and great blocks of diorite *hich *ere too hard
and big to be easily broken' Boreo&er, any conAueror of a city *ould be
unlikely to spend ti+e and labour in destroying +aterials *hich +ight
be usefully e+ployed in the construction of other buildings *hich he
hi+self +ight erect' tone could not be obtained in the allu&ial plains
of Babylonia and had to be Auarried in the +ountains and brought great
distances'
4"llustration. /99'jpg TO?E G!TE8
ocket Bearing !n "nscription of >k-Engur, !n Early )ing
of The City Of >r' Photograph by Bessrs' Bansell E Co'
<ro+ any building of his predecessors *hich he raGed to the ground, an
in&ader *ould therefore re+o&e the gate-sockets and blocks of stone for
his o*n use, supposing he conte+plated building on the site' "f he left
the city in ruins and returned to his o*n country, so+e subseAuent king,
*hen clearing the ruined site for building operations, +ight co+e across
the stones, and he *ould not lea&e the+ buried, but *ould use the+ for
his o*n construction' !nd this is *hat actually did happen in the case
of so+e of the building +aterials of one of these early kings, fro+ the
lo*er strata of ?ippur' Certain of the blocks *hich bore the na+e of
#ugalkigubnidudu had been used again by argon, )ing of !gade, *ho
engra&ed his o*n na+e upon the+ *ithout obliterating the na+e of the
for+er king'
"t follo*ed that #ugalkigubnidudu belonged to the pre-argonic period,
and, although the sa+e conclusi&e e&idence *as not forthco+ing in the
case of #ugalGag-gisi, he also *ithout +uch hesitation *as set in
this early period, +ainly on the strength of the archaic for+s of the
characters e+ployed in his inscriptions' "n fact, they *ere held to be
so archaic that, not only *as he said to ha&e reigned before argon of
!gade, but he *as set in the &ery earliest period of Chaldan history,
and his e+pire *as supposed to ha&e been conte+poraneous *ith the &ery
earliest rulers of hirpurla' The ne* inscription found by Captain
Cros *ill cause this opinion to be considerably +odified' (hile it
corroborates the &ie* that #ugalGaggisi is to be set in the pre-argonic
period, it pro&es that he li&ed and reigned &ery shortly before hi+' !s
*e ha&e already seen, he *as the conte+porary of >rukagina, *ho belongs
to the +iddle period of the history of hirpurla' #ugalGaggisiDs capture
and sack of the city of hirpurla *as only one of a nu+ber of conAuests
*hich he achie&ed' His father >kush had been +erely patesi of the city
of Gish-khu, but he hi+self *as not content *ith the restricted sphere
of authority *hich such a position i+plied, and he e&entually succeeded
in enforcing his authority o&er the greater part of Babylonia' <ro+
the fact that he styles hi+self )ing of Erech, *e +ay conclude that
he re+o&ed his capital fro+ >kush to that city, after ha&ing probably
secured its sub+ission by force of ar+s' "n fact, his title of Lking of
the *orldL can only ha&e been *on as the result of +any &ictories, and
Captain CrosDs tablet gi&es us a gli+pse of the +ethods by *hich he
+anaged to secure hi+self against the co+petition of any ri&al' The
capture of hirpurla +ust ha&e been one of his earliest achie&e+ents,
for its proCi+ity to Gish-khu rendered its reduction a necessary
prelude to any +ore eCtensi&e plan of conAuest' But the kingdo+ *hich
#ugalGaggisi founded cannot ha&e endured long'
>nder argon of !gade, the e+ites gained the upper hand in Babylonia,
and Erech, Grishkhu, and hirpurla, as *ell as the other ancient cities
in the land, fell in turn under his do+ination and for+ed part of the
eCtensi&e e+pire *hich he ruled'
Concerning the later rulers of city-states of Babylonia *hich succeeded
the disruption of the e+pire founded by argon of !gade and consolidated
by ?arV+-in, his son, the eCca&ations ha&e little to tell us *hich has
not already been +ade use of by Prof' Baspero in his history of this
period';
; The tablets found at Telloh by the late B' de arGec, and
published during his lifeti+e, fall into t*o +ain classes,
*hich date fro+ different periods in early Chaldan
history' The great +ajority belong to the period *hen the
city of >r held pre-e+inence a+ong the cities of outhern
Babylonia, and they are dated in the reigns of %ungi, Bur-
in, Ga+il-in, and "ne-in' The other and s+aller
collection belongs to the earlier period of argon and
?arV+-inK *hile +any of the tablets found in B' de arGecDs
last diggings, *hich *ere published after his death, are to
be set in the great gap bet*een these t*o periods' o+e of
those recently disco&ered, *hich belong to the period of
%ungi, contain +e+oranda concerning the supply of food for
the +aintenance of officials stopping at hirpurla in the
course of journeys in Babylonia and Ela+, and they thro* an
interesting light on the close and constant co++unication
*hich took place at this ti+e bet*een the great cities of
Besopota+ia and the neighbouring countries'
4"llustration. /:2'jpg T!T>E O< G>%E!'8
The +ost fa+ous of the later patesis, or &iceroys, of
hirpurla, the u+erian city in outhern Babylonia no*
+arked by the +ounds of Telloh' Photograph by Bessrs'
Bansell E Co'
>r, "sin, and,#arsa+ succeeded one another in the position of leading
city in Babylonia, holding Bppur, Eridu, Erech, hirpurla, and the other
chief cities in a condition of se+i-dependence upon the+sel&es' (e +ay
note that the true reading of the na+e of the founder of the dynasty
of >r has no* been ascertained fro+ a syllabary to be >r-EngurK and an
unpublished chronicle in the British Buseu+ relates that his son %ungi
cared greatly for the city of Eridu, but sacked Babylon and carried off
its spoil, together *ith the treasures fro+ E-sagila, the great te+ple
of Barduk' uch episodes +ust ha&e been co++on at this period *hen each
city *as stri&ing for hege+ony' Bean*hile, hirpurla re+ained the centre
of u+erian influence in Babylonia, and her patesis *ere content to o*e
allegiance to so po*erful a ruler as %ungi, )ing of >r, *hile at all
ti+es eCercising co+plete authority *ithin their o*n jurisdiction'
%uring the +ost recent diggings that ha&e been carried out at Telloh a
find of considerable &alue to the history of u+erian art has been
+ade' The find is also of great general interest, since it enables us
to identify a portrait of Gudea, the +ost fa+ous of the later u+erian
patesis' "n the course of eCca&ating the Tell of Tablets Captain Cros
found a little seated statue +ade of diorite' "t *as not found in place,
but upside do*n, and appeared to ha&e been thro*n *ith other dQbris
scattered in that portion of the +ound' On lifting it fro+ the trench it
*as seen that the head of the statue *as broken off, as is the case
*ith all the other statues of Gudea found at Telloh' The statue bore an
inscription of Gudea, carefully eCecuted and *ell preser&ed, but it
*as s+aller than other statues of the sa+e ruler that had been
already reco&ered, and the absence of the head thus robbed it of any
eCtraordinary interest' On its arri&al at the #ou&re, B' #Qon HeuGey *as
struck by its general rese+blance to a u+erian head of diorite for+erly
disco&ered by B' de arGec at Telloh, *hich has been preser&ed in the
#ou&re for +any years' On applying the head to the ne*ly found statue,
it *as found to fit it eCactly, and to co+plete the +onu+ent, and *e
are thus enabled to identify the features of Gudea' Pro+ a photographic
reproduction of this statue, it is seen that the head is larger than
it should be, in proportion to the body, a characteristic *hich is also
apparent in a s+all u+erian statue preser&ed in the British Buseu+'
4"llustration. /:1'jpg T!B#ET "?C$"BE% "? >BE$"!? ("TH %ET!"# O< !
>$@E, O< CE$T!"? P$OPE$T,'8
Probably situated in the neighbourhood of Telloh' The
circular shape is &ery unusual, and appears to ha&e been
used only for sur&ey-tablets' Photograph by Bessrs' Bansell
E Co'
Gudea caused +any statues of hi+self to be +ade out of the hard diorite
*hich he brought for that purpose fro+ the inaitic peninsula, and fro+
the inscriptions preser&ed upon the+ it is possible to ascertain the
buildings in *hich they *ere originally placed' Thus one of the statues
pre&iously found *as set up in the te+ple of ?inkharsag, t*o others in
E-ninnW, the te+ple of the god ?ingirsu, three +ore in the te+ple of the
goddess Bau, one in E-anna, the te+ple of the goddess ?inni, and another
in the te+ple of Gatu+dug' The ne*ly found statue of the king *as +ade
to be set up in the te+ple erected by Gudea at Girsu in honour of the
god ?ingishGida, as is recorded in the inscription engra&ed on the front
of the kingDs robe, *hich reads as follo*s.
L"n the day *hen the god ?ingirsu, the strong *arrior of Enlil, granted
unto the god ?ingishGida, the son of ?inVGu, the belo&ed of the gods,
Ithe guardianship ofJ the foundation of the city and of the hills and
&alleys, on that day Gudea, patesi of hirpurla, the just +an *ho
lo&eth his god, *ho for his +aster ?ingirsu hath constructed his te+ple
E-ninnu, called the shining "+gig, and his te+ple E-pa, the te+ple
of-the se&en Gones of hea&en, and for the goddess ?inV, the Aueen, his
lady, hath constructed the te+ple irara-shu+, *hich riseth higher than
IallJ the te+ples in the *orld, and hath constructed their te+ples for
the great gods of #agash, built for his god ?ingishGida his te+ple in
Girsu' (hosoe&er shall proclai+ the god ?ingirsu as his god, e&en as
" proclai+ hi+, +ay he do no har+ unto the te+ple of +y god^ Bay he
proclai+ the na+e of this te+ple^ Bay that +an be +y friend, and +ay he
proclai+ +y na+e^ Gudea hath +ade the statue, and D>nto - Gudea - the
- builder - of - the - te+ple - hath life-been-gi&en hath he called its
na+e, and he hath brought it into the te+ple'L
The long na+e *hich Gudea ga&e to the statue, L>nto - Gudea - the -
builder - of - the - te+ple - hath - life-been-gi&en,L is characteristic
of the practice of the u+erian patesis, *ho al*ays ga&e long and
sy+bolical na+es to statues, stelae, and sacred objects dedicated and
set up in their te+ples' The occasion on *hich the te+ple *as built, and
this statue erected *ithin it, see+s to ha&e been the in&estiture of
the god ?ingishGida *ith special and peculiar po*ers, and it possibly
inaugurated his introduction into the pantheon of hirpurla' ?ingishGida
is called in the inscription the son of ?inaGu, *ho *as the husband of
the Oueen of the >nder*orld'
"n one of his aspects he *as therefore probably a god of the under*orld
hi+self, and it is in this character that he *as appointed by ?ingirsu
as guardian of the cityDs foundations' But Lthe hills and &alleysL
Ii'e' the open countryJ *ere also put under his jurisdiction, so that
in another aspect he *as a god of &egetation' "t is therefore not
i+probable that, like the god %u+uGi, or Ta++uG, he *as supposed to
descend into the under*orld in *inter, ascending to the surface of the
earth *ith the earliest green shoots of &egetation in the spring';
; Cf' Thureau-%angin, $e&' dD!ssyr', &ol' &i' I/:2RJ, p' 1R'
! +ost &aluable contribution has recently been +ade to our kno*ledge of
u+erian religion and of the light in *hich these early rulers regarded
the cult and *orship of their gods, by the co+plete interpretation of
the long teCts inscribed upon the fa+ous cylinders of Gudea, the patesi
of hirpurla, *hich ha&e been preser&ed for +any years in the #ou&re'
These t*o great cylinders of baked clay *ere disco&ered by the late B'
de arGec so long ago as the year /966, during the first period of his
diggings at Telloh, and, although the general nature of their contents
has long been recogniGed, no co+plete translation of the teCts inscribed
upon the+ had been published until a fe* +onths ago' B' Thureau-%angin,
*ho has +ade the early u+erian teCts his special study, has de&oted
hi+self to their interpretation for so+e years past, and he has just
issued the first part of his +onograph upon the+' "n &ie* of the
i+portance of the teCts and of the light they thro* upon the religious
beliefs and practices of the early u+erians, a so+e*hat detailed
account of their contents +ay here be gi&en'
The occasion on *hich the cylinders *ere +ade *as the rebuilding by
Gudea of E-ninnW, the great te+ple of the god ?ingirsu, in the city of
hirpurla' The t*o cylinders supple+ent one another, one of the+ ha&ing
been inscribed *hile the *ork of construction *as still in progress, the
other after the co+pletion of the te+ple, *hen the god ?ingirsu had been
installed *ithin his shrine *ith due po+p and cere+ony' "t *ould appear
that outhern Babylonia had been suffering fro+ a prolonged drought, and
that the *ater in the ri&ers and canals had fallen, so that the crops
had suffered and the country *as threatened *ith fa+ine' Gudea *as at a
loss to kno* by *hat +eans he +ight restore prosperity to his country,
*hen one night he had a drea+, and it *as in conseAuence of this drea+
that he e&entually erected one of the +ost su+ptuously appointed of
u+erian te+ples' By this +eans he secured the return of ?ingirsuDs
fa&our and that of the other gods, and his country once +ore enjoyed the
blessings of peace and prosperity'
"n the opening *ords of the first of his cylinders Gudea describes ho*
the great gods the+sel&es took counsel and decreed that he should build
the te+ple of E-ninnW and thereby restore to his city the supply of
*ater it had for+erly enjoyed' He records that on the day on *hich the
destinies *ere fiCed in hea&en and upon earth, Enlil, the chief of the
gods, and ?ingirsu, the city-god of hirpurla, held con&erse' !nd Enlil,
turning to ?ingirsu, said. L"n +y city that *hich is fitting is not
done' The strea+ doth not rise' The strea+ of Enlil doth not rise' The
high *aters shine not, neither do they sho* their splendour' The strea+
of Enlil bringeth not good *ater like the Tigris' #et the )ing Ii'e'
?ingirsuJ therefore proclai+ the te+ple' #et the decrees of the te+ple
E-ninnW be +ade illustrious in hea&en and upon earth^L The great gods
did not co++unicate their orders directly to Gudea, but con&eyed their
*ishes to hi+ by +eans of a drea+' !nd *hile the patesi slept a &ision
of the night ca+e to hi+, and he beheld a +an *hose stature *as so great
that it eAualled the hea&ens and the earth' !nd by the cro*n he *ore
upon his head Gudea kne* that the figure +ust be a god' !nd by his side
*as the di&ine eagle, the e+ble+ of hirpurla, and his feet rested upon
the *hirl*ind, and a lion *as crouching upon his right hand and upon his
left' !nd the figure spoke to the patesi, but he did not understand the
+eaning of the *ords' Then it see+ed to Gudea that the sun rose fro+
the earth and he beheld a *o+an holding in her hand a pure reed, and she
carried also a tablet on *hich *as a star of the hea&ens, and she see+ed
to take counsel *ith herself' !nd *hile Gudea *as gaGing he see+ed to
see a second +an *ho *as like a *arriorK and he carried a slab of lapis
laGuli and on it he dre* out the plan of a te+ple' !nd before the patesi
hi+self it see+ed that a fair cushion *as placed, and upon the cushion
*as set a +ould, and *ithin the +ould *as a brick, the brick of destiny'
!nd on the right hand the patesi beheld an ass *hich lay upon the
ground'
uch *as the drea+ *hich Gudea beheld in a &ision of the night, and he
*as troubled because he could not interpret it' o he decided to go
to the goddess ?inV, *ho could di&ine all +ysteries of the gods, and
beseech her to tell hi+ the +eaning of the &ision' But before applying
to the goddess for her help, he thought it best to secure the +ediation
of the god ?ingirsu and the goddess Gatu+dug, in order that they should
use their influence *ith ?inV to induce her to re&eal the interpretation
of the drea+' o the patesi set out to the te+ple of ?ingirsu, and,
ha&ing offered a sacrifice and poured out fresh *ater, he prayed to the
god that his sister, ?inV, the child of Eridu, +ight be pre&ailed upon
to gi&e hi+ help' !nd the god hearkened to his prayer' Then Gudea +ade
offerings, and before the sleeping-cha+ber of the goddess Gatu+dug he
offered a sacrifice and poured out fresh *ater' !nd he prayed to the
goddess, calling her his Aueen and the child of the pure hea&en, *ho
ga&e life to the countries and befriended and preser&ed the people or
the +an on *ho+ she looked *ith fa&our'
L" ha&e no +other,L cried Gudea, Lbut thou art +y +other^ " ha&e no
father, but thou art a father to +e^L !nd the goddess Gatu+dug ga&e
ear to the patesiDs prayer' Thus encouraged by her fa&our and that of
?ingirsu, Gudea set out for the te+ple of the goddess ?inV'
On his arri&al at the te+ple, the patesi offered a sacrifice and poured
out fresh *ater, as he had already done *hen approaching the presence of
?ingirsu and Gatu+dug' !nd he prayed to ?inV, as the goddess *ho di&ines
the secrets of the gods, beseeching her to interpret the &ision that had
been sent to hi+K and he then recounted to her the details of his drea+'
(hen the patesi had finished his story, the goddess addressed hi+ and
told hi+ that she *ould eCplain the +eaning of his drea+ to hi+' !nd
this *as the interpretation of the drea+' The +an *hose stature *as so
great that it eAualled the hea&ens and the earth, *hose head *as that
of a god, at *hose side *as the di&ine eagle, *hose feet rested on the
*hirl*ind, *hile a lion couched on his right hand and on his left, *as
her brother, the god ?ingirsu' !nd the *ords *hich he uttered *ere an
order to the patesi that he should build the te+ple E-ninnW' !nd the sun
*hich rose fro+ the earth before the patesi *as the god ?ingishGida,
for like the sun he goes forth fro+ the earth' !nd the +aiden *ho held
a pure reed in her hand, and carried the tablet *ith the star, *as her
sister, the goddess ?idaba. the star *as the pure star of the te+pleDs
construction, *hich she proclai+ed' !nd the second +an, *ho *as like a
*arrior and carried the slab of lapis laGuli, *as the god ?indub, and the
plan of the te+ple *hich he dre* *as the plan of E-ninnW' !nd the brick
*hich rested in its +ould upon the cushion *as the sacred brick of
E-ninnW' !nd as for the ass *hich lay upon the ground, that, the goddess
said, *as the patesi hi+self'
Ha&ing interpreted the +eaning of the drea+, the goddess ?inV proceeded
to gi&e Gudea instruction as to ho* he should go to *ork to build the
te+ple' he told hi+ first of all to go to his treasure-house and bring
forth his treasures fro+ their sealed cases, and out of these to +ake
certain offerings *hich he *as to place near the god ?ingirsu, in the
te+ple in *hich he *as d*elling at that ti+e' The offerings *ere to
consist of a chariot, adorned *ith pure +etal and precious stonesK
bright arro*s in a Aui&erK the *eapon of the god, his sacred e+ble+, on
*hich Gudea *as to inscribe his o*n na+eK and finally a lyre, the +usic
of *hich *as *ont to soothe the god *hen he took counsel *ith hi+self'
?inV added that if the patesi carried out her instructions and +ade the
offerings she had specified, ?ingirsu *ould re&eal to hi+ the plan on
*hich the te+ple *as to be built, and *ould also bless hi+' Gudea bo*ed
hi+self do*n in token of his sub+ission to the co++ands of the goddess,
and proceeded to eCecute the+ forth*ith' He brought out his treasures,
and fro+ the precious *oods and +etals *hich he possessed his crafts+en
fashioned the objects he *as to present, and he set the+ in ?ingirsuDs
te+ple near to the god' He *orked day and night, and, ha&ing prepared a
suitable spot in the precincts of the te+ple at the place of judg+ent,
he spread out upon it as offerings a fat sheep and a kid and the skin of
a young fe+ale kid' Then he built a fire of cypress and cedar and other
aro+atic *oods, to +ake a s*eet sa&our, and, entering the inner cha+ber
of the te+ple, he offered a prayer to ?ingirsu' He said that he *ished
to build the te+ple, but he had recei&ed no sign that this *as the *ill
of the god, and he prayed for a sign'
(hile he prayed the patesi *as stretched out upon the ground, and the
god, standing near his head, then ans*ered hi+' He said that he *ho
should build his te+ple *as none other than Gudea, and that he *ould
gi&e hi+ the sign for *hich he asked' But first he described the plan
on *hich the te+ple *as to be built, na+ing its &arious shrines and
cha+bers and describing the +anner in *hich they *ere to be fashioned
and adorned' !nd the god pro+ised that *hen Gudea should build the
te+ple, the land *ould once +ore enjoy abundance, for ?ingirsu *ould
send a *ind *hich should proclai+ to the hea&ens the return of the
*aters' !nd on that day the *aters *ould fall fro+ the hea&ens, the
*ater in the ditches and canals *ould rise, and *ater *ould gush out
fro+ the dry clefts in the ground' !nd the great fields *ould once
+ore produce their crops, and oil *ould be poured out plenteously in
u+er4sp'8 and *ool *ould again be *eighed in great abundance' "n that
day the god *ould go to the +ountain *here d*elt the *hirl*ind, and he
*ould hi+self direct the *ind *hich should gi&e the land the breath of
life' Gudea +ust therefore *ork day and night at the task of building
the te+ple' One co+pany of +en *as to relie&e another at its toil, and
during the night the +en *ere to kindle lights so that the plain should
be as bright as day' Thus the builders *ould build continuously' Ben
*ere also to be sent to the +ountains to cut do*n cedars and pines and
other trees and bring their trunks to the city, *hile +asons *ere to go
to the +ountains and *ere to cut and transport huge blocks of stone to
be used in the construction of the te+ple' <inally the god ga&e Gudea
the sign for *hich he asked' The sign *as that he should feel his side
touched as by a fla+e, and thereby he should kno* that he *as the +an
chosen by ?ingirsu to carry out his co++ands'
Gudea bo*ed his head in sub+ission, and his first act *as to consult the
o+ens, and the o+ens *ere fa&ourable' He then proceeded to purify the
city by special rites, so that the +other *hen angered did not chide her
son, and the +aster did not strike his ser&antDs head, and the +istress,
though pro&oked by her hand+aid, did not s+ite her face' !nd Gudea dro&e
all the e&il *iGards and sorcerers fro+ the city, and he purified and
sanctified the city co+pletely' Then he kindled a great fire of cedar
and other aro+atic *oods, to +ake a s*eet sa&our for the gods, and
prayers *ere offered day and nightK and the patesi addressed a prayer
to the !nun-naki, or pirits of the Earth, *ho d*elt in hirpurla,
and assigned a place to the+ in the te+ple' Then, ha&ing co+pleted
his purification of the city itself, he consecrated its i++ediate
surroundings' Thus he consecrated the district of Gu-edin, *hence the
re&enues of ?ingirsu *ere deri&ed, and the lands of the goddess ?inV
*ith their populous &illages' !nd he consecrated the *ild and sa&age
bulls *hich no +an could turn aside, and the cedars *hich *ere sacred
to ?ingirsu, and the cattle of the plains' !nd he consecrated the ar+ed
+en, and the fa+ous *arriors, and the *arriors of the un-god' !nd the
e+ble+s of the god ?ingirsu, and of the t*o great goddesses, ?inV and
?inni, he installed before the+ in their shrines'
Then Gudea sent far and *ide to fetch +aterials for the construction of
the te+ple' !nd the Ela+ite ca+e fro+ Elani, and +en of usa ca+e fro+
usa, and +en brought *ood fro+ the +ountains of inai and Belukh-kha'
!nd into the +ountain of cedars, *here no +an before had penetrated,
the patesi cut a road, and he brought cedars and bea+s of other precious
*oods in great Auantities to the city' !nd he also +ade a road into the
+ountain *here stone *as Auarried, into places *here no +an before had
penetrated' !nd he carried great blocks of stone do*n fro+ the +ountain
and loaded the+ into barges and brought the+ to the city' !nd the barges
brought bitu+en and plaster, and they *ere loaded as though they *ere
carrying grain, and all +anner of great things *ere brought to the
city' Copper ore *as brought fro+ the +ountain of copper in the land of
)i+ash, and gold *as brought in po*der fro+ the +ountains, and sil&er
*as brought fro+ the +ountains and porphyry fro+ the land of Belukhkha,
and +arble fro+ the +ountain of +arble' !nd the patesi installed
golds+iths and sil&ers+iths, *ho *rought in these precious +etals, for
the adorn+ent of the te+pleK and he brought s+iths *ho *orked in copper
and lead, *ho *ere priests of ?in-tu-kala+a' "n his search for fitting
+aterials for the building of the te+ple, Gudea journeyed fro+ the lo*er
country to the upper country, and fro+ the upper country to the lo*er
country he returned'
The only other +aterials no* *anting for the construction of the te+ple
*ere the sun-dried bricks of clay, of *hich the te+ple platfor+ and
the structure of the te+ple itself *ere in the +ain co+posed' Their
+anufacture *as no* inaugurated by a sy+bolical cere+ony carried out by
the patesi in person' !t da*n he perfor+ed an ablution *ith the fitting
rites that acco+panied it, and *hen the day *as +ore ad&anced he sle*
a bull and a kid as sacrifices, and he then entered the te+ple of
?ingirsu, *here he prostrated hi+self' !nd he took the sacred +ould
and the fair cushion on *hich it rested in the te+ple, and he poured a
libation into the +ould' !fter*ards, ha&ing +ade offerings of honey and
butter, and ha&ing burnt incense, he placed the cushion and the +ould
upon his head and carried it to the appointed place' There he placed
clay in the +ould, shaping it into a brick, and he left the brick in its
+ould *ithin the te+ple' !nd last of all he sprinkled oil of cedar-*ood
around'
The neCt day at da*n Gudea broke the +ould and set the brick in the sun'
!nd the un-god *as rejoiced at the brick that he had fashioned' !nd
Gudea took the brick and raised it on high to*ards the hea&ens, and he
carried the brick to his people' "n this *ay the patesi inaugurated the
+anufacture of the sun-dried bricks for the te+ple, the sacred brick
*hich he had +ade being the sy+bol and pattern of the innu+erable bricks
to be used in its construction' He then +arked out the plan of the
te+ple, and the teCt states that he de&oted hi+self to the building of
the te+ple like a young +an *ho has begun building a house and allo*s
no pleasure to interfere *ith his task' !nd he chose out skilled *ork+en
and e+ployed the+ on the building, and he *as filled *ith joy' The gods,
too, are stated to ha&e helped *ith the building, for Enki fiCed the
te+ennu of the te+ple, and the goddess ?inV looked after its oracles,
and Gatu+dug, the +other of hir-purla, fashioned bricks for it +orning
and e&ening, *hile the goddess Bau sprinkled aro+atic oil of cedar-*ood'
Gudea hi+self laid its foundations, and as he did so he blessed the
te+ple se&en ti+es, co+paring it to the sacred brick, to the holy
libation-&ase, to the di&ine eagle of hirpurla, to a terrible couching
panther, to the beautiful hea&ens, to the day of offerings, and to the
+orning light *hich brightens the land' He caused the te+ple to rise
to*ards hea&en like a +ountain, or like a cedar gro*ing in the desert'
He built it of bricks of u+er, and the ti+bers *hich he set in place
*ere as strong as the dragon of the deep'
(hile he *as engaged on the building Gudea took counsel of the god Enki,
and he built a fountain for the gods, *here they +ight drink' (ith the
great stones *hich he had brought and fashioned he built a reser&oir
and a basin for the te+ple' !nd se&en of the great stones he set up as
stel, and he ga&e the+ fa&ourable na+es' The teCt then recounts
the &arious parts and shrines of the te+ple, and it describes their
splendours in si+iles dra*n fro+ the hea&ens and the earth and the
abyss, or deep, beneath the earth' The te+ple itself is described as,
being like the crescent of the ne* +oon, or like the sun in the +idst
of the stars, or like a +ountain of lapis laGuli, or like a +ountain of
shining +arble' Parts of it are said to ha&e been terrible and strong as
a sa&age bull, or a lion, or the antelope of the abyss, or the +onster
#akha+u *ho d*ells in the abyss, or the sacred leopard that inspires
terror' One of the doors of the te+ple *as guarded by a figure of the
hero *ho sle* the +onster *ith siC heads, and at another door *as a good
dragon, and at another a lionK opposite the city *ere set figures of
the se&en heroes, and facing the rising sun *as fiCed the e+ble+ of the
un-god' <igures of other heroes and fa&ourable +onsters *ere set up as
guardians of other portions of the te+ple' The fastenings of the +ain
entrance *ere decorated *ith dragons shooting out their tongues, and the
bolt of the great door *as fashioned like a raging hound'
!fter this description of the construction and adorn+ent of the
te+ple the teCt goes on to narrate ho* Gudea arranged for its +aterial
endo*+ent' He stalled oCen and sheep, for sacrifice and feasting, in the
outhouses and pens *ithin the te+ple precincts, and he heaped up grain
in its granaries' "ts storehouses he filled *ith spices so that
they *ere like the Tigris *hen its *aters are in flood, and in its
treasure-cha+bers he piled up precious stones, and sil&er, and lead in
abundance' (ithin the te+ple precincts he planted a sacred garden *hich
*as like a +ountain co&ered *ith &inesK and on the terrace he built
a great reser&oir, or tank, lined *ith lead, in addition to the great
stone reser&oir *ithin the te+ple itself' He constructed a special
d*elling-place for the sacred do&es, and a+ong the flo*ers of the te+ple
garden and under the shade of the great trees the birds of hea&en fle*
about un+olested'
The first of the t*o great cylinders of Gudea ends at this point in the
description of the te+ple, and it is e&ident that its teCt *as co+posed
*hile the *ork of building *as still in progress' Boreo&er, the *riting
of the cylinder *as finished before the actual *ork of building the
te+ple *as co+pleted, for the last colu+n of the teCt concludes *ith a
prayer to ?ingirsu to +ake it glorious during the progress of the *ork,
the prayer ending *ith the *ords, LO ?ingirsu, glorify it^ Glorify the
te+ple of ?ingirsu during its construction^L The teCt of the second of
the t*o great cylinders is shorter than that of the first, consisting
of t*enty-four instead of thirty colu+ns of *riting, and it *as co+posed
and *ritten after the te+ple *as co+pleted' #ike the first of the
cylinders, it concludes *ith a prayer to ?ingirsu on behalf of the
te+ple, ending *ith the si+ilar refrain, LO ?ingirsu, glorify it^
Glorify the te+ple of ?ingirsu after its construction^L The first
cylinder, as *e ha&e seen, records ho* it ca+e about that Gudea decided
to rebuild the te+ple E-ninnW in honour of ?ingirsu' "t describes ho*,
*hen the land *as suffering fro+ drought and fa+ine, Gudea had a drea+,
ho* ?inV interpreted the drea+ to +ean that he +ust rebuild the te+ple,
and ho* ?ingirsu hi+self pro+ised that this act of piety *ould restore
abundance and prosperity to the land' "ts teCt ends *ith the long
description of the su+ptuous +anner in *hich the patesi carried out the
*ork, the +ost striking points of *hich *e ha&e just su++ariGed' The
narrati&e of the second cylinder begins at the +o+ent *hen the building
of the te+ple *as finished, and *hen all *as ready for the great god
?in-girsu to be installed therein, and its teCt is taken up *ith a
description of the cere+onies and rites *ith *hich this sole+n function
*as carried out' "t presents us *ith a picture, dra*n fro+ life, of the
*orship and cult of the ancient u+erians in actual operation' "n &ie*
of its i+portance fro+ the point of &ie* of the study and co+parison of
the u+erian and Babylonian religious syste+s, its contents also +ay be
su++ariGed' (e *ill after*ards discuss briefly the infor+ation furnished
by both the cylinders on the u+erian origin of +any of the religious
beliefs and practices *hich *ere current a+ong the later e+itic
inhabitants of Babylonia and !ssyria'
(hen Gudea had finished building the ne* te+ple of E-ninnW, and had
co+pleted the decoration and adorn+ent of its shrines, and had planted
its gardens and stocked its treasure-cha+bers and storehouses, he
applied hi+self to the preli+inary cere+onies and religious preparations
*hich necessarily preceded the actual function of transferring the
statue of the god ?ingirsu fro+ his old te+ple to his ne* one' GudeaDs
first act *as to install the !nunnaki, or pirits of the Earth, in the
ne* te+ple, and *hen he had done this, and had supplied additional
sheep for their sacrifices and food in abundance for their offerings, he
prayed to the+ to gi&e hi+ their assistance and to pronounce a prayer at
his side *hen he should lead ?ingirsu into his ne* d*elling-place'
The teCt then describes ho* Gudea *ent to the old te+ple of ?ingirsu,
acco+panied by his protecting spirits *ho *alked before hi+ and behind
hi+' "nto the old te+ple he carried su+ptuous offerings, and *hen he
had set the+ before the god, he addressed hi+ in prayer and said. LO
+y )ing, ?ingirsu^ O #ord, *ho curbest the raging *aters^ O #ord, *hose
*ord surpasseth all others^ O on of Enlil, O *arrior, *hat co++ands
shall " faithfully carry outP O ?ingirsu, " ha&e built thy te+ple, and
*ith joy *ould " lead thee therein, and +y goddess Bau *ould install at
thy side'L (e are told that the god accepted GudeaDs prayer, and thereby
he ga&e his consent to be re+o&ed fro+ the old te+ple of E-ninnW to his
ne* one *hich bore the sa+e na+e'
But the cere+ony of the godDs re+o&al *as not carried out at once, for
the due ti+e had not arri&ed' The year ended, and the ne* year ca+e,
and then Lthe +onth of the te+pleL began' The third day of the +onth
*as that appointed for the installation of ?ingirsu' Gudea +ean*hile had
sprinkled the ground *ith oil, and set out offerings of honey and butter
and *ine, and grain +iCed *ith +ilk, and dates, and food untouched
by fire, to ser&e as food for the godsK and the gods the+sel&es had
assisted in the preparations for the reception of ?ingirsu' The god
!saru +ade ready the te+ple itself, and ?in+ada perfor+ed the cere+ony
of purification' The god Enki issued oracles, and the god ?indub, the
supre+e priest of Eridu, brought incense' ?inV perfor+ed chants *ithin
the te+ple, and brought black sheep and holy co*s to its folds and
stalls' This record of the help gi&en by the other gods *e +ay interpret
as +eaning that the priests attached to the other great u+erian
te+ples took part in the preparation of the ne* te+ple, and added their
offerings to the te+ple stores' To +any of the gods, also, special
shrines *ithin the te+ple *ere assigned'
(hen the purification of E-ninnW *as co+pleted and the *ay bet*een
the old te+ple and the ne* +ade ready, all the inhabitants of the city
prostrated the+sel&es on the ground' LThe city,L says Gudea, L*as like
the +other of a sick +an *ho prepareth a potion for hi+, or like the
cattle of the plain *hich lie do*n together, or like the fierce lion,
the +aster of the plain, *hen he coucheth'L %uring the day and the night
before the cere+ony of re+o&al, prayers and supplications *ere uttered,
and at the first light of da*n on the appointed day the god ?ingirsu
*ent into his ne* te+ple Llike a *hirl*ind,L the goddess Bau entering
at his side Llike the sun rising o&er hirpurla'L he entered beside his
couch, like a faithful *ife, *hose cares are for her o*n household, and
she d*elt beside his ear and besto*ed abundance upon hirpurla'
!s the day began to brighten and the sun rose, Gudea set out as
offerings in the te+ple a fat oC and a fat sheep, and he brought a &ase
of lead and filled it *ith *ine, *hich he poured out as a libation, and
he perfor+ed incantations' Then, ha&ing duly established ?ingirsu and
Bau in the chief shrine, he turned his attention to the lesser gods and
installed the+ in their appointed places in the te+ple, *here they *ould
be al*ays ready to assist ?ingirsu in the te+ple cere+onies and in the
issue of his decrees for the *elfare of the city and its inhabitants'
Thus he established the god Galali+, the son of ?ingirsu, in a chosen
spot in the great court in front of the te+ple, *here, under the orders
of his father, he should direct the just and curb the e&il-doerK he
*ould also by his presence strengthen and preser&e the te+ple, *hile
his special duty *as to guard the throne of destiny and, on behalf of
?ingirsu, to place the sceptre in the hands of the reigning patesi'
?ear to ?ingirsu and under his orders Gudea also established the god
%unshaga, *hose function it *as to sanctify the te+ple and to look after
its libations and offerings, and to see to the due perfor+ance of the
cere+onies of ablution' This god *ould offer *ater to ?ingirsu *ith a
pure hand, he *ould pour out libations of *ine and strong drink, and
*ould tend the oCen, sheep, kids, and other offerings *hich *ere brought
to the te+ple night and day' To the god #ugalkurdub, *ho *as also
installed in the te+ple, *as assigned the pri&ilege of holding in his
hand the +ace *ith the se&en heads, and it *as his duty to open the door
of the Gate of Co+bat' He guarded the sacred *eapons of ?ingirsu and
destroyed the countries of his ene+ies' He *as ?ingirsuDs chief leader
in battle, and another god *ith lesser po*ers *as associated *ith hi+ as
his second leader'
?ingirsuDs counsellor *as the god #ugalsisa, and he also had his
appointed place in E-ninnW' "t *as his duty to recei&e the prayers
of hirpurla and render the+ propitiousK he superintended and blessed
?ingirsuDs journey *hen he &isited Eridu or returned fro+ that city,
and he +ade special intercessions for the life of Gudea' The +inister of
?ingirsuDs harZ+ *as the god hakanshabar, and he *as installed near to
?in-girsu that he +ight issue his co++ands, both great and s+all' The
keeper of the harZ+ *as the god >riGu, and it *as his duty to purify the
*ater and sanctify the grain, and he tended ?ingirsuDs sleeping-cha+ber
and sa* that all *as arranged therein as *as fitting' The dri&er of
?ingirsuDs chariot *as the god EnsignunK it *as his duty to keep the
sacred chariot as bright as the stars of hea&en, and +orning and e&ening
to tend and feed ?ingirsuDs sacred ass, called >g-kash, and the ass
of Eridu' The shepherd of ?ingirsuDs kids *as the god Enluli+, and he
tended the sacred she-goat *ho suckled the kids, and he guarded her so
that the serpent should not steal her +ilk' This god also looked
after the oil and the strong drink of E-ninnW, and sa* that its store
increased'
?ingirsuDs belo&ed +usician *as the god >shu+-gabkala+a, and he *as
installed in E-ninnW that he +ight take his flute and fill the te+ple
court *ith joy' "t *as his pri&ilege to play to ?ingirsu as he listened
in his harZ+, and to render the life of the god pleasant in E-ninnW'
?ingirsuDs singer *as the god #ugaligi-khusha+, and he had his appointed
place in E-ninnW, for he could appease the heart and soften angerK he
could stop the tears *hich flo*ed fro+ *eeping eyes, and could lessen
sorro* in the sighing heart' Gudea also installed in E-ninnW the se&en
t*in-daughters of the goddess Bau, all &irgins, *ho+ ?ingirsu had
begotten' Their na+es *ere YarGaru, "+paa, >renuntaaa, )hegir-nuna,
)heshaga, Gur+u, and Yar+u' Gudea installed the+ near their father that
they +ight offer fa&ourable prayers'
The culti&ator of the district of Gu-edin *as the god Gishbare, and he
*as installed in the te+ple that he +ight cause the great fields to be
fertile, and +ight +ake the *heat glisten in Gu-edin, the plain assigned
to ?ingirsu for his re&enues' "t *as this godDs duty also to tend the
+achines for irrigation, and to raise the *ater into the canals and
ditches of hirpurla, and thus to keep the cityDs granaries *ell filled'
The god )al *as the guardian of the fishing in Gu-edin, and his chief
duty *as to place fish in the sacred pools' The ste*ard of Gu-edin *as
the god %i+galabGu, *hose duty it *as to keep the plain in good order,
so that the birds +ight abound there and the beasts +ight raise their
young in peaceK he also guarded the special pri&ilege, *hich the plain
enjoyed, of freedo+ fro+ any taC le&ied upon the increase of the
cattle pastured there' #ast of all Gudea installed in E-ninnW the god
#ugalenurua-Gagaka+, *ho looked after the construction of houses in the
city and the building of fortresses upon the city *allK in the te+ple it
*as his pri&ilege to raise on high a battle-aCe +ade of cedar'
!ll these lesser deities, ha&ing close relations to the god ?ingirsu,
*ere installed by Gudea in his te+ple in close proCi+ity to hi+, that
they +ight be al*ays ready to perfor+ their special functions' But the
greater deities also had their share in the inauguration of the te+ple,
and of these Gudea specially +entions !na, Enlil, ?inkharsag, Enki, and
EnGu, *ho all assisted in rendering the te+pleDs lot propitious' <or at
least three of the greater gods I!na, Enlil, and the goddess ?in-+akhJ
Gudea erected shrines near one another and probably *ithin the te+pleDs
precincts, and, as the passage *hich records this fact is broken, it is
possible that the +issing portion of the teCt recorded the building of
shrines to other deities' "n any case, it is clear that the co+poser
of the teCt represents all the great gods as beholding the erection and
inauguration of ?ingirsuDs ne* te+ple *ith fa&our'
!fter the account of the installation of ?ingirsu, and his spouse Bau,
and his attendant deities, the teCt records the su+ptuous offerings
*hich Gudea placed *ithin ?ingirsuDs shrine' These included another
chariot dra*n by an ass, a se&en-headed battle-aCe, a s*ord *ith nine
e+ble+s, a bo* *ith terrible arro*s and a Aui&er decorated *ith *ild
beasts and dragons shooting out their tongues, and a bed *hich *as
set *ithin the godDs sleeping-cha+ber' On the couch in the shrine the
goddess Bau reclined beside her lord ?ingirsu, and ate of the great
&icti+s *hich *ere sacrificed in their honour'
(hen the cere+ony of installation had been successfully perfor+ed, Gudea
rested, and for se&en days he feasted *ith his people' %uring this ti+e
the +aid *as the eAual of her +istress, and +aster and ser&ant consorted
together as friends' The po*erful and the hu+ble +an lay do*n side by
side, and in place of e&il speech only propitious *ords *ere heard' The
rich +an did not *rong the orphan and the strong +an did not oppress the
*ido*' The la*s of ?inV and ?ingirsu *ere obser&ed, justice *as bright
in the sunlight, and the un-god tra+pled iniAuity under foot' The
building of the te+ple also restored +aterial prosperity to the land,
for the canals beca+e full of *ater and fish s*ar+ed in the pools, the
granaries *ere filled *ith grain and the flocks and herds brought forth
their increase' The city of hirpurla *as satiated *ith abundance'
uch is a su++ary of the account *hich Gudea has left us of his
rebuilding of the te+ple E-ninnW, of the reasons *hich led hi+ to
undertake the *ork, and of the results *hich follo*ed its co+pletion' "t
has often been said that the inscriptions of the ancient u+erians are
*ithout +uch intrinsic &alue, that they +ainly consist of dull &oti&e
for+ul, and that for general interest the best of the+ cannot be
co+pared *ith the later inscriptions of the e+itic inhabitants
of Besopota+ia' This reproach, for *hich until recently there *as
considerable justification, has been finally re+o&ed by the *orking
out of the teCts upon GudeaDs cylinders' <or picturesAue narrati&e, for
*ealth of detail, and for striking si+iles, it *ould be hard to find
their superior in Babylonian and !ssyrian literature' They are, in fact,
&ery re+arkable co+positions, and in the+sel&es justify the clai+ that
the u+erians *ere possessed of a literature in the proper sense of the
ter+'
But that is not their only &alue, for they gi&e a &i&id picture of
ancient u+erian life and of the ideals and ai+s *hich actuated the
people and their rulers' The u+erians *ere essentially an un+ilitary
race' That they could +aintain a stubborn fight for their territory is
pro&ed by the prolonged struggle +aintained by hirpurla against her
ri&al Gishkhu, but neither ruler nor people *as infla+ed by lo&e of
conAuest for its o*n sake' They *ere settled in a rich and fertile
country, *hich supplied their o*n *ants in abundance, and they *ere
content to lead a peaceful life therein, engaged in agricultural and
industrial pursuits, and de&oted *holly to the *orship of their gods'
GudeaDs inscriptions enable us to realiGe *ith *hat fer&our they carried
out the rebuilding of a te+ple, and ho* the *hole resources of the
nation *ere de&oted to the successful co+pletion of the *ork' "t is true
that the rebuilding of E-ninnW *as undertaken in a critical period *hen
the land *as threatened *ith fa+ine, and the peculiar +agnificence *ith
*hich the *ork *as carried out +ay be partly eCplained as due to the
belief that such de&otion *ould ensure a return of +aterial prosperity'
But the eCistence of such a belief is in itself an indeC to the peopleDs
character, and *e +ay take it that the record faithfully represents the
relations of the u+erians to their gods, and the i+portant place *hich
*orship and ritual occupied in the national life'
Boreo&er, the inscriptions of Gudea furnish +uch &aluable infor+ation
*ith regard to the details of u+erian *orship and the elaborate
organiGation of the te+ples' <ro+ the+ *e can reconstruct a picture of
one of these i++ense buildings, *ith its nu+erous shrines and courts,
surrounded by sacred gardens and raising its Giggurat, or te+ple to*er,
high abo&e the surrounding city' (ithin its dark cha+bers *ere the
+ysterious figures of the gods, and *hat little light could enter *ould
ha&e been reflected in the tanks of sacred *ater sunk to the le&el of
the pa&e+ent' The air *ithin the shrines +ust ha&e been hea&y *ith the
s+ell of incense and of aro+atic *oods, *hile the deep silence *ould
ha&e been broken only by the chanting of the priests and the feet of
those that bore offerings' Outside in the sunlight cedars and other rare
trees cast a pleasant shade, and birds fle* about a+ong the flo*ers and
bushes in the outer courts and on the garden terraces' The area co&ered
by the te+ple buildings +ust ha&e been enor+ous, for they included the
d*ellings of the priests, stables and pens for the cattle, sheep, and
kids e+ployed for sacrifice, and treasure-cha+bers and storehouses and
granaries for the produce fro+ the te+ple lands'
(e also get +uch infor+ation *ith regard to the nature of the offerings
and the character of the cere+onies *hich *ere perfor+ed' (e +ay +ention
as of peculiar interest GudeaDs sy+bolical rite *hich preceded the
+aking of the sun-dried bricks, and the cere+ony of the installation of
?ingirsu in the presence of the prostrate city' The teCts also thro*
an interesting light on the truly Oriental +anner in *hich, *hen
approaching one deity for help, the cooperation and assistance of other
deities *ere first secured' Thus Gudea solicited the intercession of
?ingirsu and Gatu+dug before applying to the goddess ?inV to interpret
his drea+' The eCtre+ely hu+an character of the gods the+sel&es is also
*ell illustrated' Thus *e gather fro+ the teCts that ?ingirsuDs te+ple
*as arranged like the palace of a u+erian ruler and that he *as
surrounded by gods *ho took the place of the attendants and +inisters
of his hu+an counterpart' His son *as installed in a place of honour and
shared *ith hi+ the responsibility of go&ern+ent' !nother god *as his
personal attendant and cupbearer, *ho offered hi+ fair *ater and looked
after the ablutions' T*o +ore *ere his generals, *ho secured his country
against the attacks of foes' !nother *as his counsellor, *ho recei&ed
and presented petitions fro+ his subjects and superintended his
journeys' !nother *as the head of his harZ+, a position of great
trust and responsibility, *hile a keeper of the harZ+ looked after the
practical details' !nother god *as the dri&er of his chariot, and it
is interesting to note that the chariot *as dra*n by an ass, for horses
*ere not introduced into (estern !sia until a +uch later period' Other
gods perfor+ed the functions of head shepherd, chief +usician, chief
singer, head culti&ator and inspector of irrigation, inspector of the
fishing, land ste*ard, and architect' His household also included his
*ife and his se&en &irgin daughters' "n addition to the account of the
&arious functions perfor+ed by these lesser deities, the teCts also
furnish &aluable facts *ith regard to the characters and attributes
of the greater gods and goddesses, such as the attributes of ?ingirsu
hi+self, and the character of ?inV as the goddess *ho di&ined and
interpreted the secrets of the gods'
But perhaps the +ost interesting conclusions to be dra*n fro+ the teCts
relate to the influence eCerted by the ancient u+erians upon e+itic
beliefs and practices' "t has, of course, long been recogniGed that the
later e+itic inhabitants of Babylonia and !ssyria dre* +ost of their
culture fro+ the u+erians, *ho+ they displaced and absorbed' Their
syste+ of *riting, the general structure of their te+ples, the ritual of
their *orship, the +ajority of their religious co+positions, and +any of
their gods the+sel&es are to be traced to a u+erian origin, and +uch of
the infor+ation obtained fro+ the cylinders of Gudea +erely confir+s
or illustrates the conclusions already deduced fro+ other sources' !s
instances *e +ay +ention the belief in spirits, *hich is illustrated by
the i+portance attached to the placating of the !nunnaki, or pirits of
the Earth, to *ho+ a special place and special offerings *ere assigned
in E-ninnW' The u+erian origin of cere+onies of purification is
confir+ed by GudeaDs purification of the city before beginning the
building of the te+ple, and again before the transference of the god
fro+ his old te+ple to the ne* one' The consultation of o+ens, *hich *as
so +arked a feature of Babylonian and !ssyrian life, is seen in actual
operation under the u+eriansK for, e&en after Gudea had recei&ed direct
instructions fro+ ?ingirsu to begin building his te+ple, he did not
proceed to carry the+ out until he had consulted the o+ens and found
that they *ere fa&ourable' Boreo&er, the references to +ythological
beings, such as the se&en heroes, the dragon of the deep, and the god
*ho sle* the dragon, confir+ the opinion that the creation legends and
other +ythological co+positions of the Babylonians *ere deri&ed by the+
fro+ u+erian sources' But there are t*o incidents in the narrati&e
*hich are on a rather different plane and are +ore startling in their
no&elty' One is the story of GudeaDs drea+, and the other the sign
*hich he sought fro+ his god' The for+er is distinctly apocalyptic in
character, and both +ay be parallelled in *hat is regarded as purely
e+itic literature' That such conceptions eCisted a+ong the u+erians is
a +ost interesting fact, and although the theory of independent origin
is possible, their eCistence +ay *ell ha&e influenced later e+itic
beliefs'
CH!PTE$ @--E#!B !?% B!B,#O?, THE CO>?T$, O< THE E! !?% THE
)!"TE
>p to fi&e years ago our kno*ledge of Ela+ and of the part she played in
the ancient *orld *as deri&ed, in the +ain, fro+ a fe* allusions to the
country to be found in the records of Babylonian and !ssyrian kings' "t
is true that a fe* inscriptions of the nati&e rulers had been found in
Persia, but they belonged to the late periods of her history, and the
+ajority consisted of short dedicatory for+ulae and did not supply us
*ith +uch historical infor+ation' But the eCca&ations carried on since
then by B' de Borgan at usa ha&e re&ealed an entirely ne* chapter of
ancient Oriental history, and ha&e thro*n a flood of light upon the
position occupied by Ela+ a+ong the early races of the East'
#ying to the north of the Persian Gulf and to the east of the Tigris,
and rising fro+ the broad plains nearer the coast to the +ountainous
districts *ithin its borders on the east and north, Ela+ *as one of the
nearest neighbours of Chalda' ! fe* facts concerning her relations *ith
Babylonia during certain periods of her history ha&e long been kno*n,
and her struggles *ith the later kings of !ssyria are kno*n in so+e
detailK but for her history during the earliest periods *e ha&e had to
trust +ainly to conjecture' That in the earlier as in the later periods
she should ha&e been in constant antagonis+ *ith Babylonia +ight
legiti+ately be suspected, and it is not surprising that *e should find
an echo of her early struggles *ith Chalda in the legends *hich *ere
current in the later periods of Babylonian history' "n the fourth and
fifth tablets, or sections, of the great Babylonian epic *hich describes
the eCploits of the Babylonian hero Gilga+esh, a story is told of an
eCpedition undertaken by Gilga+esh and his friend Ba-bani against an
Ela+ite despot na+ed )hu+-baba' "t is related in the poe+ that )hu+baba
*as feared by all *ho d*elt near hi+, for his roaring *as like the
stor+, and any +an perished *ho *as rash enough to enter the cedar-*ood
in *hich he d*elt' But Gilga+esh, encouraged by a drea+ sent hi+ by
ha-+ash, the un-god, pressed on *ith his friend, and, ha&ing entered
the *ood, succeeded in slaying )hu+baba and in cutting off his head'
This legend is doubtless based on episodes in early Babylonian and
Ela+ite history' )hu+baba +ay not ha&e been an actual historical ruler,
but at least he represents or personifies the po*er of Ela+, and the
success of Gilga+esh no doubt reflects the aspirations *ith *hich +any a
Babylonian eCpedition set out for the Ela+ite frontier'
"ncidentally it +ay be noted that the legend possibly had a still closer
historical parallel, for the na+e of )hu+baba occurs as a co+ponent in
a proper na+e upon one of the Ela+ite contracts found recently by B' de
Borgan at Bai-!+ir' The na+e in Auestion is *ritten F)hu+baba-arad-iliF,
L)hu+baba, the ser&ant of God,L and it pro&es that at the date at *hich
the contract *as *ritten Iabout /722-/222 B'C'J the na+e of )hu+baba *as
still held in re+e+brance, possibly as that of an early historical ruler
of the country'
"n her struggles *ith Chalda, Ela+ *as not successful during the
earliest historical period of *hich *e ha&e obtained infor+ationK and,
so far as *e can tell at present, her princes long continued to o*n
allegiance to the e+itic rulers *hose influence *as predo+inant fro+
ti+e to ti+e in the plains of #o*er Besopota+ia' Tradition relates that
t*o of the earliest e+itic rulers *hose na+es are kno*n to us, argon
and ?arV+-in, kings of !gade, held s*ay in Ela+, for in the LO+ensL
*hich *ere current in a later period concerning the+, the for+er is
