Flow arrangement

Countercurrent (A) and parallel (B) flows

Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger single pass (1!1 parallel flow)

Fig. ": Shell and tube heat exchanger "#pass tube side (1!" crossflow)

Fig. $: Shell and tube heat exchanger "#pass shell side "#pass tube side ("#" countercurrent)
%here are three primar& classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow
arrangement. 'n parallel-flow heat exchangers the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same
end and tra(el in parallel to one another to the other side. 'ncounter-flow heat exchangers the
fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. %he counter current design is the most
efficient in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer) medium due to the fact
that the a(erage temperature difference along an& unit length is greater. See countercurrent
exchange. 'n a cross-flow heat exchanger the fluids tra(el roughl& perpendicular to one
another through the exchanger.
For efficienc& heat exchangers are designed to maximi)e the surface area of the wall
between the two fluids while minimi)ing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. %he
exchanger*s performance can also be affected b& the addition of fins or corrugations in one or
both directions which increase surface area and ma& channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.
%he dri(ing temperature across the heat transfer surface (aries with position but an
appropriate mean temperature can be defined. 'n most simple s&stems this is the +log mean
temperature difference+ (,-%.). Sometimes direct /nowledge of the ,-%. is
not a(ailable and the 0%1 method is used.
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%&pes of heat exchangers
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Shell and tube heat exchanger
A Shell and %ube heat exchanger
Main article: Shell and tube heat exchanger
Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. 4ne set of these tubes contains
the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. %he second fluid runs o(er the tubes that are
being heated or cooled so that it can either pro(ide the heat or absorb the heat re5uired. A set
of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of se(eral t&pes of tubes: plain
longitudinall& finned etc. Shell and tube heat exchangers are t&picall& used for high#pressure
applications (with pressures greater than $6 bar and temperatures greater than "76 8C).
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%his is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape.
Se(eral thermal design features must be considered when designing the tubes in the shell
and tube heat exchangers:
%ube diameter: 1sing a small tube diameter ma/es the heat exchanger both
economical and compact. 9owe(er it is more li/el& for the heat exchanger to foul up
faster and the small si)e ma/es mechanical cleaning of the fouling difficult. %o pre(ail
o(er the fouling and cleaning problems larger tube diameters can be used. %hus to
determine the tube diameter the a(ailable space cost and the fouling nature of the fluids
must be considered.
%ube thic/ness: %he thic/ness of the wall of the tubes is usuall& determined to
ensure:
%here is enough room for corrosion
%hat flow#induced (ibration has resistance
Axial strength
A(ailabilit& of spare parts
9oop strength (to withstand internal tube pressure)
Buc/ling strength (to withstand o(erpressure in the shell)
%ube length: heat exchangers are usuall& cheaper when the& ha(e a smaller shell
diameter and a long tube length. %hus t&picall& there is an aim to ma/e the heat
exchanger as long as ph&sicall& possible whilst not exceeding production capabilities.
9owe(er there are man& limitations for this including space a(ailable at the installation
site and the need to ensure tubes are a(ailable in lengths that are twice the re5uired
length (so the& can be withdrawn and replaced). Also long thin tubes are difficult to ta/e
out and replace.
%ube pitch: when designing the tubes it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i.e.
the centre#centre distance of ad:oining tubes) is not less than 1."; times the tubes*
outside diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger o(erall shell diameter which leads
to a more expensi(e heat exchanger.
%ube corrugation: this t&pe of tubes mainl& used for the inner tubes increases the
turbulence of the fluids and the effect is (er& important in the heat transfer gi(ing a better
performance.
%ube ,a&out: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. %here are four main
t&pes of tube la&out which are triangular ($68) rotated triangular (768) s5uare (<68) and
rotated s5uare (=;8). %he triangular patterns are emplo&ed to gi(e greater heat transfer
as the& force the fluid to flow in a more turbulent fashion around the piping. S5uare
patterns are emplo&ed where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular.
