A SINGLE-PHASE DG UNIT WITH

SHUNT APF CAPABILITY BY

ADAPTIVE NEURAL FILTERING
Seminar Report
Submitted in partial fullment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Technology
in Power Electronics and Power System
by
Riya Philip
MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY
Master of Technology in Electrical Engineering
(Power Electronics and Power Systems)
Under the Guidance of
Ms. Sreeja C
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Amal Jyothi College of Engineering ,Koovapally
Kanjirapally, Kottayam 686 518
2012
ABSTRACT
The energy demands are increasing day by day and the associated costs also increas-
ing with demand. Newer energy alternatives are becoming more important to society.
Distributed generation (DG) has become an attractive method for providing electricity to
consumers. But, the increased use of power electronics devices in the distribution systems
today causes problems related to power quality.
This paper deals with a single-phase distributed generation (DG) system with active
power ltering (APF) capability, devised for utility current harmonic compensation. With
the proposed approach, control of the DG unit is performed by injecting into the grid a
current with the same phase and frequency of the grid voltage and with an amplitude
depending on the power available from renewable sources. On the other hand, load
harmonic current compensation is performed by injecting into the alternating current
system harmonic currents like those of the load but with an opposite phase, thus keeping
the line current almost sinusoidal. Both detection of the grid voltage fundamental and
computation of the load harmonic compensation current have been performed by two
neural adaptive lters with the same structure, one in a conguration notch and the other
in the complementary conguration band. The notch lter has been used to compute the
compensationg current by eliminating only the contribution of the fundamental of the
load current, whereas the band conguration is able to extract the fundamental of the
coupling point voltage. Furthermore, because the active power generation and the APF
features require current control of components at dierent frequencies, respectively, a
multiresonant current controller has been adopted.
Keywords: Distributed generation, Shunt active power lter, Neural adaptive ltering,
Harmonics mitigation
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Need of distributed generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Eect of harmonics in DG systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Relevance of active power lters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Layout of report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 4
2.1 Distributed Generation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.1 Interconnection of DG system with utility grid . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Problems related to DG systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Eects of harmonics in DG system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Harmonic mitigation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.1 Passive Harmonic Mitigation Techniques: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.2 Active Harmonic Mitigation Techniques: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.3 Shunt Active Power lters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Controlling of a Shunt active power lter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 HARMONIC CURRENT COMPENSATION BY SHUNT APF AND
NEURAL ESTIMATOR 15
3.1 Harmonic current compensation by shunt APF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Neural Estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.1 Filter Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4 THE DG GENERATOR WITH ACTIVE FILTERING CAPABILITY 21
4.1 DG-APF control scheme based on neural adaptive ltering. . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.1 Multiresonant Current Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1.2 Control of the DG-APF Based on Neural Adaptive Filtering . . . . 23
4.1.3 PLL Active Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5 CONCLUSION 25
REFERENCE 25
List of Figures
2.1 Eect of harmonics on normal voltage or current waveform . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Shunt APF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1 Basic circuit diagram of parallel active lter for a harmonic current source 16
3.2 Schematic representation of the neural estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Neural harmonic estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1 Block diagram of the DG-APF control scheme based on neural adaptive
ltering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Block diagram of the PLL system in the continuous domain . . . . . . . . 24
List of Tables
2.1 Classication of the most used harmonic detection methods in APFs . . . 13
NOMENCLATURE
APF Active power lter
C Amplitude of the sinusoidal wave
DG Distributed generation
G Transfer function gain
H(s) Transfer function of notch lter
K(z) Transfer functionof band lter
LMS Least mean square
LS Least square
NN Neural network
PCC Point of common coupling
PLL Phase locked loops
PWM Pulse width modulation
I Injected compensating current
I
L
Load current
I
L
Line current
v
g
Coupling point voltage
w
ik
weight of ith neuron at kth time sample
Z
L
, Z
g
Load and system impedances
Learning constant

0
Reference frequency
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Over the last few years, two areas of power electronics have drawn great attention, to
the recent advances in semiconductor and control system technology: converters for dis-
tributed generation (DG) and active power lters (APFs). Recently, the trend has been
to integrate the DG unit functions with the APF capabilities. Because the DG converter
is connected in parallel to the grid, only the shunt active ltering capabilities can be im-
plemented. So the idea is to integrate the DG unit functions with shunt APF capabilities,
because the DG is connected in parallel to the grid.
1.1 Need of distributed generation
In the last decade, the concept of many small scale energy sources dispersed over the
grid gain a considerable interest.Most of all, technological innovations and a changing
economic and regulatory environment are the main triggers for this interest. Interna-
tional Energy Agency lists ve major factors that contribute to this evolution, such as
developments in distributed generation technologies, constraints on the construction of
new transmission lines, increased customer demand for highly reliable electricity, the elec-
tricity market liberalization and concerns about climate change. At minimum, the grid
has to be available as backup supply [1][2].
In the liberalized market environment, the distributed generation oers a number of
benets to the market participants. Customers mainly look for the electricity services
best suited for them. Dierent customers attach dierent weights to features of electrical
energy supply, and distributed generation technologies can help electricity suppliers to
supply the type of electricity service they prefer. One of the most interesting features is
the exibility of DG that could allow market participants to respond to changing market
conditions, i.e. due to their small sizes and the short construction lead times compared
to most types of larger central power plants.
1
Distributed generation (DG) generally refers to small-scale (typically 1 kW 50 MW)
electric power generators that produce electricity at a site close to customers or that are
tied to an electric distribution system. Distributed generators include, but are not limited
to synchronous generators, induction generators, reciprocating engines, microturbines,
combustion gas turbines, fuel cells, solar photovoltaics, and wind turbines.
