PREFACE

1
ROCK QUARRYING - Loading
REPORT 12D-08

The report is one of five reports concerning rock quarrying:

12A-08 ROCK QUARRYING Quarry Design
12B-08 ROCK QUARRYING Blast Design
12C-08 ROCK QUARRYING Bench Drilling
12D-08 ROCK QUARRYING Loading
12E-08 ROCK QUARRYING Transport

A considerable amount of information on surface blasting and earth moving has been
brought up to date and systematized through these reports, to be used for:

Placement and design of rock quarrying
Blast design
Estimation of production capacities and costs
Cost analysis, tender, budgeting and cost control
Choice of method and equipment

The present report is mainly a tool for production planning, choice of equipment and
prediction of time consumption and costs in rock quarry loading. The report is also used
as a textbook and contains detailed parts concerning loading principles and it presents the
planning of loading studies and some basic study results.

The basis of the report is studies and statistics from quarrying, mainly in Norway, carried
out during the last four decades. Visited sites are presented in Appendix E.

The last edition of the report is prepared by Vegard Olsen as a part of his PhD thesis
entitled Rock Quarrying Prediction Models and Blasting Safety and it contains updated
capacities and prices for new technology and equipment. A large part of the field studies
included is carried out as a part of the master thesis of Torfinn Pettersen.

Economic support for field data collection has been provided by partners presented in
Appendix B.



PREFACE
2

For reference, registration and similar, we ask for the following:

NTNU Department of Civil and Transport Engineering (2008): Report 12D-08 ROCK
QUARRYING Loading.




Trondheim, December 2008



Amund Bruland
Professor




1. INTRODUCTION
3
General
The report is meant to be a tool for loading in rock quarrying and surface mines.
Production planning, choice of equipment and estimation of loading capacity and costs,
is the issue of the report. Combined with the other reports in the Rock Quarrying series a
toolbox for improvements and optimization of the total production line is available.

Combined with report 12E-08 ROCK QUARRYING Transport, this report represents a
complete model for earth moving projects.

The data in the report is well suited to be used in the documentation of the blasting
results, also. For a more detailed study of blasting technique, we refer to the report
12B-08 ROCK QUARRYING Blast Design.

The report treats heavy loading machines (operating weight more than 36 tons). Lighter
machinery is described in older reports [1]. The loading equipment presented in this
report is:

Wheel loaders
Hydraulic backhoe excavators
Hydraulic front shovels

Rope shovels are not included in the prediction models as they are rarely applicable in
Norwegian quarries and mines because of relatively low annual productions and a
difficult second hand market. Lighter and more mobile loaders are used. Some
information about rope shovels is presented.

The price level of this report is December 2008.

Adjustment of prices can be done by using the Construction Machinery Index which is
updated every month by the Department of Civil and Transport Engineering at NTNU.
Subscription can be arranged by contacting amund.bruland@ntnu.no.


2. LOADING MACHINES 2.1 History
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2.1 HISTORY
During the last four decades the market for loading machines in the quarrying and mining
industry has changed.

Up to the 1970s the rope shovels played the dominating role in Norwegian quarries and
mines. They gradually disappeared from the smaller quarries during the 1970s. Today
they are mainly used in very large mines with high annual productions.

During the 1970s the wheel loaders became the dominant quarry excavator, both in
smaller and larger open casts. In todays market, they still take up a substantial part of the
loading machinery, however not as dominant as in the 1980s and early 1990s.

From the early 1990s, the hydraulic excavator started to be used in smaller quarries.
Earlier they were used primarily in construction works and excavation of lighter bulk
masses. During the 1990s the volume escalated, and bigger and stronger machines were
produced. Today, they share approximately half the market with the wheel loaders, as the
main loading machine in the smaller to medium quarries in Norway.

From the middle of the 1970s the hydraulic front shovel became ever larger and better.
They competed with the wheel loaders during the 1980s, and more or less outdid the rope
shovel in large quarries. As the backhoe excavator came in the 1990s the front shovel
share of the market decreased. Today they share only a small part of the quarry market in
Norway. World wide they still compete with the rope shovel in large mining projects.