Baffle .esign: baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct fluid
across the tube bundle. %he& run perpendicularl& to the shell and hold the bundle
pre(enting the tubes from sagging o(er a long length. %he& can also pre(ent the tubes
from (ibrating. %he most common t&pe of baffle is the segmental baffle. %he semicircular
segmental baffles are oriented at 1>6 degrees to the ad:acent baffles forcing the fluid to
flow upward and downwards between the tube bundle. Baffle spacing is of large
thermod&namic concern when designing shell and tube heat exchangers. Baffles must be
spaced with consideration for the con(ersion of pressure drop and heat transfer. For
thermo economic optimi)ation it is suggested that the baffles be spaced no closer than
"6? of the shell@s inner diameter. 9a(ing baffles spaced too closel& causes a greater
pressure drop because of flow redirection. Conse5uentl& ha(ing the baffles spaced too
far apart means that there ma& be cooler spots in the corners between baffles. 't is also
important to ensure the baffles are spaced close enough that the tubes do not sag. %he
other main t&pe of baffle is the disc and donut baffle which consists of two concentric
baffles. An outer wider baffle loo/s li/e a donut whilst the inner baffle is shaped li/e a
dis/. %his t&pe of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side of the dis/ then through
the donut baffle generating a different t&pe of fluid flow.
Conceptual diagram of a plate and frame heat exchanger.
A single plate heat exchanger
An interchangeable plate heat exchanger applied to the s&stem of a swimming pool
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Plate heat exchanger
Main article: Plate heat exchanger
Another t&pe of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. 4ne is composed of multiple
thin slightl& separated plates that ha(e (er& large surface areas and fluid flow passages for
heat transfer. %his stac/ed#plate arrangement can be more effecti(e in a gi(en space than
the shell and tube heat exchanger. Ad(ances in gas/et and bra)ing technolog& ha(e made
the plate#t&pe heat exchanger increasingl& practical. 'n 9AAC applications large heat
exchangers of this t&pe are called plate-and-frameB when used in open loops these heat
exchangers are normall& of the gas/et t&pe to allow periodic disassembl& cleaning and
inspection. %here are man& t&pes of permanentl& bonded plate heat exchangers such as dip#
bra)ed (acuum#bra)ed and welded plate (arieties and the& are often specified for closed#
loop applications such as refrigeration. Clate heat exchangers also differ in the t&pes of plates
that are used and in the configurations of those plates. Some plates ma& be stamped with
+che(ron+ dimpled or other patterns where others ma& ha(e machined fins andDor groo(es.
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Plate and shell heat exchanger
A third t&pe of heat exchanger is a plate and shell heat exchanger which combines plate heat
exchanger with shell and tube heat exchanger technologies. %he heart of the heat exchanger
contains a full& welded circular plate pac/ made b& pressing and cutting round plates and
welding them together. 0o))les carr& flow in and out of the platepac/ (the *Clate side*
flowpath).%he full& welded platepac/ is assembled into an outer shell that creates a second
flowpath ( the *Shell side*). Clate and shell technolog& offers high heat transfer high pressure
high operating temperature compact si)e low fouling and close approach temperature. 'n
particular it does completel& without gas/ets which pro(ides securit& against lea/age at high
pressures and temperatures.
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Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger
A fourth t&pe of heat exchanger uses an intermediate fluid or solid store to hold heat which is
then mo(ed to the other side of the heat exchanger to be released. %wo examples of this are
adiabatic wheels which consist of a large wheel with fine threads rotating through the hot and
cold fluids and fluid heat exchangers.
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Plate fin heat exchanger
Main article: Plate fin heat exchanger
%his t&pe of heat exchanger uses +sandwiched+ passages containing fins to increase the
effecti(it& of the unit. %he designs include crossflow and counterflow coupled with (arious fin
configurations such as straight fins offset fins and wa(& fins.
Clate and fin heat exchangers are usuall& made of aluminium allo&s which pro(ide high heat
transfer efficienc&. %he material enables the s&stem to operate at a lower temperature and
reduce the weight of the e5uipment. Clate and fin heat exchangers are mostl& used for low
temperature ser(ices such as natural gas helium and ox&gen li5uefaction plants air
separation plants and transport industries such as motor and aircraft engines.
Ad(antages of plate and fin heat exchangers:
9igh heat transfer efficienc& especiall& in gas treatment
,arger heat transfer area
Approximatel& ; times lighter in weight than that of shell and tube heat exchanger.