credited *ith the conAuest of the *hole country, *hile of the latter it
is related that he conAuered !pirak, an Ela+ite district, and captured
its king' o+e doubts *ere for+erly cast upon these traditions inas+uch
as they *ere found in a teCt containing o+ens or forecasts, but these
doubts *ere re+o&ed by the disco&ery of conte+porary docu+ents by *hich
the later traditions *ere confir+ed' argonDs conAuest of Ela+, for
instance, *as pro&ed to be historical by a reference to the e&ent in a
date-for+ula upon tablets belonging to his reign' Boreo&er, the e&ent
has recei&ed further confir+ation fro+ an unpublished tablet in the
British Buseu+, containing a copy of the original chronicle fro+ *hich
the historical eCtracts in the LO+ensL *ere deri&ed' The portion of
the co+position inscribed upon this tablet does not contain the lines
referring to argonDs conAuest of Ela+, for these occurred in an earlier
section of the co+positionK but the reco&ery of the tablet puts beyond
a doubt the historical character of the traditions preser&ed upon the
o+en-tablet as a *hole, and the conAuest of Ela+ is thus confir+ed
by inference' The ne* teCt does recount the eCpedition undertaken by
?arV+-in, the son of argon, against !pirak, and so furnishes a direct
confir+ation of this e&ent'
!nother early conAueror of Ela+, *ho *as probably of e+itic origin,
*as !lu-usharshid, king of the city of )ish, for, fro+ a nu+ber of his
inscriptions found near those of argon at ?ippur in Babylonia, *e learn
that he subdued Ela+ and ParaDse, the district in *hich the city of usa
*as probably situated' <ro+ a s+all +ace-head preser&ed in the British
Buseu+ *e kno* of another conAuest of Ela+ by a e+itic ruler of this
early period' The +ace-head *as +ade and engra&ed by the orders of
Butabil, an early go&ernor of the city of %Wr-ilu, to co++e+orate his
o*n &alour as the +an L*ho s+ote the head of the hostsL of Ela+' Butabil
*as not hi+self an independent ruler, and his conAuest of Ela+ +ust ha&e
been undertaken on behalf of the suGerain to *ho+ he o*ed allegiance,
and thus his &ictory cannot be classed in the sa+e category as those of
his predecessors' ! si+ilar re+ark applies to the success against
the city of !nshan in Ela+, achie&ed by Grudea, the u+erian ruler
of hirpurla, inas+uch as he *as a patesi, or &iceroy, and not an
independent king' Of greater duration *as the influence eCercised o&er
Ela+ by the kings of >r, for bricks and contract-tablets ha&e been found
at usa pro&ing that %ungi, one of the +ost po*erful kings of >r, and
Bur-in, "ne-in, and Oa+il-in, kings of the second dynasty in that
city, all in turn included Ela+ *ithin the li+its of their e+pire'
uch are the +ain facts *hich until recently had been ascertained
*ith regard to the influence of early Babylonian rulers in Ela+' The
infor+ation is obtained +ainly fro+ Babylonian sources, and until
recently *e ha&e been unable to fill in any details of the picture
fro+ the Ela+ite side' But this inability has no* been re+o&ed by B'
de BorganDs disco&eries' <ro+ the inscribed bricks, cones, stel, and
statues that ha&e been brought to light in the course of his eCca&ations
at usa, *e ha&e reco&ered the na+e of a succession of nati&e Ela+ite
rulers' !ll those *ho are to be assigned to this early period, during
*hich Ela+ o*ed allegiance to the kings of Babylonia, ascribe to
the+sel&es the title of FpatesiF, or &iceroy, of usa, in ackno*ledg+ent
of their dependence' Their records consist principally of building
inscriptions and foundation +e+orials, and they co++e+orate the
construction or repair of te+ples, the cutting of canals, and the like'
They do not, therefore, thro* +uch light upon the proble+s connected
*ith the eCternal history of Ela+ during this early period, but *e
obtain fro+ the+ a gli+pse of the internal ad+inistration of the
country' (e see a nation *ithout a+bition to eCtend its boundaries, and
content, at any rate for the ti+e, to o*e allegiance to foreign rulers,
*hile the energies of its nati&e princes are de&oted eCclusi&ely to the
culti&ation of the *orship of the gods and to the a+elioration of the
conditions of the life of the people in their charge'
! difficult but interesting proble+ presents itself for solution at the
outset of our inAuiry into the history of this people as re&ealed by
their lately reco&ered inscriptions,--the proble+ of their race and
origin' <ound at usa in Ela+, and inscribed by princes bearing purely
Ela+ite na+es, *e should eCpect these &oti&e and +e+orial teCts to be
*ritten entirely in the Ela+ite language' But such is not the case,
for +any of the+ are *ritten in good e+itic Babylonian' (hile so+e
are entirely co+posed in the tongue *hich *e ter+ Ela+ite or !nGanite,
others, so far as their language and style is concerned, +ight ha&e been
*ritten by any early e+itic king ruling in Babylonia' (hy did early
princes of usa +ake this use of the Babylonian tongueP
!t first sight it +ight see+ possible to trace a parallel in the use of
the Babylonian language by kings and officials in Egypt and yria
during the fifteenth century B'C', as re&ealed in the letters fro+
Tell el-!+arna' But a +o+entDs thought *ill sho* that the cases are not
si+ilar' The Egyptian or yrian scribe e+ployed Babylonian as a +ediu+
for his official foreign correspondence because Babylonian at that
period *as the Flingua francaF of the East' But the object of the
early Ela+ite rulers *as totally different' Their inscribed bricks and
+e+orial stel *ere not intended for the eyes of foreigners, but for
those of their o*n descendants' Built into the structure of a te+ple,
or buried beneath the edifice, one of their principal objects *as to
preser&e the na+e and deeds of the *riter fro+ obli&ion' #ike si+ilar
docu+ents found on the sites of !ssyrian and Babylonian cities, they
so+eti+es include curses upon any i+pious +an, *ho, on finding the
inscription after the te+ple shall ha&e fallen into ruins, should in
any *ay injure the inscription or deface the *riterDs na+e' "t *ill be
ob&ious that the *riters of these inscriptions intended that they should
be intelligible to those *ho +ight co+e across the+ in the future' "f,
therefore, they e+ployed the Babylonian as *ell as the Ela+ite language,
it is clear that they eCpected that their future readers +ight be either
Babylonian or Ela+iteK and this belief can only be eCplained on the
supposition that their o*n subjects *ere of +iCed race'
"t is therefore certain that at this early period of Ela+ite history
e+itic Babylonians and Ela+ites d*elt side by side in usa and retained
their separate languages' The proble+ therefore resol&es itself into the
inAuiry. *hich of these t*o peoples occupied the country firstP (ere the
e+ites at first in sole possession, *hich *as after*ards disputed by
the incursion of Ela+ite tribes fro+ the north and eastP Or *ere the
Ela+ites the original inhabitants of the land, into *hich the e+ites
subseAuently pressed fro+ BabyloniaP
! si+ilar +iCture of races is +et *ith in Babylonia itself in the
early period of the history of that country' There the early u+erian
inhabitants *ere gradually dispossessed by the in&ading e+ite, *ho
adopted the ci&iliGation of the conAuered race, and took o&er the syste+
of cuneifor+ *riting, *hich he +odified to suit his o*n language' "n
Babylonia the e+ites e&entually predo+inated and the u+erians as a
race disappeared, but during the process of absorption the t*o languages
*ere e+ployed indiscri+inately' The kings of the <irst Babylonian
%ynasty *rote their &oti&e inscriptions so+eti+es in u+erian, so+eti+es
in e+itic BabylonianK at other ti+es they e+ployed both languages
for the sa+e teCt, *riting the record first in u+erian and after*ards
appending a e+itic translation by the sideK and in the legal and
co++ercial docu+ents of the period the old u+erian legal for+s and
phrases *ere retained intact' "n Ela+ *e +ay suppose that the use of the
u+erian and e+itic languages *as the sa+e'
"t +ay be sur+ised, ho*e&er, that the first e+itic incursions into Ela+
took place at a +uch later period than those into Babylonia, and under
&ery different conditions' (hen o&errunning the plains and cities of the
u+erians, the e+ites *ere co+parati&ely unci&iliGed, and, so far as *e
kno*, *ithout a syste+ of *riting of their o*n' The incursions into
Ela+ +ust ha&e taken place under the great e+itic conAuerors, such as
ar-gon and ?arV+-in and !lu-usharshid' !t this period they had fully
adopted and +odified the u+erian characters to eCpress their o*n
e+itic tongue, and on their in&asion of Ela+ they brought their syste+
of *riting *ith the+' The nati&e princes of Ela+, *ho+ they conAuered,
adopted it in turn for +any of their &oti&e teCts and inscribed
+onu+ents *hen they *ished to *rite the+ in the Babylonian language'
uch is the +ost probable eCplanation of the occurrence in Ela+ of
inscriptions in the Old Babylonian language, *ritten by nati&e princes
concerning purely do+estic +atters' But a further Auestion no* suggests
itself' !ssu+ing that this *as the order in *hich e&ents took place,
are *e to suppose that the first e+itic in&aders of Ela+ found there a
nati&e population in a totally unde&eloped stage of ci&iliGationP Or did
they find a population enjoying a co+parati&ely high state of culture,
different fro+ their o*n, *hich they proceeded to +odify and transfor+^
#uckily, *e ha&e not to fall back on conjecture for an ans*er to these
Auestions, for a recent disco&ery at usa has furnished +aterial fro+
*hich it is possible to reconstruct in outline the state of culture of
these early Ela+ites'
This interesting disco&ery consists of a nu+ber of clay tablets
inscribed in the proto-Ela+ite syste+ of *riting, a syste+ *hich *as
probably the only one in use in the country during the period before the
e+itic in&asion' The docu+ents in Auestion are s+all, roughly for+ed
tablets of clay &ery si+ilar to those e+ployed in the early periods of
Babylonian history, but the signs and characters i+pressed upon the+
offer the greatest contrast to the u+erian and early Babylonian
characters *ith *hich *e are fa+iliar' !lthough they cannot be fully
deciphered at present, it is probable that they are tablets of accounts,
the signs upon the+ consisting of lists of figures and *hat are
probably ideographs for things' o+e of the ideographs, such as that for
Ltablet,L *ith *hich +any of the teCts begin, are &ery si+ilar to the
u+erian or Babylonian signs for the sa+e objectsK but the +ajority are
entirely different and ha&e been for+ed and de&eloped upon a syste+ of
their o*n'
4"llustration. 172'jpg C#!, T!B#ET, <O>?% !T >!, BE!$"?G !?
"?C$"PT"O? "? THE E!$#, P$OTO-E#!B"TE CH!$!CTE$'8
The photograph is taken fro+ B' de BorganDs F%QlQgation en
Perse, Be+'F, t' &i, pi' 17'
On these tablets, in fact, *e ha&e a ne* class of cuneifor+ *riting in
an early stage of its de&elop+ent, *hen the hieroglyphic or pictorial
character of the ideographs *as still pro+inent'
4"llustration. 17/'jpg C#!, T!B#ET, $ECE?T#, <O>?% !T >!, BE!$"?G
!?
"?C$"PT"O? "? THE E!$#, P$OTO-E#!B"TE CH!$!CTE$'8
The photograph is reproduced fro+ B' de BorganDs F%QlQgation
en Perse, BQ+'F, t' &i, pi' 11'
!lthough the +eaning of the +ajority of these ideographs has not yet
been identified, P_re cheil, *ho has edited the teCts, has succeeded
in +aking out the syste+ of nu+eration' He has identified the signs for
unity, /2, /22, and /,222, and for certain fractions, and the signs for
these figures are Auite different fro+ those e+ployed by the u+erians'
4"llustration. 17/a'jpg <ractions8
The syste+, too, is different, for it is a deci+al, and not a
seCagesi+al, syste+ of nu+eration'
That in its origin this for+ of *riting had so+e connection *ith that
e+ployed and, so far as *e kno*, in&ented by the ancient u+erians
is possible'; But it sho*s s+all trace of u+erian influence, and the
disparity in the t*o syste+s of nu+eration is a clear indication that,
at any rate, it broke off and *as isolated fro+ the latter at a &ery
early period' Ha&ing once been adopted by the early Ela+ites, it
continued to be used by the+ for long periods *ith but s+all change or
+odification' E+ployed far fro+ the centre of u+erian ci&iliGation, its
de&elop+ent *as slo*, and it see+s to ha&e re+ained in its ideographic
state, *hile the syste+ e+ployed by the u+erians, and adopted by the
e+itic Babylonians, *as de&eloped along syllabic lines'
; "t is, of course, also possible that the syste+ of *riting
had no connection in its origin *ith that of the u+erians,
and *as in&ented independently of the syste+ e+ployed in
Babylonia' "n that case, the signs *hich rese+ble certain of
the u+erian characters +ust ha&e been adopted in a later
stage of its de&elop+ent' Though it *ould be rash to
dog+atiGe on the subject, the &ie* that connects its origin
*ith the u+erians appears on the *hole to fit in best *ith
the e&idence at present a&ailable'
"t *as *ithout doubt this proto-Ela+ite syste+ of *riting *hich the
e+ites fro+ Babylonia found e+ployed in Ela+ on their first incursions
into that country' They brought *ith the+ their o*n +ore con&enient for+
of *riting, and, *hen the country had once been finally subdued, the
subject Ela+ite princes adopted the foreign syste+ of *riting and
language fro+ their conAuerors for +e+orial and +onu+ental inscriptions'
But the ancient nati&e *riting *as not entirely ousted, and continued
to be e+ployed by the co++on people of Ela+ for the ordinary purposes
of daily life' That this *as the case at least until the reign of
)aribu-sha-hu-shinak, one of the early subject nati&e rulers, is clear
fro+ one of his inscriptions engra&ed upon a block of li+estone to
co++e+orate the dedication of *hat *ere probably so+e te+ple furnishings
in honour of the god hu-shinak'
4"llustration. 177'jpg B#OC) O< #"BETO?E, <O>?% !T >!, BE!$"?G
"?C$"PT"O? O< )!$"B>-H!-H>H"?!)'8
The photograph is taken fro+ B' de BorganDs F%QlQgation en
PerseF, BQ+', t' &i, pi' 1'
The +ain part of the inscription is *ritten in e+itic Babylonian,
and belo* there is an addition to the teCt *ritten in proto-Ela+ite
characters, probably enu+erating the offerings *hich the
)aribu-sha-hushinak decreed should be +ade for the future in honour
of the god'; "n course of ti+e this proto-Ela+ite syste+ of *riting by
+eans of ideographs see+s to ha&e died out, and a +odified for+ of the
Babylonian syste+ *as adopted by the Ela+ites for *riting their o*n
language phonetically' "t is in this phonetic character that the
so-called L!nGaniteL teCts of the later Ela+ite princes *ere co+posed'
;(e ha&e assu+ed that both inscriptions *ere the *ork of
)aribu-sha-hushinak' But it is also possible that the
second one in proto-Ela+ite characters *as added at a later
period' <ro+ its position on the stone it is clear that it
*as *ritten after and not before )aribu-sha-hushinakDs
inscription in e+itic Babylonian' ee the photographic
reproduction'
)aribu-sha-hushinak, *hose recently disco&ered bilingual inscription
has been referred to abo&e, *as one of the earlier of the subject
princes of Ela+, and he probably reigned at usa not later than B'C'
7222' He styles hi+self Lpatesi of usa, go&ernor of the land of Ela+,L
but *e do not kno* at present to *hat conte+porary king in Babylonia
he o*ed allegiance' The longest of his inscriptions that ha&e been
reco&ered is engra&ed upon a stele of li+estone and records the building
of the Gate of hushinak at usa and the cutting of a canalK it also
recounts the offerings *hich )aribu-sha-hushinak dedicated on the
co+pletion of the *ork' "t +ay here be Auoted as an eCa+ple of the
class of &oti&e inscriptions fro+ *hich the na+es of these early Ela+ite
rulers ha&e been reco&ered' The inscription runs as follo*s. L<or
the god hushinak, his lord, )aribu-sha-hushinak, the son of
hi+bi-ish-khuk, patesi of usa, go&ernor of the land of Ela+,--*hen
he set the IdoorJ of his Gate in place,''' in the Gate of the god
hushinak, his lord, and *hen he had opened the canal of idur, he set
up in face thereof his canopy, and he set planks of cedar-*ood for its
gate' ! sheep in the interior thereof, and sheep *ithout, he appointed
Ifor sacrificeJ to hi+ each day' On days of festi&al he caused the
people to sing songs in the Gate of the god hushinak' !nd t*enty
+easures of fine oil he dedicated to +ake his gate beautiful' <our
F+agiF of sil&er he dedicatedK a censer of sil&er and gold he dedicated
for a s*eet odourK a,s*ord he dedicatedK an aCe *ith four blades
he dedicated, and he dedicated sil&er in addition for the +ounting
thereof'''' ! righteous judg+ent he judged in the city^ !s for the +an
*ho shall transgress his judg+ent or shall re+o&e his gift, +ay the
gods hushinak and ha+ash, Bel and Ea, ?inni and in, Bnkharsag and
?ati--+ay all the gods uproot his foundation, and his seed +ay they
destroy^L
"t *ill be seen that )aribu-sha-hushinak takes a delight in enu+erating
the details of the offerings he has ordained in honour of his city-god
hushinak, and this religious te+per is peculiarly characteristic of the
princes of Ela+ throughout the *hole course of their history' !nother
interesting point to notice in the inscription is that, although the
*riter in&okes hushinak, his o*n god, and puts his na+e at the head
of the list of deities *hose &engeance he i+plores upon the i+pious, he
also calls upon the gods of the Babylonians' !s he *rote the inscription
itself in Babylonian, in the belief that it +ight be reco&ered by
so+e future e+itic inhabitant of his country, so he included in his
i+precations those deities *hose na+es he concei&ed *ould be +ost
re&erenced by such a reader' "n addition to )aribu-sha-hushinak the
na+es of a nu+ber of other patesis, or &iceroys, ha&e recently
been reco&ered, such as )hutran-tepti, and "dadu " and his son
)al-$ukhu-ratir, and his grandson "dadu ""' !ll these probably ruled
after )aribu-sha-hushinak, and +ay be set in the early period of
Babylonian supre+acy in Ela+'
"t has been stated abo&e that the allegiance *hich these early Ela+ite
princes o*ed to their o&erlords in Babylonia *as probably reflected in
the titles *hich they bear upon their inscriptions recently found at
usa' These titles are LFpatesiF of usa, FshakkannakF of Ela+,L *hich
+ay be rendered as L&iceroy of usa, go&ernor of Ela+'L But inscriptions
ha&e been found on the sa+e site belonging to another series of rulers,
to *ho+ a different title is applied' "nstead of referring to the+sel&es
as &iceroys of usa and go&ernors of Ela+, they bear the title of
FsukkalF of Ela+, of iparki, and of usa' iparki, or ipar, *as
probably the na+e of an i+portant section of Ela+ite territory, and
the title FsukkaluF, Lruler,L probably carries *ith it an idea of
independence of foreign control *hich is absent fro+ the title of
FpatesiF' "t is therefore legiti+ate to trace this change of title to
a corresponding change in the political condition of Ela+K and there is
+uch to be said for the &ie* that the rulers of Ela+ *ho bore the title
of FsukkaluF reigned at a period *hen Ela+ herself *as independent, and
+ay possibly ha&e eCercised a suGerainty o&er the neighbouring districts
of Babylonia'
The *orker of this change in the political condition of Ela+ and
the author of her independence *as a king na+ed )utir-?akhkhunte or
)utir-?aDkhunde, *hose na+e and deeds ha&e been preser&ed in
later !ssyrian records, *here he is ter+ed )udur-?ankhundi and
)udur-?akhundu'; This ruler, according to the !ssyrian king
!shur-bani-pal, *as not content *ith thro*ing off the yoke under *hich
his land had laboured for so long, but carried *ar into the country of
his suGerain and +arched through Babylonia de&astating and despoiling
the principal cities' This successful Ela+ite ca+paign took place,
according to the co+putation of the later !ssyrian scribes, about the
year 1192 B' c, and it is probable that for +any years after*ards the
authority of the )ing of Ela+ eCtended o&er the plains of Babylonia'
"t has been suggested that )utir-?akh-khunte, after including Babylonia
*ithin his e+pire, did not re+ain per+anently in Ela+, but +ay ha&e
resided for a part of each year, at least, in #o*er Besopota+ia'
His object, no doubt, *ould ha&e been to superintend in person the
ad+inistration of his e+pire and to check any gro*ing spirit of
independence a+ong his local go&ernors' He +ay thus ha&e appointed in
usa itself a local go&ernor *ho *ould carry on the business of the
country during his absence, and, under the king hi+self, *ould *ield
supre+e authority' uch go&ernors +ay ha&e been the sukkali, *ho, unlike
the patesi, *ere independent of foreign control, but yet did not enjoy
the full title of Lking'L
; <or references to the passages *here the na+e occurs, see
)ing, F#etters of Ha++urabiF, &ol' i, p' "&y'
"t is possible that the sukkalu *ho ruled in Ela+ during the reign of
)utir-?akhkhunte *as na+ed Te+ti-agun, for a short inscription of
this ruler has been reco&ered, in *hich he records that he built and
dedicated a certain te+ple *ith the object of ensuring the preser&ation
of the life of )utir-?aDkhundi' "f *e +ay identify the )utir-@aDkhundi
of this teCt *ith the great Ela+ite conAueror, )utir-?akhkhunte, it
follo*s that Te+ti-agun, the sukkal of usa, *as his subordinate' The
inscription +entions other na+es *hich are possibly those of rulers of
this period, and reads as follo*s. LTe+ti-agun, sukkal of usa, the son
of the sister of irukduD, hath built a te+ple of bricks at "sh+e-karab
for the preser&ation of the life of )utir-?aDkhundi, and for the
preser&ation of the life of #ila-irtash, and for the preser&ation of his
o*n life, and for the preser&ation of the life of Te+ti-khisha-khanesh
and of Pil-kisha++a-khashduk'L !s #ila-irtash is +entioned i++ediately
after )utir-?aDkhundi, he *as possibly his son, and he +ay ha&e
succeeded hi+ as ruler of the e+pire of Ela+ and Babylonia, though no
confir+ation of this &ie* has yet been disco&ered' Te+ti-khisha-khanesh
is +entioned i++ediately after the reference to the preser&ation of the
life of Te+ti-agun hi+self, and it +ay be conjectured that the na+e *as
that of Te+ti-agunDs son, or possibly that of his *ife, in *hich e&ent
the last t*o personages +entioned in the teCt +ay ha&e been the sons of
Te+ti-agun'
This short teCt affords a good eCa+ple of one class of &oti&e
inscriptions fro+ *hich it is possible to reco&er the na+es of Ela+ite
rulers of this period, and it illustrates the uncertainty *hich at
present attaches to the identification of the na+es the+sel&es and the
order in *hich they are to be arranged' uch uncertainty necessarily
eCists *hen only a fe* teCts ha&e been reco&ered, and it *ill disappear
*ith the disco&ery of additional +onu+ents by *hich the results already
arri&ed at +ay be checked' (e need not here enu+erate all the na+es of
the later Ela+ite rulers *hich ha&e been found in the nu+erous &oti&e
inscriptions reco&ered during the recent eCca&ations at usa' The order
in *hich they should be arranged is still a +atter of considerable
uncertainty, and the facts recorded by the+ in such inscriptions as *e
possess +ainly concern the building and restoration of Ela+ite te+ples
and the decoration of shrines, and they are thus of no great historical
interest' These &oti&e teCts are *ell illustrated by a re+arkable find
of foundation deposits +ade last year by B' de Borgan in the te+ple of
hushinak at usa, consisting of figures and je*elry of gold and sil&er,
and objects of lead, bronGe, iron, stone, and i&ory, cylinder-seals,
+ace-heads, &ases, etc' This is the richest foundation deposit that has
been reco&ered on any ancient site, and its archaeological interest in
connection *ith the de&elop+ent of Ela+ite art is great' But in no other
*ay does the find affect our conception of the history of the country,
and *e +ay therefore pass on to a consideration of such recent
disco&eries as thro* ne* light upon the course of history in (estern
!sia'
(ith the ad&ent of the <irst %ynasty in Babylon Ela+ found herself
face to face *ith a po*er prepared to dispute her clai+s to eCercise a
suGerainty o&er the plains of Besopota+ia' "t is held by +any *riters
that the <irst %ynasty of Babylon *as of !rab origin, and there is +uch
to be said for this &ie*' B' Pognon *as the first to start the theory
that its kings *ere not purely Babylonian, but *ere of either !rab or
!ra+aean eCtraction, and he based his theory on a study of the for+s of
the na+es *hich so+e of the+ bore' The na+e of a+su-i+na, for instance,
+eans Lthe sun is our god,L but the for+ of the *ords of *hich the na+e
is co+posed betray foreign influence' Thus in Babylonian the na+e for
LsunL or the un-god *ould be Fha+ashF or Fha+shuF, not Fa+suFK in
the second half of the na+e, *hile FiluF ILgodLJ is good Babylonian, the
ending FnaF, *hich is the prono+inal suffiC of the first person plural,
is not Babylonian, but !rabic' (e need not here enter into a long
philological discussion, and the instance already cited +ay suffice to
sho* in *hat *ay +any of the na+es +et in the Babylonian inscriptions
of this period betray a foreign, and possibly an !rabic, origin' But
*hether *e assign the for+s of these na+es to !rabic influence or not,
it +ay be regarded as certain that, the <irst %ynasty of Babylon had
its origin in the incursion into Babylonia of a ne* *a&e of e+itic
i++igration'
4"llustration. 1R2'jpg B$"C) T!BPE% ("TH !? "?C$"PT"O? O<
)>%>$-B!B>$G8
The in&ading e+ites brought *ith the+ fresh blood and uneChausted
energy, and, finding +any of their o*n race in scattered cities and
settle+ents throughout the country, they succeeded in establishing a
purely e+itic dynasty, *ith its capital at Babylon, and set about the
task of freeing the country fro+ any &estiges of foreign control' Bany
centuries earlier e+itic kings had ruled in Babylonian cities, and
e+itic e+pires had been for+ed there' argon and ?arV+-in,
ha&ing their capital at !gade, had established their control o&er a
considerable area of (estern !sia and had held Ela+ as a pro&ince' But
so far as Ela+ *as concerned )utir-?akhkhunte had re&ersed the balance
and had raised Ela+ to the position of the predo+inant po*er'
Of the struggles and ca+paigns of the earlier kings of the <irst %ynasty
of Babylon *e kno* little, for, although *e possess a considerable
nu+ber of legal and co++ercial docu+ents of the period, *e ha&e
reco&ered no strictly historical inscriptions' Our +ain source of
infor+ation is the dates upon these docu+ents, *hich are not dated by
the years of the reigning king, but on a syste+ adopted by the early
Babylonian kings fro+ their u+erian predecessors' "n the later periods
of Babylonian history tablets *ere dated in the year of the king *ho *as
reigning at the ti+e the docu+ent *as dra*n up, but this si+ple syste+
had not been adopted at this early period' "n place of this *e find that
each year *as cited by the e&ent of greatest i+portance *hich occurred
in that year' This e&ent +ight be the cutting of a canal, *hen the year
in *hich this took place +ight be referred to as Lthe year in *hich
the canal na+ed !i-khegallu *as cutKL or it +ight be the building of a
te+ple, as in the date-for+ula, Lthe year in *hich the great te+ple of
the Boon-god *as builtKL or it +ight be Lthe conAuest of a city, such
as the year in *hich the city of )ish *as destroyed'L ?o* it *ill be
ob&ious that this syste+ of dating had +any disad&antages' !n e&ent
+ight be of great i+portance for one city, *hile it +ight ne&er ha&e
been heard of in another districtK thus it so+eti+es happened that the
sa+e e&ent *as not adopted throughout the *hole country for designating
a particular year, and the result *as that different syste+s of
dating *ere e+ployed in different parts of Babylonia' Boreo&er, *hen a
particular syste+ had been in use for a considerable ti+e, it reAuired
a &ery good +e+ory to retain the order and period of the &arious e&ents
referred to in the date-for+ulae, so as to fiC in a +o+ent the date of a
docu+ent by its +ention of one of the+' "n order to assist the+sel&es
in their task of fiCing dates in this +anner, the scribes of the <irst
%ynasty of Babylon dre* up lists of the titles of the years, arranged
in chronological order under the reigns of the kings to *hich they
referred' o+e of these lists ha&e been reco&ered, and they are of the
greatest assistance in fiCing the chronology, *hile at the sa+e ti+e
they furnish us *ith considerable infor+ation concerning the history of
the period of *hich *e should other*ise ha&e been in ignorance'
<ro+ these lists of date-for+ul, and fro+ the dates the+sel&es *hich
are found upon the legal and co++ercial tablets of the period, *e learn
that )ish, )a-sallu, and "sin all ga&e trouble to the earlier kings of
the <irst %ynasty, and had in turn to be subdued' Ela+ did not *atch the
di+inution of her influence in Babylonia *ithout a struggle to retain
it' >nder )udur-+abug, *ho *as prince or go&ernor of the districts lying
along the frontier of Ela+, the Ela+ites struggled hard to +aintain
their position in Babylonia, +aking the city of >r the centre fro+ *hich
they sought to check the gro*ing po*er of Babylon' <ro+ bricks that ha&e
been reco&ered fro+ Bukayyer, the site of the city of >r, *e learn that
)udur-+abug rebuilt the te+ple in that city dedicated to the Boon-god,
*hich is an indication of the fir+ hold he had obtained upon the city'
"t *as ob&ious to the ne* e+itic dynasty in Babylon that, until >r and
the neighbouring city of #arsa+ had been captured, they could entertain
no hope of re+o&ing the Ela+ite yoke fro+ outhern Babylonia' "t is
probable that the earlier kings of the dynasty +ade +any atte+pts to
capture the+, *ith &arying success' !n echo of one of their struggles in
*hich they clai+ed the &ictory +ay be seen in the date-for+ula for the
fourteenth year of the reign of in-+uballit, Ha++urabiDs father and
predecessor on the throne of Babylon' This year *as referred to in the
docu+ents of the period as Lthe year in *hich the people of >r *ere
slain *ith the s*ord'L "t *ill be noted that the capture of the city
is not co++e+orated, so that *e +ay infer that the slaughter of the
Ela+ites *hich is recorded did not +aterially reduce their influence,
as they *ere left in possession of their principal stronghold' "n fact,
Ela+ *as not signally defeated in the reign of )udur-+abug, but in that
of his son $i+-in' <ro+ the date-for+ul of Ha++urabiDs reign *e learn
that the struggle bet*een Ela+ and Babylon *as brought to a cli+aC in
the thirtieth year of his reign, *hen it is recorded in the for+ulas
that he defeated the Ela+ite ar+y and o&erthre* $i+-in, *hile in the
follo*ing year *e gather that he added the land of ED+utbal, that is,
the *estern district of Ela+, to his do+inions'
!n unpublished chronicle in the British Buseu+ gi&es us further details
of Ha++urabiDs &ictory o&er the Ela+ites, and at the sa+e ti+e +akes it
clear that the defeat and o&erthro* of $i+-in *as not so crushing
as has hitherto been supposed' This chronicle relates that Ha++urabi
attacked $i+-in, and, after capturing the cities of >r and #arsa+,
carried their spoil to Babylon' >p to the present it has been supposed
that Ha++urabiDs &ictory +arked the end of Ela+ite influence in
Babylonia, and that thencefor*ard the supre+acy of Babylon *as
established throughout the *hole of the country' But fro+ the
ne* chronicle *e gather that Ha++urabi did not succeed in finally
suppressing the atte+pts of Ela+ to regain her for+er position' "t is
true that the cities of >r and #arsa+ *ere finally incorporated in the
Babylonian e+pire, and the letters of Ha++urabi to in-idinna+, the
go&ernor *ho+ he placed in authority o&er #arsa+, afford abundant
e&idence of the stringency of the ad+inistrati&e control *hich he
established o&er outhern Babylonia' But $Z+-in *as only crippled for
the ti+e, and, on being dri&en fro+ >r and #arsa+, he retired beyond
the Ela+ite frontier and de&oted his energies to the recuperation of his
forces against the ti+e *hen he should feel hi+self strong enough again
to +ake a bid for &ictory in his struggle against the gro*ing po*er of
Babylon' "t is probable that he +ade no further atte+pt to rene* the
contest during the life of Ha++urabi, but after a+su-iluna, the son
of Ha++urabi, had succeeded to the Babylonian throne, he appeared in
Babylonia at the head of the forces he had collected, and atte+pted to
regain the cities and territory he had lost'
4"llustration. 1R3'jpg EB"T"C B!B,#O?"!? CO?T$!CT-T!B#ET8
"nscribed in the reign of Ha++urabi *ith a deed recording
the di&ision of property' The actual tablet is on the rightK
that *hich appears to be another and larger tablet on the
left is the hollo* clay case in *hich the tablet on the
right *as originally enclosed' Photograph by Bessrs' Bansell
E Co'
The portion of the teCt of the chronicle relating to the *ar bet*een
$Z+-in and a+su-iluna is broken so that it is not possible to follo*
the ca+paign in detail, but it appears that a+su-iluna defeated
$i+-in, and possibly captured hi+ or burnt hi+ ali&e in a palace in
*hich he had taken refuge'
(ith the final defeat of $Z+-in by a+su-iluna it is probable that Ela+
ceased to be a thorn in the side of the kings of Babylon and that
she +ade no further atte+pts to eCtend her authority beyond her o*n
frontiers' But no sooner had a+su-iluna freed his country fro+ all
danger fro+ this Auarter than he found hi+self faced by a ne* foe,
before *ho+ the dynasty e&entually succu+bed' This fact *e learn fro+
the unpublished chronicle to *hich reference has already been +ade, and
the na+e of this ne* foe, as supplied by the chronicle, *ill render
it necessary to re&ise all current sche+es of Babylonian chronology'
a+su-ilunaDs ne* foe *as no other than "lu+a-ilu, the first king of the
econd %ynasty, and, so far fro+ ha&ing been regarded as a+su-ilunaDs
conte+porary, hitherto it has been i+agined that he ascended the throne
of Babylon one hundred and eighteen years after a+su-ilunaDs death'
The ne* infor+ation supplied by the chronicle thus pro&es t*o i+portant
facts. first, that the econd %ynasty, instead of i++ediately succeeding
the <irst %ynasty, *as partly conte+porary *ith itK second, that during
the period in *hich the t*o dynasties *ere conte+porary they *ere at
*ar *ith one another, the econd %ynasty gradually encroaching on
the territory of the <irst %ynasty, until it e&entually succeeded in
capturing Babylon and in getting the *hole of the country under its
control' (e also learn fro+ the ne* chronicle that this econd %ynasty
at first established itself in Lthe Country of the ea,L that is to say,
the districts in the eCtre+e south of Babylonia bordering on the Persian
Gulf, and after*ards eCtended its borders north*ard until it gradually
absorbed the *hole of Babylonia' Before discussing the other facts
supplied by the ne* chronicle, *ith regard to the rise and gro*th of the
Country of the ea, *hose kings for+ed the so-called Lecond %ynasty,L
it *ill be *ell to refer briefly to the sources fro+ *hich the
infor+ation on the period to be found in the current histories is
deri&ed'
!ll the sche+es of Babylonian chronology that ha&e been suggested during
the last t*enty years ha&e been based +ainly on the great list of kings
*hich is preser&ed in the British Buseu+' This docu+ent *as dra*n up in
the ?eo-Babylonian or Persian period, and *hen co+plete it ga&e a list
of the na+es of all the Babylonian kings fro+ the <irst %ynasty of
Babylon do*n to the ti+e in *hich it *as *ritten' The na+es of the kings
are arranged in dynasties, and details are gi&en as to the length of
their reigns and the total nu+ber of years each dynasty lasted' The
beginning of the list *hich ga&e the na+es of the <irst %ynasty is
*anting, but the +issing portion has been restored fro+ a s+aller
docu+ent *hich gi&es a list of the kings of the <irst and econd
%ynasties only' "n the great list of kings the dynasties are arranged
one after the other, and it *as ob&ious that its co+piler i+agined that
they succeeded one another in the order in *hich he arranged the+'
But *hen the total nu+ber of years the dynasties lasted is learned, *e
obtain dates for the first dynasties in the list *hich are too early to
agree *ith other chronological infor+ation supplied by the historical
inscriptions' The +ajority of *riters ha&e accepted the figures of the
list of kings and ha&e been content to ignore the discrepanciesK others
ha&e sought to reconcile the a&ailable data by ingenious e+endations of
the figures gi&en by the list and the historical inscriptions, or ha&e
o+itted the econd %ynasty entirely fro+ their calculations' The ne*
chronicle, by sho*ing that the <irst and econd %ynasties *ere partly
conte+poraneous, eCplains the discrepancies that ha&e hitherto pro&ed so
puGGling'
"t *ould be out of place here to enter into a detailed discussion of
Babylonian chronology, and therefore *e *ill confine oursel&es to a
brief description of the seAuence of e&ents as re&ealed by the ne*
chronicle' !ccording to the list of kings, "lu+a-iluDs reign *as a long
one, lasting for siCty years, and the ne* chronicle gi&es no indication
as to the period of his reign at *hich acti&e hostilities *ith Babylon
broke out' "f the *ar occurred in the latter portion of his reign, it
*ould follo* that he had been for +any years organiGing the forces of
the ne* state he had founded in the south of Babylonia before +aking
serious encroach+ents in the northK and in that case the incessant
ca+paigns carried on by Babylon against Bla+ in the reigns of Ha++urabi
and a+su-iluna *ould ha&e afforded hi+ the opportunity of establishing
a fir+ foothold in the Country of the ea *ithout the risk of Babylonian
interference' "f, on the other hand, it *as in the earlier part of his
reign that hostilities *ith Babylon broke out, *e +ay suppose that,
*hile a+su-iluna *as de&oting all his energies to crush Bi+-in, the
Country of the ea declared her independence of Babylonian control' "n
this case *e +ay i+agine a+su-iluna hurrying south, on the conclusion
of his Ela+ite ca+paign, to crush the ne*ly for+ed state before it had
had ti+e to organiGe its forces for prolonged resistance'
(hiche&er of these alternati&es e&entually +ay pro&e to be correct, it
is certain that a+su-iluna took the initiati&e in BabylonDs struggle
*ith the Country of the ea, and that his action *as due either to her
declaration of independence or to so+e daring act of aggression on the
part of this s+all state *hich had hitherto appeared too insignificant
to cause Babylon any serious trouble' The ne* chronicle tells us that
a+su-iluna undertook t*o eCpeditions against the Country of the ea,
both of *hich pro&ed unsuccessful' "n the first of these he penetrated
to the &ery shores of the Persian Gulf, *here a battle took place in
*hich a+su-iluna *as defeated, and the bodies of +any of the Babylonian
soldiers *ere *ashed a*ay by the sea' "n the second ca+paign "lu+a-ilu
did not a*ait a+su-ilunaDs attack, but ad&anced to +eet hi+, and again
defeated the Babylonian ar+y' "n the reign of !bNshuD, a+su-ilunaDs
son and successor, "lu+a-ilu appears to ha&e undertaken fresh acts of
aggression against BabylonK and it *as probably during one of his raids
in Babylonian territory that !bNshuD atte+pted to crush the gro*ing po*er
of the Country of the ea by the capture of its daring leader, "lu+a-ilu
hi+self' The ne* chronicle infor+s us that, *ith this object in
&ie*, !bNshuD da++ed the ri&er Tigris, hoping by this +eans to cut off
"lu+a-ilu and his ar+y, but his stratage+ did not succeed, and "lu+a-ilu
got back to his o*n territory in safety'
The ne* chronicle does not supply us *ith further details of the
struggle bet*een Babylon and the Country of the ea, but *e +ay conclude
that all si+ilar atte+pts on the part of the later kings of the <irst
%ynasty to crush or restrain the po*er of the ne* state *ere useless' "t
is probable that fro+ this ti+e for*ard the kings of the <irst %ynasty
accepted the independence of the Country of the ea upon their southern
border as an e&il *hich they *ere po*erless to pre&ent' They +ust ha&e
looked back *ith regret to the good ti+es the country had enjoyed under
the po*erful s*ay of Ha++urabi, *hose &ictorious ar+s e&en their ancient
foes, the Bla+ites, had been unable to *ithstand' But, although the
chronicle does not recount the further successes achie&ed by the Country
of the ea, it records a fact *hich undoubtedly contributed to hasten
the fall of Babylon and bring the <irst %ynasty to an end' "t tells us
that in the reign of a+su-ditana, the last king of the <irst %ynasty,
the +en of the land of )hattu Ithe Hittites fro+ ?orthern yriaJ +arched
against hi+ in order to conAuer the land of !kkadK in other *ords, they
+arched do*n the Euphrates and in&aded ?orthern Babylonia' The chronicle
does not state ho* far the in&asion *as successful, but the appearance
of a ne* ene+y fro+ the north*est +ust ha&e di&ided the Babylonian
forces and thus ha&e reduced their po*er of resisting pressure fro+ the
Country of the ea' a+su-ditana +ay ha&e succeeded in defeating the
Hittites and in dri&ing the+ fro+ his countryK but the fact that he
*as the last king of the <irst %ynasty pro&es that in his reign Babylon
itself fell into the hands of the king of the Country of the ea'
The Auestion no* arises, To *hat race did the people of the Country
of the ea belongP %id they represent an ad&ance-guard of the )assite
tribes, *ho e&entually succeeded in establishing the+sel&es as the Third
%ynasty in BabylonP Or *ere they the Ela+ites *ho, *hen dri&en fro+ >r
and #arsa+, retreated south*ards and +aintained their independence on
the shores of the Persian GulfP Or did they represent so+e fresh *a&e of
e+itic i++igrationDP That they *ere not )assites is pro&ed by the ne*
chronicle *hich relates ho* the Country of the ea *as conAuered by the
)assites, and ho* the dynasty founded by "lu+a-ilu thus ca+e to an end'
There is nothing to sho* that they *ere Ela+ites, and if the Country of
the ea had been coloniGed by fresh e+itic tribes, so far fro+ opposing
their kindred in Babylon, +ost probably they *ould ha&e pro&ed to the+
a source of additional strength and support' "n fact, there are
indications that the people of the Country of the ea are to be referred
to an older stock than the Ela+ites, the e+ites, or the )assites' "n
the dynasty of the Country of the ea there is no doubt that *e +ay
trace the last successful struggle of the ancient u+erians to retain
possession of the land *hich they had held for so +any centuries before
the in&ading e+ites had disputed its possession *ith the+'
E&idence of the u+erian origin of the kings of the Country of the
ea +ay be traced in the na+es *hich se&eral of the+ bear' "shkibal,
Grulkishar, Peshgal-dara+ash, !-dara-kala+a, !kur-ul-ana, and
Bela+-kur-kura, the na+es of so+e of the+, are all good u+erian na+es,
and hushshi, the brother of "shkibal, +ay also be taken as a u+erian
na+e' "t is true that the first three kings of the dynasty, "lu+a-ilu,
"tti-ili-nibi, and %a+ki-ilishu, and the last king of the dynasty,
Ea-ga+il, bear e+itic Babylonian na+es, but there is e&idence that
at least one of these is +erely a e+itic rendering of a u+erian
eAui&alent' "lu+a-ilu, the founder of the dynasty, has left inscriptions
in *hich his na+e is *ritten in its correct u+erian for+ as
%ingir-a-an, and the fact that he and so+e of his successors either bore
e+itic na+es or appear in the late list of kings *ith their u+erian
na+es translated into Babylonian for+ +ay be easily eCplained by
supposing that the population of the Country of the ea *as +iCed and
that the u+erian and e+itic tongues *ere to a great eCtent e+ployed
indiscri+inately' This supposition is not inconsistent *ith the
suggestion that the dynasty of the Country of the ea *as u+erian, and
that under it the u+erians once +ore beca+e the predo+inant race in
Babylonia'
The ne* chronicle also relates ho* the dynasty of the Country of the
ea succu+bed in its turn before the incursions of the )assites' (e kno*
that already under the <irst %ynasty the )assite tribes had begun to
+ake incursions into Babylonia, for the ninth year of a+su-iluna *as
na+ed in the date-for+ulae after a )assite in&asion, *hich, as it
*as co++e+orated in this +anner by the Babylonians, *as probably
successfully repulsed' uch in&asions +ust ha&e taken place fro+ ti+e to
ti+e during the period of supre+acy attained by the Country of the ea,
and it *as undoubtedly *ith a &ie* to stopping such incursions--for the
future that Ea-ga+il--the last king of the econd %ynasty, decided to
in&ade Ela+ and conAuer the +ountainous districts in *hich the )assite
tribes had built their strongholds' This Ela+ite ca+paign of Ea-ga+il
is recorded by the ne* chronicle, *hich relates ho* he *as defeated and
dri&en fro+ the country by >la+-Buriash, the brother of Bitiliash the
)assite' >la+-Buriash did not rest content *ith repelling Ea-ga+ilDs
in&asion of his land, but pursued hi+ across the border and succeeded
in conAuering the Country of the ea and in establishing there his o*n
ad+inistration' The gradual conAuest of the *hole of Babylonia by the
)assites no doubt follo*ed the conAuest of the Country of the ea,
for the chronicle relates ho* the process of subjugation, begun by
>la+-Buriash, *as continued by his nephe* !gu+, and *e kno* fro+ the
lists of kings that Ea-ga+il *as the last king of the dynasty founded by
"lu+a-ilu' "n this fashion the econd %ynasty *as brought to an end, and
the u+erian ele+ent in the +iCed population of Babylonia did not again
succeed in gaining control of the go&ern+ent of the country'
"t *ill be noticed that the account of the earliest )assite rulers of
Babylonia *hich is gi&en by the ne* chronicle does not eCactly tally
*ith the na+es of the kings of the Third %ynasty as found upon the
list of kings' On this docu+ent the first king of the dynasty is na+ed
Gandash, *ith *ho+ *e +ay probably identify >la+-Buriash, the )assite
conAueror of the Country of the eaK the second king is !gu+, and the
third is Bitiliashi' !ccording to the ne* chronicle !gu+ *as the son
of Bitiliashi, and it *ould be i+probable that he should ha&e ruled in
Babylonia before his father' But this difficulty is re+o&ed by supposing
that the t*o na+es *ere transposed by so+e copyist' The different
na+es assigned to the founder of the )assite dynasty +ay be due to
the eCistence of &ariant traditions, or >la+-Buriash +ay ha&e assu+ed
another na+e on his conAuest of Babylonia, a practice *hich *as usual
*ith the later kings of !ssyria *hen they occupied the Babylonian
throne'
The infor+ation supplied by the ne* chronicle *ith regard to the
relations of the first three dynasties to one another is of the greatest
possible interest to the student of early Babylonian history' (e see
that the e+itic e+pire founded at Babylon by u+u-abu, and consolidated
by Ha++urabi, *as not established on so fir+ a basis as has hitherto
been belie&ed' The later kings of the dynasty, after Ela+ had been
conAuered, had to defend their e+pire fro+ encroach+ents on the south,
and they e&entually succu+bed before the onslaught of the u+erian
ele+ent, *hich still re+ained in the population of Babylonia and had
rallied in the Country of the ea' This dynasty in its turn succu+bed
before the in&asion of the )assites fro+ the +ountains in the *estern
districts of Ela+, and, although the city of Babylon retained her
position as the capital of the country throughout these changes of
go&ern+ent, she *as the capital of rulers of different races, *ho
successi&ely fought for and obtained the control of the fertile plains
of Besopota+ia'
"t is probable that the )assite kings of the Third %ynasty eCercised
authority not only o&er Babylonia but also o&er the greater part of
Ela+, for a nu+ber of inscriptions of )assite kings of Babylonia ha&e
been found by B' de Borgan at usa' These inscriptions consist of
grants of land *ritten on roughly shaped stone stel, a class *hich the
Babylonians the+sel&es called FkudurruF, *hile they ha&e been freAuently
referred to by +odern *riters as Lboundary-stones'L This latter ter+
is not &ery happily chosen, for it suggests that the actual +onu+ents
the+sel&es *ere set up on the li+its of a field or estate to +ark its
boundary' "t is true that the inscription on a kudurru enu+erates the
eCact position and siGe of the estate *ith *hich it is concerned,
but the kudurru *as ne&er actually used to +ark the boundary' "t *as
preser&ed as a title-deed, in the house of the o*ner of the estate or
possibly in the te+ple of his god, and for+ed his charter or title-deed
to *hich he could appeal in case of any dispute arising as to his right
of o*nership' One of the kudurrus found by B' de Borgan records the
grant of a nu+ber of estates near Babylon by ?aGi+aruttash, a king of
the Third or )assite %ynasty, to the god Barduk, that is to say they
*ere assigned by the king to the ser&ice of E-sagila, the great te+ple
of Barduk at Babylon'
4"llustration. 130'jpg ! )>%>$$> O$ LBO>?%!$,-TO?E'L8
"nscribed *ith a teCt of ?aGi+aruttash, a king of the Third
or )assite %ynasty, conferring certain estates near Babylon
on the te+ple of Barduk and on a certain +an na+ed )ashakti-
hugab' The photograph is reproduced fro+ B' de BorganDs
%elegation en Perse, BN+', t' ii, pi, /9'
!ll the crops and produce fro+ the land *ere granted for the supply of
the te+ple, *hich *as to enjoy the property *ithout the pay+ent of any
taC or tribute' The teCt also records the gift of considerable tracts of
land in the sa+e district to a pri&ate indi&idual na+ed )ashakti-hugab,
*ho *as to enjoy a si+ilar freedo+ fro+ taCation so far as the lands
besto*ed upon hi+ *ere concerned'
This freedo+ fro+ taCation is specially enacted by the docu+ent in
the *ords. L(hensoe&er in the days that are to co+e the ruler of the
country, or one of the go&ernors, or directors, or *ardens of these
districts, shall +ake any clai+ *ith regard to these estates, or shall
atte+pt to i+pose the pay+ent of a tithe or taC upon the+, +ay all the
great gods *hose na+es are co++e+orated, or *hose ar+s are portrayed, or
*hose d*elling-places are represented, on this stone, curse hi+ *ith an
e&il curse and blot out his na+e^L
"ncidentally, this curse illustrates one of the +ost striking
characteristics of the kudurrus, or Lboundary-stones,L &iG' the car&ed
figures of gods and representations of their e+ble+s, *hich all of the+
bare in addition to the teCts inscribed upon the+' !t one ti+e it *as
thought that these sy+bols *ere to be connected *ith the signs of the
Godiac and &arious constellations and stars, and it *as suggested that
they +ight ha&e been intended to represent the relati&e positions of the
hea&enly bodies at the ti+e the docu+ent *as dra*n up' But this teCt
of ?aGi+aruttash and other si+ilar docu+ents that ha&e recently been
disco&ered pro&e that the presence of the figures and e+ble+s of the
gods upon the stones is to be eCplained on another and far +ore si+ple
theory' They *ere placed there as guardians of the property to *hich the
kudurru referred, and it *as belie&ed that the car&ing of their figures
or e+ble+s upon the stone *ould ensure their inter&ention in case of
any atte+pted infringe+ent of the rights and pri&ileges *hich it *as
the object of the docu+ent to co++e+orate and preser&e' ! photographic
reproduction of one side of the kudurru of ?aGi-+aruttash is sho*n in
the acco+panying illustration' There *ill be seen a representation of
Gula or Bau, the +other of the gods, *ho is portrayed as seated on
her throne and *earing the four-horned head-dress and a long robe
that reaches to her feet' "n the field are e+ble+s of the un-god, the
Boon-god, "shtar, and other deities, and the representation of di&ine
e+ble+s and d*elling-places is continued on another face of the stone
round the corner to*ards *hich Grula is looking' The other t*o faces of
the docu+ent are taken up *ith the inscription'
!n interesting note is appended to the teCt inscribed upon the stone,
beginning under the throne and feet of Barduk and continuing under the
e+ble+s of the gods upon the other side' This note relates the history
of the docu+ent in the follo*ing *ords. L"n those days )ashakti-hugab,
the son of ?usku-naDid, inscribed Ithis docu+entJ upon a +e+orial
of clay, and he set it before his god' But in the reign of
Barduk-aplu-iddina, king of hosts, the son of Belishikhu, )ing
of Babylon, the *all fell upon this +e+orial and crushed it'
hu-khuli-hugab, the son of ?ibishiku, *rote a copy of the ancient
teCt upon a ne* stone stele, and he set it Ibefore the godJ'L "t *ill be
seen, therefore, that this actual stone that has been reco&ered *as not
the docu+ent dra*n up in the reign of ?aGi+aruttash, but a copy +ade
under Barduk-aplu-iddina, a later king of the Third %ynasty' The
original deed *as dra*n up to preser&e the rights of )ashakti-hugab,
*ho shared the grant of land *ith the te+ple of Barduk' His share *as
less than half that of the te+ple, but, as both *ere situated in the
sa+e district, he *as careful to enu+erate and describe the te+pleDs
share, to pre&ent any encroach+ent on his rights by the Babylonian
priests'
"t is probable that such grants of land *ere +ade to pri&ate indi&iduals
in return for special ser&ices *hich they had rendered to the king' Thus
a broken kudurru a+ong B' de BorganDs finds records the confir+ation of
a +anDs clai+s to certain property by Biti-liash "", the clai+s being
based on a grant +ade to the +anDs ancestor by )urigalGu for ser&ices
rendered to the king during his *ar *ith !ssyria' One of the finest
speci+ens of this class of charters or title-deeds has been found at
usa, dating fro+ the reign of Belishikhu, a king of the Third %ynasty'
The docu+ent in Auestion records a grant of certain property in the
district of BZt-Pir-hadW-rabW, near the cities !gade and %Wr-)urigalGu,
+ade by Belishikhu to Barduk-aplu-iddina, his son, *ho succeeded hi+
upon the throne of Babylon' The teCt first gi&es details *ith regard to
the siGe and situation of the estates included in the grant of land, and
it states the na+es of the high officials *ho *ere entrusted *ith the
duty of +easuring the+' The re+ainder of the teCt defines and secures
the pri&ileges granted to Barduk-aplu-iddina together *ith the land,
and, as it thro*s considerable light upon the syste+ of land tenure at
the period, an eCtract fro+ it +ay here be translated.