1.1.1 Eect of harmonics in DG systems
The power electronics converters play an important role in distributed generation
systems. The interconnection of DG systems with utility grid hardly includes a PE
converter, except for compensation of reactive power [3]. The use of PE converters in DG
systems increases the cost and electrical losses. In addition, conventional PE converters
like rectiers or inverters, due to their non-linear prole and switching action, are the
main source of harmonics so leading to some adverse eects, such as increasing system
losses and reducing the power quality.
Power system harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental power system fre-
quency.Harmonics are voltage and current frequencies riding on top of the normal sinu-
soidal voltage and current waveforms. Power system harmonics are created by non-linear
devices connected to the power system.The most common source of harmonic distortion is
electronic equipments using switch-mode power supplies, such as computers, adjustable-
speed drives, and high eciency electronic light ballasts.
Harmonics can cause sensitive equipment to malfunction and other problems, including
overheating of transformers and wiring, nuisance breaker trips, and reduced power factor.
High levels of power system harmonics can create voltage distortion and power quality
problems. Harmonics have a number of undesirable eects on the distribution system.
They fall into two basic categories: short-term and long-term eects are usually the most
noticeable and are related to excessive voltage distortion. On the other hand, long-term
eects often go undetected and are usually related to increased resistive losses or voltage
stresses.
The passive lters can be used to reduce harmonics. However, they create a new paral-
lel resonance with the system impedance at a frequency below the tuned frequency, which
causes current magnication; therefore, it would be less ecient in harmonic reduction.
To solve the problem the idea of using active lter was proposed. In this type of lter,
2
based on the sampled signals the necessary shunt currents or series voltages are injected
to the line to reduce the system harmonics.
1.2 Relevance of active power lters
There are several options available to solve or eliminate problems introduced by har-
monics including derating, passive lters, and harmonic ltering or current compensation
methods etc. Initially passive lters are used to prevent harmonics from entering a supply
system, and are also used for increasing power factor. However, these lters are designed
to lter specic harmonic components; they are not adaptable to successfully lter varying
harmonics. Also the interaction of capacitance in passive lters and system impedance
can, cause another problem of resonance condition [4].
With the widespread use of harmonic generating devices, the control of harmonic
currents to maintain a high level of power quality is becoming increasingly important.
An eective way for harmonic suppression is the harmonic compensation by using active
power lter. Active power lters are considered as a feasible solution for reducing current
harmonics and reactive power due to their small size.
The basic compensation principles of active lters were proposed around 1970. They
act as harmonic current source to provide an eective result to eliminate the harmonic
currents and also to compensate the reactive power. The use of active lters will be ex-
panded from the voltage icker compensation or voltage regulation into the power quality
improvement for power distribution systems, as the ratings of active lters increase.
1.3 Layout of report
In this paper we are discussing the operation of a single-phase distributed genera-
tion (DG) system with active power ltering (APF) capability, devised for utility current
harmonic compensation. The rst chapter gives a brief idea about the distribution gener-
ation and the relevance of active power lters in harmonic elimination. Second chapter is
the literature survey about working of distribution generation systems and active power
lters. The third chapter gives a brief idea about the theory of shunt active power lters
and neural estimator. Then fourth chapter deals with the DG - APF control scheme based
on neural adaptive ltering.
3
Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The distributed generation system will have a limited power supply, voltage source having
source impedance and various types of loads. Ideally, the system should provide a balanced
and pure sinusoidal three-phase voltage of constant amplitude to the loads, and the load
should ideally draw a current from the line at unity power factor, zero harmonics and
balanced phases. But, the increased use of power electronics devices in the distribution
systems cause some problems related to power quality characterized by the voltage and
current harmonics, imbalances, low Power Factor etc.
One interesting aspect on which to focus, with regard to DGs, is the correct connec-
tion of the converter to the electrical grid, which depends on the correct detection of
the fundamental harmonic frequency and phase of the voltage at the coupling point [3].
Because of the presence of highly nonlinear loads in the grid, even the grid voltage is
very often distorted, resulting diculty in grid connection. The presence of the DG itself
can cause the coupling point voltage distortion. The point of common coupling (PCC)
voltage could be often distorted due to both the presence of nonlinear loads and the DG
itself.
Methodologies for grid connection with good passband capabilities are therefore re-
quired. From this point of view, to even integrate DG and APF capabilities is a further
interesting challenge.
2.1 Distributed Generation systems
The energy demands are increasing day by day and the associated costs also increasing
with demand. Newer energy alternatives are becoming more important to society and also
consumers want an uninterrupted and economical electric power. Recently, distributed
generation (DG) has become an attractive method of providing electricity to consumers
and retailers. In addition, from the viewpoint of economic feasibility, the costs of installing
generators and producing the electricity can be comparatively inexpensive using the DG
4
method [5].
Distributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation generates
electricity from many small energy sources. Most countries generate electricity in large
centralized facilities, such as fossil fuel (coal, gas powered), nuclear, large solar power
plants or hydropower plants. Distributed generation allows collection of energy from
many sources and may give lower environmental impacts and improved security of supply.
Distributed generation is an approach that employs small-scale technologies to produce
electricity close to the end users of power. DG technologies often consist of modular (and
sometimes renewable-energy) generators, and they oer a number of potential benets.
In many cases, distributed generators can provide lower-cost electricity and higher power
reliability and security with fewer environmental consequences than can traditional power
generators.