Able to withstand high pressure
.isad(antages of plate and fin heat exchangers:
-ight cause clogging as the pathwa&s are (er& narrow
.ifficult to clean the pathwa&s
Aluminum allo&s are susceptible to -ercur& ,i5uid Embrittlement Failure
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Pillow plate heat exchanger
A pillow plate exchanger is commonl& used in the dair& industr& for cooling mil/ in large
direct#expansion stainless steel bul/ tan/s. %he pillow plate allows for cooling across nearl&
the entire surface area of the tan/ without gaps that would occur between pipes welded to
the exterior of the tan/.
%he pillow plate is constructed using a thin sheet of metal spot#welded to the surface of
another thic/er sheet of metal. %he thin plate is welded in a regular pattern of dots or with a
serpentine pattern of weld lines. After welding the enclosed space is pressuri)ed with
sufficient force to cause the thin metal to bulge out around the welds pro(iding a space for
heat exchanger li5uids to flow and creating a characteristic appearance of a swelled pillow
formed out of metal.
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Fluid heat exchangers
%his is a heat exchanger with a gas passing upwards through a shower of fluid (often water)
and the fluid is then ta/en elsewhere before being cooled. %his is commonl& used for cooling
gases whilst also remo(ing certain impurities thus sol(ing two problems at once. 't is widel&
used in espresso machines as an energ&#sa(ing method of cooling super#heated water to use
in the extraction of espresso.
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Waste heat recovery units
A Faste 9eat Geco(er& 1nit (F9G1) is a heat exchanger that reco(ers heat from a hot gas
stream while transferring it to a wor/ing medium t&picall& water or oils. %he hot gas stream
can be the exhaust gas from a gas turbine or a diesel engine or a waste gas from industr& or
refiner&.
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Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger
Another t&pe of heat exchanger is called +(d&namic) scraped surface heat exchanger+. %his is
mainl& used for heating or cooling with high#
(iscosit& products cr&stalli)ationprocesses e(aporation and high#fouling applications. ,ong
running times are achie(ed due to the continuous scraping of the surface thus a(oiding
fouling and achie(ing a sustainable heat transfer rate during the process.
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Phase-change heat exchangers
%&pical /ettle reboiler used for industrial distillation towers
%&pical water#cooled surface condenser
'n addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in :ust a single phase heat exchangers can be
used either to heat a li5uid to e(aporate (or boil) it or used as condensers to cool
a (apor and condense it to a li5uid. 'n chemical plants and refineries reboilersused to heat
incoming feed for distillation towers are often heat exchangers.
2$32=3
.istillation set#ups t&picall& use condensers to condense distillate (apors bac/ into li5uid.
Cower plants that use steam#dri(en turbines commonl& use heat exchangers to
boil water into steam. 9eat exchangers or similar units for producing steam from water are
often called boilers or steam generators.
'n the nuclear power plants called pressuri)ed water reactors special large heat exchangers
pass heat from the primar& (reactor plant) s&stem to the secondar& (steam plant) s&stem
producing steam from water in the process. %hese are called steam generators. All fossil#
fueled and nuclear power plants using steam#dri(en turbines ha(e surface condensers to
con(ert the exhaust steam from the turbines into condensate (water) for re#use.
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%o conser(e energ& and cooling capacit& in chemical and other plants regenerati(e heat
exchangers can transfer heat from a stream that must be cooled to another stream that must
be heated such as distillate cooling and reboiler feed pre#heating.
%his term can also refer to heat exchangers that contain a material within their structure that
has a change of phase. %his is usuall& a solid to li5uid phase due to the small (olume
difference between these states. %his change of phase effecti(el& acts as a buffer because it
occurs at a constant temperature but still allows for the heat exchanger to accept additional
heat. 4ne example where this has been in(estigated is for use in high power aircraft
electronics.
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.irect contact heat exchangers
.irect contact heat exchangers in(ol(e heat transfer between hot and cold streams of two
phases in the absence of a separating wall.
2H3
%hus such heat exchangers can be classified
as:
Ias ! li5uid
'mmiscible li5uid ! li5uid
Solid#li5uid or solid ! gas
-ost direct contact heat exchangers fall under the Ias# ,i5uid categor& where heat is
transferred between a gas and li5uid in the form of drops films or spra&s. 2"3
Such t&pes of heat exchangers are used predominantl& in air conditioning humidification
industrial hot water heating water cooling and condensing plants.