LTo pre&ent the encroach+ent on his land,L the inscription runs, Lthus
hath he Ii'e' the kingJ established his IBarduk-aplu-iddinaDsJ charter'
On his land taCes and tithes shall they not i+poseK ditches, li+its, and
boundaries shall they not displaceK there shall be no plots, stratage+s,
or clai+s I*ith regard to his possessionJK for forced labour or public
*ork for the pre&ention of floods, for the +aintenance and repair of
the royal canal under the protection of the to*ns of Bit-ikka+idu
and %a+ik-!dad, a+ong the gangs le&ied in the to*ns of the district of
?inV-!gade, they shall not call out the people of his estateK they are
not liable to forced labour on the sluices of the royal canal, nor
are they liable for building da+s, nor for closing the canal, nor for
digging out the bed thereof'L
4"llustration. 102'jpg )>OTT$$>, O$ LBO>?%!$,-TO?E'L8
"nscribed *ith a teCt of Belishikhu, one of the kings of the
Third or )assite %ynasty of Babylon, recording a grant of
certain property to Barduk-aplu-iddina, his son The
photograph is reproduced fro+ B' de BorganDs %elegation en
Perse, Be+', t' ii, pi' 1R'
L! culti&ator of his lands, *hether hired or belonging to the estate,
and the +en *ho recei&e his instructions Ii'e' his o&erseersJ shall no
go&ernor of BZt-Pir-hadW-rabW cause to lea&e his lands, *hether by the
order of the king, or by the order of the go&ernor, or by the order of
*hosoe&er +ay be at BZt-Pir-hadW-rabW' On *ood, grass, stra*, corn,
and e&ery other sort of crop, on his carts and yoke, on his ass and
+an-ser&ant, shall they +ake no le&y' %uring the scarcity of *ater in
the canal running bet*een the Bati-!nGani+ canal and the canal of the
royal district, on the *aters of his ditch for irrigation shall they
+ake no le&yK fro+ the ditch of his reser&oir shall they not dra* *ater,
neither shall they di&ert Ihis *ater forJ irrigation, and other land
shall they not irrigate nor *ater there*ith' The grass of his lands
shall they not +o*K the beasts belonging to the king or to a go&ernor,
*hich +ay be assigned to the district of BZt-Pir-hadW-rabW, shall they
not dri&e *ithin his boundary, nor shall they pasture the+ on his grass'
He shall not be forced to build a road or a bridge, *hether for the
king, or for the go&ernor *ho +ay be appointed in the district of
BZt-Pir-hadW-rabW, neither shall he be liable for any ne* for+ of
forced labour, *hich in the days that are to co+e a king, or a go&ernor
appointed in the district of BZt-Pir-hadW-rabW, shall institute and
eCact, nor for forced labour long fallen into disuse *hich +ay be
re&i&ed ane*' To pre&ent encroach+ent on his land the king hath fiCed
the pri&ileges of his do+ain, and that *hich appertaineth unto it, and
all that he hath granted unto hi+K and in the presence of ha+ash, and
Barduk, and !nunitu, and the great gods of hea&en and earth, he hath
inscribed the+ upon a stone, and he hath left it as an e&erlasting
+e+orial *ith regard to his estate'L
The *hole of the teCt is too long to Auote, and it *ill suffice to note
here that Belishikhu proceeds to appeal to future kings to respect the
land and pri&ileges *hich he has granted to his son, Barduk-aplu-iddina,
e&en as he hi+self has respected si+ilar grants +ade by his predecessors
on the throneK and the teCt ends *ith so+e &ery &i&id curses against
any one, *hate&er his station, *ho should +ake any encroach+ents on the
pri&ileges granted to Barduk-aplu-iddina, or should alter or do any har+
to the +e+orial-stone itself' The e+ble+s of the gods *ho+ Belishikhu
in&okes to a&enge any infringe+ent of his grant are sculptured upon one
side of the stone, for, as has already been re+arked, it *as belie&ed
that by car&ing the+ upon the +e+orial-stone their help in guarding the
stone itself and its enact+ents *as assured'
<ro+ the portion of the teCt inscribed upon the stone *hich has just
been translated it is seen that the o*ner of land in Babylonia in the
period of the )assite kings, unless he *as granted special eCe+ption,
*as liable to furnish forced labour for public *orks to the state or to
his district, to furnish graGing and pasture for the flocks and herds of
the king or go&ernor, and to pay &arious taCes and tithes on his land,
his *ater for irrigation, and his crops' <ro+ the nu+erous docu+ents
of the <irst %ynasty of Babylon that ha&e been reco&ered and published
*ithin the last fe* years *e kno* that si+ilar custo+s *ere pre&alent at
that period, so that it is clear that the successi&e conAuests to *hich
the country *as subjected, and the establish+ent of different dynasties
of foreign kings at Babylon, did not to any appreciable eCtent affect
the life and custo+s of the inhabitants of the country or e&en the
general character of its go&ern+ent and ad+inistration' o+e docu+ents
of a co++ercial and legal nature, inscribed upon clay tablets during the
reigns of the )assite kings of Babylon, ha&e been found at ?ippur,
but they ha&e not yet been published, and the infor+ation *e possess
concerning the life of the people in this period is obtained indirectly
fro+ kudurrus or boundary-stones, such as those of ?aGi+aruttash and
Belishikhu *hich ha&e been already described' Of docu+ents relating to
the life of the people under the rule of the kings of the Country of the
ea *e ha&e none, and, *ith the eCception of the unpublished chronicle
*hich has been described earlier in this chapter, our infor+ation for
this period is confined to one or t*o short &oti&e inscriptions' But the
case is &ery different *ith regard to the reigns of the e+itic kings of
the <irst %ynasty of Babylon' Thousands of tablets relating to legal and
co++ercial transactions during this period ha&e been reco&ered, and +ore
recently a +ost &aluable series of royal letters, *ritten by Ha++urabi
and other kings of his dynasty, has been brought to light'
4"llustration. 10R'jpg >pper Part of the tele of Ha++urabi, )ing of
Babylon'8
The stele is inscribed *ith his great code of la*s' The un-
god is represented as seated on a throne in the for+ of a
te+ple fabade, and his feet are resting upon the +ountains'
Photograph by Bessrs' Bansell E Co'
Boreo&er, the recently disco&ered code of la*s dra*n up by Ha++urabi
contains infor+ation of the greatest interest *ith regard to the
conditions of life that *ere pre&alent in Babylonia at that period'
<ro+ these three sources it is possible to dra* up a co+parati&ely full
account of early Babylonian life and custo+s'
CH!PTE$ @"--E!$#, B!B,#O?"!? #"<E !?% C>TOB
"n tracing the ancient history of Besopota+ia and the surrounding
countries it is possible to construct a narrati&e *hich has the
appearance of being co+parati&ely full and co+plete' (ith regard to
Babylonia it +ay be sho*n ho* dynasty succeeded dynasty, and for long
periods together the na+es of the kings ha&e been reco&ered and the
order of their succession fiCed *ith certainty' But the nu+ber and
i+portance of the original docu+ents on *hich this connected narration
is based &ary enor+ously for different periods' Gaps occur in our
kno*ledge of the seAuence of e&ents, *hich *ith so+e ingenuity +ay be
bridged o&er by +eans of the nati&e lists of kings and the genealogies
furnished by the historical inscriptions' On the other hand, as if to
+ake up for such parsi+ony, the eCca&ations ha&e yielded a *ealth of
+aterial for illustrating the conditions of early Babylonian life *hich
pre&ailed in such periods' The +ost fortunate of these periods, so far
as the reco&ery of its records is concerned, is undoubtedly the period
of the e+itic kings of the <irst %ynasty of Babylon, and in particular
the reign of its greatest ruler, Ha++urabi' (hen B' Baspero *rote his
history, thousands of clay tablets, inscribed *ith legal and co++ercial
docu+ents and dated in the reigns of these early kings, had already been
reco&ered, and the infor+ation they furnished *as duly su++ariGed by
hi+'; But since that ti+e t*o other sources of infor+ation ha&e been
+ade a&ailable *hich ha&e largely increased our kno*ledge of
the constitution of the early Babylonian state, its syste+ of
ad+inistration, and the conditions of life of the &arious classes of the
population'
; Bost of these tablets are preser&ed in the British Buseu+'
The principalP*orks in *hich they ha&e been published are
Cuneifor+ TeCts in the British Buseu+ I/9:0, etc'J,
trass+aierDs !ltbabylonischen @ertr[ge aus (arka, and
BeissnerDs Beitr[ge Gu+ altbabylonischen Pri&atrecht' !
nu+ber of si+ilar tablets of this period, preser&ed in the
Pennsyl&ania Buseu+, *ill shortly be published by %r' $anke'
One of these ne* sources of infor+ation consists of a re+arkable series
of royal letters, *ritten by kings of the <irst %ynasty, *hich has been
reco&ered and is no* preser&ed in the British Buseu+' The letters *ere
addressed to the go&ernors and high officials of &arious great cities in
Babylonia, and they contain the kingDs orders *ith regard to details of
the ad+inistration of the country *hich had been brought to his notice'
The range of subjects *ith *hich they deal is enor+ous, and there is
scarcely one of the+ *hich does not add to our kno*ledge of the period';
The other ne* source of infor+ation is the great code of la*s, dra*n up
by Ha++urabi for the guidance of his people and defining the duties and
pri&ileges of all classes of his subjects, the disco&ery of *hich at
usa has been described in a pre&ious chapter' The la*s are engra&ed on
a great stele of diorite in no less than forty-nine colu+ns of *riting,
of *hich forty-four are preser&ed,; and at the head of the stele is
sculptured a representation of the king recei&ing the+ fro+ ha+ash, the
un-god'
; ee )ing, #etters and "nscriptions of Ha++urabi, 7 &ols'
I/9:9-/:22J'
This code sho*s to *hat an eCtent the ad+inistration of la* and justice
had been de&eloped in Babylonia in the ti+e of the <irst %ynasty' <ro+
the contracts and letters of the period *e already kne* that regular
judges and duly appointed courts of la* *ere in eCistence, and the code
itself *as e&idently intended by the king to gi&e the royal sanction to
a great body of legal decisions and enact+ents *hich already possessed
the authority conferred by custo+ and tradition' The +eans by *hich such
a code could ha&e co+e into eCistence are illustrated by the syste+ of
procedure adopted in the courts at this period' !fter a case had been
heard and judg+ent had been gi&en, a su++ary of the case and of the
e&idence, together *ith the judg+ent, *as dra*n up and *ritten out on
tablets in due legal for+ and phraseology' ! list of the *itnesses *as
appended, and, after the tablet had been dated and sealed, it *as stored
a*ay a+ong the legal archi&es of the court, *here it *as ready for
production in the e&ent of any future appeal or case in *hich the
recorded decision *as in&ol&ed' This procedure represents an ad&anced
stage in the syste+ of judicial ad+inistration, but the care *hich
*as taken for the preser&ation of the judg+ents gi&en *as e&idently
traditional, and *ould naturally gi&e rise in course of ti+e to the
eCistence of a recogniGed code of la*s'
Boreo&er, *hen once a judg+ent had been gi&en and had been duly recorded
it *as irre&ocable, and if any judge atte+pted to alter such a decision
he *as se&erely punished' <or not only *as he eCpelled fro+ his
judg+ent-seat, and debarred fro+ eCercising judicial functions in the
future, but, if his judg+ent had in&ol&ed the infliction of a penalty,
he *as obliged to pay t*el&e ti+es the a+ount to the +an he had
conde+ned' uch an enact+ent +ust ha&e occasionally gi&en rise to
hardship or injustice, but at least it +ust ha&e had the effect
of i+buing the judges *ith a sense of their responsibility and of
instilling a respect for their decisions in the +inds of the people' !
further check upon injustice *as pro&ided by the custo+ of the elders of
the city, *ho sat *ith the judge and assisted hi+ in the carrying out
of his dutiesK and it *as al*ays open to a +an, if he belie&ed that he
could not get justice enforced, to +ake an appeal to the king' "t is not
our present purpose to gi&e a technical discussion of the legal contents
of the code, but rather to eCa+ine it *ith the object of ascertaining
*hat light it thro*s upon ancient Babylonian life and custo+s, and the
conditions under *hich the people li&ed'
The code gi&es a good deal of infor+ation *ith regard to the fa+ily life
of the Babylonians, and, abo&e all, pro&es the sanctity *ith *hich the
+arriage-tie *as in&ested' The clai+s that *ere in&ol&ed by +arriage
*ere not lightly undertaken' !ny +arriage, to be legally binding, had to
be acco+panied by a duly eCecuted and attested +arriage-contract' "f a
+an had taken a *o+an to *ife *ithout ha&ing carried out this necessary
preli+inary, the *o+an *as not regarded as his *ife in the legal sense'
On the other hand, *hen once such a +arriage-contract had been dra*n up,
its in&iolability *as stringently secured' ! case of pro&ed adultery
on the part of a +anDs *ife *as punished by the dro*ning of the guilty
parties, though the husband of the *o+an, if he *ished to sa&e his *ife,
could do so by an appeal to the king' i+ilarly, death *as the penalty
for a +an *ho ra&ished another +anDs betrothed *ife *hile she *as still
li&ing in her fatherDs house, but in this case the girlDs innocence
and ineCperience *ere taken into account, and no penalty *as enforced
against her and she *as allo*ed to go free' (here the adultery of a *ife
*as not pro&ed, and only depended on the accusation of the husband, the
*o+an could clear herself by s*earing her o*n innocenceK if, ho*e&er,
the accusation *as not brought by the husband hi+self, but by others,
the *o+an could clear herself by sub+itting to the ordeal by *aterK that
is to say, she *ould plunge into the EuphratesK if the ri&er carried her
a*ay and she *ere dro*ned, it *as regarded as proof that the accusation
*as *ell foundedK if, on the contrary, she sur&i&ed and got safely
to the bank, she *as considered innocent and *as forth*ith allo*ed to
return to her household co+pletely &indicated'
"t *ill ha&e been seen that the duty of chastity on the part of a
+arried *o+an *as strictly enforced, but the husbandDs responsibility to
properly +aintain his *ife *as also recogniGed, and in the e&ent of
his desertion she could under certain circu+stances beco+e the *ife of
another +an' Thus, if he left his city and fled fro+ it of his o*n free
*ill and deserted his *ife, he could not reclai+ her on his return,
since he had not been forced to lea&e the city, but had done so because
he hated it' This rule did not apply to the case of a +an *ho *as taken
capti&e in battle' "n such circu+stances the *ifeDs action *as to be
guided by the condition of her husbandDs affairs' "f the capti&e husband
possessed sufficient property on *hich his *ife could be +aintained
during his capti&ity in a strange land, she had no reason nor eCcuse
for seeking another +arriage' "f under these circu+stances she beca+e
another +anDs *ife, she *as to be prosecuted at la*, and, her action
being the eAui&alent of adultery, she *as to be dro*ned' But the case
*as regarded as altered if the capti&e husband had not sufficient +eans
for the +aintenance of his *ife during his absence' The *o+an *ould then
be thro*n on her o*n resources, and if she beca+e the *ife of another
+an she incurred no bla+e' On the return of the capti&e he could reclai+
his *ife, but the children of the second +arriage *ould re+ain *ith
their o*n father' These regulations for the conduct of a *o+an, *hose
husband *as captured in battle, gi&e an inti+ate picture of the +anner
in *hich the constant *ars of this early period affected the li&es of
those *ho took part in the+'
>nder the Babylonians at the period of the <irst %ynasty di&orce *as
strictly regulated, though it *as far easier for the +an to obtain one
than for the *o+an' "f *e +ay regard the copies of u+erian la*s, *hich
ha&e co+e do*n to us fro+ the late !ssyrian period, as parts of the code
in use under the early u+erians, *e +ust conclude that at this earlier
period the la* *as still +ore in fa&our of the husband, *ho could
di&orce his *ife *hene&er he so desired, +erely paying her half a +ana
as co+pensation' >nder the u+erians the *ife could not obtain a
di&orce at all, and the penalty for denying her husband *as death' These
regulations *ere +odified in fa&our of the *o+an in Ha++urabiDs codeK
for under its pro&isions, if a +an di&orced his *ife or his concubine,
he *as obliged to +ake proper pro&ision for her +aintenance' (hether
she *ere barren or had borne hi+ children, he *as obliged to return
her +arriage portionK and in the latter case she had the custody of the
children, for *hose +aintenance and education he *as obliged to furnish
the necessary supplies' Boreo&er, at the +anDs death she and her
children *ould inherit a share of his property' (hen there had been no
+arriage portion, a su+ *as fiCed *hich the husband *as obliged to pay
to his di&orced *ife, according to his status' "n cases *here the *ife
*as pro&ed to ha&e *asted her household and to ha&e entirely failed in
her duty, her husband could di&orce her *ithout paying any co+pensation,
or could +ake her a sla&e in his house, and the eCtre+e penalty for
this offence *as death' On the other hand, a *o+an could not be di&orced
because she had contracted a per+anent diseaseK and, if she desired to
di&orce her husband and could pro&e that her past life had been see+ly,
she could do so, returning to her fatherDs house and taking her +arriage
portion *ith her'
"t is not necessary here to go &ery +inutely into the regulations gi&en
by the code *ith regard to +arriage portions, the rights of *ido*s,
the la*s of inheritance, and the la*s regulating the adoption and
+aintenance of children' The custo+s that already ha&e been described
*ith regard to +arriage and di&orce +ay ser&e to indicate the spirit
in *hich the code is dra*n up and the recogniGed status occupied by the
*ife in the Babylonian household' The eCtre+ely independent position
enjoyed by *o+en in the early Babylonian days is illustrated by the
eCistence of a special class of *o+en, to *hich constant reference is
+ade in the contracts and letters of the period' (hen the eCistence of
this class of *o+en *as first recogniGed fro+ the references to the+ in
the contract-tablets inscribed at the ti+e of the <irst %ynasty, they
*ere regarded as priestesses, but the regulations concerning the+ *hich
occur in the code of Ha++urabi pro&e that their duties *ere not strictly
sacerdotal, but that they occupied the position of &otaries' The
+ajority of those referred to in the inscriptions of this period
*ere &o*ed to the ser&ice of E-bab-bara, the te+ple of the un-god at
ippara, and of E-sagila, the great te+ple of Barduk at Babylon, but
it is probable that all the great te+ples in the country had classes of
fe+ale &otaries attached to the+' <ro+ the e&idence at present
a&ailable it +ay be concluded that the functions of these *o+en bore no
rese+blance to that of the sacred prostitutes de&oted to the ser&ice of
the goddess "shtar in the city of Erech' They see+ to ha&e occupied a
position of great influence and independence in the co++unity, and
their duties and pri&ileges *ere defined and safeguarded by special
legislation'
Generally they li&ed together in a special building, or con&ent,
attached to the te+ple, but they had considerable freedo+ and could
lea&e the con&ent and also contract +arriage' Their &o*s, ho*e&er,
*hile securing the+ special pri&ileges, entailed corresponding
responsibilities' E&en *hen +arried a &otary *as still obliged to re+ain
a &irgin, and, should her husband desire to ha&e children, she could not
bear the+ herself, but +ust pro&ide hi+ *ith a +aid or concubine' !lso
she had to +aintain a high standard of +oral conduct, for any breach
of *hich se&ere penalties *ere enforced' Thus, if a &otary *ho *as not
li&ing in the con&ent opened a beer-shop, or should enter one for drink,
she ran the risk of being put to death' But the pri&ileges she enjoyed
*ere also considerable, for e&en *hen un+arried she enjoyed the status
of a +arried *o+an, and if any +an slandered her he incurred the penalty
of branding on the forehead' Boreo&er, a +arried &otary, though she
could not bear her husband children, *as secured in her position as the
per+anent head of his household' The concubine she +ight gi&e to her
husband *as al*ays the *ifeDs inferior, e&en after bearing hi+ children,
and should the for+er atte+pt to put herself on a le&el of eAuality *ith
the &otary, the latter +ight brand her as a sla&e and put her *ith the
fe+ale sla&es' "f the concubine pro&ed barren she could be sold' The
&otary could also possess property, and on taking her &o*s *as pro&ided
*ith a portion by her father eCactly as though she *ere being gi&en
in +arriage' Her portion *as &ested in herself and did not beco+e the
property of the order of &otaries, nor of the te+ple to *hich she
*as attached' The proceeds of her property *ere de&oted to her o*n
+aintenance, and on her fatherDs death her brothers looked after
her interests, or she +ight far+ the property out' >nder certain
circu+stances she could inherit property and *as not obliged to pay
taCes on it, and such property she could beAueath at her o*n deathK but
upon her death her portion returned to her o*n fa+ily unless her father
had assigned her the pri&ilege of beAueathing it' That the social
position enjoyed by a &otary *as considerable is pro&ed by the fact that
+any *o+en of good fa+ily, and e&en +e+bers of the royal house, took
&o*s' The eCistence of the order and its high repute indicate a
&ery ad&anced conception of the position of *o+en a+ong the early
Babylonians'
<ro+ the code of Ha++urabi *e also gather considerable infor+ation *ith
regard to the &arious classes of *hich the co++unity *as co+posed and
to their relati&e social positions' <or the purposes of legislation
the co++unity *as di&ided into three +ain classes or sections, *hich
corresponded to *ell-defined strata in the social syste+' The lo*est
of these classes consisted of the sla&es, *ho +ust ha&e for+ed a
considerable portion of the population' The class neCt abo&e the+
co+prised the large body of free +en, *ho *ere possessed of a certain
a+ount of property but *ere poor and hu+ble, as their na+e, F+uslikNnuF,
i+plied' These *e +ay refer to as the +iddle class' The highest, or
upper class, in the Babylonian co++unity e+braced all the officers and
+inisters attached to the court, the higher officials and ser&ants
of the state, and the o*ners of considerable lands and estates' The
differences *hich di&ided and +arked off fro+ one another the t*o great
classes of free +en in the population of Babylonia is *ell illustrated
by the scale of pay+ents as co+pensation for injury *hich they *ere
obliged to +ake or *ere entitled to recei&e' Thus, if a +e+ber of the
upper class *ere guilty of stealing an oC, or a sheep, or an ass, or
a pig, or a boat, fro+ a te+ple or a pri&ate house, he had to pay the
o*ner thirty ti+es its &alue as co+pensation, *hereas if the thief *ere
a +e+ber of the +iddle class he only had to pay ten ti+es its price, but
if he had no property and so could not pay co+pensation he *as put to
death' The penalty for +anslaughter *as less if the assailant *as a +an
of the +iddle class, and such a +an could also di&orce his *ife +ore
cheaply, and *as pri&ileged to pay his doctor or surgeon a s+aller fee
for a successful operation'
But the pri&ileges enjoyed by a +an of the +iddle class *ere
counterbalanced by a corresponding di+inution of the &alue at *hich
his life and li+bs *ere assessed' Thus, if a doctor by carrying out an
operation unskilfully caused the death of a +e+ber of the upper class,
or inflicted a serious injury upon hi+, such as the loss of an eye, the
punish+ent *as the a+putation of both hands, but no such penalty see+s
to ha&e been eCacted if the patient *ere a +e+ber of the +iddle class'
"f, ho*e&er, the patient *ere a sla&e of a +e+ber of the +iddle class,
in the e&ent of death under the operation, the doctor had to gi&e the
o*ner another sla&e, and in the e&ent of the sla&e losing his eye, he
had to pay the o*ner half the sla&eDs &alue' Penalties for assault *ere
also regulated in accordance *ith the social position and standing
of the parties to the Auarrel' Thus, if one +e+ber of the upper class
knocked out the eye or the tooth of one of his eAuals, his o*n eye or
his o*n tooth *as knocked out as a punish+ent, and if he broke the li+b
of one of the +e+bers of his o*n class, he had his corresponding li+b
brokenK but if he knocked out the eye of a +e+ber of the +iddle class,
or broke his li+b, he suffered no punish+ent in his o*n person, but *as
fined one +ana of sil&er, and for knocking out the tooth of such a +an
he *as fined one-third of a +ana' "f t*o +e+bers of the sa+e class *ere
engaged in a Auarrel, and one of the+ +ade a peculiarly i+proper assault
upon the other, the assailant *as only fined, the fine being larger
if the Auarrel *as bet*een +e+bers of the upper class' But if such an
assault *as +ade by one +an upon another *ho *as of higher rank than
hi+self, the assailant *as punished by being publicly beaten in the
presence of the asse+bly, *hen he recei&ed siCty stripes fro+ a scourge
of oC-hide' These regulations sho* the pri&ileges and responsibilities
*hich pertained to the t*o classes of free +en in the Babylonian
co++unity, and they indicate the relati&e social positions *hich they
enjoyed'
Both classes of free +en could o*n sla&es, though it is ob&ious that
they *ere +ore nu+erous in the households and on the estates of +e+bers
of the upper class' The sla&e *as the absolute property of his +aster
and could be bought and sold and e+ployed as a deposit for a debt,
but, though sla&es as a class had fe* rights of their o*n, in certain
circu+stances they could acAuire the+' Thus, if the o*ner of a fe+ale
sla&e had begotten children by her he could not use her as the pay+ent
for a debt, and in the e&ent of his ha&ing done so he *as obliged to
ranso+ her by paying the original a+ount of the debt in +oney' "t *as
also possible for a +ale sla&e, *hether o*ned by a +e+ber of the upper
or of the +iddle class, to +arry a free *o+an, and if he did so, his
children *ere free and did not beco+e the property of his +aster' !lso,
if the free *o+an *ho+ the sla&e +arried brought *ith her a +arriage
portion fro+ her fatherDs house, this re+ained her o*n property on the
sla&eDs death, and supposing the couple had acAuired other property
during the ti+e they li&ed together as +an and *ife, the o*ner of the
sla&e could only clai+ half of such property, the other half being
retained by the free *o+an for her o*n use and for that of her children'
Generally speaking, the lot of the sla&e *as not a particularly hard
one, for he *as a recogniGed +e+ber of his o*nerDs household, and, as a
&aluable piece of property, it *as ob&iously to his o*nerDs interest to
keep hi+ healthy and in good condition' "n fact, the &alue of the sla&e
is attested by the se&erity of the penalty i+posed for abducting a +ale
or fe+ale sla&e fro+ the o*nerDs house and re+o&ing hi+ or her fro+
the cityK for a +an guilty of this offence *as put to death' The sa+e
penalty *as i+posed for harbouring and taking possession of a runa*ay
sla&e, *hereas a fiCed re*ard *as paid by the o*ner to any one by *ho+
a runa*ay sla&e *as captured and brought back' pecial legislation *as
also de&ised *ith the object of rendering the theft of sla&es difficult
and their detection easy' Thus, if a brander put a +ark upon a sla&e
*ithout the o*nerDs consent, he *as liable to ha&e his hands cut off,
and if he could pro&e that he did so through being decei&ed by another
+an, that +an *as put to death' <or bad offences sla&es *ere liable to
se&ere punish+ents, such as cutting off the ear, *hich *as the penalty
for denying his +aster, and also for +aking an aggra&ated assault on a
+e+ber of the upper class of free +en' But it is clear that on the *hole
the sla&e *as *ell looked after' He *as also not conde+ned to re+ain
perpetually a sla&e, for *hile still in his +asterDs ser&ice it *as
possible for hi+, under certain conditions, to acAuire property of his
o*n, and if he did so he *as able *ith his +asterDs consent to purchase
his freedo+' "f a sla&e *ere captured by the ene+y and taken to a
foreign land and sold, and *ere then brought back by his ne* o*ner to
his o*n country, he could clai+ his liberty *ithout ha&ing to pay any
purchase-+oney to either of his +asters'
The code of Ha++urabi also contains detailed regulations concerning the
duties of debtors and creditors, and it thro*s an interesting light
on the co++ercial life of the Babylonians at this early period' <or
instance, it re&eals the +ethod by *hich a *ealthy +an, or a +erchant,
eCtended his business and obtained large profits by trading *ith other
to*ns' This he did by e+ploying agents *ho *ere under certain fiCed
obligations to hi+, but acted independently so far as their trading *as
concerned' <ro+ the +erchant these agents *ould recei&e +oney or grain
or *ool or oil or any sort of goods *here*ith to trade, and in return
they paid a fiCed share of their profits, retaining the re+ainder as
the reco+pense for their o*n ser&ices' They *ere thus the earliest of
co++ercial tra&ellers' "n order to pre&ent fraud bet*een the +erchant
and the agent special regulations *ere fra+ed for the dealings they had
*ith one another' Thus, *hen the agent recei&ed fro+ the +erchant the
+oney or goods to trade *ith, it *as enacted that he should at the ti+e
of the transaction gi&e a properly eCecuted receipt for the a+ount he
had recei&ed' i+ilarly, if the agent ga&e the +erchant +oney in return
for the goods he had recei&ed and in token of his good faith, the
+erchant had to gi&e a receipt to the agent, and in reckoning their
accounts after the agentDs return fro+ his journey, only such a+ounts as
*ere specified in the receipts *ere to be regarded as legal obligations'
"f the agent forgot to obtain his proper receipt he did so at his o*n
risk'
4"llustration. 192'jpg C#!, CO?T$!CT T!B#ET !?% "T O>TE$ C!E8
%ating fro+ the period of the <irst %ynasty of Babylon'
Tra&elling at this period *as attended *ith so+e risk, as it is in the
East at the present day, and the cara&an *ith *hich an agent tra&elled
*as liable to attack fro+ brigands, or it +ight be captured by ene+ies
of the country fro+ *hich it set out' "t *as right that loss fro+ this
cause should not be borne by the agent, *ho by trading *ith the goods
*as risking his o*n life, but should fall upon the +erchant *ho had
+erely ad&anced the goods and *as safe in his o*n city' "t is plain,
ho*e&er, that disputes freAuently arose in conseAuence of the loss of
goods through a cara&an being attacked and robbed, for the code states
clearly the responsibility of the +erchant in the +atter' "f in the
course of his journey an ene+y had forced the agent to gi&e up so+e of
the goods he *as carrying, on his return the agent had to specify the
a+ount on oath, and he *as then acAuitted of all responsibility in the
+atter' "f he atte+pted to cheat his e+ployer by +isappropriating the
+oney or goods ad&anced to hi+, on being con&icted of the offence before
the elders of the city, he *as obliged to repay the +erchant three ti+es
the a+ount he had taken' On the other hand, if the +erchant atte+pted
to defraud his agent by denying that the due a+ount had been returned to
hi+, he *as obliged on con&iction to pay the agent siC ti+es the a+ount
as co+pensation' "t *ill thus be seen that the la* sought to protect the
agent fro+ the risk of being robbed by his +ore po*erful e+ployer'
The +erchant so+eti+es furnished the agent *ith goods *hich he *as to
dispose of in the best +arkets he could find in the cities and to*ns
along his route, and so+eti+es he *ould gi&e the agent +oney *ith *hich
to purchase goods in foreign cities for sale on his return' "f the
&enture pro&ed successful the +erchant and his agent shared the profits
bet*een the+, but if the agent +ade bad bargains he had to refund to the
+erchant the &alue of the goods he had recei&edK if the +erchant had not
agreed to risk losing any profit, the a+ount to be refunded to hi+ *as
fiCed at double the &alue of the goods ad&anced'
4"llustration. 191'jpg ! T$!C) "? THE %EE$T'8
This last enact+ent gi&es an indication of the i++ense profits *hich
*ere obtained by both the +erchant and the agent fro+ this syste+ of
foreign trade, for it is clear that *hat *as regarded fair profit for
the +erchant *as double the &alue of the goods disposed of' The profits
of a successful journey *ould also include a fair return to the agent
for the trouble and ti+e in&ol&ed in his undertaking' Bany of the
contract tablets of this early period relate to such co++ercial
journeys, *hich sho* that &arious bargains *ere +ade bet*een the
different parties interested, and so+eti+es such contracts, or
partnerships, *ere entered into, not for a single journey only, but for
long periods' (e +ay therefore conclude that at the ti+e of the <irst
%ynasty of Babylon, and probably for long centuries before that period,
the great trade-routes of the East *ere cro*ded *ith traffic' (ith the
eCception that donkeys and asses *ere e+ployed for beasts of burden and
*ere not supple+ented by horses and ca+els until a +uch later period, a
ca+ping-ground in the desert on one of the great trade-routes +ust ha&e
presented a scene si+ilar to that of a cara&an ca+ping in the desert at
the present day'
4"llustration. 197'jpg ! C!BP"?G-G$O>?% "? THE %EE$T, BET(EE?
B"$E=")
!?% >$<!'8
The rough tracks beaten by the feet of +en and beasts are the sa+e
to-day as they *ere in that re+ote period' (e can i+agine a body of
these early tra&ellers approaching a *alled city at dusk and hastening
their pace to get there before the gates *ere shut' uch a picture as
that of the approach to the city of a+arra, *ith its +ediae&al *alls,
+ay be taken as ha&ing had its counterpart in +any a city of the early
Babylonians' The cara&an route leads through the desert to the city
gate, and if *e substitute t*o +assi&e te+ple to*ers for the do+es of
the +osAues that rise abo&e the *all, little else in the picture need be
changed'
4"llustration. 19R'jpg !PP$O!CH TO THE C"T, O< !B!$$!, "T>!TE% O?
