Ginzburg-Landau Theory of Superconductivity

Navaneeth Mohan
3
rd
Year, BSc.(Hons.) in Physics,
Chennai Mathematical Institute
Supervisor : Dr.Gautam Menon
Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Taramani
May 6, 2014
Abstract
There are two main theories of Superconductivity; the Microscopic theory of BCS , which
explains why superconductivity occurs, and the Phenomenological theory of Ginzburg and
Landau. Using variational principles, the Ginzburg-Landau equations are derived from
Landaus theory of Phase transition. The equations are applied to explain Macroscopic ob-
servations in a Superconducting material such as Meissner Eect, Normal-Superconducting
Interface, Abrikosov Vortices in Type-II superconductors . The derivation of Abrikosovs
Theory of Type-II superconductors is also looked into.
The GL equations are also applied in the Microscopic regime of a Single Vortex. A vari-
ational solution for the Single vortex order parameter is presented, that yields results of
good approximation.
1 Superconductivity
Below a characteristic Critical Temperature (T
c
) certain materials exhibit properties of zero
electrical resistance and perfect Diamagnetism (Meissner Eect). This phenomena is known as
Superconductivity, and the state is known as Superconducting state.
The material also exhibits Reversible Meissner eect, where Superconductivity is disturbed in
the presence of a Critical Magnetic Field (H
c
).
1.1 Superconductivity and Electromagnetism : London Equations
The rst (partially) successful theory of Superconductivity was the London Theory. The Lon-
don Equations are Maxwells Equations that describe microscopic electric and magnetic eld
in a superconducting material.

E =

t
(

J
s
) (1)

h = c(

J
s
) (2)
where
=
4
2
c
2
=
m
n
s
e
2
the magnetic eld dies out exponentially with depth

2
h = h/
2
This length scale , is the Field Penetration Depth.
1
1.2 Superconductivity as Phase Transition
After the discovery of Superconductivity, other experiments revealed some interesting observa-
tions about superconductivity
Properties unchanged during transition
Crystal and electronic structure (X-Ray diraction)
Optical Properties (reectivity)
Photoelectric properties
Properties that change in the transition or aect the state
Conductivity and Magnetic properties
Discontinuous change in Specic Heat
Thermoelectric eects
Strength and Frequency of electric current
These observations showed that Superconductivity must be a phase transition.
2 Landau Theory Of Second Order Phase Transitions
Landaus Theory is a phenomenological theory.It does not explain why phase transitions occur
because it is independent of the details of the system. It was developed, based on diverse sys-
tems that exhibit Phase transitions.
Second Order Phase Transitions exhibit spontaneous breaking of symmetry and a universal law
of scaling. For each symmetry broken, there is an extra degree of freedom that arises and an
extra variable is required to specify the system. This is the Order Parameter. As expected, it
has a nite value below the transition temperature, and zero above it.
This new degree of freedom contributes to the Free Energy. The Free Energy is now redis-
tributed among many more degrees of freedom. The distribution of energy (phase) that leads
to a lower Free Energy will be preferred
The Order Parameter changes continuously with temperature, even during the transition. Close
to the transition point, the Order Parameter is small, and the dierence between the Free En-
ergies of the two phases can be expanded in powers of the Order Parameter and its gradients.
f = f
S
f
N
= (T)||
2
+
(T)
2
||
4
. .
condensation energy