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Phases
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Continuous
phase
Driving
force
Change of
phase
xamples
Ias !
,i5uid
Ias Ira(it& 0o Spra& columns pac/ed columns
Jes Cooling towers falling droplet
e(aporators
Forced 0o Spra& coolersD5uenchers
,i5uid flow Jes Spra& condensersDe(aporation :et
condensers
,i5uid Ira(it& 0o Bubble columns perforated tra&
columns
Jes Bubble column condensers
Forced 0o Ias spargers
Ias flow Jes .irect contact e(aporators submerged
combustion
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9AAC air coils
4ne of the widest uses of heat exchangers is for air conditioning of buildings and (ehicles.
%his class of heat exchangers is commonl& called air coils or :ust coils due to their often#
serpentine internal tubing. ,i5uid#to#air or air#to#li5uid 9AAC coils are t&picall& of modified
crossflow arrangement. 'n (ehicles heat coils are often called heater cores.
4n the li5uid side of these heat exchangers the common fluids are water a water#gl&col
solution steam or a refrigerant. For heating coils hot water and steam are the most
common and this heated fluid is supplied b& boilers for example. For cooling coils chilled
water and refrigerant are most common. Chilled water is supplied from a chiller that is
potentiall& located (er& far awa& but refrigerant must come from a nearb& condensing unit.
Fhen a refrigerant is used the cooling coil is the e(aporator in the (apor#compression
refrigeration c&cle. 9AAC coils that use this direct#expansion of refrigerants are commonl&
called DX coils.
4n the air side of 9AAC coils a significant difference exists between those used for heating
and those for cooling. .ue to ps&chrometrics air that is cooled often has moisture condensing
out of it except with extremel& dr& air flows. 9eating some air increases that airflow*s capacit&
to hold water. So heating coils need not consider moisture condensation on their air#side but
cooling coils must be ade5uatel& designed and selected to handle their
particular latent (moisture) as well as the sensible (cooling) loads. %he water that is remo(ed
is called condensate.
For man& climates water or steam 9AAC coils can be exposed to free)ing conditions.
Because water expands upon free)ing these somewhat expensi(e and difficult to replace
thin#walled heat exchangers can easil& be damaged or destro&ed b& :ust one free)e. As such
free)e protection of coils is a ma:or concern of 9AAC designers installers and operators.
%he introduction of indentations placed within the heat exchange fins controlled condensation
allowing water molecules to remain in the cooled air. %his in(ention allowed for refrigeration
without icing of the cooling mechanism.
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%he heat exchangers in direct#combustion furnaces t&pical in man& residences are not
*coils*. %he& are instead gas#to#air heat exchangers that are t&picall& made of stamped steel
sheet metal. %he combustion products pass on one side of these heat exchangers and air to
heat on the other. A cracked heat exchanger is therefore a dangerous situation that re5uires
immediate attention because combustion products ma& enter li(ing space.
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Spiral heat exchangers
Schematic drawing of a spiral heat exchanger.
A spiral heat exchanger (S9E) ma& refer to a helical (coiled) tube configuration more
generall& the term refers to a pair of flat surfaces that are coiled to form the two channels in a
counter#flow arrangement. Each of the two channels has one long cur(ed path. A pair of fluid
ports are connected tangentiall& to the outer arms of the spiral and axial ports are common
but optional.
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%he main ad(antage of the S9E is its highl& efficient use of space. %his attribute is often
le(eraged and partiall& reallocated to gain other impro(ements in performance according to
well /nown tradeoffs in heat exchanger design. (A notable tradeoff is capital cost (s operating
cost.) A compact S9E ma& be used to ha(e a smaller footprint and thus lower all#around
capital costs or an o(er#si)ed S9E ma& be used to ha(e less pressure drop less
pumping energ& higher thermal efficienc& and lower energ& costs.
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Construction
%he distance between the sheets in the spiral channels are maintained b& using spacer studs
that were welded prior to rolling. 4nce the main spiral pac/ has been rolled alternate top and
bottom edges are welded and each end closed b& a gas/eted flat or conical co(er bolted to
the bod&. %his ensures no mixing of the two fluids occurs. An& lea/age is from the peripher&
co(er to the atmosphere or to a passage that contains the same fluid.