THE
#E<T B!?) O< THE T"G$"'8
! s+all cara&an is here seen approaching the city at sunset
before the gates are shut' a+arra *as only founded in !' %'
97R, by the )halif el-Botasi+, the son of HarWn er-$ashZd,
but custo+s in the East do not change, and the photograph
+ay be used to illustrate the approach of an early
Babylonian cara&an to a *alled city of the period'
The houses, too, at this period +ust ha&e rese+bled the structures of
unburnt brick of the present day, *ith their flat +ud tops, on *hich
the in+ates sleep at night during the hot season, supported on poles
and brush*ood' The code furnishes e&idence that at that ti+e, also, the
houses *ere not particularly *ell built and *ere liable to fall, and,
in the e&ent of their doing so, it &ery justly fiCes the responsibility
upon the builder' "t is clear fro+ the penalties for bad *ork+anship
enforced upon the builder that considerable abuses had eCisted in the
trade before the ti+e of Ha++urabi, and it is not i+probable that the
enforce+ent of the penalties succeeded in sta+ping the+ out' Thus, if
a builder built a house for a +an, and his *ork *as not sound and the
house fell and crushed the o*ner so that he died, it *as enacted that
the builder hi+self should be put to death' "f the fall of the house
killed the o*nerDs son, the builderDs o*n son *as to be put to death'
4"llustration. 193'jpg ! B!## C!$!@!? "? THE BO>?T!"? O<
)>$%"T!?'8
"f one or +ore of the o*nerDs sla&es *ere killed, the builder had to
restore hi+ sla&e for sla&e' !ny da+age *hich the o*nerDs goods +ight
ha&e suffered fro+ the fall of the house *as to be +ade good by the
builder' "n addition to these penalties the builder *as obliged to
rebuild the house, or any portion of it that had fallen through
not being properly secured, at his o*n cost' On the other hand, due
pro&isions *ere +ade for the pay+ent of the builder for sound *orkK and
as the houses of the period rarely, if e&er, consisted of +ore than one
story, the scale of pay+ent *as fiCed by the area of ground co&ered by
the building'
4"llustration. 190'jpg THE C"T, O< BO>#'8
ituated on the right bank of the Tigris opposite the +ounds
*hich +ark the site of the ancient city of ?ine&eh' The
flat-roof ednouses *hich +ay be distinguished in the
photograph are &ery si+ilar in for+ and construction to
those e+ployed by the ancient !ssyrians and Babylonians'
<ro+ the code of Ha++urabi *e also gain considerable infor+ation *ith
regard to agricultural pursuits in ancient Babylonia, for elaborate
regulations are gi&en concerning the lando*nerDs duties and
responsibilities, and his relations to his tenants' The usual practice
in hiring land for culti&ation *as for the tenant to pay his rent in
kind, by assigning a certain proportion of the crop, generally a third
or a half, to the o*ner' "f a tenant hired certain land for culti&ation
he *as bound to till it and raise a crop, and should he neglect to do
so he had to pay the o*ner *hat *as reckoned as the a&erage rent of the
land, and he had also to break up the land and plough it before handing
it back' !s the rent of a field *as usually reckoned at har&est, and its
a+ount depended on the siGe of the crop, it *as only fair that da+age to
the crop fro+ flood or stor+ should not be +ade up by the tenantK thus
it *as enacted by the code that any loss fro+ such a cause should be
shared eAually by the o*ner of the field and the far+er, though if the
latter had already paid his rent at the ti+e the da+age occurred he
could not +ake a clai+ for repay+ent'
4"llustration. 196'jpg THE @"##!GE O< ?EB" ,>?>'8
Built on one of the +ounds +arking the site of the !ssyrian
city of ?ine&eh' The +osAue in the photograph is built o&er
the traditional site of the prophet =onahDs to+b' The flat-
roofed houses of the +odern d*ellers on the +ound can be
*ell seen in the picture'
"t is clear fro+ the enact+ents of the code that disputes *ere freAuent,
not only bet*een far+ers and lando*ners, but also bet*een far+ers and
shepherds' "t is certain that the latter, in the atte+pt to find pasture
for the flocks, often allo*ed their sheep to feed off the far+ersD fields
in the spring' This practice the code set itself to pre&ent by fiCing a
scale of co+pensation to be paid by any shepherd *ho caused his sheep to
graGe on culti&ated land *ithout the o*nerDs consent' "f the offence *as
co++itted in the early spring, *hen the crop *as still s+all, the far+er
*as to har&est the crop and recei&e a considerable price in kind as
co+pensation for the shepherd' But if it occurred later on in the
spring, *hen the sheep had been brought in fro+ the +eado*s and turned
into the great co++on field at the city gate, the offence *ould less
probably be due to accident and the da+age to the crop *ould be greater'
"n these circu+stances the shepherd had to take o&er the crop and pay
the far+er &ery hea&ily for his loss'
4"llustration. 199'jpg Portrait-sculpture of Ha++urabi, )ing of Babylon8
<ro+ a stone slab in the British Buseu+'
The planting of gardens and orchards *as encouraged, and a +an *as
allo*ed to use a field for this purpose *ithout paying a yearly rent' He
+ight plant it and tend it for four years, and in the fifth year of
his tenancy the original o*ner of the field took half of the garden
in pay+ent, *hile the other half the planter of the garden kept for
hi+self' "f a bare patch had been left in the garden it *as to be
reckoned in the planterDs half' $egulations *ere fra+ed to ensure the
proper carrying out of the planting, for if the tenant neglected to do
this during the first four years, he *as still liable to plant the plot
he had taken *ithout recei&ing his half, and he had to pay the o*ner
co+pensation in addition, *hich &aried in a+ount according to the
original condition of the land' "f a +an hired a garden, the rent he
paid to the o*ner *as fiCed at t*o-thirds of its produce' %etailed
regulations are also gi&en in the code concerning the hire of cattle
and asses, and the co+pensation to be paid to the o*ner for the loss or
ill-treat+ent of his beasts' These are fra+ed on the just principle that
the hirer *as responsible only for da+age or loss *hich he could ha&e
reasonably pre&ented' Thus, if a lion killed a hired oC or ass in the
open country, or if an oC *as killed by lightning, the loss fell upon
the o*ner and not on the +an *ho hired the beast' But if the hirer
killed the oC through carelessness or by beating it un+ercifully, or if
the beast broke its leg *hile in his charge, he had to restore another
oC to the o*ner in place of the one he had hired' <or lesser da+ages to
the beast the hirer had to pay co+pensation on a fiCed scale' Thus, if
the oC had its eye knocked out during the period of its hire, the +an
*ho hired it had to pay to the o*ner half its &alueK *hile for a broken
horn, the loss of the tail, or a torn +uGGle, he paid a Auarter of the
&alue of the beast'
<ines *ere also le&ied for carelessness in looking after cattle, though
in cases of da+age or injury, *here carelessness could not be pro&ed,
the o*ner of a beast *as not held responsible' ! bull +ight go *ild at
any ti+e and gore a +an, ho*e&er careful and conscientious the o*ner
+ight be, and in these circu+stances the injured +an could not bring an
action against the o*ner' But if a bull had already gored a +an, and,
although it *as kno*n to be &icious, the o*ner had not blunted its horns
or shut it up, in the e&ent of its goring and killing a free +an, he had
to pay half a +ana of sil&er' One-third of a +ana *as the price paid for
a sla&e *ho *as killed' ! landed proprietor *ho +ight hire far+ers to
culti&ate his fields inflicted se&ere fines for acts of dishonesty *ith
regard to the cattle, pro&ender, or seed-corn co++itted to their charge'
"f a +an stole the pro&ender for the cattle he had to +ake it good, and
he *as also liable to the punish+ent of ha&ing his hands cut off' "n
the e&ent of his being con&icted of letting out the oCen for hire, or
stealing the seed-corn so that he did not produce a crop, he had to pay
&ery hea&y co+pensation, and, if he could not pay, he *as liable to be
torn to pieces by the oCen in the field he should ha&e culti&ated'
"n a dry land like Babylonia, *here little rain falls and that in only
one season of the year, the irrigation of his fields for+s one of the
+ost i+portant duties of the agriculturist' The far+er leads the *ater
to his fields along s+all irrigation-canals or channels abo&e the le&el
of the soil, their sides being for+ed of banks of earth' "t is clear
that si+ilar +ethods *ere e+ployed by the early Babylonians' One such
channel +ight supply the fields of se&eral far+ers, and it *as the duty
of each +an through *hose land the channel flo*ed to keep its banks on
his land in repair' "f he o+itted to strengthen his bank or dyke, and
the *ater forced a breach and flooded his neighbourDs field, he had to
pay co+pensation in kind for any crop that *as ruinedK *hile if he could
not pay, he and his goods *ere sold, and his neighbours, *hose fields
had been da+aged through his carelessness, shared the +oney'
The land of Babylonian far+ers *as prepared for irrigation before it *as
so*n by being di&ided into a nu+ber of s+all sAuare or oblong tracts,
each separated fro+ the others by a lo* bank of earth, the seed being
after*ards so*n *ithin the s+all sAuares or patches' o+e of the banks
running length*ise through the field *ere +ade into s+all channels, the
ends of *hich *ere carried up to the bank of the nearest +ain irrigation
canal' ?o syste+ of gates or sluices *as e+ployed, and *hen the far+er
*ished to *ater one of his fields he si+ply broke a*ay the bank opposite
one of his s+all channels and let the *ater flo* into it' He *ould let
the *ater run along this s+all channel until it reached the part of
his land he *ished to *ater' He then blocked the channel *ith a little
earth, at the sa+e ti+e breaking do*n its bank so that the *ater flo*ed
o&er one of the s+all sAuares and thoroughly soaked it' (hen this sAuare
*as finished he filled up the bank and repeated the process for the
neCt sAuare, and so on until he had *atered the necessary portion of
the field' (hen this *as finished he returned to the +ain channel and
stopped the flo* of the *ater by blocking up the hole he had +ade in the
dyke' The *hole process *as, and to-day still is, eCtre+ely si+ple,
but it needs care and &igilance, especially in the case of eCtensi&e
irrigation *hen *ater is being carried into se&eral parts of an estate
at once' "t *ill be ob&ious that any carelessness on the part of the
irrigator in not shutting off the *ater in ti+e +ay lead to eCtensi&e
da+age, not only to his o*n fields, but to those of his neighbours' "n
the early Babylonian period, if a far+er left the *ater running in his
channel, and it flooded his neighbourDs field and hurt his crop, he had
to pay co+pensation according to the a+ount of da+age done'
"t *as stated abo&e that the irrigation-canals and little channels *ere
+ade abo&e the le&el of the soil so that the *ater could at any point
be tapped and allo*ed to flo* o&er the surrounding landK and in a flat
country like Babylonia it *ill be ob&ious that so+e +eans had to be
e+ployed for raising the *ater fro+ its natural le&el to the higher
le&el of the land' !s *e should eCpect, reference is +ade in the
Babylonian inscriptions to irrigation-+achines, and, although their
eCact for+ and construction are not described, they +ust ha&e been &ery
si+ilar to those e+ployed at the present day' The +odern inhabitants of
Besopota+ia e+ploy four sorts of contri&ances for raising the *ater into
their irrigation-channelsK three of these are Auite pri+iti&e, and are
those +ost co++only e+ployed' The +ethod *hich gi&es the least trouble
and *hich is used *here&er the conditions allo* is a pri+iti&e for+ of
*ater-*heel' This can be used only in a ri&er *ith a good current'
The *heel is for+ed of rough boughs and branches nailed together, *ith
spokes joining the outer ri+s to a roughly he*n aCle' ! ro* of rough
earthen*are cups or bottles are tied round the outer ri+ for picking
up the *ater, and a fe* rough paddles are fiCed so that they stick out
beyond the ri+' The *heel is then fiCed in place near the bank of the
ri&er, its aCle resting in pillars of rough +asonry'
4"llustration. 1:7'jpg ! BO%E$? B!CH"?E <O$ "$$"G!T"O? O? THE
E>PH$!TE'8
!s the current turns the *heel, the bottles on the ri+ dip belo* the
surface and are raised up full' !t the top of the *heel is fiCed a
trough +ade by hollo*ing half the trunk of a date-pal+, and into this
the bottles pour their *ater, *hich is conducted fro+ the trough by
+eans of a s+all aAueduct into the irrigation-channel on the bank'
The con&enience of the *ater-*heel *ill be ob&ious, for the *ater is
raised *ithout the labour of +an or beast, and a constant supply is
secured day and night so long as the current is strong enough to turn
the *heel' The *ater can be cut off by blocking the *heel or tying it
up' These *heels are +ost co++on on the Euphrates, and are usually set
up *here there is a slight drop in the ri&er bed and the *ater runs
s*iftly o&er shallo*s' !s the banks are &ery high, the *heels are
necessarily huge contri&ances in order to reach the le&el of the fields,
and their &ery rough construction causes the+ to creak and groan as they
turn *ith the current' "n a con&enient place in the ri&er se&eral of
these are so+eti+es set up side by side, and the noise of their co+bined
creakings can be heard fro+ a great distance' o+e idea of *hat one of
these +achines looks like can be obtained fro+ the illustration' !t Hit
on the Euphrates a line of gigantic *ater-*heels is built across the
ri&er, and the noise they +ake is eCtraordinary'
(here there is no current to turn one of these *heels, or *here the bank
is too high, the *ater +ust be raised by the labour of +an or beast' The
co++onest +ethod, *hich is the one e+ployed generally on the Tigris, is
to raise it in skins, *hich are dra*n up by horses, donkeys, or cattle'
! recess *ith perpendicular sides is cut into the bank, and a *ooden
spindle on *ooden struts is supported horiGontally o&er the recess' !
rope running o&er the spindle is fastened to the skin, *hile the funnel
end of the skin is held up by a second rope, running o&er a lo*er
spindle, until its +outh is opposite the trough into *hich the *ater
is to be poured' The beasts *hich are e+ployed for raising the skin
are fastened to the ends of the ropes, and they get a good purchase for
their pull by being dri&en do*n a short cutting or inclined plane in the
bank' To get a constant flo* of *ater, t*o skins are usually e+ployed,
and as one is dra*n up full the other is let do*n e+pty'
The third pri+iti&e +ethod of raising *ater, *hich is co++oner in Egypt
than in Besopota+ia at the present day, is the FshaddufF, and is *orked
by hand' "t consists of a bea+ supported in the centre, at one end of
*hich is tied a rope *ith a bucket or &essel for raising the *ater, and
at the other end is fiCed a counter*eight'; On an !ssyrian bas-relief
found at )uyunjik are representations of the shadduf in operation,
t*o of the+ being used, the one abo&e the other, to raise the *ater to
successi&e le&els' These *ere probably the contri&ances usually e+ployed
by the early Babylonians for raising the *ater to the le&el of their
fields, and the fact that they *ere light and easily re+o&ed +ust ha&e
+ade the+ te+pting objects to the dishonest far+er' Ha++urabi therefore
fiCed a scale of co+pensation to be paid to the o*ner by a detected
thief, *hich &aried according to the class and &alue of the +achine
he stole' The ri&ers and larger canals of Babylonia *ere used by the
ancient inhabitants not only for the irrigation of their fields, but
also as *ater*ays for the transport of hea&y +aterials' The recently
published letters of Ha++urabi and !bNshuD contain directions for the
transportation of corn, dates, sesa+e seed, and *ood, *hich *ere ordered
to be brought in ships to Babylon, and the code of Ha++urabi refers to
the transportation by *ater of *ool and oil' "t is therefore clear that
at this period considerable use *as +ade of &essels of different siGe
for con&eying supplies in bulk by *ater' The +ethod by *hich the siGe of
such ships and barges *as reckoned *as based on the a+ount of grain
they *ere capable of carrying, and this *as +easured by the FgurF, the
largest +easure of capacity' Thus +ention is +ade in the inscriptions of
&essels of fi&e, ten, fifteen, t*enty, thirty, forty, fifty, siCty, and
se&enty-fi&e gur capacity' ! boat-builderDs fee for building a &essel of
siCty gur *as fiCed at t*o shekels of sil&er, and it *as proportionately
less for boats of s+aller capacity' To ensure that the boat-builder
should not sca+p his *ork, regulations *ere dra*n up to fiC on hi+ the
responsibility for unsound *ork' Thus if a boat-builder *ere e+ployed to
build a &essel, and he put faulty *ork into its construction so that it
de&eloped defects *ithin a year of its being launched, he *as obliged to
strengthen and rebuild it at his o*n eCpense'
; The fourth class of +achine for raising *ater e+ployed in
Besopota+ia at the present day consists of an endless chain
of iron buckets running o&er a *heel' This is geared by
+eans of rough *ooden cogs to a horiGontal *heel, the
spindle of *hich has long poles fiCed to it, to *hich horses
or cattle are harnessed' The beasts go round in a circle and
so turn the +achine' The contri&ance is not so pri+iti&e as
the three described abo&e, and the iron buckets are of
European i+portation'
The hire of a boat+an *as fiCed at siC gur of corn to be paid hi+
yearly, but it is clear that so+e of the larger &essels carried cre*s
co++anded by a chief boat+an, or captain, *hose pay *as probably on
a larger scale' "f a +an let his boat to a boat+an, the latter *as
responsible for losing or sinking it, and he had to replace it' !
boat+an *as also responsible for the safety of his &essel and of any
goods, such as corn, *ool, oil, or dates, *hich he had been hired to
transport, and if they *ere sunk through his carelessness he had to +ake
good the loss' "f he succeeded in refloating the boat after it had been
sunk, he *as only under obligation to pay the o*ner half its &alue in
co+pensation for the da+age it had sustained' "n the case of a collision
bet*een t*o &essels, if one *as at anchor at the ti+e, the o*ner of the
other &essel had to pay co+pensation for the boat that *as sunk and its
cargo, the o*ner of the latter esti+ating on oath the &alue of *hat
had been sunk' Boats *ere also e+ployed as ferries, and they +ust ha&e
rese+bled the pri+iti&e for+ of ferry-boat in use at the present day,
*hich is hea&ily built of huge ti+bers, and e+ployed for transporting
beasts as *ell as +en across a ri&er'
4"llustration. 1:6'jpg )!"), O$ ?!T"@E BO!T O? THE E>PH$!TE !T
B"$E="E'8
E+ployed for ferrying cara&ans across the ri&er'
There is e&idence that under the !ssyrians rafts floated on inflated
skins *ere e+ployed for the transport of hea&y goods, and these ha&e
sur&i&ed in the keleks of the present day' They are specially adapted
for the transportation of hea&y +aterials, for they are carried do*n by
the current, and are kept in the course by +eans of huge s*eeps or oars'
Being for+ed only of logs of *ood and skins, they are not costly, for
*ood is plentiful in the upper reaches of the ri&ers' !t the end of
their journey, after the goods are landed, they are broken up' The *ood
is sold at a profit, and the skins, after being deflated, are packed on
to donkeys to return by cara&an'
4"llustration. 1:9'jpg THE BO%E$? B$"%GE O< BO!T !C$O THE T"G$"
OPPO"TE BO>#'8
"t is not i+probable that such rafts *ere e+ployed on the Tigris and the
Euphrates fro+ the earliest periods of Chaldan history, though boats
*ould ha&e been used on the canals and +ore sluggish *ater*ays'
"n the preceding pages *e ha&e gi&en a sketch of the +ore striking
aspects of early Babylonian life, on *hich light has been thro*n by
recently disco&ered docu+ents belonging to the period of the <irst
%ynasty of Babylon' (e ha&e seen that, in the code of la*s dra*n up
by Ha++urabi, regulations *ere fra+ed for settling disputes and fiCing
responsibilities under al+ost e&ery condition and circu+stance *hich
+ight arise a+ong the inhabitants of the country at that ti+eK and the
Auestion naturally arises as to ho* far the code of la*s *as in actual
operation'
4"llustration. 1::'jpg ! B!## )E#E), O) $!<T, >PO? THE T"G$" !T
B!GH%!%'8
"t is concei&able that the king +ay ha&e held ad+irable con&ictions, but
ha&e been possessed of little po*er to carry the+ out and to see
that his regulations *ere enforced' #uckily, *e ha&e not to depend on
conjecture for settling the Auestion, for Ha++urabiDs o*n letters *hich
are no* preser&ed in the British Buseu+ afford abundant e&idence of the
acti&e control *hich the king eCercised o&er e&ery depart+ent of his
ad+inistration and in e&ery pro&ince of his e+pire' "n the earlier
periods of history, *hen each city li&ed independently of its neighbours
and had its o*n syste+ of go&ern+ent, the need for close and freAuent
co++unication bet*een the+ *as not pressing, but this beca+e apparent
as soon as they *ere *elded together and for+ed parts of an eCtended
e+pire' Thus in the ti+e of argon of !gade, about 7922 B'C', an
eCtensi&e syste+ of royal con&oys *as established bet*een the principal
cities' !t Telloh the late B' de arGec ca+e across nu+bers of lu+ps of
clay bearing the seal i+pressions of argon and of his son ?arV+-in,
*hich had been used as seals and labels upon packages sent fro+ !gade
to hirpurla' "n the ti+e of %ungi, )ing of >r, there *as a constant
interchange of officials bet*een the &arious cities of Babylonia and
Ela+, and during the +ore recent diggings at Telloh there ha&e been
found &ouchers for the supply of food for their sustenance *hen stopping
at hirpurla in the course of their journeys' "n the case of Ha++urabi
*e ha&e reco&ered so+e of the actual letters sent by the king hi+self to
in-idinna+, his local go&ernor in the city of #arsa+, and fro+ the+ *e
gain considerable insight into the principles *hich guided hi+ in the
ad+inistration of his e+pire'
The letters the+sel&es, in their general characteristics, rese+bled the
contract tablets of the period *hich ha&e been already described' They
*ere *ritten on s+all clay tablets oblong in shape, and as they *ere
only three or four inches long they could easily be carried about the
person of the +essenger into *hose charge they *ere deli&ered' !fter the
tablet *as *ritten it *as enclosed in a thin en&elope of clay, ha&ing
been first po*dered *ith dry clay to pre&ent its sticking to the
en&elope' The na+e of the person for *ho+ the letter *as intended *as
*ritten on the outside of the en&elope, and both it and the tablet *ere
baked hard to ensure that they should not be broken on their tra&els'
The recipient of the letter, on its being deli&ered to hi+, broke the
outer en&elope by tapping it sharply, and it then fell a*ay in pieces,
lea&ing the letter and its +essage eCposed' The en&elopes *ere &ery
si+ilar to those in *hich the contract tablets of the period *ere
enclosed, of *hich illustrations ha&e already been gi&en, their only
difference being that the teCt of the tablet *as not repeated on the
en&elope, as *as the case *ith the for+er class of docu+ents'
The royal letters that ha&e been reco&ered thro* little light on
+ilitary affairs and the prosecution of ca+paigns, for, being addressed
to go&ernors of cities and ci&il officials, +ost of the+ deal *ith
+atters affecting the internal ad+inistration of the e+pire' One letter
indeed contains directions concerning the +o&e+ents of t*o hundred
and forty soldiers of Lthe )ingDs Co+panyL *ho had been stationed in
!ssyria, and another letter +entions certain troops *ho *ere Auartered
in the city of >r' ! third deals *ith the supply of clothing and oil
for a section of the Babylonian ar+y, and troops are also +entioned
as ha&ing for+ed the escort for certain goddesses captured fro+ the
Ela+itesK *hile directions are sent to others engaged in a ca+paign upon
the Ela+ite frontier' The letter *hich contains directions for the
safe escort of the captured Ela+ite goddesses, and the one ordering the
return of these sa+e goddesses to their o*n shrines, sho* that
foreign deities, e&en *hen captured fro+ an ene+y, *ere treated by the
Babylonians *ith the sa+e respect and re&erence that *as sho*n by the+
to their o*n gods and goddesses' Ha++urabi ga&e directions in the first
letter for the con&eyance of the goddesses to Babylon *ith all due po+p
and cere+ony, sheep being supplied for sacrifice upon the journey,
and their usual rites being perfor+ed by their o*n te+ple-*o+en and
priestesses' The kingDs &oluntary restoration of the goddesses to their
o*n country +ay ha&e been due to the fact that, after their transference
to Babylon, the ar+y of the Babylonians suffered defeat in Ela+' This
+isfortune *ould naturally ha&e been ascribed by the king and the
priests to the anger of the Ela+ite goddesses at being detained in a
foreign land, and Ha++urabi probably arri&ed at his decision that they
should be escorted back in the hope of once +ore securing &ictory for
the Babylonian ar+s'
The care *hich the king eCercised for the due *orship of his o*n gods
and the proper supply of their te+ples is *ell illustrated fro+ the
letters that ha&e been reco&ered, for he superintended the collection
of the te+ple re&enues, and the herds+en and shepherds attached to the
ser&ice of the gods sent their reports directly to hi+' He also took
care that the obser&ances of religious rites and cere+onies *ere duly
carried out, and on one occasion he postponed the hearing of a la*suit
concerning the title to certain property *hich *as in dispute, as it
*ould ha&e interfered *ith the proper obser&ance of a festi&al in
the city of >r' The plaintiff in the suit *as the chief of the te+ple
bakers, and it *as his duty to superintend the preparation of certain
offerings for the occasion' "n order that he should not ha&e to lea&e
his duties, the king put off the hearing of the case until after the
festi&al had been duly celebrated' The king also eCercised a strict
control o&er the priests the+sel&es, and recei&ed reports fro+ the chief
priests concerning their o*n subordinates, and it is probable that the
royal sanction *as obtained for all the principal appoint+ents' The
guild of soothsayers *as an i+portant religious class at this ti+e,
and they also *ere under the kingDs direct control' ! letter *ritten by
!++iditana, one of the later kings of the <irst %ynasty, to three high
officials of the city of ippar, contains directions *ith regard to
certain duties to be carried out by the soothsayers attached to the
ser&ice of the city, and indicates the nature of their functions'
!++iditana *rote to the officials in Auestion, stating that there *as a
scarcity of corn in the city of hagga, and he therefore ordered the+
to send a supply thither' But before the corn *as brought into the city
they *ere told to consult the soothsayers, *ho *ere to di&ine the future
and ascertain *hether the o+ens *ere fa&ourable' "f they pro&ed to be
so, the corn *as to be brought in' (e +ay conjecture that the king took
this precaution, as he feared the scarcity of corn in hagga *as due
to the anger of so+e local deity or spirit, and that, if this *ere the
case, the bringing in of the corn *ould only lead to fresh troubles'
This danger it *as the duty of the soothsayers to pre&ent'
!nother class of the priesthood, *hich *e +ay infer *as under the kingDs
direct control, *as the astrologers, *hose duty it probably *as to +ake
reports to the king of the conjunctions of the hea&enly bodies, *ith a
&ie* to ascertaining *hether they portended good or e&il to the
state' ?o astrological reports *ritten in this early period ha&e
been reco&ered, but at a later period under the !ssyrian e+pire the
astrologers reported regularly to the king on such +atters, and it is
probable that the practice *as one long established' One of Ha++urabiDs
letters pro&es that the king regulated the calendar, and it is
legiti+ate to suppose that he sought the ad&ice of his astrologers as
to the ti+es *hen intercalary +onths *ere to be inserted' The letter
dealing *ith the calendar *as *ritten to infor+ in-idinna+, the
go&ernor of #arsa+, that an intercalary +onth *as to be inserted' Lince
the year Ii'e' the calendarJ hath a deficiency,L he *rites, Llet the
+onth *hich is no* beginning be registered as a second Elul,L and the
king adds that this insertion of an eCtra +onth *ill not justify any
postpone+ent in the pay+ent of the regular tribute due fro+ the city of
#arsa+, *hich had to be paid a +onth earlier than usual to +ake up for
the +onth that *as inserted' The intercalation of additional +onths
*as due to the fact that the Babylonian +onths *ere lunar, so that the
calendar had to be corrected at inter&als to +ake it correspond to the
solar year'
<ro+ the description already gi&en of the code of la*s dra*n up by
Ha++urabi it *ill ha&e been seen that the king atte+pted to incorporate
and arrange a set of regulations *hich should settle any dispute likely
to arise *ith regard to the duties and pri&ileges of all classes of
his subjects' That this code *as not a dead letter, but *as acti&ely
ad+inistered, is abundantly pro&ed by +any of the letters of Ha++urabi
*hich ha&e been reco&ered' <ro+ these *e learn that the king took a &ery
acti&e part in the ad+inistration of justice in the country, and that he
eCercised a strict super&ision, not only o&er the cases decided in the
capital, but also o&er those *hich *ere tried in the other great cities
and to*ns of Babylonia' !ny pri&ate citiGen *as entitled to +ake a
direct appeal to the king for justice, if he thought he could not obtain
it in his local court, and it is clear fro+ Ha++urabiDs letters that he
al*ays listened to such an appeal and ga&e it adeAuate consideration'
The king *as anCious to sta+p out all corruption on the part of those
*ho *ere in&ested *ith authority, and he had no +ercy on any of his
officers *ho *ere con&icted of taking bribes' On one occasion *hen he
had been infor+ed of a case of bribery in the city of %Wr-gurgurri, he
at once ordered the go&ernor of the district in *hich %Wr-gurgurri lay
to in&estigate the charge and send to Babylon those *ho *ere pro&ed to
be guilty, that they +ight be punished' He also ordered that the bribe
should be confiscated and despatched to Babylon under seal, a *ise
pro&ision *hich +ust ha&e tended to discourage those *ho *ere inclined
to ta+per *ith the course of justice, *hile at the sa+e ti+e it enriched
the state' "t is probable that the king tried all cases of appeal in
person *hen it *as possible to do so' But if the litigants li&ed at
a considerable distance fro+ Babylon, he ga&e directions to his local
officials on the spot to try the case' (hen he *as con&inced of
the justice of any clai+, he *ould decide the case hi+self and send
instructions to the local authorities to see that his decision *as duly
carried out' "t is certain that +any disputes arose at this period in
conseAuence of the eCtortions of +oney-lenders' These +en freAuently
laid clai+ in a fraudulent +anner to fields and estates *hich they had
recei&ed in pledge as security for seed-corn ad&anced by the+' "n
cases *here fraud *as pro&ed Ha++urabi had no +ercy, and su++oned the
+oney-lender to Babylon to recei&e punish+ent, ho*e&er *ealthy and
po*erful he +ight be'
! subject freAuently referred to in Ha++urabiDs letters is the
collection of re&enues, and it is clear that an elaborate syste+ *as in
force throughout the country for the le&ying and pay+ent of tribute
to the state by the principal cities of Babylonia, as *ell as for the
collection of rent and re&enue fro+ the royal estates and fro+ the lands
*hich *ere set apart for the supply of the great te+ples' Collectors of
both secular and religious tribute sent reports directly to the king,
and if there *as any deficit in the supply *hich *as eCpected fro+ a
collector he had to +ake it up hi+selfK but the king *as al*ays ready
to listen to and in&estigate a co+plaint and to enforce the pay+ent of
tribute or taCes so that the loss should not fall upon the collector'
Thus, in one of his letters Ha++urabi infor+s the go&ernor of
#arsa+ that a collector na+ed heb-in had reported to hi+, saying
LEnubi-Barduk hath laid hands upon the +oney for the te+ple of
BZt-il-kitti+ Ii'e' the great te+ple of the un-god at #arsa+J *hich is
due fro+ the city of %Wr-gurgurri and fro+ the Iregion round about theJ
Tigris, and he hath not rendered the full su+K and Gi+il-Barduk hath
laid hands upon the +oney for the te+ple of BZt-il-kitti+ *hich is due
fro+ the city'of $akhabu and fro+ the region round about that city, and
he hath not IpaidJ the full a+ount' But the palace hath eCacted the full
su+ fro+ +e'L "t is probable that both Enubi-Barduk and Gi+il-Barduk
*ere +oney-lenders, for *e kno* fro+ another letter that the for+er had
laid clai+ to certain property on *hich he had held a +ortgage, although
the +ortgage had been redee+ed' "n the present case they had probably
lent +oney or seed-corn to certain culti&ators of land near %Wr-gurgurri
and $akhabu and along the Tigris, and in settle+ent of their clai+s they
had seiGed the crops and had, +oreo&er, refused to pay to the kingDs
officer the proportion of the crops that *as due to the state as
taCes upon the land' The go&ernor of #arsa+, the principal city in the
district, had rightly, as the representati&e of the palace Ii'e'
the kingJ, caused the taC-collector to +ake up the deficiency, but
Ha++urabi, on recei&ing the subordinate officerDs co+plaint, referred
the +atter back to the go&ernor' The end of the letter is *anting, but
*e +ay infer that Ha++urabi conde+ned the defaulting +oney-lenders to
pay the taCes due, and fined the+ in addition, or ordered the+ to be
sent to the capital for punish+ent'
On another occasion heb-in hi+self and a second taC-collector na+ed
in-+ushtal appear to ha&e been in fault and to ha&e e&aded co+ing to
Babylon *hen su++oned thither by the king' "t had been their duty to
collect large Auantities of sesa+e seed as *ell as taCes paid in +oney'
(hen first su++oned, they had +ade the eCcuse that it *as the ti+e of
har&est and they *ould co+e after the har&est *as o&er' But as they
did not then +ake their appearance, Ha++urabi *rote an urgent letter
insisting that they should be despatched *ith the full a+ount of the
taCes due, in the co+pany of a trust*orthy officer *ho *ould see that
they duly arri&ed at the capital'
Tribute on flocks and herds *as also le&ied by the king, and collectors
or assessors of the re&enue *ere stationed in each district, *hose duty
it *as to report any deficit in the re&enue accounts' The o*ners of
flocks and herds *ere bound to bring the young cattle and la+bs that
*ere due as tribute to the central city of the district in *hich they
d*elt, and they *ere then collected into large bodies and added to the
royal flocks and herdsK but, if the o*ners atte+pted to hold back any
that *ere due as tribute, they *ere after*ards forced to incur the eCtra
eCpense and trouble of dri&ing the beasts to Babylon' The flocks and
herds o*ned by the king and the great te+ples *ere probably enor+ous,
and yielded a considerable re&enue in the+sel&es apart fro+ the tribute
and taCes due fro+ pri&ate o*ners' hepherds and herds+en *ere placed in
charge of the+, and they *ere di&ided into groups under chief shepherds,
*ho arranged the districts in *hich the herds and flocks *ere to be
graGed, distributing the+ *hen possible along the banks and in the
neighbourhood of ri&ers and canals *hich *ould afford good pasturage and
a plentiful supply of *ater' The king recei&ed reports fro+ the chief
shepherds and herds+en, and it *as the duty of the go&ernors of the
chief cities and districts of Babylonia to +ake tours of inspection
and see that due care *as taken of the royal flocks and sheep' The
sheep-shearing for all the flocks that *ere pastured near the capital
took place in Babylon, and the king used to send out su++onses to his
chief shepherds to infor+ the+ of the day *hen the shearing *ould take
placeK and it is probable that the go&ernors of the other great cities
sent out si+ilar orders to the shepherds of flocks under their charge'
$oyal and priestly flocks *ere often under the sa+e chief officer, a
fact *hich sho*s the &ery strict control the king eCercised o&er the
te+ple re&enues'
The interests of the agricultural population *ere strictly looked
after by the king, *ho secured a proper supply of *ater for purposes of
irrigation by seeing that the canals and *ater*ays *ere kept in a proper
state of repair and cleaned out at regular inter&als' There is also
e&idence that nearly e&ery king of the <irst %ynasty of Babylon cut ne*
canals, and eCtended the syste+ of irrigation and transportation *hich
had been handed do*n to hi+ fro+ his fathers' The draining of the
+arshes and the proper repair of the canals could only be carried out
by careful and continuous super&ision, and it *as the duty of the local
go&ernors to see that the inhabitants of &illages and o*ners of land
situated on the banks of a canal should keep it in proper order' (hen
this duty had been neglected co+plaints *ere often sent to the king,
*ho ga&e orders to the local go&ernor to re+edy the defect' Thus on one
occasion it had been ordered that a canal at Erech *hich had silted
up should be deepened, but the dredging had not been carried out
thoroughly, so that the bed of the canal soon silted up again and boats
*ere pre&ented fro+ entering the city' "n these circu+stances Ha++urabi
ga&e pressing orders that the obstruction *as to be re+o&ed and the
canal +ade na&igable *ithin three days'
%a+age *as often done to the banks of canals by floods *hich follo*ed
the *inter rains, and a letter of !bNshuD gi&es an interesting account of
a sudden rise of the *ater in the "rnina canal so that it o&erflo*ed its
banks' The king *as building a palace at the city of )Vr-"rnina, *hich
*as supplied by the "rnina canal, and e&ery year it *as possible to put
so +uch *ork into the building' But one year, *hen little +ore than a
third of the yearDs *ork *as done, the building operations *ere stopped
by flood, the canal ha&ing o&erflo*ed its banks so that the *ater rose
right up to the *all of the to*n' "n return for the duty of keeping
the canals in order, the &illagers along the banks had the pri&ilege of
fishing in its *aters in the portion *hich *as in their charge, and
any poaching by other &illagers in this part of the strea+ *as strictly
forbidden' On one occasion, in the reign of a+su-iluna, Ha++urabiDs son
and successor, the fisher+en of the district of $abi+ *ent do*n in their
boats to the district of hakani+ and caught fish there contrary to the
la*' o the inhabitants of hakani+ co+plained of this poaching to the
king, *ho sent a palace official to the authorities of ippar, near
*hich city the districts in Auestion lay, *ith orders to inAuire into
the +atter and take steps to pre&ent all such poaching for the future'
The regulation of transportation on the canals *as also under the royal
jurisdiction' The +ethod of reckoning the siGe of ships has already
been described, and there is e&idence that the king possessed nu+erous
&essels of all siGes for the carrying of grain, *ool, and dates, as *ell
as for the *ood and stone e+ployed in his building operations' Each ship
see+s to ha&e had its o*n cre*, under the co++and of a captain, and it
is probable that officials *ho regulated the transportation fro+ the
centres *here they *ere stationed *ere placed in charge of separate
sections of the ri&ers and of the canals'
"t is ob&ious, fro+ the account that has been gi&en of the nu+erous
operations directly controlled and superintended by the king, that
he had need of a &ery large body of officials, by *hose +eans he *as
enabled to carry out successfully the ad+inistration of the country'
"n the course of the account *e ha&e +ade +ention of the judges and
judicial officers, the assessors and collectors of re&enue, and the
officials of the palace *ho *ere under the kingDs direct orders' "t is
also ob&ious that different classes of officers *ere in charge of all
the depart+ents of the ad+inistration' T*o classes of officials,
*ho *ere placed in charge of the public *orks and looked after and
controlled the public sla&es, and probably also had a good deal to do
*ith the collection of the re&enue, had special pri&ileges assigned
to the+, and special legislation *as dra*n up to protect the+ in the
enjoy+ent of the sa+e' !s pay+ent for their duties they *ere each
granted land *ith a house and garden, they *ere assigned the use of
certain sheep and cattle *ith *hich to stock their land, and in addition
they recei&ed a regular salary' They *ere in a sense personal retainers
of the king and *ere liable to be sent at any +o+ent on a special
+ission to carry out the kingDs co++ands' %isobedience *as se&erely
punishedK for, if such an officer, *hen detailed for a special +ission,
did not go but hired a substitute, he *as liable to be put to death and
the substitute he had hired could take his office' o+eti+es an officer
*as sent for long periods so+e distance fro+ his ho+e to take charge
of a garrison, and *hen this *as done his ho+e duties *ere perfor+ed by
another +an, *ho te+porarily occupied his house and land, but ga&e it
back to the officer on his return' "f such an officer had a son old
enough to perfor+ his duty in his fatherDs absence, he *as allo*ed to
do so and to till his fatherDs landsK but if the son *as too young,
the substitute *ho took the officerDs place had to pay one-third of
the produce of the land to the childDs +other for his education' Before
departing on his journey to the garrison it *as the officerDs duty to
arrange for the proper culti&ation of his land and the discharge of his
local duties during his absence' "f he o+itted to do so and left
his land and duties neglected for +ore than a year, and another had
+ean*hile taken his place, on his return he could not reclai+ his land
and office' "t *ill be ob&ious, therefore, that his position *as a
specially fa&oured one and +uch sought after, and these regulations
ensured that the duties attaching to the office *ere not neglected'
"n the course of his garrison duty or *hen on special ser&ice, these
officers ran so+e risk of being captured by the ene+y, and in that e&ent
regulations *ere dra*n up for their ranso+' "f the captured officer *as
*ealthy and could pay for his o*n ranso+, he *as bound to do so, but
if he had not the necessary +eans his ranso+ *as to be paid out of the
local te+ple treasury, and, *hen the funds in the te+ple treasury
did not suffice, he *as to be ranso+ed by the state' "t *as specially
enacted that his land and garden and house *ere in no case to be sold
in order to pay for his ranso+' These *ere inalienably attached to the
office *hich he held, and he *as not allo*ed to sell the+ or the sheep
and cattle *ith *hich they *ere stocked' Boreo&er, he *as not allo*ed
to beAueath any of this property to his *ife or daughter, so that his
office *ould appear to ha&e been hereditary and the property attached to
it to ha&e been entailed on his son if he succeeded hi+' uch succession
*ould not, of course, ha&e taken place if the officer by his o*n neglect
or disobedience had forfeited his office and its pri&ileges during his
lifeti+e'
"t has been suggested *ith considerable probability that these officials
*ere originally personal retainers and follo*s of u+u-abu, the founder
of the <irst %ynasty of Babylon' They *ere probably assigned lands
throughout the country in return for their ser&ices to the king, and
their special duties *ere to preser&e order and uphold the authority of
their +aster' "n the course of ti+e their duties *ere no doubt +odified,
but they retained their pri&ileges and they +ust ha&e continued to be a
&ery &aluable body of officers, on *hose personal loyalty the king could
al*ays rely' "n the preceding chapter *e ha&e already seen ho* grants of
considerable estates *ere +ade by the )assite kings of the Third %ynasty
to follo*ers *ho had rendered conspicuous ser&ices, and at the sa+e ti+e
they recei&ed the pri&ilege of holding such lands free of all liability
to forced labour and the pay+ent of tithes and taCes' (e +ay conclude
that the class of royal officers under the kings of the <irst %ynasty
had a si+ilar origin'
"n the present chapter, fro+ infor+ation recently +ade a&ailable, *e
ha&e gi&en so+e account of the syste+ of ad+inistration adopted by the
early kings of Babylon, and *e ha&e described in so+e detail the
&arious classes of the Babylonian population, their occupations, and the
conditions under *hich they li&ed' "n the t*o preceding chapters *e ha&e
dealt *ith the political history of (estern !sia fro+ the &ery earliest
period of the u+erian city-states do*n to the ti+e of the )assite
kings' "n the course of this account *e ha&e seen ho* Besopota+ia in the
da*n of history *as in the sole possession of the u+erian race and ho*
after*ards it fell in turn under the do+inion of the e+ites and the
kings of Ela+' The i++igration of fresh e+itic tribes at the end of the
third +illenniu+ before Christ resulted in the establish+ent in Babylon
of the e+itic kings *ho are kno*n as <irst %ynasty kingsK and under the
s*ay of Ha++urabi, the greatest of this group of kings, the e+pire thus
established in (estern !sia had e&ery appearance of per+anence' !lthough
Ela+ no longer troubled Babylon, a great danger arose fro+ a ne* and
uneCpected Auarter' "n the Country of the ea--*hich co+prised the
districts in the eCtre+e south of Babylonia on the shores of the Persian
Gulf--the u+erians had rallied their forces, and they no* declared
the+sel&es independent of Babylonian control' ! period of conflict
follo*ed bet*een the kings of the <irst %ynasty and the kings of the
Country of the ea, in *hich the latter +ore than held their o*nK and,
*hen the Hittite tribes of yria in&aded ?orthern Babylonia in the reign
of a+su-ditana, BabylonDs po*er of resistance *as so far *eakened that
she fell an easy prey to the rulers of the Country of the ea' But the
reappearance of the u+erians in the rcle of leading race in (estern
!sia *as destined not to last long, and *as little +ore than the last
flicker of &itality eChibited by this ancient and eChausted race' Thus
the econd %ynasty fell in its turn before the onslaught of the )assite
tribes *ho descended fro+ the +ountainous districts in the *est of Ela+,
and, ha&ing o&errun the *hole of Besopota+ia, established a ne* dynasty
at Babylon, and adopted Babylonian ci&iliGation'
(ith the ad&ent of the )assite kings a ne* chapter opens in the history
of (estern !sia' >p to that ti+e Egypt and Babylon, the t*o chief
centres of ancient ci&iliGation, had no doubt indirectly influenced one
another, but they had not co+e into actual contact' %uring the period of
the )assite kings both Babylon and !ssyria established direct relations
*ith Egypt, and fro+ that ti+e for*ard the influence they eCerted upon
one another *as continuous and unbroken' (e ha&e already traced the
history of Babylon up to this point in the light of recent disco&eries,
and a si+ilar task a*aits us *ith regard to !ssyria' Before *e enter
into a discussion of !ssyriaDs origin and early history in the light of
recent eCca&ation and research, it is necessary that *e should return
once +ore to Egypt, and describe the course of her history fro+ the
period *hen Thebes succeeded in displacing Be+phis as the capital city'
CH!PTE$ @""
TEBP#E !?% TOBB O< THEBE
(e ha&e seen that it *as in the Theban period that Egypt e+erged fro+
her isolation, and for the first ti+e ca+e into contact *ith (estern
!sia' This grand turning-point in Egyptian history see+ed to be the
appropriate place at *hich to pause in the description of our latest
kno*ledge of Egyptian history, in order to +ake kno*n the results of
archaeological disco&ery in Besopota+ia and (estern !sia generally' The
description has been carried do*n past the point of con&ergence of the
t*o originally isolated paths of Egyptian and Babylonian ci&iliGation,
and *hat ne* infor+ation the latest disco&eries ha&e co++unicated to us
on this subject has been told in the preceding chapters' (e no* ha&e to
retrace our steps to the point *here *e left Egyptian history and resu+e
the thread of our Egyptian narrati&e'
The Hyksos conAuest and the rise of Thebes are practically
conte+poraneous' The conAuest took place perhaps three or four hundred
years after the first ad&ance+ent of Thebes to the position of capital
of Egypt, but it +ust be re+e+bered that this position *as not retained
during the ti+e of the H""th %ynasty' The kings of that dynasty, though
they *ere Thebans, did not reign at Thebes' Their royal city *as in the
?orth, in the neighbourhood of #isht and BNdW+, *here their pyra+ids
*ere erected, and their chief care *as for the lake pro&ince of the
<ayyW+, *hich *as largely the creation of !+ene+hat """, the Boeris
of the Greeks' "t *as not till Thebes beca+e the focus of the
national resistance to the Hyksos that its period of greatness began'
Hencefor*ard it *as the undisputed capital of Egypt, enlarged and
e+bellished by the care and +unificence of a hundred kings, enriched by
the tribute of a hundred conAuered nations'
But *ere *e to confine oursel&es to the consideration only of the latest
disco&eries of Theban greatness after the eCpulsion of the Hyksos, *e
should be o+itting +uch that is of interest and i+portance' <or the
Egyptians the first grand cli+acteric in their history Iafter the
foundation of the +onarchyJ *as the transference of the royal po*er fro+
Be+phis and Herakleopolis to a Theban house' The second, *hich follo*ed
soon after, *as the Hyksos in&asion' The t*o are closely connected in
Theban historyK it is Thebes that defeated Herakleopolis and conAuered
Be+phisK it is Theban po*er that *as o&erthro*n by the HyksosK it is
Thebes that eCpelled the+ and initiated the second great period of
Egyptian history' (e therefore resu+e our narrati&e at a point before
the great increase of Theban po*er at the ti+e of the eCpulsion of the
Hyksos, and *ill trace this po*er fro+ its rise, *hich follo*ed
the defeat of Herakleopolis and Be+phis' "t is upon this epoch--the
beginning of Theban po*er--that the latest disco&eries at Thebes ha&e
thro*n so+e ne* light'
Bore than any*here else in Egypt eCca&ations ha&e been carried on at
Thebes, on the site of the ancient capital of the country' !nd here, if
any*here, it +ight ha&e been supposed that there *as nothing +ore to be
found, no ne* thing to be eChu+ed fro+ the soil, no ne* fact to be added
to our kno*ledge of Egyptian history' ,et here, no less than at !bydos,
has the archaeological eCploration of the last fe* years been especially
successful, and *e ha&e seen that the ancient city of Thebes has a great
deal +ore to tell us than *e had eCpected'
The +ost ancient re+ains at Thebes *ere disco&ered by Br' ?e*berry in
the shape of t*o to+bs of the @"th %ynasty, cut upon the face of the
*ell-kno*n hill of hNkh !bd el-)Wrna, on the *est bank of the ?ile
opposite #uCor' E&ery *inter tra&eller to Egypt kno*s, *ell the ride
fro+ the sandy shore opposite the #uCor te+ple, along the narro* path*ay
bet*een the gardens and the canal, across the bridges and o&er the