2
2m
||
2
. .
kinetic energy
+... (3)
where f
S
and f
N
are the free energy densities in the superconducting and Normal phase.
In the presence of an external eld, there are further contributions to the energy from the
eld and its coupling with the Order Parameter.
f = (T)||
2
+
(T)
2
||
4
. .
condensation energy
+
1
2m
| iqA|
2
. .
kinetic energy
+
|H
a
H
i
|
2
8
. .
magnetic eld energy
(4)
The Order Parameter is identied as a Macroscopic wave function with normalisation condition
||
2
= n
s
2
H
a
is the applied external eld. H
i
is the eld inside the Superconductor. H
a
H
i
is the
Induced eld. A = H
i
must be positive, otherwise the minima of F
s
is found when || . For T < T
c
, we know
that F
S
< F
N
.
Since is positive, must be negative. This is to ensure that the Free Energy is bounded from
below, and has a non-trivial( = 0) solution that minimises F
S
.
For T > T
c
, must be positive so that the minima of the free energy is at = 0.
The Thermodynamic reasoning for the Meissner Eect is that beyond a critical eld strength,
the dierence between free energies f
s
f
n
becomes positive.
The Free Energy density in the Superconducting phase is given by:
f
S
f
N
= H
2
c
/8
At T < T
c
, the superconducting state is at a lower free energy than the normal state. When a
magnetic eld of strength H
c
(T) is applied, the Free Energy increases to the extent where the
Normal state is more favourable.
3 Ginzburg-Landau Theory
From Landau Theory, the equilibrium value of and A is obtained by minimizing the Free
Energy functional with respect to these conjugate variables by Variational Calculus.
3.1 Derivation of Ginzburg-Landau Equations
To derive the Ginzburg-Landau equations, a generalisation of Euler-Lagrange equation is re-
quired, to incorporate curl of vector elds in the functional. We shall derive it.
Generalisation of Euler-Lagrange Equation
For a Functional of the form:
F[(r)] =
_
f(r, (r), (r)) dr (5)
The denition of Functional Derivative is given by:
_
F
(r)
(r)dr =
_
d
d
_
f (r, + , + ) dr
_
0
(6)
which is equivalent to
_
F
(r)
(r)dr =
_ _
f

+
f
()
()
_
dr (7)
Similarly for a Functional of the form
_
drf(r, A(r), A(r)) the denition of the Functional
derivative is given by:
_
F
A(r)
(r)dr =
_
d
d
_
f (r, A+ , A+ ()) dr
_
0
(8)
analogous to the case of scalar function, the functional derivative is:
_
F
A(r)
(r)dr =
_ _
f
A
+
f
(A)
()
_
dr (9)
Use the vector identity:
A.(B) = B.(A) .(AB) (10)
3
_
F
A(r)
(r)dr =
_ _

_
f
A
+
_
f
(A)
__

_
f
(A)

__
dr (11)
the last term in the above equation is equal to zero because it is the integral of a total derivative
and is a function that vanishes at the boundary of the integral.
At an extremum, the Functional Derivative equals zero. being an arbitrary function, the
integrand must be zero.
f
A
=
f
(A)
(12)
Ginzburg-Landau Equation for Order Parameter
F
S
= F
N
+
_
dV
_
||
2
+

2
||
4
+
1
2m

_
i+
eA
c
_

2
+
(A)
2
8
_
(13)
the term in the integral that depends on and can be written as:
T

+

2
(

)
2
()
2
+
1
2m
_
i +
eA
c

__
i

+
eA
c

_
(14)
Taking partial derivative of T with and
T

+ ||
2

+
ieA
2mc

+
e
2
A
2
2mc
2

(15)
T

()
=

2
2m

ieA
2mc

(16)

()
=

2
2m

ieA
2mc

ieA
2mc

(17)
Now, using Euler-Lagrange Equation we get:

+ ||
2

+
1
2m
_
i
eA
c
_
2
+
ie

2mc
A = 0 (18)
The last term can be dealt with by taking a suitable Gauge (Coloumb Gauge)
Ginzburg-Landau Equation of Vector Potential
From Equation (13), we take the terms in the integral that depends on A and A
T
A
=
1
2m
_
i +
eA
c

__
i

+
eA
c

_
+
(A)
2
8
(19)
taking partial derivative of T
A
with A and A
T
A
A
=
e
2
mc
2
A||
2
+
ie
mc
(

) (20)
T
A
(A)
=
A
4
(21)

T
A
(A)
=
A
4
(22)
hence from the Euler-Lagrange Equation that we derived earlier in this report, we get the
equation:
e
2
mc
2
A||
2
+
ie
mc
(

) +
(A)
4
= 0 (23)
This is the Ginzburg Landau Equation for the vector potential
4
3.2 Characteristic Length Scales and GL parameter
There are two characteristic length scales ; coherence length and eld penetration depth
=

2
4m

||
; =

mc
2
2e
2
n
2
s
(24)
The coherence length is the length scale over which any perturbation of the Order Parameter
from its asymptotic value will decay. i.e if
(x) =