21"3
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Self cleaning
S9Es are often used in the heating of fluids that contain solids and thus tend to foul the inside
of the heat exchanger. %he low pressure drop lets the S9E handle fouling more easil&. %he
S9E uses a Kself cleaningL mechanism whereb& fouled surfaces cause a locali)ed increase
in fluid (elocit& thus increasing the drag (or fluid friction) on the fouled surface thus helping to
dislodge the bloc/age and /eep the heat exchanger clean. +%he internal walls that ma/e up
the heat transfer surface are often rather thic/ which ma/es the S9E (er& robust and able to
last a long time in demanding en(ironments.+ %he& are also easil& cleaned opening out li/e
an o(en where an& build up of foulant can be remo(ed b&pressure washing.
Self#Cleaning Fater filters are used to /eep the s&stem clean and running without the need to
shut down or replace cartridges and bags.
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Flow arrangements
Concurrent and countercurrent flow.
%here are three main t&pes of flows in a spiral heat exchanger:
1. Counter-current Flow: Fluids flow in opposite directions. %hese are used for li5uid#
li5uid condensing and gas cooling applications. 1nits are usuall& mounted (erticall&
when condensing (apour and mounted hori)ontall& when handling high
concentrations of solids.
". Spiral Flow!Cross Flow" 4ne fluid is in spiral flow and the other in a cross flow.
Spiral flow passages are welded at each side for this t&pe of spiral heat exchanger.
%his t&pe of flow is suitable for handling low densit& gas which passes through the
cross flow a(oiding pressure loss. 't can be used for li5uid#li5uid applications if one
li5uid has a considerabl& greater flow rate than the other.
$. Distributed #apour!Spiral flow" %his design is that of a condenser and is usuall&
mounted (erticall&. 't is designed to cater for the sub#cooling of both condensate and
non#condensables. %he coolant mo(es in a spiral and lea(es (ia the top. 9ot gases
that enter lea(e as condensate (ia the bottom outlet.
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Applications
%he S9E is good for applications such as pasteuri)ation digester heating heat reco(er& pre#
heating (see: recuperator) and effluent cooling. For sludge treatment S9Es are generall&
smaller than other t&pes of heat exchangers.
2citation needed3
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Selection
.ue to the man& (ariables in(ol(ed selecting optimal heat exchangers is challenging. 9and
calculations are possible but man& iterations are t&picall& needed. As such heat exchangers
are most often selected (ia computer programs either b& s&stem designers who are
t&picall& engineers or b& e5uipment (endors.
%o select an appropriate heat exchanger the s&stem designers (or e5uipment (endors) would
firstl& consider the design limitations for each heat exchanger t&pe. %hough cost is often the
primar& criterion se(eral other selection criteria are important:
9ighDlow pressure limits
%hermal performance
%emperature ranges
Croduct mix (li5uidDli5uid particulates or high#solids li5uid)
Cressure drops across the exchanger
Fluid flow capacit&
Cleanabilit& maintenance and repair
-aterials re5uired for construction
Abilit& and ease of future expansion
Choosing the right heat exchanger (9M) re5uires some /nowledge of the different heat
exchanger t&pes as well as the en(ironment where the unit must operate. %&picall& in the
manufacturing industr& se(eral differing t&pes of heat exchangers are used for :ust the one
process or s&stem to deri(e the final product. For example a /ettle 9M for pre#heating a
double pipe 9M for the Ncarrier@ fluid and a plate and frame 9M for final cooling. Fith sufficient
/nowledge of heat exchanger t&pes and operating re5uirements an appropriate selection can
be made to optimise the process.
21$3
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-onitoring and maintenance
4nline monitoring of commercial heat exchangers is done b& trac/ing the o(erall heat transfer
coefficient. %he o(erall heat transfer coefficient tends to decline o(er time due to fouling.
1OPDAQ%lm
B& periodicall& calculating the o(erall heat transfer coefficient from exchanger flow rates and
temperatures the owner of the heat exchanger can estimate when cleaning the heat
exchanger is economicall& attracti(e.
'ntegrit& inspection of plate and tubular heat exchanger can be tested in situ b& the
conducti(it& or helium gas methods. %hese methods confirm the integrit& of the plates or
tubes to pre(ent an& cross contamination and the condition of the gas/ets.
-echanical integrit& monitoring of heat exchanger tubes ma& be conducted
through 0ondestructi(e methods such as edd& current testing.