2.1.1 Interconnection of DG system with utility grid
The current model for electricity generation and distribution is dominated by cen-
tralized power plants. The power at these plants is typically combustion (coal, oil, and
natural) or nuclear generated. Centralized power models, like this, require distribution
from the center to outlying consumers. Current substations can be anywhere from 10s to
100s of miles away from the actual users of the power generated. This requires transmis-
sion across the distance.
This system of centralized power plants has many disadvantages. In addition to the
transmission distance issues, these systems contribute to greenhouse gas emission, the
production of nuclear waste, ineciencies and power loss over the lengthy transmission
lines, environmental distribution where the power lines are constructed, and security
related issues. Many of these issues can be mediated through distributed energies. By
locating, the source near or at the end user location the transmission line issues can be
solved up to a limit. One interesting aspect on which to focus, with regard to DGs, is the
correct connection of the converter to the electrical grid, which depends on the correct
detection of the fundamental harmonic frequency and phase of the voltage at the coupling
point [6].
The power converters permit DG systems, with their non-synchronous, high frequency
output, to interface with the grid or local loads. The power converters produce 50Hz to
60Hz power that can be used for local loads (synchronized for connection to the local
5
feeder/microgrid) or Stand-by power (Used in the event of an outage, as a back-up to
the electric grid). Some DG systems are designed to automatically switch between the
two modes. Power electronics devices are used to convert the high frequency AC power
produced by the generator into usable electricity. The high frequency AC is rectied to
DC, inverted back to 60 or 50 Hz AC, and then ltered to reduce harmonic distortion.
2.2 Problems related to DG systems
The system should provide a balanced and pure sinusoidal three-phase voltage of con-
stant amplitude and the load should ideally draw a current from the line at unity power
factor, zero harmonics and balanced phases. But, the increased use of power electronics
devices in the distribution systems today causes problems related to power quality char-
acterized by distortion of coupling point voltage, issues related to power quality, problems
related to short circuit current, current and voltage harmonics, low power factor, voltage
and power imbalances etc.
The correct connection of the converter to the electrical grid is one the interesting
aspect on which to focus, which depends on the correct detection of the fundamental
harmonic frequency and phase of the voltage at the coupling point. Because of the
presence of highly nonlinear loads in the grid, even the grid voltage is very often distorted,
with resulting diculty in grid connection. The presence of the DG itself further worsens
the situation, increasing the coupling point voltage distortion. The point of common
coupling (PCC) voltage could be often signicantly distorted due to both the presence of
nonlinear loads and the DG itself. PWM inverters with L lters can be used to mitigate the
voltage distortion at coupling point. The correlation of the harmonic between the voltage
in the PCC and the pulse width modulation (PWM) wave the output of the inverters is
deduced, including the peak voltage, voltage harmonic, and the total harmonic distortion
(THD) [16].
The distributed generation has impact on power quality as well. On one hand, presence
of distributed generation in the distribution network makes it possible to more reliably
maintain voltage levels in the nodes owing to capabilities of these generators to gener-
ate reactive power unlike conventional distribution networks in which farther from high
voltage supply substation the higher voltage losses. On the other hand the phenomenon
related to fast voltage uctuations has been revealed. In the publications it was named
icker. Normally the icker develops at a sharp decrease in voltage in the connection node
6
of a small generator particularly if this generator is asynchronous. PI controllers along
with DSTATCOMs are commonly used for the mitigation of voltage ickers in power
system [7].
Connection of distributed generation sources to distribution network increases short-
circuit currents which may require replacement of switching units, change in relay protec-
tion settings, etc. Distributed generation complicates the relay protection and automatic
control systems and emergency control of electrical power system. With connection of
distributed generation the distribution network acquires the features of the main grid,
ie. it faces the problems of stability and others. With the loss of power supply from the
supply substation of the main grid it is possible to island a distributed generation unit
for the load close in capacity thus providing power supply to important consumers. This
problem got the name of islanding. It is quite intensively studied and implies considera-
tion of some issues, in particular: determination of a set of consumers to be connected to
a small generator at islanding; creation of principles and designing of specic automatic
devices; consideration for specic operating conditions of distributed generators, etc [8].
Low power factor is another problem related to distributed generation system. The
Power Factor of a 3-phase system decreases, the current rises. The heat dissipation in the
system rises proportionately by a factor equivalent to the square of the current rise. If
Power Factor is low the current rating of the electrical machinery increases which result
in higher loss and overheating, thereby increasing the cost of maintenance. Low power
factor reduces an electrical systems distribution capacity by increasing current ow and
causing voltage drops. Low power factor shortens the lifespan of electrical appliances and
causes power system losses to power supplying company [9].
The interconnection of DG system to utility grid also causes harmonics distortion in
power system. Harmonic distortion is found in both the voltage and the current waveform.
Most current distortion is generated by electronic loads, also called non-linear loads. As
the current distortion is conducted through the normal system wiring, it creates voltage
distortion according to Ohms Law. While current distortion travels only along the power
path of the non-linear load, voltage distortion aects all loads connected to that particular
bus or phase. Current distortion aects the power system and distribution equipment.
It may directly or indirectly cause the destruction of loads or loss of product. From the
direct perspective, current distortion may cause transformers to overheat and fail even
though they are not fully loaded. Conductors and conduit systems can also overheat
leading to open circuits and downtime. Current harmonics is the major problem while
7
connecting a DG system to a grid. Harmonic distortion in power distribution systems
can be suppressed using dierent approaches: passive and active ltering techniques are
commonly used [16].
2.3 Eects of harmonics in DG system
The increasing demand of electric power, in terms of quality and reliability, and the
emerging new energy technologies have led to the development of distributed generation
systems. With the penetration of power electronics equipments growing rapidly, it can
be expected that a large portion of the load within the distributed generation system is
nonlinear in nature, and the resulting harmonics pollution needs to be addressed.