culti&ated land to the $a+esseu+, behind *hich rises hNkh !bd el-)Wrna,
*ith its countless to+bs, ranged in serried ro*s along the scarred and
scarped face of the hill' This hill, *hich is geologically a frag+ent of
the plateau behind *hich so+e gigantic landslip *as sent sliding in the
direction of the ri&er, lea&ing the picturesAue gorge and cliffs of %Nr
el-Bahari to +ark the place fro+ *hich it *as ri&en, *as e&idently the
seat of the oldest Theban necropolis' Here *ere the to+bs of the Theban
chiefs in the period of the Old )ingdo+, t*o of *hich ha&e been found
by Br' ?e*berry' "n later ti+es, it *ould see+, these to+bs *ere largely
occupied and re+odelled by the great nobles of the H@"""th %ynasty, so
that no* nearly all the to+bs eCtant on hNkh !bd el-)Wrna belong to
that dynasty'
Of the Thebes of the "Hth and Hth %ynasties, *hen the Herakleopolites
ruled, *e ha&e in the British Buseu+ t*o &ery re+arkable statues--one of
*hich is here illustrated--of the ste*ard of the palace, Bera' The to+b
fro+ *hich they ca+e is not kno*n' Both are &ery beautiful eCa+ples
of the Egyptian sculptorDs art, and are eCecuted in a style e+inently
characteristic of the transition period bet*een the *ork of the Old and
Biddle )ingdo+s' !s speci+ens of the art of the Hierakonpolite period,
of *hich *e ha&e hardly any eCa+ples, they are of the greatest interest'
Bera is represented *earing a different head-dress in each figureK in
one he has a short *ig, in the other a skullcap'
4"llustration. 712'jpg T!T>E O< BE$!8
(hen the Herakleopolite do+inion *as finally o&erthro*n, in spite of the
&aliant resistance of the princes of !syWt, and the Thebans assu+ed the
Pharaonic dignity, thus founding the H"th %ynasty, the Theban necropolis
*as situated in the great bay in the cliffs, i++ediately north of hNkh
!bd el-)Wrna, *hich is kno*n as %Nr el-Bahari' "n this picturesAue part
of (estern Thebes, in +any respects perhaps the +ost picturesAue
place in Egypt, the greatest king of the H"th %ynasty, ?eb-hapet-$V
Bentuhetep, eCca&ated his to+b and built for the *orship of his ghost
a funerary te+ple, *hich he called F!kh-asetF, LGlorious-is-its-
ituation,L a na+e fully justified by its surroundings' This te+ple is
an entirely ne* disco&ery, +ade by Prof' ?a&ille and Br' Hall in /:27'
The results obtained up to date ha&e been of &ery great i+portance,
especially *ith regard to the history of Egyptian art and architecture,
for our sources of infor+ation *ere fe* and *e *ere pre&iously not &ery
*ell infor+ed as to the condition of art in the ti+e of the H"th
%ynasty'
The ne* te+ple lies i++ediately to the south of the great H@"""th
%ynasty te+ple at %Nr el-Bahari, *hich has al*ays been kno*n, and *hich
*as eCca&ated first by Bariette and later by Prof' ?a&ille, for the
Egypt ECploration <und' To the results of the later eCca&ations *e shall
return' (hen they *ere finally co+pleted, in the year /9:9, the great
H@"""th %ynasty te+ple, *hich *as built by Oueen Hatshepsu, had been
entirely cleared of dQbris, and the colonnades had been partially
restored Iunder the care of Br' o+ers ClarkeJ in order to +ake a roof
under *hich to protect the sculptures on the *alls' The *hole +ass of
dQbris, consisting largely of fallen FtalusF fro+ the cliffs abo&e,
*hich had al+ost hidden the te+ple, *as re+o&edK but a large tract lying
to the south of the te+ple, *hich *as also co&ered *ith si+ilar +ounds
of dQbris, *as not touched, but re+ained to a*ait further in&estigation'
"t *as here, beneath these heaps of dQbris, that the ne* te+ple *as
found *hen *ork *as resu+ed by the Egypt ECploration <und in /:27' The
actual to+b of the king has not yet been re&ealed, although that of
?eb-hetep Bentuhetep, *ho +ay ha&e been his i++ediate predecessor,
*as disco&ered by Br' Carter in /9::' "t *as kno*n, ho*e&er, and still
uninjured in the reign of $a+ses "H of the HHth %ynasty' Then, as *e
learn fro+ the report of the inspectors sent to eCa+ine the royal to+bs,
*hich is preser&ed in the !bbott Papyrus, they found the Fpyra+id-to+bF
of )ing Heb-hapet-$V *hich is in Tjesret Ithe ancient Egyptian na+e for
%Nr el-BahariJK it *as intact' (e kno*, therefore, that it *as intact
about /222 B'C' The description of it as a pyra+id-to+b is interesting,
for in the inscription of Tetu, the priest of !kh-aset, *ho *as buried
at !bydos, !kh-aset is said to ha&e been a pyra+id' That the ne*ly
disco&ered te+ple *as called !kh-aset *e kno* fro+ se&eral inscriptions
found in it' !nd the +ost re+arkable thing about this te+ple is that in
its centre there *as a pyra+id' This +ust be the pyra+id-to+b *hich *as
found intact by the inspectors, so that the to+b itself +ust be close
by' But it does not see+ to ha&e been beneath the pyra+id, belo* *hich
is only solid rock' "t is perhaps a gallery cut in the cliffs at the
back of the te+ple'
The pyra+id *as then a du++y, +ade of rubble *ithin a re&et+ent of hea&y
flint nodules, *hich *as faced *ith fine li+estone' "t *as erected on a
pyloni-for+ base *ith hea&y cornice of the usual Egyptian pattern' This
central pyra+id *as surrounded by a roofed hall or a+bulatory of s+all
octagonal pillars, the outside *all of *hich *as decorated *ith coloured
reliefs, depicting &arious scenes connected *ith the Fsed-hebF or
jubilee-festi&al of the king, processions of the *arriors and +agnates
of the real+, scenes of husbandry, boat-building, and so forth, all of
*hich *ere considered appropriate to the chapel of a royal to+b at that
period' Outside this *all *as an open colonnade of sAuare pillars'
The *hole of this *as built upon an artificially sAuared rectangular
platfor+ of natural rock, about fifteen feet high' To north and south of
this *ere open courts' The southern is bounded by the hillK the northern
is no* bounded by the Great Te+ple of Hat-shepsu, but, before this *as
built, there *as e&idently a &ery large open court here' The face of the
rock platfor+ is +asked by a *all of large rectangular blocks of fine
*hite li+estone, so+e of *hich +easure siC feet by three feet siC
inches' They are beautifully sAuared and laid in bonded courses of
alternate siGes, and the *alls generally +ay be said to be a+ong the
finest yet found in Egypt' (e ha&e already re+arked that the architects
of the Biddle )ingdo+ appear to ha&e been specially fond of fine +asonry
in *hite stone' The contrast bet*een these splendid H"th %ynasty *alls,
*ith their great base-stones of sandstone, and the bad rough +asonry of
the H@"""th %ynasty te+ple close by, is striking' The H@"""th %ynasty
architects and +asons had degenerated considerably fro+ the standard of
the Biddle )ingdo+'
This rock platfor+ *as approached fro+ the east in the centre by an
inclined plane or ra+p, of *hich part of the original pa&e+ent of *ooden
bea+s re+ains Fin situF'
4"llustration. 71R'jpg H"th %,?!T, (!##. %M$ E#-B!H!$"'8
ECca&ated by Br' Hall, /:2R, for the Egypt ECploration <und'
To right and left of this ra+p are colonnades, each of t*enty-t*o sAuare
pillars, all inscribed *ith the na+e and titles of Bentuhetep' The *alls
+asking the platfor+ in these colonnades *ere sculptured *ith &arious
scenes, chiefly representing boat processions and ca+paigns against the
!a+u or no+ads of the inaitic peninsula' The design of the colonnades
is the sa+e as that of the Great Te+ple, and the *hole plan of this
part, *ith its platfor+ approached by a ra+p flanked by colonnades,
is so like that of the Great Te+ple that *e cannot but assu+e that the
peculiar design of the latter, *ith its tiers of platfor+s approached by
ra+ps flanked by colonnades, is not an original idea, but *as directly
copied by the H@"""th %ynasty architects fro+ the older H"th %ynasty
te+ple *hich they found at %Nr el-Bahari *hen they began their *ork'
4"llustration. 713'jpg H@"""th %,?!T, (!##, %B$ E#-B!H!$"'8
ECca&ated by B' ?a&ille, /9:0K repaired by Br' Ho*ard
Carter, /:2R'
The supposed originality of HatshepsuDs te+ple is then non-eCistentK
it *as a copy of the older design, in fact, a +agnificent piece of
archais+' But HatshepsuDs architects copied this feature onlyK the
actual arrange+ents FonF the platfor+s in the t*o te+ples are as
different as they can possibly be' "n the older *e ha&e a central
pyra+id *ith a colonnade round it, in the ne*er +ay be found an open
court in front of rock-ca&e shrines'
4"llustration. 710'jpg EHC!@!T"O? O< THE ?O$TH #O(E$ CO#O??!%E O<
THE
H"th %,?!T, TEBP#E, %E$ E#-B!H!$", /:2R'8
Before the H"th %ynasty te+ple *as set up a series of statues of )ing
Bentuhetep and of a later king, !+enhetep ", in the for+ of Osiris, like
those of >sertsen IenusretJ " at #isht already +entioned' One of these
statues is in the British Buseu+' "n the south court *ere disco&ered
siC statues of )ing >sertsen IenusretJ """, depicting hi+ at different
periods of his life' Pour of the heads are preser&ed, and, as the
eCpression of each differs fro+ that of the other, it is Auite e&ident
that so+e sho* hi+ as a young, others as an old, +an'
4"llustration. 716'jpg G$!?"TE TH$EHO#% !?% OCT!GO?!# !?%TO?E
P"##!$8
Of The H"th %ynasty Te+ple !t %ee El-Bahari' !bout 1322 B'C'
The face is of the *ell-kno*n hard and lined type *hich is seen also in
the portraits of !+ene+hat """, and *as for+erly considered to be that
of the Hyksos' Bessrs' ?e*berry and Garstang, as *e ha&e seen, consider
it to be so, indirectly, as they regard the type as ha&ing been
introduced into the H""th %ynasty by Oueen ?efret, the +other of
>sertsen Ien-usretJ """' This Aueen, they think, F*asF a Hittite
princess, and the Hittites *ere practically the sa+e thing as the
Hyksos' (e ha&e seen, ho*e&er, that there is &ery little foundation for
this &ie*, and it is +ore than probable that this peculiar physiogno+y
is of a type purely Egyptian in character'
4"llustration. 719'jpg EHC!@!T"O? O< THE TOBB O< ! P$"ETE,8
On The Platfor+ Of The H"th %ynasty Te+ple, %er El-Bahari,
/:2R'
On the platfor+, around the central pyra+id, *ere buried in s+all
cha+ber-to+bs a nu+ber of priestesses of the goddess Hathor, the
+istress of the desert and special deity of %Nr el-Bahari' They *ere
all +e+bers of the kingDs harZ+, and they bore the title of L)ingDs
<a&ourite'L !s told in a pre&ious chapter, all *ere buried at one
ti+e, before the final co+pletion of the te+ple, and it is by no +eans
i+possible that they *ere strangled at the kingDs death and buried round
hi+ in order that their ghosts +ight acco+pany hi+ in the neCt *orld,
just as the sla&es *ere buried around the gra&es Ior secondary gra&esJ
of the /st %ynasty kings at !by-dos' They the+sel&es, as also already
related, took *ith the+ to the neCt *orld little *aCen figures *hich
*hen called upon could by +agic be turned into ghostly sla&es' These
i+ages *ere Fushabtiu,F Lans*erers,L the predecessors of the little
figures of *ood, stone, and pottery *hich are found buried *ith the
dead in later ti+es' The priestesses the+sel&es *ere, so to speak, hu+an
Fushabtiu,F for royal use only, and acco+panied the kings to their final
resting-place'
(ith the priestesses *as buried the usual funerary furniture
characteristic of the period' This consisted of little +odels of
granaries *ith the peasants bringing in the corn, +odels of bakers and
bre*ers at *ork, boats *ith their cre*s, etc', just as *e find the+
in the H"th and H""th %ynasty to+bs at el-Bersha and Beni Hasan' These
+odels, too, *ere supposed to be transfor+ed by +agic into actual
*ork+en *ho *ould *ork for the deceased, heap up grain for her, bre*
beer for her, ferry her o&er the ghostly ?ile into the to+b-*orld, or
perfor+ any other ser&ices reAuired'
o+e of the stone sarcophagi of the priestesses are &ery elaborately
decorated *ith car&ed and painted reliefs depicting each deceased
recei&ing offerings fro+ priests, one of *ho+ +ilks the holy co*s of
Hathor to gi&e her +ilk' The sarcophagi *ere let do*n into the to+b in
pieces and there joined together, and they ha&e been re+o&ed in the sa+e
*ay' The finest is a uniAue eCa+ple of H"th %ynasty art, and it is no*
preser&ed in the Buseu+ of Cairo'
4"llustration. 772'jpg C!E O< !?T"O>"T"E #E!@"?G %M$ E#-B!H!$" <O$
T$!?PO$T TO C!"$O'8
"n +e+ory of the priestesses there *ere erected on the platfor+ behind
the pyra+id a nu+ber of s+all shrines, *hich *ere decorated *ith the
+ost delicately coloured car&ings in high relief, representing chiefly
the sa+e subjects as those on the sarcophagi' The peculiar style of
these reliefs *as pre&iously unkno*n' "n connection *ith the+ a +ost
interesting possibility presents itself'
4"llustration. 77/'jpg H"PP"?G C!E O< !?T"O>"T"E O? BO!$% THE
?"#E
TE!BE$ !T #>HO$, <O$ THE EG,PT EHP#O$!T"O? <>?%'8
(e kno* the na+e of the chief artist of BentuhetepDs reign' He *as
called Bertisen, and he thus describes hi+self on his to+bstone fro+
!bydos, no* in the #ou&re. L" *as an artist skilled in +y art' " kne*
+y art, ho* to represent the for+s of going forth and returning, so that
each li+b +ay be in its proper place' " kne* ho* the figure of a +an
should *alk and the carriage of a *o+an, the poising of the ar+ to
bring the hippopota+us lo*, the going of the runner' " kne* ho* to +ake
a+ulets, *hich enable us to go *ithout fire burning us and *ithout the
flood *ashing us a*ay' ?o +an could do this but ", and the eldest son
of +y body' Hi+ has the god decreed to eCcel in art, and " ha&e seen
the perfections of the *ork of his hands in e&ery kind of rare stone,
in gold and sil&er, in i&ory and ebony'L ?o* since Bertisen and his son
*ere the chief artists of their day, it is +ore than probable that they
*ere e+ployed to decorate their kingDs funerary chapel' o that in all
probability the H"th %ynasty reliefs fro+ %Nr el-Bahari are the *ork
of Bertisen and his son, and in the+ *e see the actual Lfor+s of going
forth and returning, the poising of the ar+ to bring the hippopota+us
lo*, the going of the runner,L to *hich he refers on his to+bstone' This
adds a note of personal interest to the reliefs, an interest *hich is
often sadly *anting in Egypt, *here *e rarely kno* the na+es of the
great artists *hose *orks *e ad+ire so +uch' (e ha&e reco&ered the na+es
of the sculptor and painter of eti "Ds te+ple at !bydos and that of the
sculptor of so+e of the to+bs at Tell el-!+arna, but other*ise &ery fe*
na+es of the artists are directly associated *ith the te+ples and to+bs
*hich they decorated, and of the architects *e kno* little +ore' The
great te+ple of %Nr el-Bahari *as, ho*e&er, *e kno*, designed by en+ut,
the chief architect to Oueen Hatshepsu'
"t is noticeable that BertisenDs art, if it is BertisenDs, is of a
peculiar character' "t is not Auite so fully de&eloped as that of the
succeeding H""th %ynasty' The dra*ing of the figures is often peculiar,
strange lanky for+s taking the place of the perfect proportions of the
"@th-@"th and the H""th %ynasty styles' Great elaboration is besto*ed
upon decoration, *hich is again of a type rather archaic in character
*hen co+pared *ith that of the H""th %ynasty' (e are often re+inded of
the rude sculptures *hich used to be regarded as typical of the art of
the H"th %ynasty, *hile at the sa+e ti+e *e find *ork *hich could not
be surpassed by the best H""th %ynasty +asters' "n fact, the art of
?eb-hapet-$VDs reign *as the art of a transitional period' >nder the
decadent Be+phites of the @""th and @"""th %ynasties, Egyptian art
rapidly fell fro+ the high estate *hich it had attained under the @th
%ynasty, and, though good *ork *as done under the Hierakonpolites, the
chief characteristic of Egyptian art at the ti+e of the Hth and early
H"th %ynasties is its curious roughness and al+ost barbaric appearance'
(hen, ho*e&er, the kings of the H"th %ynasty reunited the *hole land
under one sceptre, and the long reign of ?eb-hapet-$V Bentuhetep enabled
the reconsolidation of the real+ to be carried out by one hand, art
began to re&i&e, and, just as to ?eb-hapet-$V +ust be attributed the
renascence of the Egyptian state under the hege+ony of Thebes, so +ust
the re&i&al of art in his reign be attributed to his great artists,
Bertisen and his son' They carried out in the real+ of art *hat their
king had carried out in the political real+, and to the+ +ust be
attributed the origin of the art of the Biddle )ingdo+ *hich under the
H""th %ynasty attained so high a pitch of eCcellence' The sculptures
of the kingDs te+ple at %Nr el-Bahari, then, are +onu+ents of the
renascence of Egyptian art, after the state of decadence into *hich it
had fallen during the long ci&il *ars bet*een outh and ?orthK it is
a re&i&ing art, struggling out of barbaris+ to regain perfection, and
therefore has +uch about it that see+s archaic, stiff, and curious *hen
co+pared *ith later *ork' To the H@"""th %ynasty Egyptian it *ould no
doubt ha&e see+ed hopelessly old-fashioned and e&en se+i-barbarous, and
he had no Aual+s about s*eeping it aside *hene&er it appeared in the
*ay of the *ork of his o*n ti+eK but to us this &ery strangeness
gi&es additional char+ and interest, and *e can only be thankful that
BertisenDs *ork has lasted Iin frag+ents only, it is trueJ to our o*n
day, to tell us the story of a little kno*n chapter in the history of
ancient Egyptian art'
<ro+ this description it *ill ha&e been seen that the te+ple is an
i+portant +onu+ent of the Egyptian art and architecture of the Biddle
)ingdo+' "t is the only te+ple of that period of *hich considerable
traces ha&e been found, and on that account the study of it *ill be of
the greatest interest' "t is the best preser&ed of the older te+ples of
Egypt, and at Thebes it is by far the +ost ancient building reco&ered'
Historically it has gi&en us a ne* king of the H"th %ynasty,
ekhVhe-tep-$V Bentuhetep, and the na+e of the Aueen of ?eb-hapet-$V
Bentuhetep, !asheit, *ho see+s to ha&e been an Ethiopian, to judge fro+
her portrait, *hich has been disco&ered' "t is interesting to note that
one of the priestesses *as a negress'
The na+e ?eb-hapet-$V +ay be unfa+iliar to those readers *ho are
acAuainted *ith the lists of the Egyptian kings' "t is a correction
of the for+er reading, L?eb-kheru-$V,L *hich is no* kno*n fro+ these
eCca&ations to be erroneous' ?eb-hapet-$V Ior, as he used to be called,
?eb-kheru-$VJ is Bentuhetep """ of Prof' PetrieDs arrange+ent' Before
hi+ there see+ to ha&e co+e the kings Bentuhetep ?eb-hetep I*ho is also
co++e+orated in this te+pleJ and ?eb-taui-$VK after hi+, ekhVhetep-$V
Bentuhetep "@ and eVnkhkarV Bentuhetep @, *ho *ere follo*ed by an
!ntef, bearing the banner or ha*k-na+e >ah-Vnkh' This king *as follo*ed
by !+ene+hat ", the first king of the H""th %ynasty' !ntef >ah-Vnkh +ay
be nu+bered !ntef ", as the prince !ntefa, *ho founded the H"th %ynasty,
did not assu+e the title of king'
Other kings of the na+e of !ntef also ruled o&er Egypt, and they used to
be regarded as belonging to the H"th %ynastyK but Prof' teindorff
has no* pro&ed that they really reigned after the H"""th %ynasty, and
i++ediately before the ekenenrVs, *ho *ere the fighters of the Hyksos
and predecessors of the H@"""th %ynasty' The second na+es of !ntef """
Ieshes-$V-up-+aatJ and !ntef "@ Ieshes-$V-her-her-+aatJ are eCactly
si+ilar to those of the H"""th %ynasty kings and Auite unlike those of
the BentuhetepsK also at )optos a decree of !ntef "" I?ub-kheper-$VJ has
been found inscribed on a door*ay of >sertsen IenusretJ "K so that
he cannot ha&e preceded hi+' Prof' Petrie does not yet accept these
conclusions, and classes all the !ntefs together *ith the Bentuheteps in
the H"th %ynasty' He considers that he has e&idence fro+ Herakleopolis
that !ntef Hub-kheper-$V I*ho+ he nu+bers !ntef @J preceded the H""th
%ynasty, and he supposes that the decree of ?ub-kheper-$V at )optos is
a later copy of the original and *as inscribed during the H""th %ynasty'
But this is a difficult saying' The probabilities are that Prof'
teindorff is right' !ntef >ah-Vnkh +ust, ho*e&er, ha&e preceded the
H""th %ynasty, since an official of that period refers to his fatherDs
father as ha&ing li&ed in >ah-Vnkh Ds ti+e'
The necropolis of %Nr el-Bahari *as no doubt used all through the period
of the H"th and H""th %ynasties, and +any to+bs of that period ha&e been
found there' ! large nu+ber of these *ere obliterated by the building
of the great te+ple of Oueen Hatshepsu, in the northern part of the
cliff-bay' (e kno* of one AueenDs to+b of that period *hich runs right
underneath this te+ple fro+ the north, and there is another that is
entered at the south side *hich also runs do*n underneath it' e&eral
to+bs *ere like*ise found in the court bet*een it and the H"th %ynasty
te+ple' (e kno* that the H@"""th %ynasty te+ple *as largely built o&er
this court, and *e can see no* the H"th %ynasty +ask-*all on the *est of
the court running north*ards underneath the +ass of the H@"""th %ynasty
te+ple' "n all probability, then, *hen the te+ple of Hatshepsu
*as built, the larger portion of the Biddle )ingdo+ necropolis Iof
cha+ber-to+bs reached by pitsJ, *hich had filled up the bay to the north
of the Bentuhetep te+ple, *as co&ered up and obliterated, just as
the older @"th %ynasty gallery to+bs of hNkh !bd el-)Wrna had been
appropriated and altered at the sa+e period'
The kings of the H""th and H"""th %ynasties *ere not buried at Thebes,
as *e ha&e seen, but in the ?orth, at %ashWr, #isht, and near the
<ayy+n, *ith *hich their royal city at "tht-taui had brought the+ into
contact' But at the end of the H"""th %ynasty the great in&asion of the
Hyksos probably occurred, and all ?orthern Egypt fell under the !rab
s*ay' The nati&e kings *ere dri&en south fro+ the <ayy+n to !bydos,
)optos, and Thebes, and at Thebes they *ere buried, in a ne* necropolis
to the north of %Nr el-Bahari Iprobably then fullJ, on the flank of a
long spur of hill *hich is no* called %raD !bu-Dl-?egga, L!bu-Dl-?eggaDs
!r+'L Here the Theban kings of the period bet*een the H"""th and H@""th
%ynasties, >puante+saf, !ntef ?ub-kheper-$V, and his descendants, !ntefs
""" and "@, *ere buried' "n their ti+e the pressure of foreign in&asion
see+s to ha&e been felt, for, to judge fro+ their coffins, *hich sho*
progressi&e degeneration of style and *ork+anship, po&erty no* afflicted
>pper Egypt and art had fallen sadly fro+ the high standard *hich it had
reached in the days of the H"th and H""th %ynasties' Probably the later
!ntefs and ebeke+safs *ere &assals of the Hyksos' Their descendants
of the H@""th %ynasty *ere buried in the sa+e necropolis of %raD
!bu-Dl-?egga, and so *ere the first t*o kings of the H@"""th %ynasty,
!ah+es and !+enhetep "' The to+bs of the last t*o ha&e not yet been
found, but *e kno* fro+ the !bbott Papyrus that !+enhetepDs *as
here, for, like that of Benttihetep """, it *as found intact by the
inspectors' "t *as a gallery-to+b of &ery great length, and *ill be a
+ost interesting find *hen it is disco&ered, as it no doubt e&entually
*ill be' !ah+es had a to+b at !bydos, *hich *as disco&ered by Br'
Currelly, *orking for the Egypt ECploration <und' This, ho*e&er, like
the !bydene to+b of >sert-sen IenusretJ """, *as in all likelihood a
sha+ or secondary to+b, the king ha&ing +ost probably been buried at
Thebes, in the %raD !bu-Dl-?egga' The !bydos to+b is of interesting
construction' The entrance is by a si+ple pit, fro+ *hich a gallery
runs round in a cur&ing direction to a great hall supported by eighteen
sAuare pillars, beyond *hich is a further gallery *hich *as ne&er
finished' ?othing *as found in the to+b' On the slope of the +ountain,
due *est of and in a line *ith the to+b, Br' Currelly found a
terrace-te+ple analogous to those of %Nr el-Bahari, approached not
by +eans of a ra+p but by stair*ays at the side' "t *as e&idently the
funerary te+ple of the to+b'
4"llustration. 779'jpg tatue of Oueen Teta-shera8
Grand+other of !ah+es, the conAueror of the Hyksos and
founder of the H@"""th %ynasty' !bout /622 B' C' British
Buseu+' <ro+ the photograph by Bessrs' Bansell E Co'
The secondary to+b of >sertsen IenusretJ """ at !bydos, *hich has
already been +entioned, *as disco&ered in the preceding year by Br' !'
E' P' (eigall, and eCca&ated by Br' Currelly in /:27' "t lies north of
the !ah+es te+ple, bet*een it and the +ain ce+etery of !bydos' "t is a
great FbVbF or gallery-to+b, like those of the later kings at Thebes,
*ith the usual apparatus of granite plugs, barriers, pits, etc', to
defy plunderers' The to+b had been plundered, ne&ertheless, though it is
probable that the robbers *ere &astly disappointed *ith *hat they
found in it' Br' Currelly ascribes the absence of all re+ains to the
plunderers, but the fact is that there probably ne&er *as anything in
it but an e+pty sarcophagus' ?ear the to+b Br' (eigall disco&ered
so+e du++y +astabas, a find of great interest' =ust as the king had a
secondary to+b, so secondary +astabas, +ere du++ies of rubble like the
H"th %ynasty pyra+id at %Nr el-Bahari, *ere erected beside it to look
like the to+bs of his courtiers' o+e curious sinuous brick *alls *hich
appear to act as di&iding lines for+ a re+arkable feature of this sha+
ce+etery' "n a line *ith the to+b, on the edge of the culti&ation,
is the funerary te+ple belonging to it, *hich *as found by Br'
$andall-Bacl&er in /:22' ?othing re+ains but the bases of the fluted
li+estone colu+ns and so+e brick *alls' ! headless statue of >sertsen
*as found'
(e ha&e an interesting eCa+ple of the custo+ of building a secondary
to+b for royalties in these t*o nQcropoles of %raD !bu-Dl-?egga and
!bydos' Oueen Teta-shera, the grand+other of !ah+es, a beautiful
statuette of *ho+ +ay be seen in the British Buseu+, had a s+all pyra+id
at !bydos, east*ard of and in a line *ith the te+ple and secondary to+b
of !ah+es' "n /:2/ Br' Bace atte+pted to find the cha+ber, but could
not' "n the neCt year Br' Currelly found bet*een it and the !ah+es
to+b a s+all chapel, containing a splendid stele, on *hich !ah+es
co++e+orates his grand+other, *ho, he says, *as buried at Thebes and had
a F+er-VhVtF at !bydos, and he records his deter+ination to build her
also a pyra+id at !bydos, out of his lo&e and &eneration for her +e+ory'
"t thus appeared that the pyra+id to the east *as si+ply a du++y,
like >sertsenDs +astabas, or the Bentuhetep pyra+id at %Nr el-Bahari'
Teta-shera *as actually buried at %raD !bu-Dl-?egga' Her secondary
pyra+id, like that of !ah+es hi+self, *as in the Lholy groundL at
!bydos, though it *as not an i+itation FbVbF, but a du++y pyra+id of
rubble' This *ell illustrates the *hole custo+ of the royal pri+ary and
secondary to+bs, *hich, as *e ha&e seen, had obtained in the case of
royal personages fro+ the ti+e of the /st %ynasty, *hen !ha had t*o
to+bs, one at ?akVda and the other at !bydos' "t is probable that all
the /st %ynasty to+bs at !bydos are secondary, the kings being really
buried else*here' !fter their ti+e *e kno* for certain that Tjeser and
nefru had duplicate to+bs, possibly also >nas, and certainly >sertsen
IenusretJ """, !+ene+hat """, and !ah+esK *hile Bentuhetep """ and
Oueen Teta-shera had du++y pyra+ids as *ell as their to+bs' $a+ses """
also had t*o to+bs, both at Thebes' The reasons for this custo+ *ere
t*o. first, the desire to elude plunderers, and second, the *ish to gi&e
the ghost a Fpied-[-terreF on the sacred soil of !bydos or akkVra'
!s the inscription of !ah+es *hich records the building of the du++y
pyra+id of Teta-shera is of considerable interest, it +ay here be
translated' The teCt reads. L"t ca+e to pass that *hen his Bajesty the
king, e&en the king of outh and ?orth, ?eb-pehti-$V, on of the un,
!ah+es, Gi&er of #ife, *as taking his pleasure in the FtjaduF-hall,
the hereditary princess greatly fa&oured and greatly priGed, the kingDs
daughter, the kingDs sister, the godDs *ife and great *ife of the king,
?efret-ari-!ah+es, the li&ing, *as in the presence of his Bajesty' !nd
the one spake unto the other, seeking to do honour to These There,;
*hich consisteth in the pouring of *ater, the offering upon the altar,
the painting of the stele at the beginning of each season, at the
<esti&al of the ?e* Boon, at the feast of the +onth, the feast of the
going-forth of the Fe+F-priest, the Cere+onies of the ?ight, the <easts
of the <ifth %ay of the Bonth and of the iCth, the FHakF-festi&al, the
F>agF-festi&al, the feast of Thoth, the beginning of e&ery season of
hea&en and earth' !nd his sister spake, ans*ering hi+. D(hy hath one
re+e+bered these +atters, and *herefore hath this *ord been saidP
Prithee, *hat hath co+e into thy heartPD The king spake, saying. D!s for
+e, " ha&e re+e+bered the +other of +y +other, the +other of +y father,
the kingDs great *ife and kingDs +other Teta-shera, deceased, *hose
to+b-cha+ber and F+er-ahVtF are at this +o+ent upon the soil of Thebes
and !bydos' " ha&e spoken thus unto thee because +y Bajesty desireth to
cause a pyra+id and chapel to be +ade for her in the acred #and, as a
gift of a +onu+ent fro+ +y Bajesty, and that its lake should be dug, its
trees planted, and its offerings prescribedK that it should be pro&ided
*ith sla&es, furnished *ith lands, and endo*ed *ith cattle, *ith
Fhen-kaF priests and Fkher-hebF priests perfor+ing their duties, each
+an kno*ing *hat he hath to do'D Behold^ *hen his Bajesty had thus
spoken, these things *ere i++ediately carried out' His Bajesty did these
things on account of the greatness of the lo&e *hich he bore her, *hich
*as greater than anything' ?e&er had ancestral kings done the like for
their +others' Behold^ his Bajesty eCtended his ar+ and bent his hand,
and +ade for her the kingDs offering to Geb, to the Ennead of Gods, to
the lesser Ennead of Gods''' 4to !nubis8 in the GodDs hrine, thousands
of offerings of bread, beer, oCen, geese, cattle''' to 4the Oueen
Teta-shera8'L This is one of the +ost interesting inscriptions
disco&ered in Egypt in recent years, for the picturesAueness of its
diction is unusual'
; ! polite periphrasis for the dead'
!s has already been said, the king !+enhetep " *as also buried in the
%raD !bu-Dl-?egga, but the to+b has not yet been found' !+enhetep " and
his +other, Oueen ?efret-ari-!ah+es, *ho is +entioned in the inscription
translated abo&e, *ere both &enerated as tutelary de+ons of the (estern
?ecropolis of Thebes after their deaths, as also *as Bentuhetep """' !t
%Nr el-Bahari both kings see+ to ha&e been *orshipped *ith Hathor, the
Bistress of the (aste' The *orship of !+en-$V in the H@"""th %ynasty
te+ple of %Nr el-Bahari *as a no&elty introduced by the priests of !+en
at that ti+e' But the *orship of Hathor *ent on side by side *ith that
of !+en in a chapel *ith a rock-cut shrine at the side of the Great
Te+ple' @ery possibly this *as the original ca&e-shrine of Hathor, long
before BentuhetepDs ti+e, and *as incorporated *ith the Great Te+ple and
beautified *ith the addition of a pillared hall before it, built
o&er part of the H"th %ynasty north court and *all, by HatshepsuDs
architects'
The Great Te+ple, the eCca&ation of *hich for the Egypt ECploration <und
*as successfully brought to an end by Prof' ?a&ille in /9:9, *as erected
by Oueen Hatshepsu in honour of !+en-$V, her father Thoth+es ", and her
brother-husband Thoth+es "", and recei&ed a fe* additions fro+ Thoth+es
""", her successor' He, ho*e&er, did not co+plete it, and it fell into
disrepair, besides suffering fro+ the iconoclastic Geal of the heretic
!khunaten, *ho ha++ered out so+e of the beautifully painted scenes upon
its *alls' These *ere badly restored by $a+ses "", *hose painting is
easily distinguished fro+ the original *ork by the dulness and badness
of its colour'
The peculiar plan and other re+arkable characteristics of this te+ple
are *ell kno*n' "ts great terraces, *ith the ra+ps leading up to the+,
flanked by colonnades, *hich, as *e ha&e seen, *ere i+itated fro+ the
design of the old H"th %ynasty te+ple at its side, are fa+iliar fro+ a
hundred illustrations, and the +ar&ellously preser&ed colouring of its
delicate reliefs is kno*n to e&ery *inter &isitor to Egypt, and can be
realiGed by those *ho ha&e ne&er been there through the +ediu+ of Br'
Ho*ard CarterDs *onderful coloured reproductions, published in Prof'
?a&illeDs edition of the te+ple by the Egypt ECploration <und' The Great
Te+ple stands to-day clear of all the dQbris *hich used to co&er it, a
lasting +onu+ent to the *ork of the greatest of the societies *hich busy
the+sel&es *ith the unearthing of the relics of the ancient *orld'
4"llustration. 77R'jpg THE T(O TEBP#E O< %E E#-B!H!$"'8 ECca&ated by
Prof' ?ayille, /9:7-9 and /:27-0, for the Egypt ECploration <und
The t*o te+ples of %Nr el-Bahari *ill soon stand side by side, as they
originally stood, and *ill al*ays be associated *ith the na+e of the
society *hich rescued the+ fro+ obli&ion, and ga&e us the treasures
of the royal to+bs at !bydos' The na+es of the t*o +en *ho+ the Egypt
ECploration <und co++issioned to eCca&ate %Nr el-Bahari and !bydos, and
for *hose *ork it eCclusi&ely supplied the funds, Profs' ?a&ille and
Petrie, *ill li&e chiefly in connection *ith their *ork at %Nr el-Bahari
and !bydos'
The Egyptians called the t*o te+ples FTjesertiF, Lthe t*o holy places,L
the ne* building recei&ing the na+e of FTjeser-tjesruF, LHoly of
Holies,L and the *hole tract of %Nr el-Bahari the appellation FTjesretF,
Lthe Holy'L The eCtraordinary beauty of the situation in *hich they are
placed, *ith its huge cliffs and rugged hillsides, +ay be appreciated
fro+ the photograph *hich is taken fro+ a steep path half-*ay up the
cliff abo&e the Great Te+ple' "n it *e see the Great Te+ple in the
foreground *ith the +odern roofs of t*o of its colonnades, de&ised in
order to protect the sculptures beneath the+, the great trilithon gate
leading to the upper court, and the entrance to the ca&e-shrine of
!+en-$V, *ith the niches of the kings on either side, i++ediately at the
foot of the cliff' "n the +iddle distance is the duller for+ of the H"th
%ynasty te+ple, *ith its rectangular platfor+, the ra+p leading up
to it, and the pyra+id in the centre of it, surrounded by pillars,
half-e+erging fro+ the great heaps of sand and dQbris all around' The
background of cliffs and hills, as seen in the photograph, *ill ser&e to
gi&e so+e idea of the beauty of the surroundings,--an arid beauty, it is
true, for all is desert' There is not a blade of &egetation nearK all
is sal+on-red in colour beneath a sky of ineffable blue, and against the
red cliffs the *hite te+ple stands out in &i&id contrast'
The second illustration gi&es a nearer &ie* of the great trilithon
gate in the upper court, at the head of the ra+p' The long hill of %raD
!bu-Dl-?egga is seen bending a*ay north*ard behind the gate'
4"llustration. 7R0'jpg THE >PPE$ CO>$T !?% T$"#"THO? G!TE8
Of The H&iiith %ynasty Te+ple !t %Nk El-Bahari' !bout /322
B'C'
This is the fa+ous gate on *hich the jealous Thoth+es """ chiselled out
HatshepsuDs na+e in the royal cartouches and inserted his o*n in
its placeK but he forgot to alter the gender of the pronouns in the
acco+panying inscription, *hich therefore reads L)ing Thoth+es """, she
+ade this +onu+ent to her father !+en'L
!+ong Prof' ?a&illeDs disco&eries here one of the +ost i+portant is that
of the altar in a s+all court to the north, *hich, as the inscription
says, *as +ade in honour of the god $V-Har+achis Lof beautiful *hite
stone of !nu'L "t is of the finest *hite li+estone kno*n' Here also *ere
found the car&ed ebony doors of a shrine, no* in the Cairo Buseu+' One
of the +ost beautiful parts of the te+ple is the hrine of !nubis, *ith
its splendidly preser&ed paintings and perfect colu+ns and roof of
*hite li+estone' The effect of the pure *hite stone and si+plicity of
architecture is al+ost Hellenic'
The hrine of Hathor has been kno*n since the ti+e of Bariette, but in
connection *ith it so+e interesting disco&eries ha&e been +ade during
the eCca&ation of the H"th %ynasty te+ple' "n the court bet*een the t*o
te+ples *ere found a large nu+ber of s+all &oti&e offerings, consisting
of scarabs, beads, little figures of co*s and *o+en, etc', of blue
glaGed FfaXenceF and rough pottery, bronGe and *ood, and blue glaGed
*are ears, eyes, and plaAues *ith figures of the sacred co*, and other
s+all objects of the sa+e nature' These are e&idently the eC-&otos of
the H@"""th %ynasty fellahZn to the goddess Hathor in the rock-shrine
abo&e the court' (hen the shrine *as full or the little eC-&otos broken,
the sacristans thre* the+ o&er the *all into the court belo*, *hich thus
beca+e a kind of dust-heap' O&er this heap the sand and dQbris gradually
collected, and thus they *ere preser&ed' The objects found are of
considerable interest to anthropological science'
The Great Te+ple *as built, as *e ha&e said, in honour of Thoth+es "
and "", and the deities !+en-$V and Hathor' Bore especially it *as the
funerary chapel of Thoth+es "' His to+b *as eCca&ated, not in the %raD
!bu-l-?egga, *hich *as doubtless no* too near the capital city and not
in a sufficiently dignified position of aloofness fro+ the co++on herd,
but at the end of the long &alley of the (adiyNn, behind the cliff-hill
abo&e %Nr el-Bahari' Hence the ne* te+ple *as oriented in the direction
of his to+b' "++ediately behind the te+ple, on the other side of the
hill, is the to+b *hich *as disco&ered by #epsius and cleared in /:2R
for Br' Theodore ?' %a&is by Br' Ho*ard Carter, then chief inspector of
antiAuities at Thebes' "ts gallery is of &ery s+all di+ensions, and it
*inds about in the hill in corkscre* fashion like the to+b of !ah+es at
!by-dos' O*ing to its eCtraordinary length, the heat and foul air in the
depths of the to+b *ere al+ost insupportable and caused great difficulty
to the eCca&ators' (hen the sarcophagus-cha+ber *as at length reached,
it *as found to contain the e+pty sarcophagi of Thoth+es " and of
Hatshepsu' The bodies had been re+o&ed for safe-keeping in the ti+e of
the HH"st %ynasty, that of Thoth+es " ha&ing been found *ith those
of et^ " and $a+ses "" in the fa+ous pit at %Nr el-Bahari, *hich *as
disco&ered by B' Baspero in /99/' Thoth+es " see+s to ha&e had another
and +ore elaborate to+b I?o' 79J in the @alley of the To+bs of the
)ings, *hich *as disco&ered by B' #oret in /9:9' "ts frescoes had been
destroyed by the infiltration of *ater'
The fashion of royal burial in the great &alley behind %Nr el-Bahari
*as follo*ed during the H@"""th, H"Hth, and HHth %ynasties' Here in the
eastern branch of the (adiyNn, no* called the FBibVn el-BulWkF, Lthe
To+bs of the )ings,L the greater nu+ber of the +ightiest Theban Pharaohs
*ere buried' "n the *estern &alley rested t*o of the kings of the
H@"""th %ynasty, *ho desired e&en +ore re+ote burial-places, !+enhetep
""" and !i' The for+er chose for his last ho+e a +ost kingly site'
!ncient kings had raised great pyra+ids of artificial stone o&er their
gra&es' !+enhetep, perhaps the greatest and +ost po*erful Pharaoh of
the+ all, chose to ha&e a natural pyra+id for his gra&e, a +ountain for
his tu+ulus' The illustration sho*s us the to+b of this +onarch, opening
out of the side of one of the +ost i+posing hills in the (estern @alley'
?o other king but !+enhetep rested beneath this hill, *hich thus +arks
his gra&e and his only'
"t is in the Eastern @alley, the @alley of the To+bs of the )ings
properly speaking, that the to+bs of Thoth+es " and Hatshepsu lie, and
here the +ost recent disco&eries ha&e been +ade' "t is a desolate spot'
!s *e co+e o&er the hill fro+ %Nr el-Bahari *e see belo* us in the
glaring sunshine a rocky canon, *ith sides so+eti+es sheer cliff,
so+eti+es sloped by great falls of rock in past ages' !t the botto+
of these slopes the sAuare openings of the +any royal to+bs can be
descried' 4ee illustration'8 <ar belo* *e see the for+s of tourists
and the to+b-guards acco+panying the+, +o&ing in and out of the openings
like ants going in and out of an antsD nest' ?othing is heard but the
occasional cry of a kite and the ceaseless rhyth+ical throbbing of the
eChaust-pipe of the electric light engine in the unfinished to+b of
$a+ses H"' !bo&e and around are the red desert hills' The Egyptians
called it LThe Place of Eternity'L
4"llustration. 732'jpg THE TOBB-BO>?T!"? O< !BE?HETE< """, "? THE
(ETE$? @!##E,, THEBE'8
"n this &alley so+e re+arkable disco&eries ha&e been +ade during the
last fe* years' "n /9:9 B' GrQbaut disco&ered the to+b of !+enhetep
"", in *hich *as found the +u++y of the king, intact, lying in its
sarcophagus in the depths of the to+b' The royal body no* lies there
for all to see' The to+b is lighted *ith electricity, as are all the
principal to+bs of the kings' !t the head of the sarcophagus is a single
la+p, and, *hen the party of &isitors is collected in silence around the
place of death, all the lights are turned out, and then the single
light is s*itched on, sho*ing the royal head illu+inated against the
surrounding blackness' The effect is indescribably *eird and i+pressi&e'
The body has only t*ice been re+o&ed fro+ the to+b since its burial, the
second ti+e *hen it *as for a brief space taken up into the sunlight to
be photographed by Br'' Carter, in =anuary, /:21' The te+porary re+o&al
*as carefully carried out, the body of his Bajesty being borne up
through the passages of the to+b on the shoulders of the "talian
electric light *ork+en, preceded and follo*ed by i+passi&e !rab
candle-bearers' The *ork+en *ere +ost re&erent in their handling of the
body of LF il gran rQF,L as they called hi+'
"n the to+b *ere found so+e &ery interesting objects, including a +odel
boat Iafter*ards stolenJ, across *hich lay the body of a *o+an' This
body no* lies, *ith others found close by, in a side cha+ber of the
to+b' One +ay be that of Hatshepsu' The *alls of the to+b-cha+ber are
painted to rese+ble papyrus, and on the+ are *ritten chapters of the
LBook of (hat "s in the >nder*orld,L for the guidance of the royal
ghost'
"n /:21-7 Br' Theodore %a&is eCca&ated the to+b of Thoth+es "@' "t
yielded a rich har&est of antiAuities belonging to the funeral state of
the king, including a chariot *ith sides of e+bossed and gilded leather,
decorated *ith representations of the kingDs *arlike deeds, and +uch
fine blue pottery, all of *hich are no* in the Cairo Buseu+' The
to+b-gallery returns upon itself, describing a cur&e' !n interesting
point *ith regard to it is that it had e&idently been &iolated e&en in
the short ti+e bet*een the reigns of its o*ner and Hore+-heb, probably
in the period of anarchy *hich pre&ailed at Thebes during the reign
of the heretic !khunatenK for in one of the cha+bers is a hieratic
inscription recording the repair of the to+b in the eighth year of
Hore+heb by Baya, superintendent of *orks in the To+bs of the )ings' "t
reads as follo*s. L"n the eighth year, the third +onth of su++er, under
the Bajesty of )ing Tjeser-khepru-$V otp-n-$V, on of the un, Hore+heb
Beria+en, his Bajesty I#ife, health, and *ealth unto hi+^J co++anded
that orders should be sent unto the <anbearer on the )ingDs #eft Hand,
the )ingDs cribe and O&erseer of the Treasury, the O&erseer of the
(orks in the Place of Eternity, the #eader of the <esti&als of !+en
in )arnak, Baya, son of the judge !ui, born of the #ady >eret, that he
should rene* the burial of )ing Ben-khepru-$V, deceased, in the !ugust
Habitation in (estern Thebes'L Ben-khepru-$V *as the preno+en or
throne-na+e of Thoth+es "@' Tied round a pillar in the to+b is still a
length of the actual rope used by the thie&es for crossing the chas+,
*hich, as in +any of the to+bs here, *as left open in the gallery to bar
the *ay to plunderers' The +u++y of the king *as found in the to+b of
!+enhetep "", and is no* at Cairo'
The disco&ery of the to+b of Thoth+es " and Hat-shepsu has already been
described' "n /:23 Br' %a&is +ade his latest find, the to+b of "uaa
and Tuaa, the father and +other of Oueen Tii, the fa+ous consort of
!+enhetep """ and +other of !khunaten the heretic' $eaders of Prof'
BasperoDs history *ill re+e+ber that "uaa and Tuaa are +entioned on one
of the large +e+orial scarabs of !+enhetep """, *hich co++e+orates his
+arriage' The to+b has yielded an al+ost incredible treasure of funerary
furniture, besides the actual +u++ies of TiiDs parents, including a
chariot o&erlaid *ith gold' Gold o&erlay of great thickness is found on
e&erything, boCes, chairs, etc' "t *as no *onder that Egypt see+ed the
land of gold to the !siatics, and that e&en the )ing of Babylon begs
this &ery Pharaoh !+enhetep to send hi+ gold, in one of the letters
found at Tell el-!+arna, Lfor gold is as *ater in thy land'L "t is
probable that Egypt really attained the height of her +aterial *ealth
and prosperity in the reign of !+enhetep """' Certainly her do+inion
reached its farthest li+its in his ti+e, and his influence *as felt fro+
the Tigris to the udan' He hunted lions for his pleasure in ?orthern
Besopota+ia, and he built te+ples at =ebel Barkal beyond %ongola' (e see
the e&idence of la&ish *ealth in the furniture of the to+b of "uaa and
Tuaa' ,et, fine as are +any of these gold-o&erlaid and o&erladen objects
of the H@"""th %ynasty, they ha&e neither the good taste nor the char+
of the beautiful je*els fro+ the H""th %ynasty to+bs at %ashWr' "t is
+ere &ulgar *ealth' There is too +uch gold thro*n about' L<or gold is as
*ater in thy land'L "n three hundred yearsD ti+e Egypt *as to kno* *hat
po&erty +eant, *hen the poor priest-kings of the HH"st %ynasty could
hardly keep body and soul together and +ake a co+parati&ely decent sho*
as Pharaohs of Egypt' Then no doubt the latter-day Thebans sighed for
the good old ti+es of the H@"""th %ynasty, *hen their city ruled a
considerable part of !frica and (estern !sia and garnered their riches
into her coffers' But the days of the H""th %ynasty had really been
better still' Then there *as not so +uch *ealth, but *hat there *as Iand
there *as as +uch gold then, tooJ *as used sparingly, tastefully, and
si+ply' The H""th %ynasty, not the H@"""th, *as the real Golden !ge of
Egypt'
<ro+ the funeral panoply of a to+b like that of "uaa and Tuaa *e can
obtain so+e idea of the po+p and state of !+enhetep """' But the re+ains
of his Theban palace, *hich ha&e been disco&ered and eCca&ated by Br' C'
Tytus and Br' P' E' ?e*berry, do not bear out this idea of +agnificence'
"t is Auite possible that the palace *as +erely a pleasure house,
erected &ery hastily and destined to fall to pieces *hen its o*ner tired
of it or died, like the +any palaces of the late )hedi&e "s+ail' "t
stood on the border of an artificial lake, *hereon the Pharaoh and his
consort Tii sailed to take their pleasure in golden barks' This is no*
the culti&ated rectangular space of land kno*n as the Birket HabW, *hich
is still surrounded by the re+ains of the e+bank+ent built to retain its
*aters, and beco+es a lake during the inundation' On the *estern shore
of this lake !+enhetep erected the Lstately pleasure do+e,L the
re+ains of *hich still co&er the sandy tract kno*n as el-Balkata, Lthe
alt-pans,L south of the great te+ple of BedZnet HabW' These re+ains
consist +erely of the foundations and lo*est *all-courses of a
co+plicated and ra+bling building of +any cha+bers, constructed of
co++on unburnt brick and plastered *ith *hite stucco on *alls and
floors, on *hich *ere painted beautiful frescoes of fighting bulls,
birds of the air, *ater-fo*l, fish-ponds, etc', in +uch the sa+e style
as the frescoes of Tell el-!+arna eCecuted in the neCt reign' There
*ere s+all pillared halls, the colu+ns of *hich *ere of *ood, +ounted
on bases of *hite li+estone' The +ajority still re+ain in position' "n
se&eral cha+bers there are s+all daXses, and in one the re+ains of a
throne, built of brick and +ud co&ered *ith plaster and stucco, upon
*hich the Pharaoh !+enhetep sat' This is the palace of hi+ *ho+ the
Greeks called Be+non, *ho ruled Egypt *hen "srael *as in bondage and
*hen the dynasty of Binos reigned in Crete' Here by the side of his
pleasure-lake the +ost po*erful of Egyptian Pharaohs *hiled a*ay his
ti+e during the su++er heats' E&idently the building *as intended to be
of the lightest construction, and ne&er +eant to lastK but to our ideas
it see+s odd that an Egyptian Pharaoh should li&e in a +ud palace' uch
a building is, ho*e&er, Auite suited to the cli+ate of Egypt, as are the
+odern crude brick d*ellings of the fellahZn' "n the ruins of the
palace *ere found se&eral s+all objects of interest, and close by *as
an ancient glass +anufactory of !+enhetep """Ds ti+e, *here +uch of the
characteristic beautifully coloured and &ariegated opaAue glass of the
period *as +ade'
4"llustration. 730'jpg THE TOBB-H"## O< HE)H D!B% E#-)>B?!, THEBE'8
The to+bs of the +agnates of !+enhetep """Ds reign and of the reigns
of his i++ediate predecessors *ere eCca&ated, as has been said, on the
eastern slope of the hill of hNkh D!bd el-)Wrna, *here *as the earliest
Theban necropolis' ?o doubt +any of the early to+bs of the ti+e of the
@"th %ynasty *ere appropriated and re+odelled by the H@"""th %ynasty
+agnates' (e ha&e an instance of ti+eDs re&enge in this +atter, in the
case of the to+b of "+adua, a great priestly official of the ti+e of
the HHth %ynasty' This to+b pre&iously belonged to an H@"""th %ynasty
*orthy, but "+adua appropriated it three hundred years later and co&ered
up all its frescoes *ith the +uch begilt decoration fashionable in his
period' Perhaps the H@"""th %ynasty o*ner had stolen it fro+ an original
o*ner of the ti+e of the @"th %ynasty' The to+b has lately been cleared
out by Br' ?e*berry'
Buch *ork of the sa+e kind has been done here of late years by Bessrs'
?e*berry and $' #' Bond, in succession' To both *e are indebted for the
eCca&ation of +any kno*n to+bs, as *ell as for the disco&ery of +any
others pre&iously unkno*n' !+ong the for+er *as that of ebekhetep,
cleared by Br' ?e*berry' e-bekhetep *as an official of the ti+e of
Thoth+es """' <ro+ his to+b, and fro+ others in the sa+e hill, ca+e +any
years ago the fine frescoes sho*n in the illustration, *hich are a+ong
the +ost &alued treasures of the Egyptian depart+ent of the British
Buseu+' They are typical speci+ens of the *all-decoration of an H@"""th
%ynasty to+b' On one +ay be seen a bald-headed peasant, *ith staff in
hand, pulling an ear of corn fro+ the standing crop in order to see if
it is ripe' He is the LChief $eaper,L and abo&e hi+ is a prayer that the
Lgreat god in hea&enL +ay increase the crop' To the right of hi+ is a
charioteer standing beside a car and reining back a pair of horses, one
black, the other bay' Belo* is another charioteer *ith t*o *hite
horses' He sits on the floor of the car *ith his back to the+, eating
or resting, *hile they nibble the branches of a tree close by' !nother
scene is that of a scribe keeping tally of offerings brought to the
to+b, *hile fellah+ are bringing flocks of geese and other fo*l, so+e in
crates' The inscription abo&e is apparently addressed by the goose-herd
to the +an *ith the crates' "t reads. LHasten thy feet because of the
geese^ Hearken^ thou kno*est not the neCt +inute *hat has been said
to thee^L !bo&e, a reXs *ith a stick bids other peasants sAuat on the
ground before addressing the scribe, and he is saying to the+. Lit ye
do*n to talk'L The third scene is in another styleK on it +ay be seen
e+ites bringing offerings of &ases of gold, sil&er, and copper to the
royal presence, bo*ing the+sel&es to the ground and kissing the dust
before the throne' The fidelity and accuracy *ith *hich the racial type
of the tribute-bearers is gi&en is +ost eCtraordinaryK e&ery face
see+s a portrait, and each one +ight be seen any day no* in the =e*ish
Auarters of (hitechapel'
4"llustration. 739'jpg (all-Painting fro+ a To+b8
