243

1 This study was made possible thanks to a scholarship for PhD studies granted by CAPES, Brazil, to which I am
grateful.
2 Shannon (1948).
3 Wiener (1948).
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4 See, for example, Youngblood (1958), Hiller et al. (1966), and Zanette (2007).
5 See, for example, Meyer (1957) and Moles (1966).
6 Exception is made to authors who have been using specific Markovian processes for generating music material.

The use of Markov chains, which is a particular case of application of information theory, is one of the most
popular methods for algorithmic music composition and computer models for speculative analysis of style, and has
been broadly documented; for this reason, it will not be discussed here. For further information, see Xenakis
(1992).
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 





7 In this article, we will be referring to pitch classes only for practicality’s sake; of course, the alphabet can contain
symbols whose nature is as varied as durations, dynamics, tone colours, articulations, etc. but also specific
behaviours, motifs, scenic gestures, instruments, and so forth. Two or more different categories of symbols can be
paired, establishing direct relationships between specific notes and instruments, for example; this possibility is
generally well addressed by matrices of transitional probabilities in stochastic music. See note 6 above.
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8Pignatari (2002, 63).

9It is possible to argue that, since a perfect moto perpetuo is a constant repetition of symbols, Bach’s Prelude would
not convey any information at all about note durations. However, while there is a constant rhythmic pattern
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n
H   pi log2 pi
i 1

throughout the aforementioned example until the final chord, it must be taken into account that there are other
rhythmic layers in higher structural levels along the piece, such as harmonic progressions and melodies resulting
from voice leading. In addition, no sensible performance of Bach’s prelude will treat its continuous flow of chordal
motifs as having mechanically measured durations – the flexibility of music expression in performance indeed adds
information to an otherwise completely redundant material.
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10 3.58, as we have already seen, is the maximum entropy possible with twelve symbols.
11 Youngblood (1958, 29).
12 Shannon (1948, 14).
13 Cohen (1962, 140).
14 Meyer (1957, 420).
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Entropy H

C D C D C E C E

Pitch classes across time

15 Hiller et al. (1966, 102).

16 Meyer (1957, 412).
 250

Entropy H

C D C D E F E F

Pitch classes across time

Entropy H

1 2 3 45 6 8
Time
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n
H  T  pi log2 pi
i 1

17 Pignatari (2002, 65). The translation is mine.

18 Meyer (1957, 416).
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19 Meyer (1957, 421).

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