Any non-linear load, which includes switching, on the mains distribution network will
generate harmonics and the waveform associated with a load can be analyzed and broken
down to give a harmonic spectrum [10]. The following are just a few examples of electrical
equipment that produces harmonics:
1. Uninterruptible power supplies
2. Motors, fans and pumps
3. Servers (especially blade-servers which have a leading power factor)
4. Personal computers, video monitors, printers and photocopiers
5. Fluorescent lights, low energy bulbs and low voltage lighting
6. Lifts and escalators
7. Variable speed drives and switched-mode power supplies
8. Rectiers, power converters and thyristor power controllers
9. Chillers, compressors, freezers and microwave cookers
10. Air-conditioning, heating and ventilating equipment
The gure 2.1 shows [10] the eect of harmonics on normal voltage or current waveform.
Odd harmonics waveforms contribute more to power system instability. In the gure the
combined waveform shows the result of adding the harmonics on to the fundamental.
Harmonics in power systems can become the source of a variety of unwelcome eects.
8
Figure 2.1: Eect of harmonics on normal voltage or current waveform
For example, harmonics can cause signal interference, over voltages, data loss, and circuit
breaker failure, as well as equipment heating, malfunction, and damage.
Harmonics can cause excessive heating in transformers and capacitors, resulting in
shortened life or failure. Rotor heating and pulsating output torque caused by harmonics
can result in excessive motor heating and ineciency.
The natural frequencies of power system are often in the range of the harmonics caused
by non-linear devices. Matching of these frequencies, or resonance, may exaggerate a
situation where a small amount of harmonic current is already present. In resonant
conditions, the oscillations of the current waveform are reinforced and amplied.
Any distribution circuit serving modern electronic devices will contain some degree of
harmonic frequencies [11]. The greater the power drawn by nonlinear loads, cause greater
the level of voltage distortion. Potential problems (or symptoms of problems) attributed
to harmonics include:
Malfunction of sensitive equipment
Random tripping of circuit breakers
Flickering lights
Very high neutral currents
Overheated phase conductors, panels, and transformers
Premature failure of transformers and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs)
Reduced power factor
Reduced system capacity (because harmonics create additional heat, transformers
and other distribution equipment cannot carry full rated load)
9
In addition, the harmonic currents produced by nonlinear loads can interact adversely
with a wide range of power system equipment, most notably capacitors, transformers,
and motors, causing additional losses, overheating, and overloading. These harmonic
currents can also cause interferences with telecommunication lines and errors in metering
devices. Because of the adverse eects that harmonics have on power quality, Standard
has been developed to dene a reasonable framework for harmonic control. Harmonic
distortion in power distribution systems can be suppressed using dierent approaches.
One among them is the use of active power lters.
2.4 Harmonic mitigation techniques
The growing numbers of harmonic mitigation techniques are now available including
active and passive methods, and the selection of the best-suited technique for a particular
case can be a complicated decision-making process. The performance of some of these
techniques is largely dependent on system conditions, while others require extensive sys-
tem analysis to prevent resonance problems and capacitor failure [10]. A classication of
the various available harmonic mitigation techniques is presented below:
2.4.1 Passive Harmonic Mitigation Techniques:
The passive ltering is the simplest conventional solution to mitigate the harmonic
distortion. Many passive techniques are available to reduce the level of harmonic pollution
in an electrical network, including the connection of series line reactors, tuned harmonic
lters, and the use of higher pulse number converter circuits such as 12-pulse, 18-pulse,
and 24-pulse rectiers. In these methods, the undesirable harmonic currents may be
prevented from owing into the system by either installing a high series impedance to
block their ow or diverting the ow of harmonic currents by means of a low-impedance
parallel path. Series Line Reactors, Tuned Harmonic Filters, Series Induction Filters,
Series-Connected Resonant Filter, Neutral Current Filter, Zigzag Grounding Filter etc
are some of the passive lters used for harmonics mitigation purpose [12].
But the problem is the use of passive elements does not always respond correctly to the
dynamics of the power distribution systems. Passive lters are known to cause resonance,
thus aecting the stability of the power distribution systems. Frequency variation of the
power distribution system and tolerances in components values aect the passive ltering
10
characteristics. This may required a retrot of new lters.
Remarkable progress in power electronics had spurred interest in Active Power Filters
(APF) for harmonic distortion mitigation. Active ltering is a relatively new technology,
practically less than four decades old. The basic principle of APF is to utilize power
electronics technologies to produce specic current components that cancel the harmonic
current components caused by the nonlinear load.
2.4.2 Active Harmonic Mitigation Techniques:
APFs have a number of advantages over the passive lters. First of all, they can
suppress not only the supply current harmonics, but also the reactive currents. More-
over,unlike passive lters, they do not cause harmful resonances with the power distribu-
tion systems. Consequently, the APFs performances are independent on the power dis-
tribution system properties. Active power lters (APFs) utilize fast-switching insulated
gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) to produce an output current of the required shape. The
heart of the APF is the controller part. The control strategies applied to the APF play
a very important role on the improvement of the performance and stability of the lter.
APF is designed with two types of control scheme. The rst performs fast Fourier trans-
forms to calculate the amplitude and phase angle of each harmonic order. The power
devices are directed to produce a current of equal amplitude but opposite phase angle
for specic harmonic orders. The second method of control is often referred to as full
spectrum cancellation in which the full current waveform is used by the controller of the
lter, which removes the fundamental frequency component and directs the lter to inject
the inverse of the remaining waveform. The APF may be classied as parallel or series
APF according to the circuit conguration [12][13].
