Design of PM Synchronous and Brushless DC Motors

TJ E Miller
SPEED Laboratory
University of Glasgow
Glasgow G12 8LT, UK
Abstract -The fmt part of this paper surveys he design tools required to maintain
a competitive design capability in brushless PM motors, including the appropriate
software for design, drafting, analysis, and simulation; he useof magnetic materials
test facilities; the use of a precision dynamometer; and the use of flexible
controllers. The second pan discuses thedesign of PM brushless AC machines for
flux-weakening capability, to givea widespeed rangeat coostant power. ?he IPM
parameter planeconcept is usedto classify thevarious classes of PM motor and to
defmean optimum combination of reluctance torqueand permanent-magnet torque
to maximize the constant-power speedrange. Results are presented for an axially-
laminated interior-magnet motor wirha constant-power speed rangeof 7.5: 1. Tb i s
is2-3 times thecapability of induction motors, and isachieved at thesame timeas
a slightly improved rated-load efficiency and power-factor.
INTRODUCTION
Electric motors are sometimes perceived as "old technology", but the
falsity of that view is clear from the facts: motors are madein larger
numbers, and in a wider variety of types and designs, than ever
before; they are controlled by the most advanced forms of
microelectronics and power electronic drives, with sophisticated
sensing technology and control theory. Even in the motors
themselves there is steady development of insulation systems, magnet
materials, the use of composites and engineering plastics, bearings,
lubrication, and electrical steels. Many motors used today can
operate only with electronic control.
Apart froma few line-start machines fitted with starting cages, PM
synchronous and brushless DC motors operate only with electronic
control. Their place in the hierarchy of motors is well established in
high-quality, high-efficiency applications such as industrial servo
drives which require the ultimate performance - good dynamics and
controllability, cool running, and low torque ripple and noise. In
computers and office equipment these qualities makePM brushless
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Fig. 2 Selection of brushless motor cross-sections fromPC-BDC
PART I
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motors the natural choice over all other motor types; in these
applications, high-volume manufacturing does an extraordinary job
of keeping the cost down while maintaining uncompromisingly high
quality. More recently, the brushless PM motor has found its way
into residential HVAC applications, where the need is for high-
efficiency and low acoustic noise. These three application categories
reflect the design flexibility that stems fromthe availabilty of a wide
range of different magnet materials - fromhigh-energy rare-earth
magnets to low-cost, high-coercivity ceramic magnets. The high
coercivity and remanence of modem magnets, coupled with the
ability to manufacture a wide i-angeof customshapes, permits a wide
range of geometrical configurations including exterior- and interior-
rotor motors and axial- and radial-gap motors.
To establish and maintain a competitive design capability in PM
brushless motors, the following elements are essential or highly
desirable:
1.
2.
3.
4.
In Part I the
Software, for Sour distinct tasks :
A. Initial dimensioning of the motor and
controller to meet customer specifications.
Speed is of the essence in this task.
B. Drafting, in a format consistent with
manufacturing, inventory control, etc.
Accurate refinement of the electromagnetic,
thermal, and mechanical design by means of
numerical analysis techniques.
Dynamic simulation including transients and
stability analysis.
C.
D.
Magnetic materials testing facilities
Fully instrumented dynamometer.
Flexible electronic controller.
capabilities and useof these facilities are described,
with the main emphasis on design software.
Part I1 describes the design of an axially-laminated PM synchronous
motor. This machine has the characteristic of a very wide constant-
power speed range under flux-weakening [ 11, and has been operated
with sensorless control (i.e., without shaft position feedback), [2].
I. 1 DESIGN SOFTWARE
A. Initial dimensioning programs (IDPs). Many reasons can be cited
for the use of the computer even for the lowest-level sizing
calculations: consistency of results, good documentation, and the
speed and thoroughness of the process. So great is the need for
responsiveness to customer needs, that one UK company claims a
turnaround time for new designs of only one day: the design is done
in the morning, the prototype is madeduring the afternoon, and the
customer has it the following day. Only with reliable computer
software is it possible to generate the design so quickly, and in a
formwhere the lamination geometry can be fed electronically to a
laser-cutting machine direct from the design program. With the
appropriate formats for datafiles, the same design data can be used
by a conventional CAD programto produce the necessary drawings
and documentation for manufacture. Equally, it can be piped to
specialist programs for refinement using such tools as
electromagnetic finite-element analysis, thermal modelling, stress
analysis, etc. A diagramof this overall software environment is
shown in Fig. 1, which concentrates on design rather than on
manufacture per se.