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Fouling
Main article: Fouling
A heat exchanger in a steam power station contaminated with macrofouling.
Fouling occurs when impurities deposit on the heat exchange surface. .eposition of
these impurities can be caused b&:
,ow wall shear stress
,ow fluid (elocities
9igh fluid (elocities
Geaction product solid precipitation
Crecipitation of dissol(ed impurities due to ele(ated wall temperatures
%he rate of heat exchanger fouling is determined b& the rate of particle deposition less re#
entrainmentDsuppression. %his model was originall& proposed in 1<;< b& Rern and Seaton.
Crude $il xchanger Fouling. 'n commercial crude oil refining crude oil is heated from "1
8C to $=$ 8C prior to entering the distillation column. A series of shell and tube heat
exchangers t&picall& exchange heat between crude oil and other oil streams to heat the crude
to "76 8C prior to heating in a furnace. Fouling occurs on the crude side of these exchangers
due to asphaltene insolubilit&. %he nature of asphaltene solubilit& in crude oil was successfull&
modeled b& Fiehe and Renned&.
21=3
%he precipitation of insoluble asphaltenes in crude
preheat trains has been successfull& modeled as a first order reaction b& Ebert and
Canchal
21;3
who expanded on the wor/ of Rern and Seaton.
Cooling Water Fouling. Cooling water s&stems are susceptible to fouling. Cooling water
t&picall& has a high total dissol(ed solids content and suspended colloidal solids. ,ocali)ed
precipitation of dissol(ed solids occurs at the heat exchange surface due to wall temperatures
higher than bul/ fluid temperature. ,ow fluid (elocities (less than $ ftDs) allow suspended
solids to settle on the heat exchange surface. Cooling water is t&picall& on the tube side of a
shell and tube exchanger because it*s eas& to clean. %o pre(ent fouling designers t&picall&
ensure that cooling water (elocit& is greater than 6.< mDs and bul/ fluid temperature is
maintained less than 76 8C. 4ther approaches to control fouling control combine the KblindL
application of biocides and anti#scale chemicals with periodic lab testing.
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%aintenance
Clate heat exchangers must be disassembled and cleaned periodicall&. %ubular heat
exchangers can be cleaned b& such methods as acid cleaning sandblasting high#pressure
water :et bullet cleaning or drill rods.
'n large#scale cooling water s&stems for heat exchangers water treatment such as
purification addition of chemicals and testing is used to minimi)e fouling of the heat
exchange e5uipment. 4ther water treatment is also used in steam s&stems for power plants
etc. to minimi)e fouling and corrosion of the heat exchange and other e5uipment.
A (ariet& of companies ha(e started using water borne oscillations technolog& to
pre(ent biofouling. Fithout the use of chemicals this t&pe of technolog& has helped in
pro(iding a low#pressure drop in heat exchangers.
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'n nature
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&umans
%he human nasal passages ser(e as a heat exchanger which warms air being inhaled and
cools air being exhaled. Jou can demonstrate its effecti(eness b& putting &our hand in front of
&our face and exhaling first through &our nose and then through &our mouth. Air exhaled
through &our nose is substantiall& cooler.
217321H3
'n species that ha(e external testes (such as humans) the arter& to the testis is surrounded
b& a mesh of (eins called the pampiniform plexus. %his cools the blood heading to the testis
while reheating the returning blood.
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'irds( fish( marine mammals
Countercurrent exchange conser(ation circuit
Further information: Countercurrent exchange in biological sstems
+Countercurrent+ heat exchangers occur naturall& in the circulation s&stem of fish whales and
other marine mammals. Arteries to the s/in carr&ing warm blood are intertwined with (eins
from the s/in carr&ing cold blood causing the warm arterial blood to exchange heat with the
cold (enous blood. %his reduces the o(erall heat loss in cold waters. 9eat exchangers are
also present in the tongue of baleen whales as large (olumes of water flow through their
mouths.
21>321<3
Fading birds use a similar s&stem to limit heat losses from their bod& through
their legs into the water.