Active ltering is a relatively new technology, practically less than four decades old.
There is still a need for further research and development to make this technology well
established. There are mainly three classications for Active Power Filters: series APF,
shunt APF and Hybrid APF.
2.4.3 Shunt Active Power lters
The shunt active lter conguration is the most important and most widely used type
in active ltering applications (more preferable than series APF in terms of form and
11
function). As the name implies, it is connected in parallel to the main power circuit as
shown in Figure 2.2[13]. The purpose is to cancel the load current harmonics fed to the
Figure 2.2: Shunt APF
supply. It can also contribute to reactive-power compensation and balancing of three-
phase currents, as mentioned above. Parallel lters have the advantage of carrying only
the compensation current plus a small amount of active fundamental current supplied
to compensate for system losses. It is also possible to connect several lters in parallel
for higher currents, which makes this type of circuit suitable for a wide range of power
ratings.
APF can be controlled on the basis of the following methods:(i)the controller de-
tects the instantaneous load current (ii)the APF extracts the harmonic current from the
detected load current by means of digital signal processing (iii)the APF draws the com-
pensating current from the utility supply voltage so as to cancel out the harmonic current.
2.5 Controlling of a Shunt active power lter
The control of an APF is done through dierent steps. Initially the controller detects
the instantaneous load current and generates a reference signal corresponding to that
signal and then generates control signals for the proper triggering of switches to eliminate
harmonics waves [14].
Reference signal generation is the rst step in the control process of APF. In brief, it
represents the part that has the capability of determining specic signal attributes from
an input signal (voltage, current or both) by using a special mathematical algorithm.
Dierent algorithms emerged for the harmonic detection, which led to a large scientic
debate on which part the focus should be put on, the detection accuracy, the speed,
the lter stability, easy and inexpensive implementation, etc. The classication of these
methods can be done relative to the domain where the mathematical model is developed.
Thus, two major directions are described here, the time domain and the frequency-domain
methods.
p-q Method: Instantaneous reactive power theory has been published in 1984. Based
12
Domain Harmonic Detection Method
Frequency domain Discrete fourier transform
Fast fourier transform
Time domain Instantaneous power theory(p-q theory)
Synchronous fundamental d-q frame method
Table 2.1: Classication of the most used harmonic detection methods in APFs
on this theory, the so-called method was applied successfully in the control of APF. Zero-
sequence component is neglected in this method, and because of that the method is not
accurate when the three-phase system is distorted or unbalanced.
d-q Method: Based on the park transformation, the method came. The three-phase
load current can be decomposed in positive-sequence, negative sequence and zero-sequence
component. The current in the frame and can be transformed from the positive sequence
and negative sequence using a PLL (phase locked loop). The division of the AC and DC
components can be obtained across a low-pass PHF. The reference current signal can be
achieved by the AC component in frame through a counter transformation [14][15].
Control signal generation is the next step in controlling process. The aim of this part is
to generate appropriate gating signals for the switching transistors based on the estimated
compensation reference signals. The performance of an APF is aected signicantly by the
selection of control techniques. Therefore, the choice and implementation of the control
technique is very important for the achievement of a satisfactory APF performance. A
variety of control techniques, such as Space Vector Modulation control, hysteresis control,
linear control, digital deadbeat control, etc. are implemented for the APF applications.
Dierent control techniques based on articial intelligence, adaptive neural networking
etc. is some of the new emerging controlling schemes for APFs.
Current Hysteresis Control: The basic principle of this control method is that the
switching signals are derived from the comparison of the current error signal with a
xed width hysteresis band. This current control technique exhibits some unsatisfactory
features due to simple, extreme robustness, fast dynamic, good stability, and automatic
current limited characteristics.
Space Vector Modulation (SVM): The aim of this method is to nd the appropriate
switching combinations and their duty ratios according to certain modulation scheme. The
SVM operates in a complex plane divided in the six sectors separated by a combination
of conducting or nonconducting switches in the power circuit. The reference vector is
13
used to locate two adjacent switching-state vectors and compute the time for which each
one is active. SVM is of low speed of response caused by the inherent calculation delay,
due to the strong antijamming and the good reliability of digital control technique. In
order to solve the drawback, the improvement of adopting deadbeat control and a certain
oversize of the system reactive components is advised. Currently, the research trends of
the AHF control strategies are mainly towards the optimizing and practical application
of the control strategies [15].
Several harmonic mitigation techniques are available. Because of the number and variety
of available methods, selection of the best-suited technique for a particular application
is not always an easy or straightforward process. A broad categorization of dierent
harmonic mitigation techniques (passive, active, and hybrid) has been carried out to give
a general viewpoint on this wide-ranging and rapidly developing topic. APF provides
multiple functions such as harmonic reduction, isolation, damping and termination, load
balancing, PF correction, and voltage regulation. The shunt active power lters are
more attractive in harmonic ltering from both viability and economical points of view,
particularly for high-power applications. A single phase distributed system that can act
as a shunt active power lter with the help of adaptive neural controlling is discussed in
this paper.
14
Chapter 3
HARMONIC CURRENT
COMPENSATION BY SHUNT APF AND
NEURAL ESTIMATOR
Shunt Active Power Filters are today the most widely used systems to eliminate har-
monics compensate power factor and correct unbalanced problems in industrial power
plants. We propose to improve the performances of conventional APFs by using articial
neural networks (ANNs) for harmonics estimation. This new method combines both the
strategies for extracting the three-phase reference currents for active power lters and DC
link voltage control method. The ANNs learning capabilities to adaptively choose the
power system parameters for both to compute the reference currents and to recharge the
capacitor value requested by Vdc voltage in order to ensure suitable transit of powers to
supply the inverter.