2. LOADING MACHINES 2.2 Wheel Loaders
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2.2 WHEEL LOADERS
2.21 Operation
The wheel loader has short front loader equipment. This gives large breakout force and
lift force, and permits a large loading bucket.

The wheel loader enters the pile using the friction between wheels and working plane;
the penetration force. See Figure 2.1.

In addition to the penetration force, the wheel loader applies the breakout force and the
lifting force to fill the bucket. The wheel loader can only attack the pile along the
working plane. It is not suitable for picking out boulders higher up in the pile.


Figure 2.1 Wheel loader operation.

To ensure a proper penetration into the rock pile and obtain a reasonable bucket filling
factor it is important to move the arm and the bucket simultaneously. See Figure 2.2.

The principle is the same for all loaders with an articulated bucket coupling. Rope
shovels do not have this function.

2. LOADING MACHINES 2.2 Wheel Loaders
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Figure 2.2 Illustration of movement of bucket and arm for hydraulic controlled bucket systems.

The working method of the wheel loader, travelling to and from the truck and applying
its machine weight for digging into the pile, increases both the mechanical wear and the
wear of the tyres.

Typical movement of a wheel loader loading a truck is illustrated in Figure 2.3. Optimal
angle between the rock pile attacking direction and the truck should be about 60 to
reduce net travelling time.


2. LOADING MACHINES 2.2 Wheel Loaders
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Figure 2.3 Typical movement for a wheel loader during loading of a truck. Lia Quarry.

2.22 Advantages and Disadvantages
The main advantages of the wheel loader are:

High capacity
Mobility
Versatile areas of use (including load and haul)

Compared to other loaders the wheel loader has a high capacity in relation to the
operating weight. Low operative weight gives in general low fuel consumption and low
purchase price.

The wheel loader can handle several rock piles and loading levels if necessary. For
example in limestone excavation, the purity of the rock may vary within the quarry and
the loader must be applicable for changing location quickly.

The versatility includes the possibility to unite the rock pile and smoothing the bench
floor after blasting. Further, the wheel loader is applicable to snow mucking and road
sanding during the winter season. If it is rational, the wheel loader may operate without
an auxiliary loader. The wheel loader may perform load and haul operations. Load and
haul capacities are presented in the report 12E-08 ROCK QUARRYING Transport.
2. LOADING MACHINES 2.2 Wheel Loaders
8

The disadvantages are mainly related to the sensitivity of the loading conditions,
concerning capacity and mechanical wear. The wheel loader is vulnerable to:

Compaction of rock pile
Amount of blocks
Uneven bench floor
Height of rock pile
Size of the trucks

Highly compacted rock pile and blocks give insufficient penetration in the rock pile. The
separate handling of the blocks is a bit awkward as well.

Insufficient blasting along the bench floor increases mechanical wear, particularly the
bucket teeth are exposed. The operators working conditions get worse as unexpected
underbreaking humps make huge impacts on the bucket and the machine body.


High rock piles may be a safety problem. During bucket filling falling rocks may hit the
operator cabin.

Due to the travelling distance between the rock pile and the truck, the net cycle time of
the wheel loader is long. The truck payload should fit a wholly number of fully loaded
buckets. If the truck is too high the lifting height of the wheel loader may be a limiting
factor.

2.23 Propulsion System
The wheel loader may have a diesel-mechanical or a diesel-electric propulsion system.

The traditional wheel loaders (up to 70 t operating weight) are driven by a diesel engine
with mechanical transmission to the wheels. The diesel engine drives the hydraulic pump
which controls the bucket. Larger wheel loaders may be operated by diesel-electric
propulsion system. They operate as follows:

A diesel engine drives an AC generator giving power to a DC motor mounted in each
of the wheels. All transmissions are electrical and operate without moving parts.

The bucket is controlled hydraulically the same way as for diesel-mechanical loaders.
2. LOADING MACHINES 2.2 Wheel Loaders
9

The diesel-electric system has several advantages:

The engine operates with constant revolution, reducing the engine wear.
Due to constant revolution of the engine, the hydraulic system always operates at
full capacity.
No mechanical transmission to the wheels. Reduced mechanical wear and
increased lifetime for the machine.
The machine is equipped with an anti-spinning mechanism. This gives reduced
wear of tyres.