The initial dimensioning program(IDP) is the pi nt of entry for the
customers specification. Some IDPs are old favorites written in
BASIC or FORTRAN, and some are even written in templates for
commercial spreadsheet programs. The most sophisticated modem
IDPs provide outstanding flexibility, accuracy, data links with other
software, and good documentation. The development of such
programs has kept pace with the development of desktop and laptop
computers, so that design tasks of considerable complexity and
difficulty can routinely beperformed onthe customers premises, if
necessary, or even in an airport lounge.
The ideal IDP can handle a wide range of motor configurations, with
different magnet arrangements, rotor and winding configurations, and
different types of controllers. Fig. 2 shows some of the
configurations available with PC-BDC [3]. All of these motors can
be modelled in PC-BDC with wye, delta, 3-phase unipolar, 2-phase,
or 1-phase connections; there are six different control algorithms
(four current regulators and two PWM voltage regulators), as well
as pure sinewave operation.
PC-BDC also has a winding editor, shown in Fig. 3. This can be
used to modify any one of a number of standard winding
configurations, or the user can build a winding fromscratch using
the cursor. The program can calculate the resistance, self- and
mutual inductances, and back-EMF waveforms for any distribution
of coils, subsequently using these in the dynamic simulation.
Fig. 4 shows an example of the current, EMF, and torque
waveforms calculated by PC-BDC. In addition, the programproduces
approximately 200 design parameters including efficiency; a
breakdown of losses; peak, mean and Rh4S currents inthe motor and
the controller, and many others relating to the winding, the magnetic
design, and the performance. An extract is shown in Fig. 5 . All of
these facilities are integrated in the one programwith file-handling,
context-sensitive help, graphics, and several other features. This
permits the integration the dimensioning of the controller (selection
of power transistors etc) with that of the motor.
The importance of the software engineering in producing a tool of
this kind is very great. Even though the engineering calculations
performed are not particularly sophisticated, the quantity of data and
its organization and reliability require great emphasis to be given to
the useability of the software.
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B. Drafting Modemdrafting programs aretending to define the de
facto standard for data exchange between the IDP, various advanced
analysis packages (AAP's), and other software-compatible functions
including many which are linked to manufacturing operations. The
ideal drafting package or IDP can produce design data in various
formats: Fig. 1 shows the design data fromthe IDP being used in a
laser-cutting machine for prototype laminations, in a dynamic
simulation programfor setting up controller parameters, and also as
input data for electromagnetic and thermal finite-element analysis.
C. Advanced analysis packages (AAP's) Fig. 6a shows a finite-
element flux-plot used in the analysis of the back-EMF waveformof
a linear brushless DC motor. The finite-element and boundaq-
element methods produce electromagnetic, thermal, and mechanical
analyses for geometries too complex for manual analysis, and they
accurately account for non-linear material properties such as the B/H
curve of electrical steel.
Until recently AAP's such as finite-element software were expensive,
particularly in terms of the engineering time and skill levels required
to produce useful results. However, this is rapidly changing for two
reasons: first, the software itself is now available on personal
computers with a "friendly" user-interface which makes it much
easier to set problems up and subsequently extract useful engineering
results @re-processing and post-processing). Secondly, the links
between IDP's and drafting packages and AAP's are being developed
so that "seamless" transfer froman initial dimensioning programor
drafting package into finite-element analysis and back again is
Fig. 6a Finiteelement flux-plot; axially-laminated IPM motor
-
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0.2 -
r
ul
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0.15 -
a 0.1 - A
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' 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
A N G U L A R P OS I T I ON ( ME C H D E G ]
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Fig. 6c Back EMF waveformmeasured (solid) and computed by
finite elements (dotted)
possible. AAP's tend to be large and powerful and it makes sense to
employ an AAP in tandemwith an IDP or a drafting package, each
programbeing the work of specialists in the respective fields. The
importance of good data transfer cannot be overemphasized in this
connection.
733
State SpaceFeedback Gains
0 Test points for probes PX, PY
[] Parameters in square brackets may be
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Fig. 7 Controller architecture modelled by PC-BDC
The flux-plot shown in Fig. 6a is useful for visualization of the
magnetic field, but more useful engineering information is obtained
by sophisticated post-processing and other features. For example,
Fig. 6b shows the distribution of flux-density around the airgap of a
brushless AC PM motor, showing the effect of slotting. Fig. 6c
shows the back-EMF waveformcalculated by means of a series of
finite element solutions taken with the rotor at a series of angles
covering 180 electrical degrees of rotation. Modemfinite-element
programs can virtually automate the production of such waveforms,
which can subsequently be used in dynamic simulation programs
such as PC-BDC for dynamic performance analysis. In Fig. 6c, the
measured EMF waveformis a few percent lower than the calculated
one. When these graphs were plotted, the discrepancy highlighted a
problemwith the magnetization of the magnets that had previously
passed unnoticed.