The fundamentals of APFs have already been described in earlier chapters whereas
only the main issues on current harmonic compensation with parallel active lters are
analyzed in this chapter.
3.1 Harmonic current compensation by shunt APF
The basic circuit diagram of parallel active lter for a harmonic current source is
as shown in gure 3.1[16]. A parallel APF can be seen as a controlled current source
that injects a compensating current I on the basis of the load current I
L
, which is the
input of a transfer function G. The harmonic current source (load) can be studied by
its equivalent Norton circuit, which consists of an ideal current generator I
L0
with an
in-parallel impedance Z
L
, globally absorbing the load current I
L
.
With reference to Fig.3.1, the following steady-state current equations at the coupling
point can be written as follows:
I
g
+ I = I
L
(3.1)
15
Figure 3.1: Basic circuit diagram of parallel active lter for a harmonic current source
I = GI
L
(3.2)
from which the following equations can be deduced:
I
g
+ GI
L
= I
L
(3.3)
I
g
= I
L
(1G) (3.4)
I
L
=
I
g
(1 G)
(3.5)
Correspondingly, the steady-state voltage equations are,
v
g
= I
g
Z
g
+ (I
L
I
L0
)Z
L
= I
g
Z
g
+ (
I
g
(1 G)
I
LO
) (3.6)
which, on the basis of (3.4), can be rewritten as,
v
g
+ I
L0
Z
L
= I
g
(Z
g
+
Z
L
(1 G)
) (3.7)
From (3.7), the line current as a function of the coupling point voltage and load current
can be deduced as,
I
g
=
Z
L
Z
g
+
Z
L
(1G)
I
L0
+
v
g
Z
g
+
Z
L
1G
(3.8)
On the basis of (3.5), the load current as a function of the coupling point voltage and
16
load current can be deduced as,
I
L
=
Z
L
1G
Z
g
+
Z
L
1G
I
L0
+
1
1 G
v
g
Z
g
+
Z
L
1G
(3.9)
With regard to a generic harmonic of order h, if the following equation is satised:
|
Z
L
1 G
|
h
>> |Z
g
|
h
(3.10)
Then, (3.1)(3.3) yield the following:
I = I
Lh
(3.11)
I
gh
= [|1 G|I
L0
+|
1 G
Z
L
|v
g
]
h
= 0 (3.12)
I
Lh
= [I
L0
+
v
g
Z
L
]
h
(3.13)
Equation (3.12) shows that the grid supplies a current i
g
, which is almost sinusoidal if
(3.10) is satised for each harmonic of order h [16]. Therefore, (3.10) is the operating
condition of the shunt active lter to cancel the load harmonic current. Looking at
(3.10), it should be observed that only G is a design parameter of the lter, whereas Z
L
and Z
g
are the system parameters. The capability of the APF to cancel the load current
harmonics depends thus not only on the lter itself (G) but also by the load (Z
L
) and
source (Z
g
) parameters. However, if |(1G)|
h
= 0, the harmonic compensation capability
is independent from the system impedances. On the contrary, if |(1 G)|
h
= 0, the ratio
|Z
L
/|Z
g
| must be taken into account. In case of a current ideal load, then |Z
L
| |Z
g
|,
which is the case under study in this paper. Under this assumption, (3.8) can be rewritten,
for each harmonic, as,
I
gh
= [(1 G)I
L0
]
h
(3.14)
This means that, for a pseudo ideal current load, the compensation characteristics of the
APF does not depend on the source impedance Z
g
even if |(1 G)|
g
= 0, which is the
real advantage of the active lter over the passive one. In the ideal case, transfer function
G should equal zero for the fundamental harmonic and one for all other harmonics. In
practice, values of 0.7 |G| 0.9 are acceptable for higher harmonics.
17
3.2 Neural Estimator
The neural estimator can be viewed as a module whose input is the signal at a de-
termined frequency, and whose outputs are the output of the notch and that of the band
frequency. The neural estimator can be used for the controlling of active power lters.
The principle in harmonics cancellation lies on the use of ADALINE, which is used as a
notch lter or a band lter. This means that the neuron is either able to cancel a signal
at a certain frequency (notch lter) or is able to let a signal pass at a redened frequency
(narrow band lter).The schematic representation of the neural estimator is as shown in
gure 3.2 [16][18].
Figure 3.2: Schematic representation of the neural estimator
ADALINE can be used as a notch lter, i.e, it is able to oer an easy control of the band-
width as well as to track the exact frequency and phase of an interference signal. Figure
3.3 describes the single-frequency harmonic canceller, which is composed of two neurons
whose weights are adapted online by Least Square Method, such as the LM or the TLS
algorithm. In this paper, a Least Mean Square online training algorithm has been chosen
because of its low complexity, low computational demand, and high-speed convergence.
Other LS-based online training techniques, like the TLS EXIN neuron or its further de-
velopment, improve the lter error reduction features. On the other hand, adoption of
such improved LS techniques causes a signicant increase of the computational demand
and complexity of the lter. Because this paper seeks to develop a simple DG control
system, LMS has been chosen as the training algorithm[16]. The reference input of each
neuron is given by a sampled sinusoidal reference input and by the same input after a
90 phase rotation, respectively. The frequency of this reference input corresponds to the
frequency of the primary input signal dk that should be canceled or let pass.