The first t*o paintings are representati&e of a &ery co++on style of
fresco-pictures in these to+bs' The care *ith *hich the ani+als
are depicted is re+arkable' Possibly one of the finest Egyptian
representations of an ani+al is the fresco of a goat in the to+b of
Gen-!+en, disco&ered by Br' Bond' There is e&en an atte+pt here at
chiaroscuro, *hich is unkno*n to Egyptian art generally, eCcept at Tell
el-!+arna' E&idently the Egyptian painters reached the apogee of
their art to*ards the end of the H@"""th %ynasty' The third, the
representation of tribute-bearers, is of a type also *ell kno*n at
this period' "n all the chief to+bs *e ha&e processions of Egyptians,
(esterners, ?ortherners, Easterners, and outherners, bringing tribute
to the Pharaoh' The ?orth is represented by the e+ites, the East by the
Punites I*hen they occurJ, the outh by negroes, the (est by the )eftiu
or people of Crete and Cyprus' The representations of the last-na+ed
people ha&e beco+e of the &ery highest interest during the last fe*
years, on account of the disco&eries in Crete, *hich ha&e re&ealed to
us the state and ci&iliGation of these &ery )eftiu' Bessrs' E&ans
and Halbherr ha&e disco&ered at )nossos and Phaistos the cities and
palace-te+ples of the king *ho sent forth their a+bassadors to far-a*ay
Egypt *ith gifts for the +ighty PharaohK these a+bassadors *ere painted
in the to+bs of their hosts as representati&e of the Auarter of the
*orld fro+ *hich they ca+e'
The t*o chief Egyptian representations of these people, *ho since they
li&ed in Greece +ay be called Greeks, though their +ore proper title
*ould be LPe-lasgians,L are to be found in the to+bs of $ekh+arV and
en+ut, the for+er a &iGier under Thoth+es """, the latter the
architect of HatshepsuDs te+ple at %Nr el-Bahari' en+utDs to+b is a
ne* redisco&ery' "t *as kno*n, as $ekh+arVDs *as, in the early days of
Egyptological science, and Prisse dD!&ennes copied its paintings' "t *as
after*ards lost sight of until redisco&ered by Br' ?e*berry and Prof'
teindorff'
4"llustration. 702'jpg <$ECO "? THE TOBB O< E?B>T !T THEBE'8 !bout
/322 B'C'
The to+b of $ekh+arV I?o' 73J is *ell kno*n to e&ery &isitor to Thebes,
but it is difficult to get at that of en+ut I?o' //2JK it lies at the
top of the hill round to the left and o&erlooking %Nr el-Bahari,
an appropriate place for it, by the *ay' "n so+e *ays en+utDs
representations are +ore interesting than $ekh+arVDs' They are +ore
easily seen, since they are no* in the open air, the fore hall of the
to+b ha&ing been ruinedK and they are better preser&ed, since they ha&e
not been subjected to a century of inspection *ith naked candles and
pa*ing *ith greasy hands, as ha&e $ekh+arVDs frescoes' <urther, there
is no possibility of +istaking *hat they represent' <ro+ right to
left, *alking in procession, *e see the Binoan gift-bearers fro+ Crete,
carrying in their hands and on their shoulders great cups of gold and
sil&er, in shape like the fa+ous gold cups found at @aphio in #akonia,
but +uch larger, also a e*er of gold and sil&er eCactly like one of
bronGe disco&ered by Br' E&ans t*o years ago at )nossos, and a huge
copper jug *ith four ring-handles round the sides' !ll these &ases are
specifically and definitely Bycenaean, or rather, follo*ing the ne*
ter+inology, Binoan' They are of Greek +anufacture and are carried on
the shoulders of Pelasgian Greeks' The bearers *ear the usual Bycenaean
costu+e, high boots and a gaily orna+ented kilt, and little else, just
as *e see it depicted in the fresco of the Cupbearer at )nossos and
in other Greek representations' The coiffure, possibly the +ost
characteristic thing about the Bycenaean Greeks, is faithfully
represented by the Egyptians both here and in $ekh+arVDs to+b' The
Bycenaean +en allo*ed their hair to gro* to its full natural length,
like *o+en, and *ore it partly hanging do*n the back, partly tied up
in a knot or plait Ithe FkepasF of the dandy Paris in the "liadJ on the
cro*n of the head' This *as the uni&ersal fashion, and the )eftiu are
consistently depicted by the H@"""th %ynasty Egyptians as follo*ing it'
The faces in the en+ut fresco are not so *ell portrayed as those in the
$ekh+arV fresco' There it is e&ident that the first three a+bassadors
are faithfully depicted, as the portraits are +arked' The procession
ad&ances fro+ left to right' The first +an, Lthe Great Chief of the
)efti and the "sles of the Green ea,L is young, and has a re+arkably
s+all +outh *ith an a+iable eCpression' His co+pleCion is fair rather
than dark, but his hair is dark bro*n' His lieutenant, the neCt in
order, is of a different type,--elderly, *ith a +ost forbidding &isage,
$o+an nose, and nutcracker ja*s' Bost of the others are &ery +uch
alike,--young, dark in co+pleCion, and *ith long black hair hanging
belo* their *aists and t*isted up into fantastic knots and curls on the
tops of their heads' One, carrying on his shoulder a great sil&er &ase
*ith cur&ing handles and in one hand a dagger of early European BronGe
!ge type, is looking back to hear so+e re+ark of his neCt co+panion'
!ny one of these gift-bearers +ight ha&e sat for the portrait of
the )nossian Cupbearer, the fresco disco&ered by Br' E&ans in the
palace-te+ple of BinosK he has the sa+e ruddy bro*n co+pleCion, the sa+e
long black hair dressed in the sa+e fashion, the sa+e parti-coloured
kilt, and he bears his &ase in +uch the sa+e *ay' (e ha&e only to allo*
for the difference of Egyptian and Bycenaean *ays of dra*ing' There is
no doubt *hate&er that these )eftiu of the Egyptians *ere Cretans of the
Binoan !ge' They used to be considered Phoenicians, but this &ie* *as
long ago eCploded' They are not e+ites, and that is Auite enough'
?either are they !siatics of any kind' They are purely and si+ply
Bycenaean, or rather Binoan, Greeks of the pre-Hellenic period--Pelasgi,
that is to say'
Probably no disco&ery of +ore far-reaching i+portance to our kno*ledge
of the history of the *orld generally and of our o*n culture especially
has e&er been +ade than the finding of Bycen by chlie+ann, and
the further finds that ha&e resulted therefro+, cul+inating in the
disco&eries of Br' !rthur E&ans at )nossos' ?aturally, these disco&eries
are of eCtraordinary interest to us, for they ha&e re&ealed the
beginnings and first bloo+ of the European ci&iliGation of to-day' <or
our culture-ancestors are neither the Egyptians, nor the !ssyrians, nor
the Hebre*s, but the Hellenes, and they, the !ryan-Greeks, deri&ed +ost
of their ci&iliGation fro+ the pre-Hellenic people *ho+ they found in
the land before the+, the Pelasgi or LBycenanL Greeks, LBinoans,L as *e
no* call the+, the )eftiu of the Egyptians' These are the ancient Greeks
of the Heroic !ge, to *hich the legends of the Hellenes referK in their
day *ere fought the *ars of Troy and of the e&en against Thebes, in
their day the tragedy of the !tridse *as played out to its end, in their
day the *ise Binos ruled )nossos and the F`geanF' !nd of all the e&ents
*hich are at the back of these legends *e kno* nothing' The hiQroglyphed
tablets of the pre-Hellenic Greeks lie before us, but *e cannot read
the+K *e can only see that the Binoan *riting in +any *ays rese+bled
the Egyptian, thus again confir+ing our i+pression of the original early
connection of the t*o cultures'
"n &ie* of this connection, and the kno*n close relations bet*een Crete
and Egypt, fro+ the end of the H""th %ynasty to the end of the H@"""th,
*e +ight ha&e hoped to reco&er at )nossos a bilingual inscription in
Cretan and Egyptian hieroglyphs *hich *ould gi&e us the key to the
Binoan script and tell us *hat *e so dearly *ish to kno*' But this hope
has not yet been realiGed' T*o Egyptian inscriptions ha&e been found at
)nossos, but no bilingual one' ! list of )eftian na+es is preser&ed in
the British Buseu+ upon an Egyptian *riting-board fro+ Thebes *ith *hat
is perhaps a copy of a single Cretan hieroglyph, a &aseK but again,
nothing bilingual' ! list of L)eftian *ordsL occurs at the head of a
papyrus, also in the British Buseu+, but they appear to be nonsense,
a +ere i+itation of the sounds of a strange tongue' till *e need
not despair of finding the +uch desired Cretan-Egyptian bilingual
inscription yet' Perhaps the double teCt of a treaty bet*een Crete and
Egypt, like that of $a+ses "" *ith the Hittites, +ay co+e to light'
Bean*hile *e can only do our best *ith the +eans at our hand to trace
out the history of the relations of the oldest European culture *ith
the ancient ci&iliGation of Egypt' The to+b-paintings at Thebes are &ery
i+portant +aterial' Eor it is due to the+ that the &oice of the doubter
has finally ceased to be heard, and that no* no archaeologist Auestions
that the Egyptians *ere in direct co++unication *ith the Cretan
Bycenans in the ti+e of the H@"""th %ynasty, so+e fifteen hundred years
before Christ, for no one doubts that the pictures of the )eftiu are
pictures of Bycenaeans'
!s *e ha&e seen, *e kno* that this connection *as far older than the
ti+e of the H@"""th %ynasty, but it is during that ti+e and the Hyksos
period that *e ha&e the clearest docu+entary proof of its eCistence,
fro+ the statuette of !bnub and the alabastron lid of )ing )hian,
found at )nossos, do*n to the Bycenaean pottery frag+ents found at Tell
el-!+arna, a site *hich has been utterly abandoned since the ti+e of
the heretic !khunaten IB'C' /R72J, so that there is no possibility of
anything found there being later than his ti+e' That the connection
eCisted as late as the ti+e of the HHth %ynasty *e kno* fro+ the
representations of golden FBdgelkannenF or false-necked &ases of
Bycenaean for+ in the to+b of $a+ses """ in the BibVn el-BulWk, and of
golden cups of @aphio type in the to+b of "+adua, already +entioned'
This brings the connection do*n to about /232 B'C'
!fter that date *e cannot hope to find any certain e&idence of
connection, for by that ti+e the Bycenaean ci&iliGation had probably
co+e to an end' "n the days of the H""th and H@"""th %ynasties a great
and splendid po*er e&idently eCisted in Crete, and sent its peaceful
a+bassadors, the )eftiu *ho are represented in the Theban to+bs, to
Egypt' But *ith the H"Hth %ynasty the na+e of the )eftiu disappears fro+
Egyptian records, and their place is taken by a congeries of *arring
seafaring tribes, *hose na+es as gi&en by the Egyptians see+ to be for+s
of tribal and place na+es *ell kno*n to us in the Greece of later days'
(e find the !kai&asha IF!CaifolF, !chaiansJ, hakalsha Iagalassians of
PisidiaJ, Tursha ITylissians of CretePJ, and hardana IardiansJ allied
*ith the #ibyans and Bashauash IBaCyesJ in a land attack upon Egypt in
the days of Beneptah, the successor of $a+ses ""--just as in the later
days of the HH@"th %ynasty the ?orthern pirates &isited the !frican
shore of the Bediterranean, and in alliance *ith the predatory #ibyans
attacked Egypt'
Prof' Petrie has lately 4History of Egypt, iii, pp' "ll, "/1'8 proffered
an alternati&e &ie*, *hich *ould +ake all these tribes Tunisians and
!lgerians, thus disposing of the identification of the !kai&asha *ith
the !chaians, and +aking the+ the ancient representati&es of the to*n
of el-!gh*at I$o+an !gbiaJ in Tunis' But se&eral difficulties +ight be
pointed out *hich are in the *ay of an acceptance of this &ie*, and it
is probable that the older identifications *ith Greek tribes +ust still
be retained, so that BeneptahDs !kai&asha are e&idently the ancient
representati&es of the !chaiI&Jans, the !chi&i of the $o+an poets' The
ter+inations FshaF and FnaF, *hich appear in these na+es, are +erely
ethnic and locati&e affiCes belonging to the !sianic language syste+
spoken by these tribes at that ti+e, to *hich the language of the Binoan
Cretans I*hich is *ritten in the )nossian hieroglyphsJ belonged' They
eCisted in ancient #ycian in the for+s FaGGiF and FnnaF, and *e find
the+ enshrined in the !sia Binor place-na+es ter+inating in FassosF
and FndaF, as Halikarnassos, agalassos Ihakalasha in BeneptahDs
inscriptionJ, Oroanda, and #abraunda I*hich, as *e ha&e seen, is the
sa+e as the 4Greek *ord8, a *ord of pre-Hellenic origin, both +eaning
LPlace of the %ouble !CeLJ The identification of these FshaF and FnalF
ter+inations in the Egyptian transliterations of the foreign na+es, *ith
the #ycian affiCes referred to, *as +ade so+e fi&e years ago,; and is
no* generally accepted' (e ha&e, then, to find the eAui&alents of
these na+es, to strike off the final ter+ination, as in the case of
!kai&a-sha, *here !kai&a only is the real na+e, and this see+s to be
the Egyptian eAui&alent of F!CaifolF, !chi&i' "t is strange to +eet *ith
this great na+e on an Egyptian +onu+ent of the thirteenth century B'C'
But yet not so strange, *hen *e recollect that it is precisely to that
period that Greek legend refers the *ar of Troy, *hich *as an attack
by Greek tribes fro+ all parts of the `gean upon the !sianic city
at Hissarlik in the Troad, eCactly parallel to the attacks of the
?ortherners on Egypt' !nd Ho+er preser&es +any a re+iniscence of early
Greek &isits, peaceful and the re&erse, to the coast of Egypt at this
period' The reader *ill ha&e noticed that one no longer treats the siege
of Troy as a +yth' To do so *ould be to eChibit a +ost uncritical +indK
e&en the legends of )ing !rthur ha&e a historic foundation, and those of
the ?ibelungen are still +ore probable'
; ee Hall, Oldest Ci&iliGation of Greece, p' /69e'
4"llustration. 709'jpg Page "+age to display Greek *ords8
4"llustration. 70:'jpg Page "+age to display Greek *ords8
"n the eighth year of $a+ses """ the second ?orthern attack *as +ade,
by the Pulesta IFPelishti+F, PhilistinesJ, Tjakaray, hakalasha
IagalassiansJ, @ashasha, and %anauna or %aanau, in alliance *ith ?orth
yrian tribes' The %anauna are e&idently the ancient representati&es of
the F!a&aoZF, the %anaans *ho for+ed the bulk of the Greek ar+y against
Troy under the leadership of the long-haired !chaians, 4Greek *ords8
Ilike the )eftiuJ' The @ashasha ha&e been identified by the *riter *ith
the !Cians, the 4Greek *ord8 of Crete' Prof' Petrie co+pares the na+e
of the Tjakaray *ith that of the I+odernJ place Yakro in Crete'
"dentifications *ith +odern place-na+es are of doubtful &alueK
for instance, *e cannot but hold that Prof' Petrie errs greatly in
identifying the na+e of the Pidasa Ianother tribe +entioned in $a+ses
""Ds ti+eJ *ith that of the ri&er Pidias in Cyprus' LPidiasL is a purely
+odern corruption of the ancient Pediseus, *hich +eans the Lplain-ri&erL
Ibecause it flo*s through the central plain of the islandJ, fro+ the
Greek 4Greek *ord8' "f, then, *e +ake the Pidasa Cypriotes *e assu+e
that pure Greek *as spoken in Cyprus as early as //22 b' c, *hich is
highly i+probable' The Pidasa *ere probably #e-leges IPedasiansJK the
na+e of Pisidia +ay be the sa+e, by +etathesis' Pedasos is a na+e al*ays
connected *ith the +uch *andering tribe of the #eleges, *here-e&er they
are found in #akonia or in !sia Binor' (e belie&e the+ to ha&e been
kno*n to the Egyptians as Pidasa' The identification of the Tjakaray
*ith Yakro is &ery te+pting' The na+e *as for+erly identified *ith
that of the Teukrians, but the & in the *ord Te*pot lias al*ays been a
stu+bling-block in the *ay' Perhaps Yakro is neither +ore nor less than
the Tetkpoc-na+e, since the legendary Teucer, the archer, *as connected
*ith the eastern or Eteokretan end of Crete, *here Yakro lies' "n
Bycenan ti+es Yakro *as an i+portant place, so that the Tjakaray +ay
be the Teukroi, after all, and Yakro +ay preser&e the na+e' !t any rate,
this identification is +ost alluring and, taken in conjunction *ith
the other cu+ulati&e identifications, is &ery probableK but the
identification of the Pida *ith the ri&er Pedius in Cyprus is
neither alluring nor probable'
"n the ti+e of $a+ses "" so+e of these !sia Binor tribes had +arched
against Egypt as allies of the Hittites' (e find a+ong the+ the #uka or
#ycians, the %ardenui I%ardanians, *ho +ay possibly ha&e been at that
ti+e in the Troad, or else*here, for all these tribes *ere certainly
+igratoryJ, and the Basa Iperhaps the BysiansJ' (ith the Cretans of
$a+ses "llDs ti+e +ust be reckoned the Pulesta, *ho are certainly the
Philistines, then +ost probably in course of their traditional +igration
fro+ Crete to Palestine' "n Philistia recent eCca&ations by Br' (elch
ha&e disclosed the un+istakable presence of a late Bycenan culture,
and *e can only ascribe this to the Philistines, *ho *ere of Cretan
origin'
Thus *e see that all these ?orthern tribal na+es hold together *ith
re+arkable persistence, and in fact refuse to be identified *ith any
tribes but those of !sia Binor and the `gean' "n the+ *e see the broken
re+nants of the old Binoan I)eftianJ po*er, dri&en hither and thither
across the seas by intestinal feuds, and L*inding the skein of grie&ous
*ars till e&ery +an of the+ perished,L as Ho+er says of the heroes after
the siege of Troy' These *ere in fact the *anderings of the heroes, the
period of Ftur+ und %rangF *hich succeeded the great ci&iliGed epoch of
Binos and his thalassocracy, of )nossos, Phaistos, and the )eftius'
On the *alls of the te+ple of BedZnet HabW, $a+ses """ depicted the
portraits of the conAuered heroes *ho had fallen before the Egyptian
onslaught, and he called the+ heroes, FtuherF in Egyptian, fully
recogniGing their Berserker gallantry' !bo&e all in interest are the
portraits of the Philistines, those Greeks *ho at this &ery ti+e seiGed
part of Palestine I*hich takes its na+e fro+ the+J, and continued to
eCist there as a separate people Ilike the ?or+ans in <ranceJ for at
least t*o centuries' Goliath the giant *as, then, a GreekK certainly he
*as of Cretan descent, and so a Pelasgian'
uch are the conclusions to *hich +odern disco&ery in Crete has i+pelled
us *ith regard to the pictures of the )eftiu at hNkh D!bd el-)Wrna' "t
is indeed a ne* chapter in the history of the relations of ancient Egypt
*ith the outside *orld that %r' !rthur E&ans has opened for us' !nd in
this connection so+e !+erican *ork +ust not be o&erlooked' !n eCpedition
sent out by the >ni&ersity of Pennsyl&ania, under Biss Harriet Boyd,
has disco&ered +uch of i+portance to Bycenan study in the ruins of an
ancient to*n at Gournia in Crete, east of )nossos' Here, ho*e&er, little
has been found that *ill bear directly on the Auestion of relations
bet*een Bycenaean Greece and Egypt'
The Theban nQcropoles of the ?e* E+pire are by no +eans eChausted by a
description of the To+bs of the )ings and hNkh D!bd el-)WrnaK but fe*
ne* disco&eries ha&e been +ade any*here eCcept in the picturesAue &alley
of the To+bs of the Oueens, south of hNkh D!bd el-)Wrna' Here the
"talian Egyptologist, Prof' chiaparelli, has lately disco&ered and
eCca&ated so+e &ery fine to+bs of the H"Hth and HHth %ynasties' The best
is that of Oueen ?efertari, one of the *i&es of $a+ses ""' The colouring
of the reliefs upon these *alls is eCtraordinarily bright, and the
portraits of the Aueen, *ho has a &ery beautiful face, *ith aAuiline
nose, are *onderfully preser&ed' he *as of the dark type, *hile another
Aueen, Titi by na+e, *ho *as buried close by, *as fair, and had a
retroussQ nose' Prof' chiaparelli also disco&ered here the to+bs of
so+e princes of the HHth %ynasty, *ho died young' !ll the to+bs are
+uch alike, *ith a single short gallery, on the *alls of *hich are
+ythological scenes, figures of the prince and of his father, the king,
etc', painted in a crude style, *hich sho*s a great degeneration fro+
that of the H@"""th %ynasty to+bs'
(e no* lea&e the great necropolis and turn to the later te+ples of the
(estern Bank at Thebes' These *ere of a funerary character, like those
of %Nr el-Bahari, already described' The +ost i+posing of all in so+e
respects is the $a+esseu+, *here lies the huge granite colossus of
$a+ses "", prostrate and broken, *hich %iodorus kne* as the statue of
Osy+andyas' This na+e is a late corruption of $a+ses ""Ds throne-na+e,
>ser-+aat-$[, pronounced fsi+are' The te+ple has been cleared by
Br' Ho*ard Carter for the Egyptian go&ern+ent, and the s+all to*n of
priestsD houses, +agaGines, and cellars, to the *est of it, has been
eCca&ated by hi+' This is Auite a little Po+peii, *ith its s+all
streets, its houses *ith the stucco still clinging to the *alls, its
public altar, its +arket colonnade, and its gallery of statues' The
statues are only of brick like the *alls, and roughly shaped and
plastered, but they *ere portraits, undoubtedly, of celebrities of
the ti+e, though *e do not kno* of *ho+' On either side are the long
+agaGines in *hich *ere kept the possessions of the priests of the
$a+esseu+, the grain fro+ the lands *ith *hich they *ere endo*ed, and
e&erything +eet to be offered to the ghost of the king *ho+ they ser&ed'
The plan of the place had e&idently been altered after the ti+e of
$a+ses "", as re+ains of o&erbuilding *ere found here and there' The
+agaGines *ere first in&estigated in /9:0 by Prof' Petrie, *ho also
found in the neighbourhood the re+ains of a nu+ber of s+all royal
funerary te+ples of the H@"""th %ynasty, all looking in the direction of
the hill, beyond *hich lay the to+bs of the kings'
4"llustration. 761'jpg THE @!##E, O< THE TOBB O< THE O>EE? !T
THEBE'8
"n *hich Prof' chiaparelli disco&ered the to+b of $a+ses
""Ds *ife I/:2RJ'
(e +ay no* turn to #uCor, *here i++ediately abo&e the landing-place of
the stea+ers and dahabiyas rise the stately coloured colonnades of the
Te+ple of #uCor' >nfortunately, +odern eCca&ations ha&e not been
allo*ed to pursue their course to co+pletion here, as in the first great
colonnaded court, *hich *as added by $a+ses "" to the original building
of !+enhetep """, Tutankha+en, and Hore+heb, there still re+ains
the Boha++edan BosAue of !bu-Dl-HaggVg, *hich +ay not be re+o&ed'
!bu-Dl-HaggVg, Lthe <ather of Pilgri+sL Iso called on account of the
nu+ber of pilgri+s to his shrineJ, *as a &ery holy shNkh, and his +e+ory
is held in the greatest re&erence by the #uksuris' "t is unlucky that
this +osAue *as built *ithin the court of the Great Te+ple, and it
cannot be re+o&ed till Bosle+ religious prejudices beco+e at least
partially a+eliorated, and then the *ork of co+pletely eCca&ating the
Te+ple of #uCor +ay be carried out'
Bet*een #uCor and )arnak lay the te+ple of the goddess But, consort of
!+en and protectress of Thebes' "t stood in the part of the city kno*n
as !sheru' This building *as cleared in /9:3 at the eCpense and under
the super&ision of t*o English ladies, Biss Benson and Biss Gourlay'
4"llustration. 76R'jpg THE ?"#E-B!?) !T #>HO$8
(ith ! %ahabZya !nd ! tea+er Of The !nglo-!+erican ?ile
Co+pany'
The te+ple had al*ays been re+arkable on account of the prodigious
nu+ber of seated figures of the lioness-headed goddess ekhe+et, or
Pakhet, *hich it contains, dedicated by !+enhetep """ and heshenk "K
+ost of those in the British Buseu+ *ere brought fro+ this te+ple'
The eCca&ators found +any +ore of the+, and also so+e &ery interesting
portrait-statues of the late period *hich had been dedicated there'
The +ost i+portant of these *as the head and shoulders of a statue of
Bentue+hat, go&ernor of Thebes at the ti+e of the sack of the city by
!shur-bani-pal of !ssyria in 009 B'C' "n Biss BensonDs interesting book,
FThe Te+ple of But in !sherF, it is suggested, on the authority of Prof'
Petrie, that his facial type is Cypriote, but this speculation is a
dangerous one, as is also the si+ilar speculation that the *onderful
portrait-head of an old +an found by Biss Benson 4; Plate &ii of her
book'8 is of Philistine type' (e ha&e only to look at the faces of
elderly Egyptians to-day to see that the types presented by Bentue+hat
and Biss BensonDs LPhilistineL need be nothing but pure Egyptian' The
*hole *ork of the clearing *as +ost efficiently carried out, and the
Cairo Buseu+ obtained fro+ it so+e &aluable speci+ens of Egyptian
sculpture'
The Great Te+ple of )arnak is one of the chief cares of the Egyptian
%epart+ent of !ntiAuities' "ts para+ount i+portance, so to speak, as the
cathedral te+ple of Egypt, renders its preser&ation and eCploration a
*ork of constant necessity, and its great eCtent +akes this *ork one
*hich is al*ays going on and *hich probably *ill be going on for +any
years to co+e' The Te+ple of )arnak has cost the Egyptian go&ern+ent
+uch +oney, yet not a piastre of this can be grudged' <or se&eral years
past the *orks ha&e been under the charge of B' Georges #egrain, the
*ell-kno*n engineer and draughts+an *ho *as associated *ith B' de
Borgan in the *ork at %ashWr' His task is to clear out the *hole te+ple
thoroughly, to disco&er in it *hat pre&ious in&estigators ha&e left
undisco&ered, and to restore to its original position *hat has fallen'
4"llustration. 760'jpg THE G$E!T TEBP#E OP )!)?!)'8
The left-hand obelisk is the highest in Egypt, and *as
erected by HatshepsuK the right-hand obelisk *as put up by
Thoth+es """' ?o general *ork of restoration is
conte+plated, nor *ould this be in the slightest degree
desirable' >p to the present B' #egrain has certainly
carried out all three branches of his task *ith great
success' !n unforeseen e&ent has, ho*e&er, considerably
co+plicated and retarded the *ork'
"n October, /9::, one of the colu+ns of the side aisles of the great
Hypostyle Hall fell, bringing do*n *ith it se&eral others' The *hole
place *as a chaotic ruin, and for a +o+ent it see+ed as though the *hole
of the Great Hall, one of the *onders of the *orld, *ould collapse'
The disaster *as due to the gradual infiltration of *ater fro+ the ?ile
beneath the structure, *hose foundations, as is usual in Egypt, *ere of
the fli+siest description' E&en the +ost i+posing Egyptian te+ples
ha&e jerry-built foundationsK usually they are built on the top of the
*all-stu+ps of earlier buildings of different plan, filled in *ith a
confused +ass of earlier slabs and *eak rubbish of all kinds' Had the
Egyptian buildings been built on sure foundations, they *ould ha&e been
preser&ed to a +uch greater eCtent e&en than they are' "n such a cli+ate
as that of Egypt a stone building *ell built should last for e&er'
B' #egrain has for the last fi&e years been busy repairing the da+age'
!ll the fallen colu+ns are no* restored to the perpendicular, and the
capitals and architra&es are in process of being hoisted into their
original positions' The process by *hich B' #egrain carries out this
*ork has been already described' He *orks in the old Egyptian fashion,
building great inclines or ra+ps of earth up *hich the pillar-dru+s,
the capitals, and the architra&e-blocks are hauled by +anual labour, and
then s*ung into position' This is the *ay in *hich the Egyptians built
)arnak, and in this *ay, too, B' #e-grain is rebuilding it' "t is a slo*
process, but a sure one, and no* it *ill not be long before *e shall
see the hall, eCcept its roof, in +uch the sa+e condition as it *as *hen
eti built it' #o&ers of the picturesAue *ill, ho*e&er, +iss the fa+ous
leaning colu+n, hanging poised across the hall, *hich has been a +ain
feature in so +any pictures and photographs of )arnak' This fell in the
catastrophe of /9::, and naturally it has not been possible to restore
it to its picturesAue, but dangerous, position'
The *ork at )arnak has been distinguished during the last t*o years by
t*o re+arkable disco&eries' Outside the +ain te+ple, to the north of
the Hypostyle Hall, B' #egrain found a series of pri&ate sanctuaries or
shrines, built of brick by personages of the H@"""th %ynasty and later,
in order to testify their de&otion to !+en' "n these s+all cells *ere
found so+e re+arkable statues, one of *hich is illustrated' "t is one of
the +ost perfect of its kind' ! great dignitary of the H@"""th %ynasty
is seen seated *ith his *ife, their daughter standing bet*een the+'
$ound his neck are four chains of golden rings, *ith *hich he had been
decorated by the Pharaoh for his ser&ices' "t is a re+arkable group,
interesting for its style and *ork+anship as *ell as for its subject' !s
an eCa+ple of the for+al hieratic type of portraiture it is &ery fine'
The other and +ore i+portant disco&ery of the t*o *as +ade by B' #egrain
on the south side of the Hypo-style Hall'
4"llustration. 76:'jpg THE G$E!T TEBP#E OP )!)?!)'8
The left-hand obelisk is the highest in Egypt, and *as erected by
HatshepsuK the right-hand obelisk *as put up by Thoth+es """'
B' de Borgan in the *ork at %ashWr' His task is to clear out the *hole
te+ple thoroughly, to disco&er in it *hat pre&ious in&estigators ha&e
left undisco&ered, and to restore to its original position *hat has
fallen' Tentati&e eCca&ations, begun in an unoccupied tract under the
*all of the hall, resulted in the disco&ery of parts of statuesK the
place *as then regularly eCca&ated, and the result has been a+aGing'
The ground *as full of statues, large and s+all, at so+e unkno*n period
buried pell-+ell, one on the top of another' o+e are broken, but the
+ajority are perfect, *hich is in itself unusual, and is due &ery +uch
to the soft, +uddy soil in *hich they ha&e lain' tatues found on dry
desert land are often terribly cracked, especially *hen they are of
black granite, the crystals of *hich see+ to ha&e a greater tendency to
disintegration than ha&e those of the red syenite' The )arnak statues
are figures of pious persons, *ho had dedicated portraits of the+sel&es
in the te+ple of !+en, together *ith those of great +en *ho+ the king
had honoured by ordering their statues placed in the te+ple during their
li&es'
Of this nu+ber *as the great sage !+enhetep, son of Hapi, the founder of
the little desert te+ple of %Nr el-BedZna, near %Nr el-Bahari, *ho *as
a sort of pri+e +inister under !+enhetep """, and *as &enerated in later
days as a de+igod' His statue *as found *ith the others by B' #egrain'
!+ong the+ is a figure +ade entirely of green felspar, an unusual
+aterial for so large a statuette' ! fine portrait of Thoth+es """ *as
also found' The illustration sho*s this *onderfully fruitful eCca&ation
in progress, *ith the diggers at *ork in the black +ud soil, in the
foreground the basket-boys carrying a*ay the rubbish on their shoulders,
and the +assi&e granite *alls of the Great Hypostyle Hall of eti in the
background' The huge siGe of the roof-blocks is noticeable' These are
not the actual upper+ost roof-blocks, but only the architra&es fro+
pillar to pillarK the original roof consisted of si+ilar blocks laid
across in the trans&erse direction fro+ architra&e to architra&e' !n
Egyptian granite te+ple *as in fact built upon the plan of a childDs boC
of bricksK it *as but a +odified and beautified tonehenge'
4"llustration. 79/'jpg PO$T$!"T-G$O>P O< ! G$E!T ?OB#E !?% H" ("<E8
Of The Ti+e Of The H&iiith %ynasty' %isco&ered by B' #egrain
at )arnak'
Other i+portant disco&eries ha&e been +ade by B' #egrain in the course
of his *ork'
4"llustration. 791'jpg ! TOBB P"TTE% >P ! !? EHP#O$E$D $E"%E?CE'8
The To+b of Pentu I?o' 3J at Tell el-!+arna, inhabited by
Br' de G' %a&ies during his *ork for the !rchaeological
ur&ey of Egypt IEgypt ECploration <undJ' !bout /R22 B'C'
!+ong the+ are statues of the late Biddle )ingdo+, including one of )ing
>sertsen IenusretJ "@ of the H"""th %ynasty' There are also reliefs of
the reign of !+enhetep ", *hich are re+arkable for the delicacy of their
*ork+anship and the sureness of their techniAue'
(e kno* that the te+ple *as built as early as the ti+e of T=sertsen,
for in it ha&e been found one or t*o of his blocksK and no doubt the
original shrine, *hich *as rebuilt in the ti+e of Philip !rrhidseus, *as
of the sa+e period, but hitherto no re+ains of the centuries bet*een his
ti+e and that of Hatshepsu had been found' (ith B' #egrainDs *ork in the
greatest te+ple of Thebes *e finish our account of the ne* disco&eries
in the chief city of ancient Egypt, as *e began it *ith the *ork of B'
?a&ille in the oldest te+ple there'
One of the +ost interesting Auestions connected *ith the archaeology
of Thebes is that *hich asks *hether the heretical disk-*orshipper
!khunaten I!+enhetep "@J erected buildings there, and *hether any
trace of the+ has e&er been disco&ered' To those *ho are interested in
Egyptian history and religion the transitory episode of the disk-*orship
heresy is already fa+iliar' The precise character of the heretical
dog+a, *hich !+enhetep "@ proclai+ed and desired his subjects to'
accept, has lately been *ell eCplained by Br' de Garis %a&ies in his
&olu+es, published by the L!rchaeological ur&ey of EgyptL branch of
the Egypt ECploration <und, on the to+bs of el-!+arna' He sho*s that the
heretical doctrine *as a +onotheis+ of a &ery high order' !+enhetep "@
Ior as he preferred to call hi+self, !khunaten, LGlory of the %iskLJ did
not, as has usually been supposed, +erely *orship the un-disk itself
as the gi&er of life, and nothing +ore' He &enerated the glo*ing disk
+erely as the &isible e+anation of the deity behind it, *ho dispensed
heat and life to all li&ing things through its +ediu+' The disk *as, so
to speak, the *indo* in hea&en through *hich the unkno*n God, the L#ord
of the %isk,L shed a portion of his radiance on the *orld' ?o*, gi&en
an ignorance of the true astrono+ical character of the sun, *e see ho*
e+inently rational a religion this *as' "n effect, the sun is the source
of all life upon this earth, and so !khunaten caused its rays to be
depicted each *ith a hand holding out the sign of life to the earth' The
+onotheistic *orship of the sun alone is certainly the highest for+ of
pagan religion, but !khunaten sa* further than this' His doctrine *as
that there *as a deity behind the sun, *hose glory shone through it and
ga&e us life' This deity *as unna+ed and unna+ableK he *as Lthe #ord
of the %isk'L (e see in his heresy, therefore, the highest attitude
to *hich religious ideas had attained before the days of the Hebre*
prophets'
This religion see+s to ha&e been de&eloped out of the philosophical
speculations of the priests of the un at Heliopolis' !khunaten *ith
un*ise iconoclastic Geal endea&oured to root out the *orship of the
ancient gods of Egypt, and especially that of !+en-B[, the ruler of the
Egyptian pantheon, *hose pri+acy in the hearts of the people +ade hi+
the +ost redoubtable ri&al of the ne* doctrine' But the na+e of the
old un-god B[-Har+aehis *as spared, and it is e&ident that !khunaten
regarded hi+ as +ore or less identical *ith his god'
"t has been supposed by Prof' Petrie that Oueen Tii, the +other of
!khunaten, *as of Bitannian I!r+enianJ origin, and that she brought the
!ten religion to Egypt fro+ her nati&e land, and taught it to her son'
Certainly it see+s as though the ne* doctrine had +ade so+e head*ay
before the death of !+enhetep """, but *e ha&e no reason to attribute it
to Tii, or to suppose that she brought it *ith her fro+ abroad' There is
no proof *hate&er that she *as not a nati&e Egyptian, and the +u++ies of
her parents, "uaa and Tuaa, are purely Egyptian in facial type' "t
see+s undoubted that the !ten cult *as a de&elop+ent of pure Egyptian
religious thought'
!t first !khunaten tried to establish his religion at Thebes alongside
that of !+en and his attendant pantheon' He see+s to ha&e built a te+ple
to the !ten there, and *e see that his courtiers began to +ake to+bs for
the+sel&es in the ne* realistic style of sculptural art, *hich the king,
heretical in art as in religion, had introduced' The to+b of Barnes at
hNkh D!bd el-)Wrna has on one side of the door a representation of
the king in the old regular style, and on the other side one in the ne*
realistic style, *hich depicts hi+ in all the nati&e ugliness in *hich
this strange truth-lo&ing +an see+s to ha&e positi&ely gloried' (e
find, too, that he caused a te+ple to the !ten to be erected in far-a*ay
?apata, the capital of ?ubia, by =ebel Barkal in the udan' The facts
as to the Theban and ?apata te+ples ha&e been pointed out by Prof'
Breasted, of Chicago'
But the opposition of the Theban priesthood *as too strong' !khunaten
shook the dust of the capital off his feet and retired to the isolated
city of !khet-aten, Lthe Glory of the %isk,L at the +odern Tell
el-!+arna, *here he could philosophiGe in peace, *hile his kingdo+ *as
left to take care of itself' He and his *ife ?efret-iti, *ho see+s to
ha&e been a faithful sharer of his &ie*s, reigned o&er a select court
of !ten-*orship-ping nobles, priests, and artists' The artists had under
!khunaten an unri&alled opportunity for de&elop+ent, of *hich they had
already begun to take considerable ad&antage before the end of his reign
and the restoration of the old order of ideas' Their style takes on
itself an al+ost biGarre freedo+, *hich re+inds us strongly of the
si+ilar characteristic in Bycenaean art' There is a strange little
relief in the Berlin Buseu+ of the king standing cross-legged, leaning
on a staff, and languidly s+elling a flo*er, *hile the Aueen stands
by *ith her gar+ents blo*n about by the *ind' The artistic +onarchDs
graceful attitude is probably a faithful transcript of a characteristic
pose'
(e see fro+ this *hat an Egyptian artist could do *hen his shackles *ere
re+o&ed, but unluckily Egypt ne&er produced another king *ho *as at the
sa+e ti+e an original genius, an artist, and a thinker' (hen !khunaten
died, the Egyptian artistsD shackles *ere ri&eted tighter than e&er'
The reaction *as strong' The kingdo+ had fallen into anarchy, and the
foreign e+pire *hich his predecessors had built up had practically
been thro*n to the *inds by !khunaten' The *hole is an eCa+ple of the
confusion and disorganiGation *hich ensue *hen a philosopher rules' ?ot
long after the hereticDs death the old religion *as fully restored, the
cult of the disk *as blotted out, and the Egyptians returned joyfully
to the *orship of their +yriad deities' !khunatenDs ideals *ere too high
for the+' The dQbris of the foreign e+pire *as, as usual in such
cases, put together again, and custo+ary la* and order restored by
the conser&ati&e reactionaries *ho succeeded hi+' Henceforth Egyptian
ci&iliGation runs an uninspired and unde&eloping course till the days
of the aXtes and the Ptole+ies' This point in the history of Egypt,
therefore, for+s a con&enient stopping-place at *hich to pause, *hile
*e turn once +ore to (estern !sia, and ascertain to *hat eCtent recent
eCca&ations and research ha&e thro*n ne* light upon the proble+s
connected *ith the rise and history of the !ssyrian and ?eo-Babylonian
E+pires'
4"llustration. 796'jpg8
CH!PTE$ @"""--THE !,$"!? !?% ?EO-B!B,#O?"!? EBP"$E "? THE
#"GHT O<
$ECE?T $EE!$CH
The early history of !ssyria has long been a subject on *hich historians
*ere obliged to trust largely to conjecture, in their atte+pts to
reconstruct the stages by *hich its early rulers obtained their
independence and laid the foundations of the +ighty e+pire o&er *hich
their successors ruled' That the land *as coloniGed fro+ Babylonia and
*as at first ruled as a dependency of the southern kingdo+ ha&e long
been regarded as established facts, but until recently little *as kno*n
of its early rulers and go&ernors, and still less of the condition of
the country and its capital during the early periods of their eCistence'
ince the eCca&ations carried out by the British Buseu+ at )ala
herghat, on the *estern bank of the Tigris, it has been kno*n that
the +ounds at that spot +ark the site of the city of !shur, the first
capital of the !ssyrians, and the +onu+ents and records reco&ered
during those eCca&ations ha&e hitherto for+ed our principal source of
infor+ation for the early history of the country'; o+e of the oldest
records found in the course of these eCca&ations *ere short &oti&e teCts
inscribed by rulers *ho bore the title of FishshakkuF, corresponding to
the u+erian and early Babylonian title of patesi, and *ith so+e such
+eaning as L&iceroy'L "t *as rightly conjectured fro+ the title *hich
they bore that these early rulers o*ed allegiance to the kings of
Babylon and *ere their no+inees, or at any rate their tributaries' The
na+es of a fe* of these early &iceroys *ere reco&ered fro+ their &oti&e
inscriptions and fro+ notices in later historical teCts, but it *as
ob&ious that our kno*ledge of early !ssyrian history *ould re+ain &ery
frag+entary until syste+atic eCca&ations in !ssyria *ere resu+ed' Three
years ago I/:21J the British Buseu+ resu+ed eCca&ations at )uyunjik, the
site of ?ine&eh' The *ork *as begun and carried out under the direction
of Br' #' (' )ing, but since last su++er has been continued by Br' $' C'
Tho+pson' #ast year, too, eCca&ations *ere reopened at herghat by
the %eutsch-Orient Ge-sellschaft, at first under the direction of %r'
)olde*ey, and after*ards under that of %r' !ndrae, by *ho+ they are
at present being carried on' This rene*ed acti&ity on the sites of the
ancient cities of !ssyria is already producing results of considerable
interest, and the &eil *hich has so long concealed the earlier periods
in the history of that country is being lifted'
; <or the teCts and translations of these docu+ents, see
Budge and )ing, !nnals of the )ings of !ssyria, pp' iff'
hortly before these eCca&ations in !ssyria *ere set on foot an
indication *as obtained fro+ an early Babylonian teCt that the history
of !ssyria as a dependent state or pro&ince of Babylon +ust be pushed
back to a far +ore re+ote period than had hitherto been supposed' "n one
of Ha++urabiDs letters to in-idinna+, go&ernor of the city of #arsa+,
to *hich reference has already been +ade, directions are gi&en for
the despatch to the king of Lt*o hundred and forty +en of Dthe )ingDs
Co+panyD under the co++and of ?annar-iddina''' *ho ha&e left the country
of !shur and the district of hitullu+'L <ro+ this +ost interesting
reference it follo*ed that the country to the north of Babylonia *as
kno*n as !ssyria at the ti+e of the kings of the <irst %ynasty of
Babylon, and the fact that Babylonian troops *ere stationed there
by Ha++urabi pro&ed that the country for+ed an integral part of the
Babylonian e+pire'
These conclusions *ere soon after strikingly confir+ed by t*o passages
in the introductory sections of Ha++urabiDs code of la*s *hich *as
disco&ered at usa' Here Ha++urabi records that he Lrestored his Ii'e'
the god !shurDsJ protecting i+age unto the city of !shur,L and a fe*
lines farther on he describes hi+self as the king L*ho hath +ade
the na+es of "shtar glorious in the city of ?ine&eh in the te+ple of
E-+ish-+ish'L That !shur should be referred to at this period is *hat *e
+ight eCpect, inas+uch as it *as kno*n to ha&e been the earliest capital
of !ssyriaK +ore striking is the reference to ?ine&eh, pro&ing as it
does that it *as a flourishing city in Ha++urabiDs ti+e and that the
te+ple of "shtar there had already been long established' "t is true
that Gudea, the u+erian patesi of hirpurla, records that he rebuilt
the te+ple of the goddess ?inni I"shtarJ at a place called ?ina' ?o*
?ina +ay &ery probably be identified *ith ?ine&eh, but +any *riters ha&e
taken it to be a place in outhern Babylonia and possibly a district of
hirpurla itself' ?o such uncertainty attaches to Ha++urabiDs reference
to ?ine&eh, *hich is undoubtedly the !ssyrian city of that na+e'
!lthough no account has yet been published of the recent eCca&ations
carried out at ?ine&eh by the British Buseu+, they fully corroborate the
inference dra*n *ith regard to the great age of the city' The series of
trenches *hich *ere cut deep into the lo*er strata of )uyunjik re&ealed
nu+erous traces of &ery early habitations on the +ound'
?either in Ha++urabiDs letters, nor upon the stele inscribed *ith his
code of la*s, is any reference +ade to the conte+porary go&ernor or
ruler of !ssyria, but on a contract tablet preser&ed in the Pennsyl&ania
Buseu+ a na+e has been reco&ered *hich *ill probably be identified
*ith that of the ruler of !ssyria in Ha++urabiDs reign' "n legal and
co++ercial docu+ents of the period of the <irst %ynasty of Babylon the
contracting parties freAuently s*ore by the na+es of t*o gods Iusually
ha+ash and BardukJ and also that of the reigning king' ?o* it has been
found by %r' Banke that on this docu+ent in the Pennsyl&ania Buseu+ the
contracting parties s*ear by the na+e of Ha++urabi and also by that of
ha+shi-!dad' !s only gods and kings are +entioned in the oath for+ulas
of this period, it follo*s that ha+shi-!dad *as a king, or at any rate
a patesi or ishshakku' ?o* fro+ its for+ the na+e ha+shi-!dad +ust
be that of an !ssyrian, not that of a Babylonian, and, since he is
associated in the oath for+ula *ith Ha++urabi, it is legiti+ate to
conclude that he go&erned !ssyria in the ti+e of Ha++urabi as a
dependency of Babylon' !n early !ssyrian ishshakku of this na+e, *ho *as
the son of "sh+e-%agan, is +entioned by Tiglath-Pileser ", but he cannot
be identified *ith the ruler of the ti+e of Ha++urabi, since,
according to Tiglath-Pileser, he ruled too late, about /922 B'C'
! brick-inscription of another ha+shi-!dad, ho*e&er, the son of
"gur-kapkapu, is preser&ed in the British Buseu+, and it is probable
that *e +ay identify hi+ *ith Ha++urabiDs !ssyrian &iceroy' Erishu+ and
his son "kunu+, *hose inscriptions are also preser&ed in the British
Buseu+, should certainly be assigned to an early period of !ssyrian
history'
The recent eCca&ations at herghat are already yielding the na+es
of other early !ssyrian &iceroys, and, although the teCts of the
inscriptions in *hich their na+es occur ha&e not yet been published, *e
+ay briefly enu+erate the +ore i+portant of the disco&eries that ha&e
been +ade' #ast year a s+all cone or cylinder *as found *hich, though
it bears only a fe* lines of inscription, restores the na+es of no less
than se&en early !ssyrian &iceroys *hose eCistence *as not pre&iously
kno*n' The cone *as inscribed by !shir-rZ+-nishNshu, *ho gi&es his o*n
genealogy and records the restoration of the *all of the city of !shur,
*hich he states had been rebuilt by certain of his predecessors on
the throne' The principal portion of the inscription reads as
follo*s. L!shir-rZ+-nishNshu, the &iceroy of the god !shir, the son of
!shir-nirari, the &iceroy of the god !shir, the son of !shir-rabi, the
&iceroy' The city *all *hich )ikia, "kunu+, har-kenkate-!shir, and
!shir-nirari, the son of "sh+e-%agan, +y forefathers, had built, *as
fallen, and for the preser&ation of +y life''' " rebuilt it'L Perhaps no
inscription has yet been reco&ered in either !ssyria or Babylonia *hich
contained so +uch ne* infor+ation packed into so s+all a space' Of the
na+es of the early &iceroys +entioned in it only one *as pre&iously
kno*n, i'e' the na+e of "kunu+, the son of Erishu+, is found in a late
copy of a &oti&e teCt preser&ed in the British Buseu+' Thus fro+ these
fe* lines the na+es of three rulers in direct succession ha&e been
reco&ered, &iG', !shir-rabi, !shir-nirari, and !shur-rZ+-nishNshu, and
also those of four earlier rulers, &iG', )ikia, har-kenkate-!shir,
"sh+e-%agan, and his son !shir-nirari' !nother interesting point about
the inscription is the spelling of the na+e of the national god of the
!ssyrians' "n the later periods it is al*ays *ritten F!shurF, but at
this early ti+e *e see that the second &o*el is changed and that at
first the na+e *as *ritten F!shirF, a for+ that *as already kno*n
fro+ the Cappadocian cuneifor+ inscriptions' The for+ !shir is a good
participial construction and signifies Lthe Beneficent,L Lthe Berciful
One'L
!nother interesting find, *hich *as also +ade last year, consists of
four stone tablets, each engra&ed *ith the sa+e building-inscription
of hal+aneser ", a king *ho reigned o&er !ssyria about /722 B'C' "n
recording his rebuilding of E-kharsag-kurkura, the te+ple of the god
!shur in the city of !shur, he gi&es a brief su++ary of the te+pleDs
history *ith details as to the length of ti+e *hich elapsed bet*een
the different periods during *hich it had been pre&iously restored' The
te+ple *as burned in hal+aneserDs ti+e, and, *hen recording this fact
and the putting out of the fire, he su++ariGes the te+pleDs history in a
long parenthesis, as *ill be seen fro+ the follo*ing translation of the
eCtract. L(hen E-kharsag-kurkura, the te+ple of !shur, +y lord, *hich
>shpia I&ariant F!ushpiaFJ, the priest of !shur, +y forefather, had
built aforeti+e,--and it fell into decay and Erishu, +y forefather,
the priest of !shur, rebuilt itK /3: years passed by after the reign of
Erishu, and that te+ple fell into decay, and ha+shi-!dad, the priest
of !shur, rebuilt itK IduringJ 392 years that te+ple *hich ha+shi-!dad,
the priest of !shur, had built, gre* hoary and old--I*henJ fire broke
out in the +idst thereof''', at that ti+e " drenched that te+ple I*ith
*aterJ in IallJ its circuit'L
<ro+ this eCtract it *ill be seen that hal+aneser gi&es us, in >shpia
or !ushpia, the na+e of a &ery early !ssyrian &iceroy, *ho in his belief
*as the founder of the great te+ple of the god !shur' He also tells us
that /3: years separated Erishu fro+ a &iceroy na+ed ha+shi-!dad, and
that 392 years separated ha+shi-!dad fro+ his o*n ti+e' (hen these
inscriptions *ere first found they *ere hailed *ith considerable
satisfaction by historians, as they ga&e *hat see+ed to be &aluable
infor+ation for settling the chronology of the early patesis' But
confidence in the accuracy of hal+aneserDs reckoning *as so+e*hat
shaken a fe* +onths after*ards by the disco&ery of a pris+ of
Esarhaddon, *ho ga&e in it a history of the sa+e te+ple, but ascribed
totally different figures for the periods separating the reigns
of Erishu and ha+shi-!dad, and the te+pleDs destruction by fire'
Esarhaddon agrees *ith hal+aneser in ascribing the founding of the
te+ple to >shpia, but he states that only /10 years Iinstead of /3:
yearsJ separated Erishu I*ho+ he spells "rishuJ, the son of "lu-shu++a,
fro+ ha+shi-!dad, the son of BNl-kabiK and he adds that R7R years
Iinstead of 392 yearsJ elapsed bet*een ha+shi-!dadDs restoration of the
te+ple and the ti+e *hen it *as burned do*n' !s hal+aneser " li&ed o&er
siC hundred years earlier than Esarhaddon, he *as ob&iously in a better
position to ascertain the periods at *hich the e&ents recorded took
place, but the discrepancy bet*een the figures he gi&es and those of
Esarhaddon is disconcerting' "t sho*s that !ssyrian scribes could +ake
bad +istakes in their reckoning, and it ser&es to cast discredit on the
absolute accuracy of the chronological notices contained in other
late !ssyrian inscriptions' o far fro+ helping to settle the unsol&ed
proble+s of !ssyrian chronology, these t*o recent finds at herghat
ha&e introduced fresh confusion, and !ssyrian chronology for the earlier
periods is once +ore cast into the +elting pot'
"n addition to the reco&ery of the na+es of hitherto unkno*n early
rulers of !ssyria, the recent eCca&ations at herghat ha&e enabled us to
ascertain the true reading of the na+e of hal+aneser "Ds grandfather,
*ho reigned a considerable ti+e after !ssyria had gained her
independence' The na+e of this king has hitherto been read as Pudi-ilu,
but it is no* sho*n that the signs co+posing the first part of the na+e
are not to be taken phonetically, but as ideographs, the true reading of
the na+e being !rik-dNn-ilu, the signification of *hich is L#ong
Ii'e' far-reachingJ is the judg+ent of God'L !rik-dNn-ilu *as a great
conAueror, as *ere his i++ediate descendants, all of *ho+ eCtended the
territory of !ssyria' By strengthening the country and increasing her
resources they enabled !rik-dNn-ilu Ds great-grandson, Tukulti-?inib ",
to achie&e the conAuest of Babylon itself' Concerning Tukulti-?inibDs
reign and achie&e+ents an interesting inscription has recently been