+ (x) (25)
where

=
_
/ is the asymptotic behaviour of the order parameter and (x) is the pertur-
bation. (x) will decay exponentially over the length scale of .
The ratio of = / is known as the Ginzburg-Landau parameter.
4 Critical elds
The Critical Field is the eld strength at which Superconductivity is (partially or completely)
destroyed. From equation(4) we see that when the Magnetic eld is increased beyond a critical
eld strength, the dierence between free energies f
s
f
n
becomes positive, destroying super-
conductivity.
Type-I superconductors exhibit a single Critical eld, and undergo a discontinuous rst order
Phase transition.
To calculate the thermodynamic Critical eld, consider the free energy of the Normal Phase
and Superconducting Phase in a uniform Superconductor. In the Normal Phase, = 0,
H
a
= H
i
(the external eld penetrates everywhere). In this case, F
N
= 0.In the Supercon-
ducting Phase, =

, H
i
= 0. In this case, F
s
=
2
/2 + H
2
a
/8. Equating F
N
= F
s
gives the critical eld strength as:
H
c
=

(26)
Type-II superconductors exhibit two critical elds H
c1
and H
c2
. They undergo continuous
second order phase transition.
H
a
< H
c1
: Superconducting phase
H
c1
< H
a
< H
c2
: Vortex phase
H
c2
< H
a
: Normal Phase
The derivation of H
c1
and H
c2
will be shown in Section (6).
Critical Fields vs temperature for Type-I and Type-II superconductors
5
Dimensionless units
The units shall be converted to dimensionless units as follows:
x x/
/

h h/

2H
c
A A/

2H
c

The dimensionless GL equations and Free Energy are

_
i

+A
_
2
= ||
2
(27)
A = ||
2
A+
i
2
(

) (28)
F
s
F
N
H
2
c
/4
=
_
dV
_
||
2
+
||
4
2
+
_
i

A
__
i

_
+ (H
a
H
i
)
2
_
(29)
5 Type-I and Type-II Superconductors
A Normal-Superconducting interface is a domain wall where the Normal and Superconducting
phase coexist and the free energies on both sides are equal. The Normal-Superconducting
Interface for < 1/

2 and > 1/

2 behave dierently under the inuence of a magnetic

eld. Superconductors with < 1/

2, we call Type-I, Superconductors with > 1/

2, we
call Type-II
The reason for this classication is that the Free Energy is positive for Type-I and negative
for Type-II superconductors. To see this consider the Free Energy in a Normal-Superconducting
interface.
F
sH
F
s0
H
2
c
/4
=
_
dx
_
||
2
+
||
4
2
+
_
i

+A
__
i

+A

_
+ (H H
c
)
2
_
(30)
Multiply the GL equation(27) and (28) by

and A respectively, and integrate over space.

Substitute this in the Free Energy:
F
sH
F
s0
H
2
c
/4
=
_
dx{||
4
/2 + (H 1/

2)
2
+ (A)A} (31)
we can neglect the contribution from the vector potential, since it is a surface term. So we
get:
F
sH
F
s0
H
2
c
/4
=
_
dx{||
4
/2 + (H 1/

2)
2
} (32)
For x >> , ||
2
|

|
2
= 1, H 0 and the integrand vanishes. For x << , ||
2
0, H
H
c2
= 1/

2 and the integrand vanishes again.Hence only the interval of < x < contributes
signicantly to the Energy. When >> , the integral is positive, and when << the integral
is negative. A more precise calculation done numerically gives =

2 as the dividing value

between positive and negative energy. This gives rise to two classes of Superconductors
< 1/

2 : Type-I superconductors, Positive Free energy

> 1/

2 : Type-II superconductors, Negative Free energy

6
Spatial variation of (red) and H(blue) in an N-S interface
6 Abrikosovs Theory of Type-II Superconductors
Abrikosov gave an approximate solution to the GL equations for Type-II superconductors. The
prediction of a periodic lattice of vortices, later conrmed by experiments, was worth a noble
prize. Here we look into the detailed derivation of the theory.
The setup is as follows: The superconductor lls all space, the eld H is along z-axis. The
vector potential A is along y-axis.
Linearised Ginzburg-Landau Equation
Close to transition point, the higher powers of are negligible. The interaction between
and A is neglected, and the eld is considered uniform, H = H
o
z; A = H
o
x y This results in a
linearised dierential equation for
_
i