Update of the weights, using LMS, is given as follows:
w
1,k+1
= w
1k
+ 2
k
x
1k
w
2,k+1
= w
2k
+ 2
k
x
2k
(3.15)
18
Figure 3.3: Neural harmonic estimator
where w
ik
is the weight of the ith neuron at the kth time sample, is the learning rate,
and
k
is the dierence between the primary input signal d
k
and the band lter output
y
k
;
k
is also the notch lter output. The sampled reference inputs are given by,
x
1k
= Ccos(kw
0
+ )
x
2k
= Ccos(kw
0
+ )
(3.16)
where C is the amplitude of the sinusoidal sequence with reference frequency
0
[17]. It
can be easily proved that the transfer function H(z) = (z)/d(z), where (z) and d(z) are
the z-transform of the sequences
k
and d
k
, is given by,
H(z) =
z
2
2zcosw
0
+ 1
z
2
2(1 C
2
)zcosw
0
+ 1 2C
2
(3.17)
which is a notch lter at the reference frequency
0
. Similarly, the transfer function K(z) =
y(z)/d(z) , where y(z) and d(z) are the z-transform of the sequences y
k
and d
k
,is given
by,
K(z) =
2C
2
(zcosw
0
1)
z
2
2(1 C
2
)zcosw
0
+ 1 2C
2
(3.18)
which is a band lter at the reference frequency w
0
.
The lower the value of , the slower the convergence of the lter, which, if it is too slow,
can compromise the behavior of the system. The correct choice of learning rate is thus
critical for the correct behavior of the control system.
The adaptive notch lter is used to compute the load harmonic compensating current for
the active ltering capability, while the band adaptive lter is used for the computation
of the fundamental harmonic of the grid voltage for the synchronization of the generated
current with the grid voltage.
19
3.2.1 Filter Design Criteria
Since the proposed neural adaptive lter does not need any oine training, but adapts
automatically online, its only design parameter is the learning rate . The choice criteria
of suited for this particular application are given as follows.
The rst criterion is the stability of the lter. With this regard, in general the LS
technique theory ensures that there exists a precise range within which can be chosen.
The upper limit of is dened by 1/
max
, with
max
the maximum eigen value of the
autocorrelation matrix, and the lower limit is zero. Therefore, to ensure the stability of
the lter, the following relationship must be satised 1/
max
> > 0 [16].
Ensured the stability of the lter, has been chosen for the notch and the band lter,
espectively, on the basis of the following considerations. With regard to the notch neural
lter, has been chosen, equal to 2*10
4
. A greater would imply a faster convergence but
a worse notch ltering because a narrow notch:
1) permits the compensation even of the load low frequency current harmonics
2) permits the lter to have a better phase characteristics around the notch frequency,
with phase characteristics equal to zero (zero delay time of the lter at all harmonics)
at frequencies very close to the frequency of the notch. In this way, there is no phase
distortion of the load harmonic compensation current even at low-frequency harmonics.
With regard to the band neural lter, has been chosen equal to 20*104 and this slightly
wider band has been chosen for two reasons:
1) a slightly wider band of the lter permits it to converge quickly, which is very important
for a fast connection of the DG to the grid
2) a slightly wider band of the lter permits the DG to connect properly to the grid
even in the presence of small variations of the grid frequency. With this regard, choosing
a wider band permits the lter to have a better phase characteristics around the band
frequency (close to zero), which is particularly important when he grid connection is to
be done in presence of a modied grid frequency. It implies that, in this way, a grid
frequency tracking system is not strictly needed [19].
20
Chapter 4
THE DG GENERATOR WITH ACTIVE
FILTERING CAPABILITY
Active Power Filters (APFs) are the most widely used systems to eliminate harmonics and
compensate power in industrial power plants. Recently, some methods based on articial
intelligence have been applied inorder to improve processing detecting time of harmonic
current. The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in interest Articial Neural Net-
works (ANNs) which is characterized by its learning ability, high speed recognition and
simple structure. The results obtained with ANNs are often better than those of tradi-
tional methods. Indeed, as a result of their capacities to optimize simultaneously their
weights and biases in an on-line training process, they are able to adapt themselves to
any system.
This chapter deals with a single-phase distributed generation (DG) system with active
power ltering (APF) capability, devised for utility current harmonic compensation. The
idea is to integrate the DG unit functions with shunt APF capabilities, because the DG
is connected in parallel to the grid.
4.1 DG-APF control scheme based on neural adap-
tive ltering.
Figure 4.1 shows the electric scheme of the DG unit with APF capability for the
proposed neural control scheme. The DG is a shunt connected single-phase inverter
supplied by a dc input voltage Udc (generated by a renewable source like photovoltaic,
fuel cells etc.). The inverter is connected to the grid by a ltering inductance L (with
parasitic resistance R). The grid is represented by a sinusoidal voltage generator v
g
, while
the grid inductance and resistance are L
g
and R
g
, respectively. A nonlinear current load,
obtained with a diode bridge supplying a highly inductive load, is connected to the grid
with a linear load R
L
. The DGAPF needs the acquisition of the inverter current i, the
21
load current i
L
, and the voltage of the coupling point v
cp
to work properly. These signals
are acquired by programmable hardware and digital signal processor [16] [17].
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of the DG-APF control scheme based on neural adaptive
ltering
In the proposed control scheme, the grid connection is based on the linear neural
adaptive lter in the conguration band described by the transfer function (3.18) in the
z-domain, while the load current harmonic compensation is based on the linear neural
adaptive lter in conguration notch described by the transfer function (3.17) in the
z-domain. The inverter is current controlled by a multiresonant current controller.