Nevertheless, diesel-electric wheel loaders have not gained a large market in Norway.
This is mainly due to their complexity, which requires higher competence both for
service and operation, compared to the mechanical drive wheel loaders. Due to this, the
second hand value (sale-value) is lower compared to the diesel-mechanical loaders.

Diesel-electric wheel loaders will not be covered in detail in this report. Interested
persons are referred to [1].




2. LOADING MACHINES 2.3 Back Hoe Excavators
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2.3 BACK HOE EXCAVATORS
2.31 Operation
The hydraulic excavator has a long reaching arm, which makes it possible to operate for
a long time from a fixed position on top of the rock pile. This insures that it has access to
the rock mass and do not need to move that often during loading.

In quarry loading the backhoe excavator moves on tracks. In smaller construction
projects excavators on wheels may be found. The backhoe excavator penetrates the rock
pile by the same principles as the wheel loader by the penetrating force, the breakout
force and the lifting force. However the counter force comes from the weight of the
machine and the stability of the working plane. See Figure 2.4

The backhoe excavator to not need to fill the bucket from the bench floor level as the
wheel loader needs to. The bucket manoeuvrability is good and it can easily penetrate
course rock piles.


Figure 2.4 Hydraulic backhoe excavator operation.

2. LOADING MACHINES 2.3 Back Hoe Excavators
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The rock pile break out principle is the same as for the other hydraulic loaders. See
Figure 2.2.

The loading goes on without moving the tracks, and the wear on the machinery is low.
The moving principle is illustrated in Figure 2.5.



Figure 2.5 Typical movement of the backhoe excavator during loading of a truck.

The angle between the truck and the main loading area should be between 60 and 80.
See Section 6.31.
2. LOADING MACHINES 2.3 Back Hoe Excavators
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2.32 Advantages and Disadvantages
The main advantages by using backhoe excavators are:

Good view during bucket filling
Little sensible to loading conditions
Easy handling of blocks
Gentle dumping on truck
Short net cycle times
Versatility
Low costs

The operators view into the rock pile makes it easier to pick out blocks. As the excavator
stands on top of the rock pile, it has access to new rock continuously during loading. And
little moving time during loading is required. The rock masses are scraped down from the
upper parts of the rock pile, and it will have loose filling conditions most of the time.

Time for smoothing the bench floor is limited to the loading spot for the trucks. The
backhoe excavator is insensible to the bench floor conditions, as it works in the rock pile.
Subdrilling may be reduced, giving lower drilling and charging costs.

Loading may be gentle as the operator sits above the truck. Reduced wear on the truck
may be a result. Higher truck body fill factor may be achieved, as the operator better
controls the dumping of the bucket. Short net cycle times makes the backhoe excavator
little sensible to truck size.

The backhoe excavator may be used in other quarry operations, such as secondary
hammering of blocks, placing of blocks in rock fill structures, scaling operations and
bench top cleaning. In loading of planned block blasts (i.e. rock fill dams and coastal
protection projects) the backhoe loader is the only alternative. The bucket may be
exchanged by a hydraulic claw. Using a cast steel ball to break oversized blocks, the
backhoe excavator is a good choice, and the hammering costs may be reduced
significantly.

Backhoe excavators have high second-hand value. Running costs are low and the
purchase price is low due to a many suppliers in market. Good service agreements may
be entered.


2. LOADING MACHINES 2.3 Back Hoe Excavators
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The main disadvantages by using backhoe excavators are:

Low mobility
Dependency upon an auxiliary loader
Low capacity
Rigging time

Compared to the wheel loader, the tracking speed features are poor. Evacuation time
before blasting increases. This is particularly applicable in projects with frequent
blasting. Refuel may be awkward. The backhoe loader is dependent upon an auxiliary
loader to collect the rock pile after blasting, along with general maintenance of the
trucks turnaround, along with snow mucking and sanding during winter.

The backhoe excavator bucket is small, and the capacity is low compared to the operating
weight. In large quarries and mines backhoe excavators are rarely used. Their weight
becomes relatively large, and the second hand market for such machines is limited.