+ H
o
x y
_
2
= (33)
which expands to
_

2
+ H
2
o
x
2

2iH
o
x

y
_
= (34)
If we assume separability of x and y dependence, then the dierential corresponds to a free
particle along y, and that of a charged particle in a magnetic eld along x
(x, y) = e
ip
y
y
exp
_

2
2
_
x p
y
/
2
_
2
_
(35)
the equation has solutions only when H
o
= /(2n + 1). The largest value for H
o
is
Hence, for a Type-II Superconductor, we dene the Second Critical Field mentioned in Section
(4):
H
c2
=

2H
c
(36)
At < 1/

2, H
c2
< H
c
, which means that superconductivity will be destroyed before the
Vortex phase is attained. Hence, for the vortex phase to exist, it is required that > 1/

2, a
result that we had obtained in section(5).
A periodic distribution in space will be energetically more favourable.
For periodicity in y-axis
e
ip
y
y
= e
ip
y
(y+y)
= e
ip
y
y
e
ip
y
y
(37)
p
y
= 2n/y = kn (38)
where y is the periodicity in y.
the solution is now
= e
ikny
.exp
_

2
2
_
x
kn

2
_
2
_
(39)
7
to incorporate periodicity in x-axis, we will consider the most general solution to be a linear
combination of such particular solutions.
(x, y) =

n
C
n
e
ikny

n
(x) (40)
where
n
(x) = exp
_

2
2
_
x kn/
2
_
2
_
If the C
n
are conditioned by :
C
n+N
= C
n
Then the Periodicity of is :
(x, y + 2/k) = (x, y) (41)
(x + kN/
2
, y) = e
ikNy
(x, y) (42)
i.e ||
2
is periodic in x and y.
The coecients k and C
n
x the periodicity of the lattice in the x and y direction respectively
The interaction between A and leads to corrections in A. Substituting A = H
o
x and the
above in the GL equation for A, we get
=

n
C
n
e
ikny
_

2
_
x
kn

2
_

n
_
x + ik

nC
n
e
ikny

n
y
=
_

2
x + k

C
n
e
ikny
n
n
_
x + ik

nC
n
e
ikny

n
y (43)

=
_

2
x||
2
+ k

n,m
nC
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)

m
_
x +
_
ik

n,m
nC
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)

m
_
y
(44)

=
_

2
x||
2
+ k

n,m
mC
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)

m
_
x
_
ik

n,m
mC
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)

m
_
y
(45)

=
_
k

n,m
C
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)
(n m)
n

m
_
x+
_
ik

n,m
C
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)
(n + m)
n

m
_
y
(46)
A = .(.A)
2
A (47)

2
A
x
2
=

n,m
C
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)
_
k
(n + m)k
2
_

m
(48)

2
A
xy
=
ik
2

n,m
C
n
C

m
e
iky(nm)
(n m)
n

m
(49)
integrating the above equation with respect to variable y we get:

A =
_

1
2
_
||
2
dx + Constant
_
y
8
the constant of integration is xed by going to the linear limit in which case A = H
o
x and the
||
2
goes to zero. H
o
is the external magnetic eld strength

A =
_
H
o
x
1
2
_
||
2
dx
_
y (50)
the correction term for the vector potential at a given point is dependent on the distribution of
the order parameter over the entire superconductor
Next we will consider a small perturbation in the order parameter and derive an equation for
this perturbation.
C
n

n
(x) C
n

n
(x) +
n
(x) (51)
i.e
o
+ , where = C
n

n
taking into account these corrections for A and :
_
i

+ A
o
+ A
_
2
(
o
+ ) =
o
+ ||
2
(52)
We shall neglect terms of order |
o
|
4
, ||
2
, ||
2
. Then, ||
2
|
o
|
2
. The equation becomes
_
_
i

+ A
o
_
2
+ (A)
2
+
_
i

+ A
o
_
(A) + A
_
i

+ A
o
_
_
(
o
+) =
o
+
o
|
o
|
2
(53)
we shall neglect terms of order (A)
2
and A. SubstituteA
o
= H
o
x. Expand
o
and .
_