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Carotid rete
%he carotid rete is a counter#current heat exchanging organ in some ungulates. %he blood
ascending the carotid arteries on its wa& to the brain flows (ia a networ/ of (essels where
heat is discharged to the (eins of cooler blood descending from the nasal passages. %he
carotid rete allows %homson*s ga)elle to maintain its brain almost $8C cooler than the rest of
the bod& and therefore aids in tolerating bursts in metabolic heat production such as
associated with outrunning cheetahs (during which the bod& temperature exceeds the
maximum temperature at which the brain could function).
2"63
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'n industr&
9eat exchangers are widel& used in industr& both for cooling and heating large scale
industrial processes. %he t&pe and si)e of heat exchanger used can be tailored to suit a
process depending on the t&pe of fluid its phase temperature densit& (iscosit& pressures
chemical composition and (arious other thermod&namic properties.
'n man& industrial processes there is waste of energ& or a heat stream that is being
exhausted heat exchangers can be used to reco(er this heat and put it to use b& heating a
different stream in the process. %his practice sa(es a lot of mone& in industr& as the heat
supplied to other streams from the heat exchangers would otherwise come from an external
source that is more expensi(e and more harmful to the en(ironment.
9eat exchangers are used in man& industries including:
Faste water treatment
Gefrigeration
Fine and beer ma/ing
Cetroleum refining
'n waste water treatment heat exchangers pla& a (ital role in maintaining optimal
temperatures within anaerobic digesters to promote the growth of microbes that remo(e
pollutants. Common t&pes of heat exchangers used in this application are the double pipe
heat exchanger as well as the plate and frame heat exchanger.
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'n aircraft
'n commercial aircraft heat exchangers are used to ta/e heat from the engine*s oil s&stem to
heat cold fuel.
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%his impro(es fuel efficienc& as well as reduces the possibilit& of water
entrapped in the fuel free)ing in components.
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Earl& "66> a Boeing HHH fl&ing as British Airwa&s Flight $> crashed :ust short of the runwa&.
'n an earl&#"66< Boeing#update sent to aircraft operators the problem was identified as
specific to the Golls#Go&ce engine oil#fuel flow heat exchangers.
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4ther heat exchangers or
Boeing HHH aircraft powered b& IE or Cratt and Fhitne& engines were not affected b& the
problem.
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2edit3
A model of a simple heat exchanger
A simple heat exchanger
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might be thought of as two straight pipes with fluid flow which are
thermall& connected. ,et the pipes be of e5ual length ! carr&ing fluids with heat capacit&
(energ& per unit mass per unit change in temperature) and let the mass flow rate of the fluids
through the pipes be (mass per unit time) where the subscript iapplies to pipe 1 or pipe ".
%emperature profiles for the pipes are and where x is the distance along the
pipe. Assume a stead& state so that the temperature profiles are not functions of time.
Assume also that the onl& transfer of heat from a small (olume of fluid in one pipe is to the
fluid element in the other pipe at the same position. %here is no transfer of heat along a pipe
due to temperature differences in that pipe. B& 0ewton*s law of cooling the rate of change in
energ& of a small (olume of fluid is proportional to the difference in temperatures between it
and the corresponding element in the other pipe:
where is the thermal energ& per unit length and S is the thermal connection
constant per unit length between the two pipes. %his change in internal energ&
results in a change in the temperature of the fluid element. %he time rate of change
for the fluid element being carried along b& the flow is:
where is the +thermal mass flow rate+. %he differential
e5uations go(erning the heat exchanger ma& now be written as:
0ote that since the s&stem is in a stead& state there are no partial
deri(ati(es of temperature with respect to time and since there is
no heat transfer along the pipe there are no second deri(ati(es
in x as is found in the heat e5uation. %hese two coupled first#
order differential e5uations ma& be sol(ed to &ield:
where and
" and # are two as &et undetermined constants of
integration. ,et and be the temperatures at xO6
and let and be the temperatures at the end of
the pipe at xO,. .efine the a(erage temperatures in each
pipe as:
1sing the solutions abo(e these temperatures
are:

Choosing an& two of the temperatures abo(e
eliminates the constants of integration letting
us find the other four temperatures. Fe find
the total energ& transferred b& integrating the
expressions for the time rate of change of
internal energ& per unit length:
B& the conser(ation of energ& the
sum of the two energies is )ero. %he
5uantit& is /nown as
the !og mean temperature
difference and is a measure of the
effecti(eness of the heat exchanger
in transferring heat energ&.