D. Dynamic simulation sofhare (DSS) Once a motor is connected
to an electronic controller, theperformance of the complete system
can only be calculated by dynamic simulation software. Such
calculations are essential to thedesign of thecontroller - not only
for sizing and selecting power transistors and diodes, but also for
determining the architecture and parameters of the controller. A
popular and well-known example of DSS is PSPICE, but there is
now a wide range of sophisticiated DSS particularly for workstations,
and some of these are extremely powerful with facilities for
modelling not only analog and digital circuits, but also the non-linear
electromagnetics of the motor and the mechanical equations of the
load, all at the same time.. Dynamic simulation can also be
incorporated in the most advanced IDPs, and Fig. 7 shows the
architecture of a brushless I)C motor controller modelled in the
dynamic simulation integrated inPC-BDC. Fig. 8 shows a trace from
this simulation.
LINE CURRENT VI. ROTOR POSITION I 0VNAIIIC.BOC
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Fig. 8 Trace fromPC-BDC dynamic
The computing plag?orm. For several years the engineering
workstation was the natural platformfor engineering software, and
although this remains the case for larger systems, all of the software
functions described here are available on personal computers. This
brings the software design environment within reach of small
companies, and even in large companies the personal computer
makes it possible to equip numbers of engineers with the same tools,
or with compatible tools for different functions, with reasonable
expense.
134
Waveform
generator
Power
amplifier
hci ti ng
coil
I
I DATA
ACQUISITION
PROCESSING
Fig. 9 Test systemfor magnetic materials
1.2 MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND TESTING FACILITIES
IbLY DRIVE
Fie. 10 Precision dvnamometer
This paper is too short for a satisfactory review of permanent magnet
materials and electrical steels, so these reviews are left for more
specialist papers. It should be mentioned that the most important
recent development in permanent magnets is the manufacturing
technology for NdFeB magnets, permitting great flexibility in the
design of brushless motors. This stems fromthe wide range of
magnet grades and the equally wide range of production methods for
different shapes and sizes and different methods of magnetization.
Induction motor manufacturers have long maintained core-loss testing
facilities for electrical steels, an essential element in quality-
assurance on incoming materials. However, the testing of hard
magnetic materials appears to be less widely practised, wme
manufacturers being content with property data fromthe magnet
supplier. Test equipment can bepurchased ready for use for testing
both AC and DC properties of both soft and hard magnetic materials,
and an example of a test systemconfiguration is shown in Fig. 9.
Because of the wide variation in magnet properties, test data should
always cover the expected temperature range and the test equipment
should have the facility for heating or cooling the test samples.
During the design process the core losses in the motor must be
calculated. Traditional core-loss estimation formluas for induction
motors are not always applicable in brushless PM motors,
particularly in squarewave motors because of the non-sinusoidal
nature of the flux waveform. Unfortunately, manufacturers data for
core loss of electrical steels is generally based onsinewave data, and
the adaptation of this data for calculation of losses under more
general conditions is rather an uncertain process. Nevertheless, good
results have been obtained and published [4] by separating the
hysteresis and eddy-current loss components and modifying their
coefficients based on actual flux-waveformparameters.
1.3 PRECISION DYNAMOMETER
A production-line test might include phase resistance, back-EMF
constant (generated volts when the motor is spun at IO00 rpm), and
short-circuit current. All of these are easy to measure on a more-or-
less automatic test station.
Fig. 11 Special dynamometer for measuring no-load core losses and
windage losses
The comprehensive testing of brushless DC motor prototypes, for
design validation and the calibration of design equations, requires a
precision dynamometer and data-acquisition system, with transducers
for speed, torque, phase and line currents, and temperatures at
various points i n the motor. It is also essential to measure rotor shaft
position if any meaningful tests are to be conducted in relation to the
commutation or sinewave control.
Fig. 10 shows a schematic of the precision dynamometer used in the
SPEED Laboratory at the University of Glasgow. The test stand has
a range of in-line torque transducers to accommodate different sizes
of motor. The NICOLET data acquisition systemcan sample four
channels with 12-bit resolution at 10Ms/s with a further four 12-bit
channels capable of 1 Ms/s sampling. Waveforms captured by this
systemare stored for off-line processing and documentation, which
can be automated by means of the systemcontrol software.
735
In addition, it is desirable to build prototypes with search coils (at
least one full-pitch search coil and at least one single-tooth search
coil). These permit the measurement of the flux waveform, from
which the back-EMF waveformof the whole winding is derived.