disco&ered' This is no* preser&ed in the British Buseu+, and before
describing it *e +ay briefly refer to another phase of the eCca&ations
at herghat'
4"llustration. 7:0'jpg tone Object Bearing a @oti&e "nscription of
!rik-den-ilu'8
!n early independent )ing of !ssyria, *ho reigned about B'C'
/732' Photograph by Bessrs' Bansell E Co'
The +ounds of herghat rise a considerable height abo&e the le&el of
the plain, and are to a great eCtent of natural and not of artificial
for+ation' "n fact, the eCistence of a group of high natural +ounds at
this point on the bank of the Tigris +ust ha&e led to its selection
by the early !ssyrians as the site on *hich to build their first
stronghold' The +ounds *ere already so high, fro+ their natural
for+ation, that there *as no need for the later !ssyrian kings
to increase their height artificially Ias they raised the chief
palace-+ound at ?ine&ehJ, and the re+ains of the !ssyrian buildings of
the early period are thus only co&ered by a fe* feet of dQbris and not
by +asses of unburnt brick and artificially piled up soil' This fact
has considerably facilitated the syste+atic unco&ering of the principal
+ound that is no* being carried out by %r' !ndrae'
4"llustration. 7:6'jpg E?T$!?CE "?TO O?E O< THE G!##E$"E O$
T>??E# C>T
"?TO THE P$"?C"P!# BO>?% !T HE$GH!T'8
(ork has hitherto been confined to the north*est corner of the +ound
around the Giggurat, or te+ple to*er, and already considerable traces of
!ssyrian buildings ha&e been laid bare in this portion of the site' The
city *all on the northern side has been unco&ered, as *ell as Auays *ith
steps leading do*n to the *ater along the ri&er front' Part of the
great te+ple of the god !shur has been eCca&ated, though a considerable
portion of it +ust be still co&ered by the +odern Turkish fort at the
eCtre+e northern point of the +oundsK also part of a palace erected
by !shur-nasir-pal has been identified' "n fact, the *ork at herghat
pro+ises to add considerably to our kno*ledge of ancient !ssyrian
architecture'
The inscription of Tukulti-?inib ", *hich *as referred to abo&e as
ha&ing been recently acAuired by the trustees of the British Buseu+,
affords &aluable infor+ation for the reconstruction of the history of
!ssyria during the first half of the thirteenth century B'C'; "t is seen
fro+ the facts su++ariGed that for our kno*ledge of the earlier
history of the country *e ha&e to depend to a large eCtent on short
brick-inscriptions and &oti&e teCts supple+ented by historical
references in inscriptions of the later period' The only historical
inscription of any length belonging to the early !ssyrian period,
*hich had been published up to a year ago, *as the fa+ous +e+orial slab
containing an inscription of !dad-nirari ", *hich *as acAuired by the
late Br' George +ith so+e thirty years ago' !lthough purchased in
Bosul, the slab had been found by the nati&es in the +ounds at herghat,
for the teCt engra&ed upon it in archaic !ssyrian characters records the
restoration of a part of the te+ple of the god !shur in the ancient city
of !shur, the first capital of the !ssyrians, no* +arked by the
+ounds of herghat, *hich ha&e already been described' The object of
!dad-nirari in causing the +e+orial slab to be inscribed *as to record
the restoration of the portion of the te+ple *hich he had rebuilt,
but the +ost i+portant part of the inscription *as contained in the
introductory phrases *ith *hich the teCt opens' They recorded
the conAuests achie&ed not only by !dad-nirari but by his father
!rik-dNn-ilu, his grandfather BQl-nirari, and his great-grandfather
!shur-uballit' They thus enabled the historian to trace the gradual
eCtension and consolidation of the !ssyrian e+pire during a critical
period in its early history'
; <or the teCt and translation of the inscription, see )ing,
tudies it Eastern History, i I/:2RJ'
The recently reco&ered +e+orial slab of Tukulti-?inib " is si+ilar to
that of his grandfather !dad-nirari ", and ranks in i+portance *ith it
for the light it thro*s on the early struggles of !ssyria' Tukulti-?inib
Ds slab, like that of !dad-nirari, *as a foundation +e+orial intended to
record certain building operations carried out by order of the king'
The building so co++e+orated *as not the restoration of a portion of
a te+ple, but the founding of a ne* city, in *hich the king erected
no less than eight te+ples dedicated to &arious deities, *hile he also
records that he built a palace therein for his o*n habitation, that he
protected the city by a strongly fortified *all, and that he cut a canal
fro+ the Tigris by *hich he ensured a continuous supply of fresh *ater'
These *ere the facts *hich the +e+orial *as pri+arily intended to
record, but, like the teCt of !dad-nirari ", the +ost interesting e&ents
for the historian are those referred to in the introductory portions of
the inscription' Before gi&ing details concerning the founding of the
ne* city, na+ed )ar-Tukulti-Bnib, Lthe <ortress of Tukulti-Bnib,L
the king supplies an account of the +ilitary eCpeditions *hich he
had conducted during the course of his reign up to the ti+e *hen the
foundation +e+orial *as inscribed' These introductory paragraphs record
ho* the king gradually conAuered the peoples to the north and northeast
of !ssyria, and ho* he finally undertook a successful ca+paign against
Babylon, during *hich he captured the city and co+pletely subjugated
both ?orthern and outhern Babylonia' Tukulti-BnibDs reign thus +arks an
epoch in the history of his country'
(e ha&e already seen ho*, during the early ages of her history, !ssyria
had been +erely a subject pro&ince of the Babylonian e+pire' Her rulers
had been &iceroys o*ing allegiance to their o&erlords in Babylon,
under *hose orders they ad+inistered the country, *hile garrisons of
Babylonian soldiers, and troops co++anded by Babylonian officers, ser&ed
to keep the country in a state of subjection' Gradually, ho*e&er, the
country began to feel her feet and long for independence' The conAuest
of Babylon by the kings of the Country of the ea afforded her the
opportunity of thro*ing off the Babylonian yoke' "n the fifteenth
century the !ssyrian kings *ere po*erful enough to ha&e independent
relations *ith the kings of Egypt, and, during the t*o centuries *hich
preceded Tukulti-BnibDs reign'
!ssyriaDs relations *ith Babylon *ere the cause of constant friction due
to the northern kingdo+Ds gro*th in po*er and influence' The frontier
bet*een the t*o countries *as constantly in dispute, and, though
so+eti+es rectified by treaty, the clai+s of !ssyria often led to *ar
bet*een the t*o countries' The general result of these conflicts *as
that !ssyria gradually eCtended her authority farther south*ards, and
encroached upon territory *hich had pre&iously been Babylonian' The
successes gained by !shur-uballit, BNl-nirari, and !dad-nirari " against
the conte+porary Babylonian kings had all resulted in the cession of
fresh territory to !ssyria and in an increase of her international
i+portance' >p to the ti+e of Tukulti-Bnib no !ssyrian king had actually
seated hi+self upon the Babylonian throne' This feat *as achie&ed by
Tukulti-Bnib, and his reign thus +arks an i+portant step in the gradual
ad&ance of !ssyria to the position *hich she later occupied as the
predo+inant po*er in (estern !sia'
Before undertaking his ca+paign against Babylon, Tukulti-Bnib secured
hi+self against attack fro+ other Auarters, and his ne*ly disco&ered
+e+orial inscription supplies considerable infor+ation concerning the
steps he took to achie&e this object' "n his inscription the king does
not nu+ber his +ilitary eCpeditions, and, *ith the eCception of the
first one, he does not state the period of his reign in *hich they
*ere undertaken' The results of his ca+paigns are su++ariGed in four
paragraphs of the teCt, and it is probable that they are not described
in chronological order, but are arranged rather according to the
geographical position of the districts *hich he in&aded and subdued'
Tukulti-?inib records that his first ca+paign took place at the
beginning of his so&ereignty, in the first year of his reign, and it *as
directed against the tribes and peoples inhabiting the territory on the
east of !ssyria' Of the tribes *hich he o&erran and conAuered on this
occasion the +ost i+portant *as the )uti, *ho probably d*elt in the
districts to the east of the #o*er YVb' They *ere a turbulent race and
they had already been conAuered by !rik-dNn-ilu and !dad-nirari ", but
on neither occasion had they been co+pletely subdued, and they had soon
regained their independence' Their subjugation by Tukulti-?inib *as
a necessary preli+inary to any conAuest in the south, and *e can *ell
understand *hy it *as undertaken by the king at the beginning of his
reign' Other conAuests *hich *ere also +ade in the sa+e region *ere the
>ku+anZ and the lands of Elkhu-nia, harnida, and Bekhri, +ountainous
districts *hich probably lay to the north of the #o*er YVb' The country
of Bekhri took its na+e fro+ the +ekhru-tree, a kind of pine or fir,
*hich gre* there in abundance upon the +ountainsides, and *as highly
estee+ed by the !ssyrian kings as affording eCcellent *ood for building
purposes' !t a later period !shur-nasir-pal in&aded the country in the
course of his ca+paigns and brought back bea+s of +ekhru-*ood, *hich he
used in the construction of the te+ple dedicated to the goddess "shtar
in ?ine&eh'
The second group of tribes and districts enu+erated by Tukulti-?inib as
ha&ing been subdued in his early years, before his conAuest of Babylon,
all lay probably to the north*est of !ssyria' The +ost po*erful a+ong
these peoples *ere the hubari, *ho, like the )utZ on the eastern
border of !ssyria, had already been conAuered by !dad-nirari ", but had
regained their independence and *ere once +ore threatening the border on
this side' The third group of his conAuests consisted of the districts
ruled o&er by forty kings of the lands of ?aDiri, *hich *as a general
ter+ for the +ountainous districts to the north of !ssyria, including
territory to the *est of #ake @an and eCtending east*ards to the
districts around #ake >r+i' The forty kings in this region *ho+
Tukulti-?inib boasts of ha&ing subdued *ere little +ore than chieftains
of the +ountain tribes, each one possessing authority o&er a fe*
&illages scattered a+ong the hills and &alleys' But the +en of ?aDiri
*ere a *arlike and hardy race, and, if left long in undisturbed
possession of their nati&e fastnesses, they *ere te+pted to +ake raids
into the fertile plains of !ssyria' "t *as therefore only politic for
Tukulti-?inib to tra&erse their country *ith fire and s*ord, and, by
eCacting hea&y tribute, to keep the fear of !ssyrian po*er before their
eyes' <ro+ the kingDs records *e thus learn that he subdued and crippled
the se+i-independent races li&ing on his borders to the north, to the
north*est, and to the east' On the *est *as the desert, fro+ *hich
region he need fear no organiGed attack *hen he concentrated his ar+y
else*here, for his per+anent garrisons *ere strong enough to repel and
punish any incursion of no+adic tribes' He *as thus in a position to try
conclusions *ith his hereditary foe in the south, *ithout any fear of
lea&ing his land open to in&asion in his absence'
The ca+paign against Babylon *as the +ost i+portant one undertaken by
Tukulti-?inib, and its successful issue *as the cro*ning point of his
+ilitary career' The king relates that the great gods !shur, Bel, and
ha+ash, and the goddess "shtar, the Aueen of hea&en and earth, +arched
at the head of his *arriors *hen he set out upon the eCpedition' !fter
crossing the border and penetrating into Babylonian territory he see+s
to ha&e had so+e difficulty in forcing Bitiliashu, the )assite king *ho
then occupied the throne of Babylon, to a decisi&e engage+ent' But by
a skilful disposition of his forces he succeeded in he++ing hi+ in, so
that the Babylonian ar+y *as co+pelled to engage in a pitched battle'
The result of the fighting *as a co+plete &ictory for the !ssyrian ar+s'
Bany of the Babylonian *arriors fell fighting, and Bitiliashu hi+self
*as captured by the !ssyrian soldiers in the +idst of the battle'
Tukulti-?inib boasts that he tra+pled his lordly neck beneath his feet,
and on his return to !ssyria he carried his capti&e back in fetters to
present hi+ *ith the spoils of the ca+paign before !shur, the national
god of the !ssyrians'
Before returning to !ssyria, ho*e&er, Tukulti-?inib +arched *ith his
ar+y throughout the length and breadth of Babylonia, and achie&ed
the subjugation of the *hole of the u+er and !kkad' He destroyed the
fortifications of Babylon to ensure that they should not again be used
against hi+self, and all the inhabitants *ho did not at once sub+it to
his decrees he put co the s*ord' He then appointed his o*n officers
to rule the country and established his o*n syste+ of ad+inistration,
adding to his pre&ious title of L)ing of !ssyria,L those of L)ing of
)arduniash Ii' e' BabyloniaJL and L)ing of u+er and !kkad'L "t *as
probably fro+ this period that he also adopted the title of L)ing of the
Poor Ouarters of the (orld'L !s a +ark of the co+plete subjugation of
their ancient foe, Tukulti-?inib and his ar+y carried back *ith the+
to !ssyria not only the capti&e Babylonian king, but also the statue of
Barduk, the national god of Babylon' This they re+o&ed fro+ B-sagila,
his su+ptuous te+ple in Babylon, and they looted the sacred treasures
fro+ the treasure-cha+bers, and carried the+ off together *ith the spoil
of the city'
Tukulti-?inib no doubt left a sufficient proportion of his ar+y in
Babylon to garrison the city and support the go&ernors and officials
into *hose charge he co++itted the ad+inistration of the land, but he
hi+self returned to !ssyria *ith the rich spoil of the ca+paign, and
it *as probably as a use for this large increase of *ealth and +aterial
that he decided to found another city *hich should bear his o*n na+e and
perpetuate it for future ages' The king records that he undertook this
task at the bidding of Bel Ii'e' the god !shurJ, *ho co++anded that he
should found a ne* city and build a d*elling-place for hi+ therein'
"n accordance *ith the desire of !shur and the gods, *hich *as thus
con&eyed to hi+, the king founded the city of )ar-Tukulti-?inib, and
he erected therein te+ples dedicated not only to !shur, but also to the
gods !dad, and ha-+ash, and ?inib, and ?usku, and ?ergal, and "+ina-bi,
and the goddess "shtar' The spoils fro+ Babylon and the te+ple treasures
fro+ E-sagila *ere doubtless used for the decoration of these te+ples
and the adorn+ent of their shrines, and the king endo*ed the te+ples and
appointed regular offerings, *hich he ordained should be their property
for e&er' He also built a su+ptuous palace for his o*n abode *hen he
stayed in the city, *hich he constructed on a +ound or terrace of earth,
faced *ith brick, and piled high abo&e the le&el of the city' <inally,
he co+pleted its fortification by the erection of a +assi&e *all around
it, and the co+pletion of this *all *as the occasion on *hich his
+e+orial tablet *as inscribed'
The +e+orial tablet *as buried and bricked up *ithin the actual
structure of the *all, in order that in future ages it +ight be read by
those *ho found it, and so it +ight preser&e his na+e and fa+e' !fter
finishing the account of his building operations in the ne* city and
recording the co+pletion of the city *all fro+ its foundation to its
coping stone, the king +akes an appeal to any future ruler *ho should
find it, in the follo*ing *ords. L"n the days that are to co+e, *hen
this *all shall ha&e gro*n old and shall ha&e fallen into ruins, +ay
a future prince repair the da+aged parts thereof, and +ay he anoint +y
+e+orial tablet *ith oil, and +ay he offer sacrifices and restore
it unto its place, and then !shur *ill hearken unto his prayers' But
*hosoe&er shall destroy this *all, or shall re+o&e +y +e+orial tablet or
+y na+e that is inscribed thereon, or shall lea&e )ar-Tukulti-?inib, the
city of +y do+inion, desolate, or shall destroy it, +ay the lord !shur
o&erthro* his kingdo+, and +ay he break his *eapons, and +ay he cause
his *arriors to be defeated, and +ay he di+inish his boundaries, and +ay
he ordain that his rule shall be cut off, and on his days +ay he bring
sorro*, and his years +ay he +ake e&il, and +ay he blot out his na+e and
his seed fro+ the land^L
By such blessings and curses Tukulti-?inib hoped to ensure the
preser&ation of his na+e and the rebuilding of his city, should it at
any ti+e be neglected and fall into decay' Curiously enough, it *as in
this &ery city that Tukulti-?inib +et his o*n fate less than se&en years
after he had founded it' !t that ti+e one of his o*n sons, *ho bore the
na+e of !shur-nasir-pal, conspired against his father and stirred up the
nobles to re&olt' The insurrection *as arranged *hen Tukulti-?inib *as
absent fro+ his capital and staying in )ar-Tukulti-?inib, *here he *as
probably protected by only a s+all bodyguard, the bulk of his &eteran
*arriors re+aining behind in garrison at !shur' The insurgent nobles,
headed by !shur-nasir-pal, fell upon the king *ithout *arning *hen
he *as passing through the city *ithout any suspicion of risk fro+ a
treacherous attack' The king defended hi+self and sought refuge in a
neighbouring house, but the conspirators surrounded the building and,
ha&ing forced an entrance, sle* hi+ *ith the s*ord' Thus Tukulti-?inib
perished in the city he had built and beautified *ith the spoils of his
ca+paigns, *here he had looked for*ard to passing a peaceful and secure
old age' Of the fate of the city itself *e kno* little eCcept that its
site is +arked to-day by a fe* +ounds *hich rise slightly abo&e the
le&el of the surrounding desert' The kingDs +e+orial tablet only has
sur&i&ed' <or so+e 7,122 years it rested undisturbed in the foundations
of the *all of unburnt brick, *here it *as buried by Tukulti-?inib on
the co+pletion of the city *all'
4"llustration. R29'jpg tone Tablet' Bearing an inscription of
Tukulti-?inib "8
)ing of !ssyria, about B' C' /163'
Thence it *as re+o&ed by the hands of +odern !rabs, and it is no*
preser&ed in the British Buseu+, *here the characters of the inscription
+ay be seen to be as sharp and uninjured as on the day *hen the !ssyrian
gra&er inscribed the+ by order of the king'
"n the account of his first ca+paign, *hich is preser&ed upon
the +e+orial tablet, it is stated that the peoples conAuered by
Tukulti-?inib brought their yearly tribute to the city of !shur' This
fact is of considerable interest, for it pro&es that Tukulti-?inib
restored the capital of !ssyria to the city of !shur, re+o&ing it fro+
Calah, *hither it had been transferred by his father hal+aneser "' The
city of Calah had been founded and built by hal+aneser " in the sa+e
*ay that his son Tukulti-?inib built the city of )ar-Tukulti-?inib, and
the building of both cities is striking e&idence of the rapid gro*th
of !ssyria and her need of eCpansion around fresh centres prepared for
ad+inistration and defence' The shifting of the !ssyrian capital to
Calah by hal+aneser " *as also due to the eCtension of !ssyrian po*er
in the north, in conseAuence of *hich there *as need of ha&ing the
capital nearer the centre of the country so enlarged' !shurDs reco&ery
of her old position under Tukulti-?inib " *as only a te+porary check to
this +o&e+ent north*ards, and, so long as Babylon re+ained a conAuered
pro&ince of the !ssyrian e+pire, ob&iously the need for a capital
farther north than !shur *ould not ha&e been pressing'
4"llustration R2:'jpg THE Y"GG>$!T, O$ TEBP#E TO(E$, O< THE
!,$"!?
C"T, O< C!#!H'8
But *ith Tukulti-?inibDs death Babylon regained her independence and
freed herself fro+ !ssyrian control, and the centre of the northern
kingdo+ *as once +ore subject to the influences *hich e&entually
resulted in the per+anent transference of her capital to ?ine&eh' To the
co+parati&e neglect into *hich !shur and Calah conseAuently fell, *e
+ay probably trace the eCtensi&e re+ains of buildings belonging to the
earlier periods of !ssyrian history *hich ha&e been reco&ered and still
re+ain to be found, in the +ounds that +ark their sites'
(e ha&e gi&en so+e account of the results already achie&ed fro+ the
eCca&ations carried out during the last t*o years at herghat, the site
of the city of !shur' That +uch re+ains to be done on the site of Calah,
the other early capital of !ssyria, is e&ident fro+ e&en a cursory
eCa+ination of the present condition of the +ounds that +ark the
location of the city' These +ounds are no* kno*n by the na+e of ?i+rWd
and are situated on the left or eastern bank of the Tigris, a short
distance abo&e the point at *hich it is joined by the strea+ of the
>pper YVb, and the great +ound *hich still co&ers the re+ains of the
Giggurat, or te+ple to*er, can be seen fro+ a considerable distance
across the plain' %uring the eCca&ations for+erly carried out here for
the British Buseu+, re+ains of palaces *ere reco&ered *hich had been
built or restored by hal-+aneser ", !shur-nasir-pal, hal+aneser "",
Tiglath-pileser """, argon, Esarhaddon, and !shur-etil-ilVni' !fter the
conclusion of the diggings and the re+o&al of +any of the sculptures to
England, the site *as co&ered again *ith earth, in order to protect the
re+ains of !ssyrian buildings *hich *ere left in place' ince that ti+e
the soil has sunk and been *ashed a*ay by the rains so that +any of the
larger sculptures are no* protruding abo&e the soil, an eCa+ple of *hich
is seen in the t*o *inged bulls in the palace of !shur-nasir-pal' "t
is i+probable that the +ounds of ?i+rWd *ill yield such rich results
as herghat, but the site *ould probably *ell repay prolonged and
syste+atic eCca&ation'
(e ha&e hitherto su++ariGed and described the principal facts,
*ith regard to the early history of Babylonia and !ssyria and the
neighbouring countries, *hich ha&e been obtained fro+ the eCca&ations
conducted recently on the sites of ancient cities' <ro+ the actual
re+ains of the buildings that ha&e been unearthed *e ha&e secured
infor+ation *ith regard to the te+ples and palaces of ancient rulers and
the plans on *hich they *ere designed' Ero+ the objects of daily life
and of religious use *hich ha&e been reco&ered, such as *eapons of
bronGe and iron, and &essels of +etal, stone, and clay, it is possible
for the archaeologist to dra* conclusions *ith regard to the custo+s of
these early peoplesK *hile fro+ a study of their style and *ork+anship
and of such eCa+ples of their sculpture as ha&e been brought to light,
he +ay deter+ine the stage of artistic de&elop+ent at *hich they had
arri&ed' The clay tablets and stone +onu+ents that ha&e been reco&ered
re&eal the fa+ily life of the people, their co++ercial undertakings,
their syste+ of legislation and land tenure, their epistolary
correspondence, and the ad+inistration under *hich they li&ed, *hile the
royal inscriptions and foundation-+e+orials thro* light on the religious
and historical e&ents of the period in *hich they *ere inscribed'
"nfor+ation on all these points has been acAuired as the result of
eCca&ation, and is based on the disco&eries in the ruins of early cities
*hich ha&e re+ained buried beneath the soil for so+e thousands of years'
But for the history of !ssyria and of the other nations in the north
there is still another source of infor+ation to *hich reference +ust no*
be +ade'
The kings of !ssyria *ere not content *ith recording their achie&e+ents
on the *alls of their buildings, on stelae set up in their palaces and
te+ples, on their tablets of annals preser&ed in their archi&e-cha+bers,
and on their cylinders and foundation-+e+orials concealed *ithin the
actual structure of the buildings the+sel&es' They ha&e also left
records gra&en in the li&ing rock, and these ha&e ne&er been buried,
but ha&e been eCposed to *ind and *eather fro+ the +o+ent they
*ere engra&ed' $ecords of irrigation *orks and +ilitary operations
successfully undertaken by !ssyrian kings re+ain to this day on the
face of the +ountains to the north and east of !ssyria' The kings of
one great +ountain race that had its capital at @an borro*ed fro+ the
!ssyrians this +ethod of recording their achie&e+ents, and, adopting the
!ssyrian character, ha&e left nu+erous rock-inscriptions in their o*n
language in the +ountains of !r+enia and )urdistan' "n so+e instances
the action of rain and frost has nearly if not Auite obliterated the
record, and a fe* ha&e been defaced by the hand of +an' But as the
+ajority are engra&ed in panels cut on the sheer face of the rock, and
are inaccessible eCcept by +eans of ropes and tackle, they ha&e escaped
+utilation' The photograph reproduced *ill ser&e to sho* the +eans that
+ust be adopted for reaching such rock-inscriptions in order to eCa+ine
or copy the+'
4"llustration. R/7'jpg (O$) "? P$OG$E O? O?E O< THE $OC)-
"?C$"PT"O?
O< E??!CHE$"B8
"n The Gorge Of The $i&er Go+el, ?ear Ba&ian'
The inscription sho*n in the photograph is one of those cut by
ennacherib in the gorge near Ba&ian, through *hich the ri&er Go+el
flo*s, and can be reached only by cli+bing do*n ropes fiCed to the top
of the cliff' The choice of such positions by the kings *ho caused the
inscriptions to be engra&ed *as dictated by the desire to render it
difficult to destroy the+, but it has also had the effect of delaying to
so+e eCtent their copying and decipher+ent by +odern *orkers'
4"llustration. R/R'jpg THE P$"?C"P!# $OC) C>#PT>$E "? THE GO$GE O<
THE
GOBE#8
?ear Ba&ian "n !ssyria'
Considerable progress, ho*e&er, has recently been +ade in identifying
and copying these teCts, and *e +ay here gi&e a short account of *hat
has been done and of the infor+ation furnished by the inscriptions that
ha&e been eCa+ined'
$ecently considerable additions ha&e been +ade to our kno*ledge of the
ancient e+pire of @an and of its relation to the later kings of !ssyria
by the labours of Prof #eh+ann and %r' Belck on the inscriptions *hich
the kings of that period caused to be engra&ed upon the rocks a+ong the
+ountains of !r+enia'
4"llustration. R/3'jpg THE $OC) !?% C"T!%E# O< @!?'8
The flat roofs of the houses of the city of @an +ay be seen to the left
of the photograph nestling belo* the rock'
The centre and capital of this e+pire *as the ancient city *hich stood
on the site of the +odern to*n of @an at the south*est corner of the
lake *hich bears the sa+e na+e' The city *as built at the foot of a
natural rock *hich rises precipitously fro+ the plain, and +ust ha&e
for+ed an i+pregnable stronghold against the attack of the foe'
"n this citadel at the present day re+ain the ancient galleries and
staircases and cha+bers *hich *ere cut in the li&ing rock by the kings
*ho +ade it their fortress, and their inscriptions, engra&ed upon the
face of the rock on specially prepared and polished surfaces, enable us
to reconstruct in so+e degree the history of that ancient e+pire' <ro+
ti+e to ti+e there ha&e been found and copied other si+ilar teCts, *hich
are cut on the +ountainsides or on the +assi&e stones *hich for+ed part
of the construction of their buildings and fortifications' ! co+plete
collection of these teCts, together *ith translations, *ill shortly be
published by Prof' #eh+ann' Bean*hile, this scholar has discussed and
su++ariGed the results to be obtained fro+ +uch of his +aterial, and
*e are thus already enabled to sketch the principal achie&e+ents of the
rulers of this +ountain race, *ho *ere constantly at *ar *ith the later
kings of !ssyria, and for t*o centuries at least disputed her clai+ to
supre+acy in this portion of (estern !sia'
The country occupied by this ancient people of @an *as the great
table-land *hich no* for+s !r+enia' The people the+sel&es cannot
be connected *ith the !r+enians, for their language presents no
characteristics of those of the "ndo-European fa+ily, and it is eAually
certain that they are not to be traced to a e+itic origin' "t is true
that they e+ployed the !ssyrian +ethod of *riting their inscriptions,
and their art differs only in +inor points fro+ that of the !ssyrians,
but in both instances this si+ilarity of culture *as directly borro*ed
at a ti+e *hen the less ci&iliGed race, ha&ing its centre at @an, ca+e
into direct contact *ith the !ssyrians'
4"llustration. R/6'jpg !?C"E?T <#"GHT O< TEP !?% G!##E$, O? THE
<!CE
O< THE $OC)-C"T!%E# O< @!?'
The eCact date at *hich this influence began to be eCerted is not
certain, but *e ha&e records of i++ediate relations *ith !ssyria in the
second half of the ninth century before Christ' The district inhabited
by the @annic people *as kno*n to the !ssyrians by the na+e of >rartu,
and although the inscriptions of the earlier !ssyrian kings do not
record eCpeditions against that country, they freAuently +ake +ention of
ca+paigns against princes and petty rulers of the land of ?aDiri' They
+ust therefore for long ha&e eCercised an indirect, if not a direct,
influence on the peoples and tribes *hich lay +ore to the north'
The earliest e&idence of direct contact bet*een the !ssyrians and the
land of >rartu *hich *e at present possess dates fro+ the reign of
!shur-nasir-pal, and in the reign of his son hal+aneser "" three
eCpeditions *ere undertaken against the people of @an' The na+e of the
king of >rartu at this ti+e *as !ra+e, and his capital city, !rGasku,
probably lay to the north of #ake @an' On all three occasions the
!ssyrians *ere &ictorious, forcing !ra+e to abandon his capital
and capturing his cities as far as the sources of the Euphrates'
ubseAuently, in the year 977 B'C', hal+aneser "" +ade another attack
upon the country, *hich at that ti+e *as under the s*ay of arduris "'
>nder this +onarch the citadel of @an beca+e the great stronghold of the
people of >rartu, for he added to the natural strength of the position
by the construction of *alls built bet*een the rock of @an and the
harbour' The +assi&e blocks of stone of *hich his fortifications
*ere co+posed are standing at the present day, and they bear eloAuent
testi+ony to the energy *ith *hich this +onarch de&oted hi+self to the
task of rendering his ne* citadel i+pregnable' The fortification and
strengthening of @an and its citadel *as carried on during the reigns of
his direct successors and descendants, "spui-nis, Benuas, and !rgistis
", so that *hen Tiglath-pile-ser """ brought fire and s*ord into the
country and laid siege to @an in the reign of arduris "", he could not
capture the citadel'
4"llustration. R/:'jpg P!$T O< THE !?C"E?T <O$T"<"C!T"O? O< THE C"T,
O<
@!?, BET(EE? THE C"T!%E# !?% THE #!)E'8
"t *as not difficult for the !ssyrian king to assault and capture the
city itself, *hich lay at the foot of the citadel as it does at the
present day, but the latter, *ithin the fortifications of *hich arduris
and his garrison *ithdre*, pro&ed itself able to *ithstand the !ssyrian
attack' The eCpedition of Tiglath-pileser """ did not succeed in
crushing the @annic e+pire, for $usas ", the son and successor of
arduris "", allied hi+self to the neighbouring +ountain races and ga&e
considerable trouble to argon, the !ssyrian king, *ho *as obliged to
undertake an eCpedition to check their aggressions'
"t *as probably $usas " *ho erected the buildings on Toprak )ala, the
hill to the east of @an, traces of *hich re+ain to the present day' He
built a palace and a te+ple, and around the+ he constructed a ne* city
*ith a reser&oir to supply it *ith *ater, possibly because the slopes
of Toprak )ala rendered it easier of defence than the city in the
plain Ibeneath the rock and citadelJ *hich had fallen an easy prey to
Tiglath-pileser """' The site of the te+ple on Toprak )ala has been
eCca&ated by the trustees of the British Buseu+, and our kno*ledge of
@annic art is deri&ed fro+ the shields and hel+ets of bronGe and s+all
bronGe figures and fittings *hich *ere reco&ered fro+ this building' One
of the shields brought to the British Buseu+ fro+ the Toprak )ala, *here
it originally hung *ith others on the te+ple *alls, bears the na+e of
!rgistis "", *ho *as the son and successor of $usas ", and *ho atte+pted
to gi&e trouble to the !ssyrians by stirring the inhabitants of the land
of )u++ukh I)o++ageneJ to re&olt against argon' His son, $usas "",
*as the conte+porary of Esarhaddon, and fro+ so+e recently disco&ered
rock-inscriptions *e learn that he eCtended the li+its of his kingdo+ on
the *est and secured &ictories against Bushki IBeshechJ to the southeast
of the Halys and against the Hittites in ?orthern yria' $usas """
rebuilt the te+ple on Toprak )ala, as *e kno* fro+ an inscription of his
on one of the shields fro+ that place in the British Buseu+' Both he and
arduris """ *ere on friendly ter+s *ith the !ssyrians, for *e kno* that
they both sent e+bassies to !shur-bani-pal'
By far the larger nu+ber of rock-inscriptions that ha&e yet been found
and copied in the +ountainous districts bordering on !ssyria *ere
engra&ed by this ancient @annic people, and %rs' #eh+ann and Belck ha&e
done good ser&ice by +aking careful copies and collations of all those
*hich are at present kno*n' (ork on other classes of rock-inscriptions
has also been carried on by other tra&ellers' ! ne* edition of the
inscriptions of ennacherib in the gorge of the Go+el, near the &illage
of Ba&ian, has been +ade by Br' )ing, *ho has also been fortunate enough
to find a nu+ber of hitherto unkno*n inscriptions in )urdistan on the
=udi %agh and at the sources of the Tigris' The inscriptions at
the +outh of the ?ahr el-)elb, Lthe %og $i&er,L in yria, ha&e
been reeCa+ined by %r' )nudtGon, and the long inscription *hich
?ebuchadneGGar "" cut on the rocks at (adi Brissa in the #ebanon,
for+erly published by B' Pognon, has been recopied by %r' (eissbach'
<inally, the great trilingual inscription of %arius Hystaspes on the
rock at Bisutun in Persia, *hich *as for+erly copied by the late ir
Henry $a*-linson and used by hi+ for the successful decipher+ent of the
cuneifor+ inscriptions, *as co+pletely copied last year by Bessrs' )ing
and Tho+pson'
Bessrs' )ing and Tho+pson are preparing a ne* edition of
this inscription'
The +ain facts of the history of !ssyria under her later kings and of
Babylonia during the ?eo-Babylonian and Persian periods *ere +any years
ago correctly ascertained, and recent eCca&ation and research ha&e done
little to add to our kno*ledge of the history of these periods' "t *as
hoped that the eCca&ations conducted by %r' )olde*ey at Babylon *ould
result in the reco&ery of a *ealth of inscriptions and records referring
to the later history of the country, but unfortunately co+parati&ely
fe* tablets or inscriptions ha&e been found, and those that ha&e been
reco&ered consist +ainly of building-inscriptions and &oti&e teCts' One
such building-inscription contains an interesting historical reference'
"t occurs on a barrel-cylinder of clay inscribed *ith a teCt of
?abopolassar, and it *as found in the te+ple of ?inib and records the
co+pletion and restoration of the te+ple by the king' "n addition to
recording the building operations he had carried out in the te+ple,
?abopolassar boasts of his opposition to the !ssyrians' He says. L!s for
the !ssyrians *ho had ruled all peoples fro+ distant days and had set
the people of the land under a hea&y yoke, ", the *eak and hu+ble +an
*ho *orshippeth the #ord of #ords Ii'e' the god BardukJ, through the
+ighty po*er of ?abW and Barduk, +y lords, held back their feet fro+ the
land of !kkad and cast off their yoke'L
"t is not yet certain *hether the Babylonians under ?abopolassar
acti&ely assisted CyaCares and the Bedes in the siege and in the
subseAuent capture of ?ine&eh in 020 B'C' but this ne*ly disco&ered
reference to the !ssyrians by ?abopolassar +ay possibly be taken
to i+ply that the Babylonians *ere passi&e and not acti&e allies of
CyaCares' "f the cylinder *ere inscribed after the fall of ?ine&eh *e
should ha&e eCpected ?abopolassar, had he taken an acti&e part in the
capture of the city, to ha&e boasted in +ore definite ter+s of his
achie&e+ent' On his stele *hich is preser&ed at Constantinople,
?abonidus, the last king of the ?eo-Babylonian e+pire, *ho hi+self
suffered defeat at the hands of Cyrus, )ing of Persia, ascribed the fall
of ?ine&eh to the anger of Barduk and the other gods of Babylon because
of the destruction of their city and the spoliation of their te+ples by
ennacherib in 09: B'C' (e see the irony of fate in the fact that Cyrus
also ascribed the defeat and deposition of ?abonidus and the fall of
Babylon to BardukDs inter&ention, *hose anger he alleges *as aroused
by the atte+pt of ?abonidus to concentrate the *orship of the local
city-gods in Babylon'
Thus it *ill be seen that recent eCca&ation and research ha&e not
yet supplied the data for filling in such gaps as still re+ain in our
kno*ledge of the later history of !ssyria and Babylon' The closing
years of the !ssyrian e+pire and the +ilitary achie&e+ents of the great
?eo-Babylonian rulers, ?abopolassar, ?erig-lissar, and ?ebuchadneGGar
"", ha&e not yet been found recorded in any published !ssyrian or
Babylonian inscription, but it +ay be eCpected that at any +o+ent
so+e teCt *ill be disco&ered that *ill thro* light upon the proble+s
connected *ith the history of those periods *hich still a*ait solution'
Bean*hile, the eCca&ations at Babylon, although they ha&e not added
+uch to our kno*ledge of the later history of the country, ha&e been
of i++ense ser&ice in re&ealing the topography of the city during the
?eo-Babylonian period, as *ell as the positions, plans, and characters
of the principal buildings erected by the later Babylonian kings' The
disco&ery of the palaces of ?ebuchadneGGar "" on the +ound of the )asr,
of the s+all but co+plete te+ple E-+akh, of the te+ple of the goddess
?in-+akh to the northeast of the palaces, and of the sacred road
di&iding the+ and passing through the Great Gate of "shtar Iadorned *ith
representations of lions, bulls, and dragons in raised brick upon its
*allsJ has enabled us to for+ so+e conception of the splendour and
+agnificence of the city as it appeared *hen rebuilt by its last nati&e
rulers' Boreo&er, the great te+ple E-sagila, the fa+ous shrine of the
god Barduk, has been identified and partly eCca&ated beneath the huge
+ound of Tell !+ran ibn-!li, *hile a s+aller and less fa+ous te+ple of
?inib has been disco&ered in the lo*er +ounds *hich lie to the east*ard'
<inally, the sacred *ay fro+ E-sagila to the palace +ound has been
traced and unco&ered' (e are thus enabled to reconstitute the scene of
the +ost sole+n rite of the Babylonian festi&al of the ?e* ,ear, *hen
the statue of the god Barduk *as carried in sole+n procession along this
road fro+ the te+ple to the palace, and the Babylonian king +ade his
yearly obeisance to the national god, placing his o*n hands *ithin those
of Barduk, in token of his sub+ission to and dependence on the di&ine
*ill'
4"llustration. R13'jpg ("TH"? THE H$"?E OP E-B!)H, THE TEBP#E OP THE
GO%%E ?"?-B!)H'8
Though recent eCca&ations ha&e not led to any startling disco&eries
*ith regard to the history of (estern !sia during the last years of
the Babylonian e+pire, research a+ong the tablets dating fro+ the
?eo-Babylonian and Persian periods has lately added considerably to our
kno*ledge of Babylonian literature' These periods *ere +arked by great
literary acti&ity on the part of the priests at Babylon, ippar, and
else*here, *ho, under the royal orders, scoured the country for all
re+ains of the early literature *hich *as preser&ed in the ancient
te+ples and archi&es of the country, and +ade careful copies and
collections of all they found' Bany of these tablets containing
?eo-Babylonian copies of earlier literary teCts are preser&ed in the
British Buseu+, and ha&e been recently published, and *e ha&e thus
reco&ered so+e of the principal gra++atical, religious, and +agical
co+positions of the earlier Babylonian period'
4"llustration. R10'jpg T$E?CH "? THE B!B,#O?"!? P#!"?8
Bet*een The Bound Of The )asr !nd Tell !+ran "bn-!li,
ho*ing ! ection Of The Pa&ed acred (ay'
!+ong the +ost interesting of such recent finds is a series of tablets
inscribed *ith the Babylonian legends concerning the creation of the
*orld and +an, *hich present +any ne* and striking parallels to the
beliefs on these subjects e+bodied in Hebre* literature' (e ha&e not
space to treat this subject at greater length in the present *ork, but
*e +ay here note that disco&ery and research in its relation to the
later e+pires that ruled at Babylon ha&e produced results of literary
rather than of historical i+portance' But *e should eCceed the space
at our disposal if *e atte+pted e&en to ski+ this fascinating field of
study in *hich so +uch has recently been achie&ed' <or it is ti+e *e
turned once +ore to Egypt and directed our inAuiry to*ards ascertaining
*hat recent research has to tell us *ith regard to her inhabitants
during the later periods of her eCistence as a nation of the ancient
*orld'
CH!PTE$ "H--THE #!T %!, O< !?C"E?T EG,PT
Before *e turned fro+ Egypt to su++ariGe the infor+ation, afforded by
recent disco&eries, upon the history of (estern !sia under the kings
of the !ssyrian and ?eo-Babylonian periods, *e noted that the !siatic
e+pire of Egypt *as regained by the reactionary kings of the H"Hth
%ynasty, after its te+porary loss o*ing to the &agaries of !khunaten'
Palestine re+ained Egyptian throughout the period of the judges until
the foundation of the kingdo+ of =udah' (ith the decline of +ilitary
spirit in Egypt and the increasing po*er of the priesthood, authority
o&er !sia beca+e less and less a reality' Tribute *as no longer paid,
and the tribes *rangled *ithout a restraining hand, during the reigns of
the successors of $a+ses """' By the ti+e of the priest-kings of Thebes
Ithe HH"st %ynastyJ the authority of the Pharaohs had ceased to be
eCercised in yria' Egypt *as itself di&ided into t*o kingdo+s, the one
ruled by ?orthern descendants of the $a+essids at Tanis, the other by
the priestly +onarchs at Thebes, *ho reigned by right of inheritance as
a result of the +arriage of the daughter of $a+ses *ith the high
priest !+enhetep, father of Herhor, the first priest-king' The Thebans
fortified GebelNn in the outh and el-HNbi in the ?orth against attack,
and e&idently their relations *ith the Tanites *ere not al*ays friendly'
"n yria nothing of the i+perial po*er re+ained' The prestige of the god
!+en of Thebes, ho*e&er, *as still &ery great' (e see this clearly fro+
a &ery interesting papyrus of the reign of Herhor, published in /9:: by
Br' Golenischeff, *hich describes the ad&entures of >enua+en, an en&oy
sent Iabout /232 B'C'J to Phoenicia to bring *ood fro+ the +ountains of
#ebanon for the construction of a great festi&al bark of the god !+en
at Thebes' "n the course of his +ission he *as &ery badly treated
I(e cannot *ell i+agine Thoth+es """ or !+enhetep """ tolerating
ill-treat+ent of their en&oy^J and e&entually ship*recked on the coast
of the land of !lashiya or Cyprus' He tells us in the papyrus, *hich
see+s to be the official report of his +ission, that, ha&ing been gi&en
letters of credence to the Prince of Byblos fro+ the )ing of Tanis,
Lto *ho+ !+en had gi&en charge of his ?orth-land,L he at length reached
Phoenicia, and after +uch discussion and argu+ent *as able to pre&ail
upon the prince to ha&e the *ood *hich he *anted brought do*n fro+
#ebanon to the seashore'
Here, ho*e&er, a difficulty presented itself,--the harbour *as filled
*ith the piratical ships of the Cretan Tjakaray, *ho refused to allo*
>enua+en to return to Egypt' They said, DeiGe hi+K let no ship of his
go unto the land of Egypt^D LThen,L says >enua+en in the papyrus, L" sat
do*n and *ept' The scribe of the prince ca+e out unto +eK he said unto
+e, D(hat ail-eth theePD " replied, Deest thou not the birds *hich fly,
*hich fly back unto EgyptP #ook at the+, they go unto the cool canal,
and ho* long do " re+ain abandoned hereP eest thou not those *ho *ould
pre&ent +y returnPD He *ent a*ay and spoke unto the prince, *ho began
to *eep at the *ords *hich *ere told unto hi+ and *hich *ere so sad' He
sent his scribe out unto +e, *ho brought +e t*o +easures of *ine and a
deer' He sent +e Tentnuet, an Egyptian singing-girl *ho *as *ith hi+,
saying unto her, Ding unto hi+, that he +ay not grie&e^D He sent *ord
unto +e, DEat, drink, and grie&e not^ To-+orro* shalt thou hear all that
" shall say'D On the +orro* he had the people of his harbour su++oned,
and he stood in the +idst of the+, and he said unto the Tjakaray, D(hat
aileth youPD They ans*ered hi+, D(e *ill pursue the piratical ships
*hich thou sendest unto Egypt *ith our unhappy co+panions'D He said unto
the+, D" cannot seiGe the a+bassador of !+en in +y land' #et +e send hi+
a*ay and then do ye pursue after hi+ to seiGe hi+^D He sent +e on board,
and he sent +e a*ay''' to the ha&en of the sea' The *ind dro&e +e upon
the land of !lashiya' The people of the city ca+e out in order to slay
+e' " *as dragged by the+ to the place *here Hatiba, the Aueen of the
city, *as' " +et her as she *as going out of one of her houses into
the other' " greeted her and said unto the people *ho stood by her, D"s
there not one a+ong you *ho understandeth the speech of EgyptPD One
of the+ replied, D" understand it'D " said unto hi+, Day unto thy
+istress. e&en as far as the city in *hich !+en d*elleth Ii' e' ThebesJ
ha&e " heard the pro&erb, L"n all cities is injustice doneK only in
!lashiya is justice to be found,L and no* is injustice done here e&ery
day^D he said, D(hat is it that thou sayestPD " said unto her, Dince
the sea raged and the *ind dro&e +e upon the land in *hich thou li&est,
therefore thou *ilt not allo* the+ to seiGe +y body and to kill +e, for
&erily " a+ an a+bassador of !+en' $e+e+ber that " a+ one *ho *ill be
sought for al*ays' !nd if these +en of the Prince of Byblos *ho+ they
seek to kill Iare killedJ, &erily if their chief finds ten +en of thine,
*ill he not kill the+ alsoPD he su++oned the +en, and they *ere brought
before her' he said unto +e, D#ie do*n and sleep'''DL
!t this point the papyrus breaks off, and *e do not kno* ho* >enua+en
returned to Egypt *ith his *ood' The description of his casting-a*ay and
landing on !lashiya is Auite Ho+eric, and gi&es a &i&id picture of the
+anners of the ti+e' The natural i+pulse of the islanders is to kill
the strange casta*ay, and only the fear of re&enge and of the *rath of a
distant foreign deity restrains the+' !lashiya is probably Cyprus, *hich
also bore the na+e ,antinay fro+ the ti+e of Thoth+es """ until the
se&enth century, *hen it is called ,atnan by the !ssyrians' ! king
of !lashiya corresponded *ith !+enhetep """ in cuneifor+ on ter+s of
perfect eAuality, three hundred years before. LBrother,L he *rites,
Lshould the s+all a+ount of the copper *hich " ha&e sent thee be
displeasing unto thy heart, it is because in +y land the hand of ?ergal
+y lord sle* all the +en of +y land Ii'e' they died of the plagueJ, and
there *as no *orking of copperK and this *as, +y brother, not pleasing
unto thy heart' Thy +essenger *ith +y +essenger s*iftly *ill " send, and
*hatsoe&er a+ount of copper thou hast asked for, O +y brother, ",
e&en ", *ill send it unto thee'L The +ention by HerhorDs en&oy of
?esibinebdad I+endesJ, the )ing of Tanis, a po*erful ruler *ho in
reality constantly threatened the eCistence of the priestly +onarchy
at Thebes, as Lhi+ to *ho+ !+en has co++itted the *ardship of his
?orth-land,L is distinctly a+using' The hard fact of the independence of
#o*er Egypt had to be gloGed so+eho*'
The days of Theban po*er *ere co+ing to an end and only the prestige
of the god !+en re+ained strong for t*o hundred years +ore' But the
alliance of !+en and his priests *ith a band of predatory and destroying
foreign conAuerors, the Ethiopians I*hose rulers *ere the descendants
of the priest-kings, *ho retired to ?apata on the succession of the
po*erful Bubastite dynasty of hishak to that of Tanis, abandoning
Thebes to the ?orthernersJ, did +uch to destroy the prestige of !+en
and of e&erything connected *ith hi+' !n Ethiopian &ictory +eant only
an !ssyrian reconAuest, and bet*een the+ Ethiopians and !ssyrians had
*ell-nigh ruined Egypt' "n the aXte period Thebes had declined greatly
in po*er as *ell as in influence, and all its traditions *ere anathe+a
to the leading people of the ti+e, although not of course in !khunatenDs
sense'
(ith the aXte period *e see+ al+ost to ha&e retraced our steps and to
ha&e reentered the age of the Pyra+id Builders' !ll the po+p and glory
of Thoth+es, !+enhetep, and $a+ses *ere gone' The days of i+perial Egypt
*ere o&er, and the +inds of +en, sickened of foreign *ar, turned for
peace and Auietness to the si+pler ideals of the "@th and @th %ynasties'
(e ha&e already seen that an archaistic re&i&al of the styles of the
early dynasties is characteristic of this late period, and that +en
*ere buried at akkVra and at Thebes in to+bs *hich recall in for+ and
decoration those of the courtiers of the Pyra+id Builders' E&ery*here
*e see this fashion of archais+' ! Theban noble of this period na+ed
!ba *as buried at Thebes' #ong ago, nearly three thousand years before,
under the @"th %ynasty, there had li&ed a great noble of the sa+e na+e,
*ho *as buried in a rock-to+b at %Nr el-GebrV*Z, in Biddle Egypt' This
to+b *as open and kno*n in the days of the second !ba, *ho caused to be
copied and reproduced in his to+b in the !sasZf at Thebes +ost of the
scenes fro+ the bas-relief *ith *hich it had been decorated' The to+b
of the @"th %ynasty !ba has lately been copied for the !rchaeological
ur&ey of Egypt IEgypt ECploration <undJ by Br' de Garis %a&ies, *ho has
found the reliefs of the HH@"th %ynasty !ba of considerable use to hi+
in reconstituting destroyed portions of their ancient originals'
%uring late years i+portant disco&eries of objects of this era ha&e been
fe*' One of the +ost note*orthy is that of a conte+porary inscription
describing the battle of Bo+e+phis, *hich is +entioned by Herodotus Iii,
/07, /0:J' (e no* ha&e the official account of this battle, and kno*
that it took place in the third year of the reign of !+asis--not before
he beca+e king' This *as the fight in *hich the unpatriotic king,
!pries, *ho had paid for his partiality for the Greeks of ?au-kratis
*ith the loss of his throne, *as finally defeated' !s *e see fro+ this
inscription, he *as probably +urdered by the country people during his
flight'
The follo*ing are the +ost i+portant passages of the inscription. LHis
Bajesty I!+asisJ *as in the <esti&al-Hall, discussing plans for his
*hole land, *hen one ca+e to say unto hi+, DHVV-ab-$V I!priesJ is ro*ing
upK he hath gone on board the ships *hich ha&e crossed o&er' Haunebu
IGreeksJ, one kno*s not their nu+ber, are tra&ersing the ?orth-land,
*hich is as if it had no +aster to rule itK he I!priesJ hath su++oned
the+, they are co+ing round hi+' "t is he *ho hath arranged their
settle+ent in the Peh-Vn Ithe !n-dropolite na+eJK they infest the *hole
breadth of Egypt, those *ho are on thy *aters fly before the+^D''' His
Bajesty +ounted his chariot, ha&ing taken lance and bo* in his hand'''
Ithe ene+yJ reached !ndropolisK the soldiers sang *ith joy on the
roads''' they did their duty in destroying the ene+y' His Bajesty fought
like a lionK he +ade &icti+s a+ong the+, one kno*s not ho* +any' The
ships and their *arriors *ere o&erturned, they sa* the depths as do the
fishes' #ike a fla+e he eCtended, +aking a feast of fighting' His heart
rejoiced'''' The third year, the 9th !thyr, one ca+e to tell Bajesty.