Since the backhoe excavator is loading from on top of the pile, extra time for rig of
loading plane is needed.


2. LOADING MACHINES 2.4 Hydraulic Front Shovels
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2.4 HYDRAULIC FRONT SHOVELS
2.41 Operation
The hydraulic front shovel moves either on track undercarriage or on wheels. Wheels
may be used on the smaller machines, and the front wheels may be of steel to reduce
wear and puncturing. The front shovel has either front dump bucket or bottom dump
bucket. The latter is more applicable for larger shovels, since the net cycle time is
reduced.

The front shovel operates from a stationary position, in front of the rock pile on the bench
floor. Due to this, the mechanical wear is reduced compared to wheel loaders. The bucket
is filled using penetration force, breakout force and lift force, like wheel loaders and
backhoe excavators. See Figure 2.6. The friction between the tracks and the working
plane is the main counter force to the penetration force.



Figure 2.6 Hydraulic front shovel operation.

Simultaneous moving of arm and bucket is used to optimize the bucket fill time and
reduce wear. See Figure 2.2.

Typical movements of a hydraulic front shovel loading a truck is illustrated in Figure 2.7.

2. LOADING MACHINES 2.4 Hydraulic Front Shovels
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Figure 2.7 Typical movement of an hydraulic front shovel loading a truck.

2.42 Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of using a hydraulic front shovel are:

High breakout force
High loading capacity
Long economic life
Little sensible to bench floor conditions
Fast secondary breaking of blocks

The front shovel is very little sensitive to difficult loading conditions. It may attack the
pile in many levels above the working plane, as well. Combined the two features give
high loading capacity, independent upon rock pile compaction, and they make it able to
pick out large boulders when this is necessary.

2. LOADING MACHINES 2.4 Hydraulic Front Shovels
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The high breakout force makes it possible to use a larger bucket than the backhoe
excavator. For the same machine weight the front shovel has higher capacity than the
backhoe excavator.

Compared to the wheel loader, the front shovel is less sensitive to the quality of the
working plane to maintain its high capacity. The mechanical wear is lower as well, and
the economic life, particularly of the larger machines, is very long.

Any boulders may be secondary broken down by dropping a cast steel ball form the
bucket. The hitting rate is high when using the bottom dump bucket, which gives
increased total production in the quarry even in tight capacity situations.

The main disadvantages of the hydraulic front shovel are:

Low mobility
Low versatility
Need of an auxiliary loader
High purchase price

Like the backhoe excavator the mobility of the front shovel is poor. Front shovels with
wheels are mainly used to travel short distances around the rock pile. During blasting
evacuation the wheeled front shovel may hook onto the truck body and it gets dragged to
a safe spot. The front shovel is dependent upon an auxiliary loader collecting the rock
pile after blasting and typical winter operations, as described for the backhoe excavator.

In quarries, the front shovel is useful in the loading operation only. It has low second-
hand value. Due to a relative small market the purchase price is high and the service
agreements may not be as attractive as the ones for the wheel loaders and the backhoe
excavators. In contrast to the weight of the machine the bucket capacity is low, giving a
relative high price as well.


2. LOADING MACHINES 2.5 Rope Shovels
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2.5 ROPE SHOVELS
2.51 Operation
In contrast to the wheel loader and the two hydraulic excavators described above, the
rope shovel has a fixed bucket. It may only fill it by making use of the penetration force.
See Figure 2.8. Despite this, it digs well into the pile filling the bucket, thanks to the
large force compared to the bucket size. The machine moves on tracks and operates from
a stationary position on the bench floor level. This gives minimum mechanical wear, and
a very high economic life time.



Figure 2.8 The rope shovel operation.

2.52 Advantages and Disadvantages
The main advantage of the rope shovel is its extremely high loading capacity. A single
field study is presented in 6.4. The rope shovel it is almost insensitive to poor loading
conditions. The reliability is very high, and the lifetime is higher than for other loading
machines.

The disadvantage is first of all its size. A rope shovel is typically twice as heavy as a
hydraulic excavator with the same capacity. The machine also represents a major
investment, which is often an important question when choosing a machine.

The large size gives the machine low mobility, and low accuracy in digging into the pile
and dumping the material in the truck.