When there is any departure fromthe ideal sinusoidal or trapezoidal
phase EMF waveform, the flux waveformis always the first place
to start looking, and these search coil waveforms produce valuable
insight that is often not available fromthe entire winding EMF.
A problem that arises with brushless PM motors is the accurate
determination of the core losses and thewindage-and-friction losses.
Since the magnets are permanently magnetized, these loss
components cannot be differentiated by any rotating test. In the
SPEED Laboratory it is the practice to make a dummy rotor of
exactly the Sameshape and dimensions as the actual rotor, but with
steel or aluminiuminstead of permanent magnets. This rotor is used
with the Sameshaft and bearings to measure the windage and friction
losses.
Mi CrO-
controller
PC
- 8097, LM628
Because these loss components are very small, typically less than 5 %
of the rated output, they cannot be measured accurately on a
dynamometer whose full-scale reading is comparable to the rated
power of the motor. For this reason, the windage-and-friction test
and the no-load core loss test are performed on a special
dynamometer with a gimballed drive machine and a very sensitive
torque-measuring mechanismbased on a lever arm with a force
gauge. Fig. 11 shows this dynamometer.
1.4 FLEXBLE CONTROLLER
3-phase
MOSFET or
I GBT
inverter
-
It is often the case with brushless PM motors - indeed with all
motors intended for variable-speed drives - that the motor and
controller are not designed or built together in the same facility.
Consequently the motor designer is often unable to test hidher
designs under the control of the electronic controller that will be used
in production. This is not an easy problemto deal with in general,
because there may be a different controller for every different motor
design. What can help is afiexible controller: that is, a black box
which any brushless motor can beplugged into, and whose control
algorithms and parameters can be dialled up or set up via a serial
link to a personal computer. Fig. 12 shows the schematic diagramof
such a controller.
The controller is modular, so that different inverters (or squarewave
controllers) can be controlled fromthe same micro-controller. The
linke between the gate drives and the microcontroller is optical. The
microcontroller is designed together with a specially written PC
interface program that pemuts the user to set up the control
parameters on-line. Thecontrol parameters include speed, current set-
points, and others such as those which appear in Fig. 7. The power
inverter includes wide-bandwidth current and voltage sensors for
instrumentation.
RS232 Optical
fiber
links
11.1AXIALLY-LAMINATED INTERIOR PM MOTOR
Flux-weakening . Oneof the recognized limitations of surface-magnet
brushless DC motors is the limited speed range at constant power,
which stems fromthe low inductance. In fact it can be shown that if
the inductance is zero, the torque/speed characteristic is rectangular,
meaning that constant-torque can bemaintained up to the rated speed
and voltage, but no higher speeds can be reached because the torque
falls rapidly to zero when the back-EMF exceeds the supply voltage.
In order to achieve any speed range with a constant power
characteristic, flux-weakening is necessary (corresponding to field-
weakening in the DC separately excited motor). In an AC
synchronous machine, flux-weakening capability implies the presence
of inductance.
1 1
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h
J
I
U
2
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zi
v
6
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0 0.5 1
NORMALISED MAGNET FLUX-LINKAGE (SPM)
Fig. 13 IPM parameter plane, showing motor cross-sections
1 1
0
z
- -
FINITE >
NORMALISED MAGNET FLUX-LINKAGE
Fig. 14 IPM parameter plane, showing the five motorclasses
Fig. 12 Flexible controller configuration
736
With this background, there has been considerable research in recent
years on hybrid AC PM motors which combine permanent-magnet
alignment torque with reluctance torque, notably the interior
permanent-magnet motor described by J ahns [ 5] and the inset magnet
motor described by Sebastian and Slemon [6]. A comprehensive
analysis of the relationship between the reluctance nature and the
permanent-magnet nature of AC synchronous motors has recently
been presented in [7]. This paper introduces the concept of the IPM
parameter plane, Figs. 13 and 14. The axes of the IPM parameter
plane are the normalised magnet flux-linkage (which is equal to the
ratio of the back-EMF at rated speed to the rated voltage), and the
saliency ratio E ( Xd Xd ratio). A pure permanent-magnet motor has no
saliency and is represented by a point on the x-axis. A pure
synchronous reluctance motor has s saliency but no magnet-alignment
torque and is represented by a point on the y-axis. Fig. 13 shows
graphically the cross-sections of various brushless synchronous AC
motors according to their relative positions in the IPM parameter
plane. Fig. 14 classifies the drives in to five classes, the main
division being between those which have a theoretical maximum
speed (limited by available voltage, with limited flux-weakening
capability), and those with no such maximum speed. The more
"permanent-magnet" a machine is, the more likely it is to have a
finite maximumspeed and limited flux-weakening capability.