4.1.1 Multiresonant Current Controller
Current control of proposed DG-APF based on neural adaptive ltering has been
implemented with a multiresonant controller. A resonant controller is a controller designed
to have a very high gain at a specic resonant frequency. Thanks to this feature, it
permits us to control a sinusoidal variable at the resonance frequency with a steady state
null control error. A multiresonant controller consists of a set of resonant controllers,
each tuned to a specic resonant frequency. Thus, dierent sinusoidal components of
a variable can be controlled in a decoupled way. In the case under study, the current
controller is a multiresonant controller consisting of four resonant controllers, the rst of
which tuned at the grid frequency, the others at its third, fth, and seventh harmonics.
The controller tuned to the fundamental is used for the active power generation toward
the grid, while the three harmonic controllers are used either for the load current harmonic
22
compensation (APF capability turned on), or to actively control to zero the rst three
odd harmonics of the injected current (APF capability turned o). The main advantage
of such a controller, with respect to a more classic hysteresis one, is the separate control
of the dierent harmonics, a particularly important feature for the application at hand.
4.1.2 Control of the DG-APF Based on Neural Adaptive Filter-
ing
Figure 4.2 shows the block diagram of the neural network based control scheme of
the DG-APF. The current control is based on the multiresonant controller. The current
reference is the sum of two terms: i*comp and i*act. Current i*comp is the load harmonic
compensation reference current, which is obtained as the output of the neural notch
lter, described by equation(3.17), having at its input the load current i
L
. In this way,
the inverter current reference contains all the harmonic content (until half the sampling
frequency of the control system) of the load current and injects it into the grid with the
opposite sign, fully compensating any nonlinearity of the load current. The parameter of
the neural adaptive notch lter is to be selected to make the entire control system stable
on the basis of a tradeo between the speed convergence of the lter and the width of the
notch [16].
Current i*act is obtained as follows:
i act =
2P
ref
v
cpfilt
2
+ v

cpfilt
2
v
cpfilt
(4.1)
where Pref is the reference active power of the DG, based on the available power from
the adopted renewable source, v
cpfilt
is the output of the neural band adaptive lter,
described by (3.18), and v,
cpfilt
is a ctitious voltage that is in quadrature with v
cpfilt
,
obtained by shifting this last signal in time by a discrete time delay z
75
(75 samples at
a 15kHz sampling frequency of the control system correspond to 5 ms, which is a quarter
of a period at 50 Hz). The denominator of (4.1) is the square of the amplitude of the
coupling point voltage. With such a scheme, the reference active current is generated to
produce an amount of power equal to P
ref
, and it is a sinusoid in steady state, exactly in
phase with the fundamental of the coupling point voltage v
cp
: the DG therefore generates
only active power with no reactive power exchanged with the grid. This last aspect is
particularly important when, as in this case, the DG unit is connected close to a nonlinear
23
current load. In such cases, the coupling point voltage v
cp
can be signicantly distorted
even if the grid voltage v
g
is sinusoidal due to a voltage drop on the grid impedance of
the load current i
L
. The presence of the DG further worsens this situation, since it can
inject current harmonics into the same grid impedance.
The output of the current controller is the voltage reference of the inverter, which is fed
to the pulse width modulation (PWM) block. In this case, bipolar control of the voltage
source inverter is performed, and therefore the duty cycle d of a leg can be computed on
the basis of the dc link voltage U
dc
and the reference voltage v
ref
as follows:
d =
v
ref
2U
dc
+
1
2
(4.2)
4.1.3 PLL Active Power Generation
Grid connection of DGs is usually performed by a PLL. Figure 4.2[16] shows the block
diagram of the PLL system in the continuous Laplace domain s. The corresponding
Figure 4.2: Block diagram of the PLL system in the continuous domain
transfer function in the s domain is:
H
PLL
(s) =
v
cpfilt
(s)
v
cp
(s)
=
kw
0
s
s
2
+ kw
0
s + w
2
0
(4.3)
where v
cpfilt
(s) = L(v
cpfilt
(t)), v
cp
(s) = L(v
cp
(t)) with L as the Laplace operator, w
0
the
resonance (band) frequency, and k a parameter that inuences the width of the band and,
consequently, the speed convergence of the PLL: the lower the k the narrower the width
of the band and the slower the convergence speed.
24
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
The proposed approach consists of integrating the shunt active ltering capability in the
control of the inverter, which generates the active power. This feature is particularly
interesting when the DG unit is connected close to a highly nonlinear current load. In
this case, the distortion of the coupling point voltage can reduce the grid connection
capability of the DG if a proper method is not employed. The APF feature, besides
reducing the harmonic content of the grid current, facilitates the grid connection task by
reducing the distortion of the coupling point voltage.
This paper addressed two subjects in particular, presenting an original solution for
each: 1) for the grid connection and active power generation capability, the extraction
of the fundamental harmonic of the coupling point voltage and 2) the computation of
the APF-generated compensating current injected to the grid to keep the line current
almost sinusoidal. Both the grid connection and the load current harmonic compensation
were performed by using two neural adaptive lters with identical structures, one in a
conguration notch and the other complementary in a conguration band. Two neural
adaptive lters, based on ADALINEs, were used to obtain the fundamental component
from the grid voltage waveform (band conguration) for the grid connection and to re-
trieve the overall harmonic component of the load current (notch conguration) for the
current harmonic compensation, respectively. The adopted neural linear adaptive lter
reveals itself to be particularly interesting, since it does not need a prior training of the
neural network and it is not computationally demanding, especially if compared with
other neural-based techniques that require oine training of the NNs.Since the active
power generation and the APF features require current control of components at dier-
ent frequencies, a multiresonant current controller has been adopted, which has a very
good performance in separately controlling the grid fundamental frequency of the inverter
current and harmonics.
25
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