D#et their &ile-ness be ended^ They throng the roads, there are
thousands there ra&aging the landK they fill e&ery road' Those *ho are
in ships bear thy terror in their hearts' But it is not yet finished'D
aid his Bajesty unto his soldiers. D''',oung +en and old +en, do this
in the cities and no+es^D''' Going upon e&ery road, let not a day pass
*ithout fighting their galleys^D''' The land *as tra&ersed as by the
blast of a te+pest, destroying their ships, *hich *ere abandoned by the
cre*s' The people acco+plished their fate, killing the prince I!priesJ
on his couch, *hen he had gone to repose in his cabin' (hen he sa* his
friend o&erthro*n''' his Bajesty hi+self buried hi+ I!priesJ, in order
to establish hi+ as a king possessing &irtue, for his Bajesty decreed
that the hatred of the gods should be re+o&ed fro+ hi+'L
This is the e&ent to *hich *e ha&e already referred in a preceding
chapter, as pro&ing the great a+elioration of Egyptian ideas *ith regard
to the treat+ent of a conAuered ene+y, as co+pared *ith those of other
ancient nations' !+asis refers to the deposed +onarch as his Lfriend,L
and buries hi+ in a +anner befitting a king at the charges of !+asis
hi+self' This act *arded off fro+ the spirit of !pries the just anger
of the gods at his partiality for the Lforeign de&ils,L and ensured his
reception by Osiris as a king neb +enkh, Lpossessing &irtues'L
The to*n of ?aukratis, *here !pries established hi+self, had been
granted to the Greek traders by Psa+etik " a century or +ore before' Br'
%' G' HogarthDs recent eCploration of the site has led to a considerable
+odification of our first ideas of the place, *hich *ere obtained
fro+ Prof' Petrie Ds eCca&ations' Prof' Petrie *as the disco&erer of
?aukratis, and his diggings told us *hat ?aukratis *as like in the first
instance, but Br' Hogarth has sho*n that se&eral of his identifications
*ere erroneous and that the +ap of the place +ust be redra*n' The chief
error *as in the placing of the Hellenion Ithe great +eeting-place of
the GreeksJ, *hich is no* kno*n to be in Auite a different position fro+
that assigned to it by Prof' Petrie' The LGreat Te+enosL of Prof' Petrie
has no* been sho*n to be non-eCistent' Br' Hogarth has also pointed out
that an old Egyptian to*n eCisted at ?au-kratis long before the Greeks
ca+e there' This to*n is +entioned on a &ery interesting stele of black
basalt Idisco&ered at Tell Gaif, the site of ?aukratis, and no* in the
Cairo Buseu+J, under the na+e of LPer+erti, *hich is called ?ukrate'L
The first is the old Egyptian na+e, the second the Greek na+e adapted
to Egyptian hieroglyphs' The stele *as erected by Tekhtnebf, the last
nati&e king of Egypt, to co++e+orate his gifts to the te+ples of ?eXth
on the occasion of his accession at ais' "t is beautifully cut, and the
inscription is *ritten in a curious +anner, *ith alphabetic spellings
instead of ideographs, and ideographs instead of alphabetic spellings,
*hich sa&ours fully of the affectation of the learned pedant *ho drafted
itK for no*, of course, in the fourth century before Christ, nobody but
a priestly antiAuarian could read hieroglyphics' %e+otic *as the only
*riting for practical purposes'
(e see this fact *ell illustrated in the inscriptions of the Ptole+aXc
te+ples' The accession of the Ptole+ies +arked a great increase in the
+aterial *ealth of Egypt, and foreign conAuest again ca+e in fashion'
Ptole+y Euergetes +arched into !sia in the grand style of a $a+ses and
brought back the i+ages of gods *hich had been carried off by Esarhaddon
or ?ebuchadneGGar "" centuries before' He *as recei&ed on his return
to Egypt *ith accla+ations as a true successor of the Pharaohs' The
i+perial spirit *as again in &ogue, and the archaistic si+plicity and
independence of the aXtes ga&e place to an archaistic i+perialis+, the
first-fruits of *hich *ere the repair and building of te+ples in the
great Pharaonic style' On these *e see the Ptole+ies +asAuerading as
Pharaohs, and the cli+aC of absurdity is reached *hen Ptole+y !uletes
Ithe PiperJ is seen striking do*n !siatic ene+ies in the +anner of
!+en-hetep or $a+ses^ This scene is directly copied fro+ a $a+esside
te+ple, and *e find i+itations of reliefs of $a+ses "" so sla&ish that
the na+e of the earlier king is actually copied, as *ell as the relief,
and appears abo&e the figure of a Ptole+y' The na+es of the nations *ho
*ere conAuered by Thoth+es """ are repeated on Ptole+aic sculptures to
do duty for the conAuered of Euergetes, *ith all sorts of +istakes
in spelling, naturally, and also *ith later interpolations' uch an
inscription is that in the te+ple of )o+ O+bo, *hich Prof' ay ce has
held to contain the na+es of LCaphtor and Casluhi+L and to pro&e the
kno*ledge of the latter na+e in the fourteenth century before Christ'
The na+e of Caphtor is the old Egyptian )eftiu ICreteJK that of Casluhi+
is unkno*n in real Old Egyptian inscriptions, and in this Ptole+aic list
at )o+ O+bo it +ay be Auite a late interpolation in the lists, perhaps
no older than the Persian period, since *e find the na+es of Parsa
IPersiaJ and usa, *hich *ere certainly unkno*n to Thoth+es """,
included in it' (e see generally fro+ the Ptole+aic inscriptions that
nobody could read the+ but a fe* priests, *ho often +ade +istakes' One
of the +ost serious *as the identification of )eftiu *ith Phoenicia in
the tele of Canopus' This +isled +odern archaeologists do*n to the
ti+e of %r' E&ansDs disco&eries at )nossos, though ho* these utterly
un-e+itic looking )eftiu could ha&e been Phoenicians *as a puGGle to
e&erybody' (e no* kno*, of course, that they *ere Bycenaean or
Binoan Cretans, and that the Ptole+aic antiAuaries +ade a +istake in
identifying the land of )eftiu *ith Phoenicia'
(e +ust not, ho*e&er, say too +uch in dispraise of the Ptole+aic
Egyptians and their *orks' (e ha&e to be grateful to the+ indeed for the
building of the te+ples of Edfu and %endera, *hich, o*ing to their later
date, are still in good preser&ation, *hile the best preser&ed of the
old Pharaonic fanes, such as Bedinet HabW, ha&e suffered considerably
fro+ the ra&ages of ti+e' Eor these te+ples sho* us to-day *hat an
old Egyptian te+ple, *hen perfect, really looked like' They are, so to
speak, perfect +u++ies of te+ples, *hile of the old buildings *e ha&e
nothing but the disjointed and da+aged skeletons'
! good deal of repairing has been done to these buildings, especially
to that at Edfu, of late years' But the +ain archaeological interest of
Ptole+aic and $o+an ti+es has been found in the field of epigraphy and
the study of papyri, *ith *hich the na+es of Bessrs' )enyon, Grenfell,
and Hunt are chiefly connected' The treasures *hich ha&e lately been
obtained by the British Buseu+ in the shape of the +anuscripts of
!ristotleDs LConstitution of !thens,L the lost poe+s of Bacchylides, and
the Bi+es of Herondas, all of *hich ha&e been published for the trustees
of that institution by Br' )enyon, are kno*n to those *ho are interested
in these subjects' The long series of publications of Bessrs'
Grenfell and Hunt, issued at the eCpense of the Egypt ECploration <und
IGraeco-$o+an branchJ, *ith the eCception of the &olu+e of disco&eries
at Teb-tunis, *hich *as issued by the >ni&ersity of California, is also
*ell kno*n'
The t*o places *ith *hich Bessrs' Grenfell and HuntDs *ork has been
chiefly connected are the <ayyW+ and BehnesV, the site of the ancient
Per+je or OCyr-rhynchus' The lake-pro&ince of the <ayyW+, *hich attained
such pro+inence in the days of the H""th %ynasty, see+s to ha&e had
little or no history during the *hole period of the ?e* E+pire, but in
Ptole+aic ti+es it re&i&ed and again beca+e one of the richest and
+ost i+portant pro&inces of Egypt' The to*n of !rsinoa *as founded at
Crocodilopolis, *here are no* the +ounds of )o+ el-<Vris IThe Bound of
the Horse+anJ, near Bedinet el-Payyu+, and beca+e the capital of the
pro&ince' !t "llahWn, just outside the entrance to the <ayyW+, *as the
great ?ile harbour and entrepct of the lake-district, called Ptole+aXs
Hor+os'
The eCplorations of Bessrs' Hogarth, Grenfell, and Hunt in the years
of /9:3-0 and /9:9-: resulted in the identification of the sites of the
ancient cities of )aranis I)o+ >shZ+J, Bacchias IO++ el-D!tlJ, Euhe+eria
I)asr el-BanVtJ, Theadelphia IHarZtJ, and Philoteris I(adfaJ' The *ork
for the >ni&ersity of California in /9::/:22 at >++ el-Baragat sho*ed
that this place *as Tebtunis' %i+e, on the northern coast of the Birket
)arWn, the +odern representati&e of the ancient #ake Boeris, is no*
kno*n to be the ancient okno-paiou ?esos Ithe "sle of oknopaiosJ, a
local for+ of ebek, the crocodile-god of the <ayyW+' !t )aranis this
god *as *orshipped under the na+e of Petesuchos ILHe *ho+ ebek
has gi&enLJ, in conjunction *ith Osiris Pnephercs IP-nefer-ho,
Lthe beautiful of faceLJK at Tebtunis he beca+e eknebtunis', i'e'
ebek-neb-Teb-tunis Iebek, lord of TebtunisJ' This is a typical eCa+ple
of the port+anteau pronunciations of the latter-day Egyptians'
Bany &ery interesting disco&eries *ere +ade during the course of the
eCca&ations of these places Ibesides Br' HogarthDs find of the te+ple
of Petesuchos and Pnephercs at )aranisJ, consisting of $o+an pottery
of &aried for+ and $o+an agricultural i+ple+ents, including a perfect
plough'; The +ain interest of all, ho*e&er, lies, both here and at
BehnesV, in the papyri' They consist of Greek and #atin docu+ents of
all ages fro+ the early Ptole+aic to the Christian' "n fact, Bessrs'
Grenfell and Hunt ha&e been unearthing and sifting the contents of the
*aste-paper baskets of the ancient Ptole+aic and $o+an Egyptians, *hich
had been thro*n out on to dust-heaps near the to*ns' ?othing perishes
in,, the dry cli+ate and soil of Egypt, so the contents of the ancient
dust-heaps ha&e been preser&ed intact until our o*n day, and ha&e been
found by Bessrs' Grenfell and Hunt, just as the contents of the houses
of the ancient "ndian rulers of Chinese Turkestan, at ?iya and )hotan,
*ith their store of )ha-roshthi docu+ents, ha&e been preser&ed intact in
the dry Tibetan desert cli+ate and ha&e been found by %r' tein';; There
is +uch analogy bet*een the disco&eries of Bessrs' Grenfell and Hunt in
Egypt and those of %r' tein in Turkestan'
; "llustrated on Plate "H of <ayW+ To*ns and Their Papyri'
;; ee %r' teinDs and-buried $uins of )hotan, #ondon,
/:27'
The Grco-Egyptian docu+ents are of all kinds, consisting of letters,
lists, deeds, notices, taC-assess+ents, receipts, accounts, and business
records of e&ery sort and kind, besides ne* frag+ents of classical
authors and the i+portant Layings of =esus,L disco&ered at BehnesV,
*hich ha&e been published in a special popular for+ by the Egypt
ECploration <und';
; !oyla D"tjffo&, /9:6, and ?e* ayings of =esus, /:2R'
These last frag+ents of the oldest Christian literature, *hich are
of such great i+portance and interest to all Christians, cannot be
described or discussed here' The other docu+ents are no less
i+portant to the student of ancient literature, the historian, and the
sociologist' The classical frag+ents include +any teCts of lost authors,
including Benander' (e *ill gi&e a fe* speci+ens of the pri&ate
letters and docu+ents, *hich *ill sho* ho* eCtre+ely +odern the ancient
Egyptians *ere, and ho* little difference there actually is bet*een our
ci&iliGation and theirs, eCcept in the-+atter of +echanical in&ention'
They had no loco+oti&es and telephonesK other*ise they *ere the sa+e' (e
rese+ble the+ +uch +ore than *e rese+ble our +ediae&al ancestors or e&en
the EliGabethans'
This is a boyDs letter to his father, *ho *ould not take hi+ up to to*n
*ith hi+ to see the sights. LTheon to his father Theon, greeting' "t *as
a fine thing of you not to take +e *ith you to the city^ "f you *onDt
take +e *ith you to !leCandria, " *onDt *rite you a letter, or speak to
you, or say good-bye to youK and if you go to !leCandria " *onDt take
your hand or e&er greet you again' That is *hat *ill happen if you
*onDt take +e' Bother said to !rchelaus, D"t Auite upsets hi+ to be left
behind'D "t *as good of you to send +e presents on the /1th, the day
you sailed' end +e a lyre, " i+plore you' "f you donDt, " *onDt eat, "
*onDt drink. there no*^DL "s not this +ore like the letter of a spoiled
child of to-day than are the sole+nly dutiful epistles of e&en our
grandfathers and grand+others *hen youngP The touch about LBother said
to !rchelaus, D"t Auite upsets hi+ to be left behindDL is delightfully
like the +odern s+all boy, and the final reAuest and threat are also
e+inently characteristic'
Here is a letter asking so+ebody to redee+ the *riterDs property fro+
the pa*nshop. L?o* please redee+ +y property fro+ arapion' "t is
pledged for t*o +inas' " ha&e paid the interest up to the +onth Epeiph,
at the rate of a stater per +ina' There is a casket of incense-*ood,
and another of onyC, a tunic, a *hite &eil *ith a real purple border, a
handkerchief, a tunic *ith a #aconian stripe, a gar+ent of purple linen,
t*o ar+lets, a necklace, a co&erlet, a figure of !phrodite, a cup, a big
tin flask, and a *ine-jar' <ro+ Onetor get the t*o bracelets' They ha&e
been pledged since the +onth Tybi of last year for eight''' at the
rate of a stater per +ina' "f the cash is insufficient o*ing to the
carelessness of Theagenis, if, " say, it is insufficient, sell the
bracelets and +ake up the +oney'L Here is an affectionate letter of
in&itation. LGreeting, +y dear erenia, fro+ Petosiris' Be sure, dear,
to co+e up on the 12th for the birthday festi&al of the god, and let +e
kno* *hether you are co+ing by boat or by donkey, that *e +ay send for
you accordingly' Take care not to forget'L
Here is an ad&ertise+ent of a gy+nastic display.
LThe assault-at-ar+s by the youths *ill take place to-+orro*, the 1Rth'
Tradition, no less than the distinguished character of the festi&al,
reAuires that they should do their ut+ost in the gy+nastic display' T*o
perfor+ances'L igned by %ioskourides, +agistrate of OCyrrhynchus'
Here is a report fro+ a public physician to a +agistrate. LTo
Claudianus, the +ayor, fro+ %ionysos, public physician' " *as to-day
instructed by you, through Herakleides your assistant, to inspect the
body of a +an *ho had been found hanged, na+ed HieraC, and to report to
you +y opinion of it' " therefore inspected the body in the presence
of the aforesaid Herakleides at the house of Epagathus in the Broad*ay
*ard, and found it hanged by a noose, *hich fact " accordingly report'L
%ated in the t*elfth year of Barcus !urelius I!'%' /67J'
The abo&e translations are taken, slightly +odified, fro+ those in The
OCyrrhynchus Papyri, &ol' i' The neCt speci+en, a Auaint letter, is
translated fro+ the teCt in Br' GrenfellDs Greek Papyri IOCford, /9:0J,
p' 0:. LTo ?ou+en, police captain and +ayor, fro+ Pokas son of Oncs,
unpaid police+an' " ha&e been +altreated by Peadius the priest of the
te+ple of ebek in Crocodilopolis' On the first epago+enal day of the
ele&enth year, after ha&ing abused +e about''' in the aforesaid te+ple,
the person co+plained against sprang upon +e and in the presence of
*itnesses struck +e +any blo*s *ith a stick *hich he had' !nd as part of
+y body *as not co&ered, he tore +y shirt, and this fact " called upon
the bystanders to bear *itness to' (herefore " reAuest that if it see+s
proper you *ill *rite to )learchos the head+an to send hi+ to you, in
order that, if *hat " ha&e *ritten is true, " +ay obtain justice at your
hands'L
! *ill of HadrianDs reign, taken fro+ the OCyrrhynchus Papyri Ii, p'
/67J, +ay also be of interest. LThis is the last *ill and testa+ent,
+ade in the street Ii'e' at a street notaryDs standJ, of Pekysis, son of
Her+es and %idy+e, an inhabitant of OCyrrhynchus, being sane and in his
right +ind' o long as " li&e, " a+ to ha&e po*ers o&er +y property,
to alter +y *ill as " please' But if " die *ith this *ill unchanged, "
de&ise +y daughter !++onous *hose +other is Ptole+a, if she sur&i&e +e,
but if not then her children, heir to +y shares in the co++on house,
court, and roo+s situate in the Cretan *ard' !ll the furniture,
+o&ables, and household stock and other property *hate&er that " shall
lea&e, " beAueath to the +other of +y children and +y *ife Ptole+a, the
freed*o+an of %e+etrius, son of Her+ippus, *ith the condition that
she shall ha&e for her lifeti+e the right of using, d*elling in, and
building in the said house, court, and roo+s' "f !++onous should die
*ithout children and intestate, the share of the fiCtures shall belong
to her half-brother on the +otherDs side, !natas, if he sur&i&e, but if
not, to''' ?o one shall &iolate the ter+s of this +y *ill under pain of
paying to +y daughter and heir !++onous a fine of /,222 drach+ae and to
the treasury an eAual su+'L Here follo* the signatures of testator and
*itnesses, *ho are described, as in a passport, one of the+ as follo*s.
L", %ionysios, son of %ionysios of the sa+e city, *itness the *ill of
Pekysis' " a+ forty-siC years of age, ha&e a curl o&er +y right te+ple,
and this is +y seal of %ionysoplaton'L
%uring the $o+an period, *hich *e ha&e no* reached in our sur&ey, the
te+ple building of the Ptole+ies *as carried on *ith like energy' One of
the best-kno*n te+ples of the $o+an period is that at Philse, *hich
is kno*n as the L)iosk,L or LPharaohDs Bed'L O*ing to the great
picturesAueness of its situation, this s+all te+ple, *hich *as built in
the reign of Trajan, has been a fa&ourite subject for the painters of
the last fifty years, and neCt to the Pyra+ids, the phinC, and )arnak,
it is probably the +ost *idely kno*n of all Egyptian buildings' $ecently
it has co+e &ery +uch to the front for an additional reason' #ike all
the other te+ples of Philse, it had been archologically sur&eyed and
cleared by Col' H' Gr' #yons and %r' Borchardt, but further *ork of a
far-reaching character *as rendered necessary by the building of the
great !s*an da+, belo* the island of Philse, one of the results of
*hich has been the partial sub+ergence of the island and its te+ples,
including the picturesAue )iosk' The follo*ing account, taken fro+ the
ne* edition I/:20J of BurrayDs FGuide to Egypt and the udanF, *ill
suffice better than any other description to eCplain *hat the da+ is,
ho* it has affected Philse, and *hat *ork has been done to ob&iate the
possibility of serious da+age to the )iosk and other buildings'
L"n /9:9 the Egyptian go&ern+ent signed a contract *ith Bessrs' =ohn
!ird E Co' for the construction of the great reser&oir and da+ at
hellVl, *hich ser&es for the storage of *ater at the ti+e of the flood
?ile' The ri&er is Dheld upD here siCty-fi&e feet abo&e its old nor+al
le&el' ! great +asonry dyke, /32 feet high in places, has been carried
across the Bab el-)ebir of the <irst Cataract, and a canal and four
locks, t*o hundred feet long and thirty feet *ide, allo* for the passage
of traffic up and do*n the ri&er'
4"llustration. RR6'jpg The Great %a+ Of !s*Vn8
ho*ing (ater $ushing Through The luices
The da+ is 1,/93 yards long and o&er ninety feet thick at the baseK in
places it rises one hundred feet abo&e the bed of the ri&er' "t is built
of the local red granite, and at each end the granite da+ is built into
the granite hillside' e&en hundred and eight thousand cubic yards of
+asonry *ere used' The sluices are /92 in nu+ber, and are arranged at
four different le&els' The sight of the great &olu+e of *ater pouring
through the+ is a &ery fine one' The ?ile begins to rise in =uly, and at
the end of ?o&e+ber it is necessary to begin closing the sluice-gates
to hold up the *ater' By the end of <ebruary the reser&oir is usually
filled and Phil partially sub+erged, so that boats can sail in and out
of the colonnades and PharaohDs Bed' By the beginning of =uly the *ater
has been distributed, and it then falls to its nor+al le&el'
L"t is of course regrettable that the engineers *ere unable to find
another site for the da+, as it see+ed ine&itable that so+e da+age *ould
result to the te+ples of Phil fro+ their partial sub+ergence' )orosko
*as proposed as a site, but *as rejected for cogent reasons, and
apparently hellVl *as the only possible place' <urther, no serious
person, *ho places the greatest good of the greatest nu+ber abo&e
considerations of the picturesAue and the Dinteresting,D *ill deny
that if it is necessary to sacrifice Phil to the good of the people of
Egypt, Phil +ust go' D#et the dead bury their dead'D The concern of the
rulers of Egypt +ust be *ith the li&ing people of Egypt rather than *ith
the dead bones of the pastK and they *ould not be doing their duty did
they for a +o+ent allo* artistic and archaeological considerations to
out*eigh in their +inds the practical necessities of the country' This
does not in the least i+ply that they do not o*e a lesser duty to the
+onu+ents of Egypt, *hich are a+ong the +ost precious relics of the past
history of +ankind' They do o*e this lesser duty, and *ith regard to
Philae it has been conscientiously fulfilled' The *hole te+ple, in order
that its stability +ay be preser&ed under the stress of sub+ersion, has
been braced up and underpinned, under the superintendence of Br' Ball,
of the ur&ey %epart+ent, *ho has +ost efficiently carried out this
i+portant *ork, at a cost of g11,222'
4"llustration. RR:'jpg THE )"O) !T PH"#!E "? P$OCE O< >?%E$P"??"?G
!?% $ETO$!T"O?, =!?>!$,, /:21'8
teel girders ha&e been fiCed across the island fro+ Auay to Auay,
and these ha&e been surrounded by ce+ent +asonry, +ade *ater-tight
by forcing in ce+ent grout' PharaohDs Bed and the colonnade ha&e been
fir+ly underpinned in ce+ent +asonry, and there is little doubt that the
actual stability of Philae is no* +ore certain than that of any other
te+ple in Egypt' The only possible da+age that can accrue to it is
the partial discolouration of the lo*er courses of the stone*ork of
PharaohDs Bed, etc', *hich already bear a distinct high-*ater +ark' o+e
surface disintegration fro+ the for+ation of salt crystals is perhaps
ine&itable here, but the effects of this can al*ays be neutraliGed
by careful *ashing, *hich it should be an i+portant charge of the
!ntiAuities %epart+ent to regularly carry out'L
4"llustration. R32'jpg THE !?C"E?T O>!, OP PH"#`, ?O@EBBE$, /:2R'8
This is entirely co&ered *hen the reser&oir is full, and the
pal+-trees are farther sub+erged'
The photographs acco+panying the present chapter sho* the da+, the )iosk
in process of conser&ation and underpinning I/:21J, and the shores of
the island as they no* appear in the +onth of ?o&e+ber, *ith the *ater
nearly up to the le&el of the Auays' ! &ie* is also gi&en of the island
of )onosso, *ith its inscriptions, as it is no*' The island is si+ply a
huge granite boulder of the kind characteristic of the neighbourhood of
hellVl IPhilaPJ and !s*an'
On the island of Elephantine, opposite !s*an, an interesting disco&ery
has lately been +ade by Br' Ho*ard Carter' This is a re+arkable *ell,
*hich *as supposed by the ancients to lie i++ediately on the tropic' "t
for+ed the basis of EratosthenesD calculations of the +easure+ent of the
earth' "+portant finds of docu+ents *ritten in !ra+aic ha&e also been
+ade hereK they sho* that there *as on the island in Ptole+aic ti+es a
regular colony of yrian +erchants'
outh of !s*an and Philse begins ?ubia' The ?ubian language, *hich is
Auite different fro+ !rabic, is spoken by e&erybody on the island of
Elephantine, and its &arious dialects are used as far south as %ongola,
*here !rabic again is generally spoken till *e reach the land of the
negroes, south of )hartu+' "n Ptole+aic and $o+an days the ?ubians *ere
a po*erful people, and the *hole of ?ubia and the +odern ?orth udan
for+ed an independent kingdo+, ruled by Aueens *ho bore the title or
na+e of Candace' "t *as the eunuch of a Candace *ho *as con&erted to
Christianity as he *as returning fro+ a +ission to =erusale+ to salute
=eho&ah' LGo and join thyself unto his chariotL *as the co++and to
Philip, and *hen the Ethiopian had heard the gospel fro+ his lips he
*ent on his *ay rejoicing' The capital of this Candace *as at Beroa, the
+odern Bagara*iya, near hendi' Here, and at ?aga not far off, are
the re+ains of the te+ples of the Can-daces, great buildings of
se+i-barbaric Egyptian style' <or the ci&iliGation of the ?ubians, such
as it *as, *as of Egyptian origin' E&er since Egyptian rule had been
eCtended south*ards to =ebel Barkal, beyond %ongola, in the ti+e of
!+enhetep "", Egyptian culture had influenced the ?ubians' !+enhetep """
built a te+ple to !+en at ?apat[, the capital of ?ubia, *hich lay
under the shado* of Bount BarkalK !khunaten erected a sanctuary of the
un-%isk thereK and $a+ses "" also built there'
4"llustration. R31'jpg THE $OO) O< )O?OO "? =!?>!$,, /:21, BE<O$E
THE
B>"#%"?G O< THE %!B !?% <O$B!T"O? O< THE $EE$@O"$'8
The place in fact *as a sort of appanage of the priests of !+en at
Thebes, and *hen the last priest-king e&acuated Thebes, lea&ing it to
the Bubastites of the HH""d %ynasty, it *as to distant ?apata that he
retired' Here a priestly dynasty continued to reign until, t*o centuries
later, the troubles and +isfortunes of Egypt see+ed to afford an
opportunity for the reassertion of the eCiled Theban po*er' Piankhi
Bera-+en returned to Egypt in triu+ph as its rightful so&ereign, but his
successors, habak, habatak, and Tirha-kah, had to contend constantly
*ith the !ssyrians' <inally "Trda+aneh, TirhakahDs successor, returned
to ?ubia, lea&ing Egypt, in the decadence of the !ssyrian +ight, free to
lead a Auiet eCistence under Psa+etik " and the succeeding +onarchs of
the HH@"th %ynasty' (hen Ca+byses conAuered Egypt he aspired to conAuer
?ubia also, but his ar+y *as routed and destroyed by the ?apatan king,
*ho tells us in an inscription ho* he defeated Lthe +an )a+basauden,L
*ho had attacked hi+' !t ?apata the ?ubian +onarchs, one of the greatest
of *ho+ in Ptole+aic ti+es *as Erga+-enes, a conte+porary of Ptole+y
Philopator, continued to reign' But the first $o+an go&ernor of Egypt,
`lius Gallus, destroyed ?apata, and the ?ubians re+o&ed their capital
to Beroa, *here the Candaces reigned'
The +onu+ents of this ?ubian kingdo+, the te+ples of =ebel Barkal, the
pyra+ids of ?ure close by, the pyra+ids of Bagara*iya, the te+ples of
(adi Ben ?aga, Besa**arat en-?aga, and Besa**arat es-ufra ILBesa**aratL
properJ, *ere originally in&estigated by Cailliaud and after*ards by
#epsius' %uring the last fe* years they and the pyra+ids eCca&ated by
%r' E' !' (allis-Budge, of the British Buseu+, for the udan go&ern+ent,
ha&e been again eCplored' !s the results of his *ork are not yet
fully published, it is possible at present only to Auote the follo*ing
description fro+ CookDs FHandbook for Egypt and the udanF Iby %r'
BudgeJ, p' 0, of *ork on the pyra+ids of =ebel Barkal. Lthe *riter
eCca&ated the shafts of one of the pyra+ids here in /9:6, and at the
depth of about t*enty-fi&e cubits found a group of three cha+bers, in
one of *hich *ere a nu+ber of bones of the sheep *hich *as sacrificed
there about t*o thousand years ago, and also portions of a broken
a+phora *hich had held $ho-dian *ine' ! second shaft, *hich led to the
+u++y-cha+ber, *as partly e+ptied, but at a further depth of t*enty
cubits *ater *as found' The high-*ater +ark of the reser&oir *hen full
is ------ and, as there *ere no &isible +eans for pu+ping it out, the
+u++y-cha+ber could not be entered'L (ith regard to the Bagara*Zya
pyra+ids, %r' Budge *rites, on p' 622 of the sa+e *ork, [ propos of the
story of the "talian <erlini that he found $o+an je*elry in one of these
pyra+ids. L"n /:27 the *riter eCca&ated a nu+ber of the pyra+ids of
Beroa for the Go&ernor-General of the udan, ir <' $' (ingate, and
he is con&inced that the state+ents +ade by <erlini are the result of
+isapprehension on his part' The pyra+ids are solid throughout, and the
bodies are buried under the+' (hen the details are co+plete the proofs
for this *ill be published'L %r' Budge has also *ritten upon the subject
of the orientation of the =ebel Barkal and ?ure pyra+ids'
4"llustration. R3R'jpg THE "#E O< )O?OO, ("TH "T "?C$"PT"O?8
"t is &ery curious to find the pyra+ids reappearing in Egyptian
to+b-architecture in the &ery latest period of Egyptian history' (e
find the+ *hen Egyptian ci&iliGation *as just entering upon its &igorous
+anhood, then they gradually disappear, only to re&i&e in its decadent
and eCiled old age' The Ethiopian pyra+ids are all of +uch +ore
elongated for+ than the old Egyptian ones' "t is possible that they +ay
be a sur&i&al of the archaistic +o&e+ent of the HH@"th %ynasty, to *hich
*e ha&e already referred'
These are not the latest Egyptian +onu+ents in the udan, nor are the
te+ples of ?aga and Besa**arat the +ost ancient, though they belong
to the $o+an period and are decidedly barbarian as to their style and,
especially, as to their decoration' The southern+ost as *ell as latest
relic of Egypt in the udan is the Christian church of oba, on the Blue
Bie, a fe* +iles abo&e )hartu+' "n it *as found a stone ra+, an e+ble+
of !+en-$V, *hich had for+erly stood in the te+ple of ?aga and had been
brought to oba perhaps under the i+pression that it *as the Christian
#a+b' "t *as re+o&ed to the garden of the go&ernor-generalDs palace at
)hartu+, *here it no* stands'
The church at oba is a relic of the Christian kingdo+ of !lua, *hich
succeeded the real+ of the Candaces' One of its chief seats *as at
%ongola, and all ?ubia is co&ered *ith the ruins of its churches' "t
*as, of course, an offshoot of the Christianity of Egypt, but a late
one, since "sis *as still *orshipped at Philse in the siCth century,
long after the Edict of Theodosius had officially abolished paganis+
throughout the $o+an *orld, and the ?ubians *ere at first Gealous
&otaries of the goddess of Philo' o also *hen Egypt fell beneath the
s*ay of the Bosle+ in the se&enth century, ?ubia re+ained an independent
Christian state, and continued so do*n to the t*elfth century, *hen the
soldiers of "sla+ conAuered the country'
Of late pagan and early Christian Egypt &ery +uch that is ne* has been
disco&ered during the last fe* years' The period of the #o*er E+pire
has yielded +uch to the eCplorers of OCyrrhynchus, and +any papyri of
interest belonging to this period ha&e been published by Br' )enyon in
his FCatalogue of the Greek Papyri in the British Buseu+F, especially
the letters of <la&ius !binus, a +ilitary officer of the fourth
century' The papyri of this period are full of the high-flo*n titles
and affected phraseology *hich *as so belo&ed of ByGantine scribes'
LGlorious %ukes of the ThebaXd,L L+ost +agnificent counts and
lieutenants,L Lall-praise*orthy secretaries,L and the like strut across
the pages of the letters and docu+ents *hich begin L"n the na+e of Our
#ord and Baster, =esus Christ, the God and a&iour of us all, in
the year C of the reign of the +ost di&ine and praised, great, and
beneficent #ord <la&ius Heraclius Ior otherJ the eternal !ugustus and
!uto-krator, +onth C, year C of the "n diction'L "t is an eCtraordinary
period, this of the siCth and se&enth centuries, *hich *e ha&e no*
entered, *ith its biGarre co+bination of the official titulary of
the di&ine and eternal Csars "+peratores !ugusti *ith the initial
in&ocation of Christ and the Trinity' "t is the transition fro+ the
ancient to the +odern *orld, and as such has an interest all its o*n'
"n Egypt the struggle bet*een the adherents of Chalcedon, the LBelkitesL
or "+perialists of the orthodoC Greek rite, and the Eutychians or
Bono-physites, the follo*ers of the patriarch %ioskoros, *ho rejected
Chalcedon, *as going on *ith unabated fury, and *as hardly stopped e&en
by the in&asion of the pagan Persians' The last effort of the party of
Constantinople to sta+p out the Bonophysite heresy *as +ade *hen Cyril
*as patriarch and go&ernor of Egypt' !ccording to an ingenious theory
put for*ard by Br' Butler, in his F!rab ConAuest of EgyptF, it is Cyril
the patriarch *ho *as the +ysterious Bukaukas, the 4Greek *ord8, or
LGreat and Bagnificent One,L *ho played so doubtful a part in the
epoch-+aking e&ents of the !rab conAuest by !+r in !'%' 07:-R/' >sually
this Bukaukas has been regarded as a Lnoble Copt,L and the Copts ha&e
generally been credited *ith ha&ing assisted the "sla+ites against
the po*er of Constantinople' This *as a &ery natural and probable
conclusion, but Br' Butler *ill ha&e it that the Copts resisted the
!rabs &aliantly, and that the treacherous Bukaukas *as none other than
the Constantinopolitan patriarch hi+self'
"n the papyri it is interesting to note the gradual increase of !rab
na+es after the conAuest, +ore especially in those of the !rchduke
$ainer Ds collection fro+ the <ayyW+, *hich *as so near the ne* capital
city, <ustVt' "n >pper Egypt the change *as not noticeable for a long
ti+e, and in the great collection of Coptic FostrakaF Iinscriptions on
slips of li+estone and sherds of pottery, used as a substitute for paper
or parch+entJ, found in the ruins of the Coptic +onastery established,
on the te+ple site of %Nr el-Bahari, *e find no !rab na+es' These
docu+ents, part of *hich ha&e been published by Br' (' E' Cru+ for the
Egypt ECploration <und, *hile another part *ill shortly be issued for
the trustees of the British Buseu+ by Br' Hall, date to the se&enth and
eighth centuries' Their contents rese+ble those of the earlier papyri
fro+ OCyrrhynchus, though they are not of so &aried a nature and are
generally *ritten by persons of less intelligence, i'e' the +onks and
peasants of the +onasteries and &illages of TjN+e, or (estern Thebes'
%uring the late eCca&ation of the H"th %ynasty te+ple of %Nr el-Bahari,
+ore of these FostrakaF *ere found, *hich *ill be published for the
Egypt ECploration <und by Bessrs' ?a&ille and Hall' Of actual buildings
of the Coptic period the +ost i+portant eCca&ations ha&e been those of
the <rench chool of Cairo at BV*Zt, north of !syWt' This *ork, *hich
*as carried on by B' =ean ClQdat, has resulted in the disco&ery of &ery
i+portant frescoes and funerary inscriptions, belonging to the +onastery
of a fa+ous +artyr, t' !pollo' (ith these ne* disco&eries of Christian
Egypt our *ork reaches its fitting close' The frontier *hich di&ides the
ancient fro+ the +odern *orld has al+ost been crossed' (e look back fro+
the +onastery of BV*Zt do*n a long &ista of ne* disco&eries until, four
thousand years before, *e see again the Great Heads co+ing to the To+b
of %en, ?ar+er inspecting the bodies of the dead ?ortherners, and,
far a*ay in Babylonia, ?arV+-in crossing the +ountains of the East to
conAuer Ela+, or leading his allies against the prince of inai'
THE E?%'
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chalda, yria,
Babylonia, !nd !ssyria "n The #ight Of $ecent %isco&ery, by #'(' )ing and H'$'
Hall
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