For a given amount of magnetization, there is an optimumsaliency
ratio that is just sufficient to produce an infinite maximum speed
capability, representing the maximum effect of flux-weakening
possible with that degree of magnetization. Designs on the optimum
IPM design line have this characteristic, but they also have the
limitation that the base-speed power factor is limited to 0.707.
The axially-laminated IPMs shown in Fig. 15are a 50W machine and
a 7.5 kW machine. This machine has been built in two versions, one
as a pure synchronous reluctance (SYNCHREL) motor, and the other as
a hybrid designed on the optimumIPM line by using rubber bonded
permanent magnet material for the flux-barrier material. Performance
data for these machines, together with equivalent parameters for an
induction motor in the same stator, are summarised in Table 1. In
particular it can beseen that the constant-power speed range (CPSR),
measured at 7.5: 1 , greatly exceeds that of either the induction motor
or the pure synchronous reluctance motor. Interestingly, thepower-
factor and efficiency are both significantly better than those of the
induction motor at rated load. The power vs. speed characteristics for
all three motors are shown in Fig. 16.
Fig. 15 Axially-laminated IPM motors, 7.5 kW and 50 W
Parameter
Airgap [mm]
Stator Inner Dia. [mm]
Stack Length [mm]
Poles
Lamination Thick. [mm]
Ins./Magnet Thick. [mm]
Rotor Layers
Pole Arc [elec deg]
Pole Pieces
Magnet Flux [Vs rms]
Lnsat. (
Sat. <
Rated Line Voltage Lc [VI
Rated Current I , [A]
Ym [degl
Knee Speed WI; [rpm]
Rated Torque Tk [xm]
Rated Output Power pk [kW]
Efficiency 7 [%]
Power Factor cos Q
Inverter Ctilisation K =
CPSR
cos o
3.5
3
2.5
-
3
E *
cz
w
0
3 1.s
0.
I
0.5
C
Fig. I C
IM SYNCHREL IPM
0.48 0.517 0.917
127 127 127
202 202 202
4 4 4
0.50 0.50
0.50 0.50
62 62
131 131
brass iron
0 0 0.174
11.5 6.7.
9.6 6.3
415 415 415
15 15 15
64.1 48.1
1460 1442 1396
50 49.6 53.1
7.48 7.76
87.5 85.5 89.5
0.72 0.813 0.804
0.63 0.696 0.720
2.5 2.5 >>7.5
- -
I .5
Table 1
500 1m 1500 zoo0 2500 3000 I
S P E E D [ R P M ]
Power vs. speed curves of AC PM brushless motors
CONCLUSIONS
A competitive design capability in PM synchronous and brushless DC
motors includes the use of several software tools for initial
dimensioning, drafting, advanced analysis, and dynamic simulation,
These tools should be supplemented with magnetic materials testing
facilities, a precision dynamometer, and a "flexible controller".
As an example of the development of a brushless PM AC machine
for the maximumpossible speed range at constant power, the axially-
laminated IPM motor is described. With a constant-power speed
range of 7.5:1, and superior efficiency and power factor, this machine
offers outstanding performance advantages for applications such as
machine tool spindles or electric vehicle traction.
737
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author thanks his colleagues Calum Cossar, Dave Staton,
MalcolmMcGilp, Wen Liang Soong, Rolf Lagerquist and Jimmy
Kelly, who contributed most of the substance of this paper. Support
is acknowledged from the following organizations: the SPEED
Laboratory and subscribing companies, Glasgow University; the
Science and Engineering Research Council; the Association of
Commonwealth Universities; the Committee of Vice Chancellors and
Principals; and Brook Crompton.
REFERENCES
3. D.A. Staton, M.I. McGilp, TJ E Miller and G. Gray,. "High-speed
PC-based CAD for motor drives", presented at the European Power
Electronics Conference, Brighton, UK, September 13-16, 1993.
4. R. Rabinovici and TJE Miller, "Back-EMF waveforms and core
losses in brushless DC motors", in 1993 SPEED Report, also
submitted for publication in IEE Proceedings, Part B.
5. T.M. Jahns, "Flux-weakening regime operation of interior
permanent magnet synchronous motor drive", IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
vol. 23, pp. 681-689, JUlJAUg. 1987
1. W.L. Soong, D.A. Staton and TJE Miller, "Design of a new
axially-laminated permanent magnet motor", presented at the IEEE
Industry Applications Society .Annual Meeting, Toronto, October 4-8,
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