2
x
2

n
+
k
2
n
2

2

n
+ H
2
o
x
2

2knH
o
x

n
_
e
ikny
+
_
H
2
o
x
2

2
x
2
+ 2knx 2knx
H
o

_
C
n
e
ikny

n
+

p,m
C
p
C

m
C
n
e
iky(n+pm)

n
_
k(pm)
2
2
_

p

m
dx

H
o
x

_

p

m
+
kn

2
_

p

m
+
p

m
_
= 0
H
o
is close to (H
o
< ), for this reason, some of the terms in the above equation can be
approximated.
H
2
o
= ( ( H
0
))
2

2
2( H
o
)
H
2
o

n

2

n
2( H
o
)
n

2

n
H
2
o

n
[
2
2( H
o
)]
n
H
o

1
using these approximations, the dierential equation becomes:
_

2
x
2

n
+
_
kn

x
_

n
_
e
ikny
= 2x( H
o
)
_
x
nk

2
_
C
n

n
(x)e
ikny
+

p,m
C
p
C

m
C
n
e
iky(n+pm)
__
x
k

2
_
n +
pm
2
__

n
_

p

= 0
_

p

m
is a Gaussian integral. Its equal to

exp
_
k
2
(pm)
4
2
_
This is an inhomogeneous linear dierential equation, with the homogeneous solution being

n
(x). For such dierential equations, the inhomogeneous part is orthogonal to the homoge-
neous solution. By using this condition and performing the integration over one period of x
and y, we get a Kronecker Delta function.
_
1
2
2
1
_

p,m
C
p
C

m
C
np+m
exp
_

k
2
2
2
{(p n)
2
+ (mn)
2
}
_
+
H
o

C
n
= 0 (54)
If we multiply this equation by C

n
and sum over n, then the rst term becomes the average
of ||
4
and the second term is the average of ||
2
.
_
1
2
2
1
_
||
4
+
H
o

||
2
= 0 (55)
9
We have obtained certain constraints on the order parameter. Another constraint can be
obtained from the condition of minimising the Free Energy.
Minimisation of Free Energy
The free energy from (32) is given by:
F
sH
F
s0
H
2
c1
/4
=
_
dx{||
4
/2 + (H 1/

2)
2
} (56)
to calculate the average free energy per unit volume, we calculate H
2
. this is given by:
B = H = H
o

||
2

2
= H
o

H
o
2
2
1
(57)
where
=
||
4

||
2

2
(58)
depends only on the Variational Parameters C
n
and k. This is because, the x and y depen-
dence has been integrated over. These parameters quantify the lattice periodicity.
The average free energy per unit volume is given by:
F
v
= 1/2 +H
2

||
4

2
(59)
using H = H
o
||
2
/2, we get :
F
v
= 1/2 + B
2

( B)
2
1 + (2
2
1)
(60)
So to minimise the Free energy, we have to minimise .
The constraint (55) is equivalent to:

n
= 0 (61)
i.e the C
n
s have to be chosen such that is a minimum.
If we impose a periodicity of the order parameter in the x-direction also, then it is equivalent
to the condition that:
C
n+N
= C
n
When N = 1, C
n
= C. Then is given by :
=
k

2
_

n
exp
_
k
2
2
2
n
_
_
2
(62)
is minimised when k =

2.
=
_

n
exp
n
2
_
2
(63)
The Order Parameter is now given by
=

n
C
n
e
ikny
exp
_

1
2
(x kn/)
_
(64)
taking C
n
= C and k =

2
= Ce

2
x
2
/2

n
exp
_

2n(x + iy)
_
e
n
2
(65)
10
From the periodicity conditions (41) and (42) we see that has equal periodicity in x and y
direction. Hence, the Order Parameter is periodic with Square symmetry (Square Lattice)
The function vanishes at x = (
_
2/)(m + 1/2), y = (
_
2/)(n + 1/2). From (50), we
see that at these points, the Magnetic eld attains maximum value of H = H
o
The equations describe periodic points where the Order Parameter becomes zero (normal mate-
rial) and Magnetic eld penetrates. These laments of Magnetic eld in the superconductor set
up vortices of super-currents around them. Between these periodic points the Order Parameter
will saturate and the eld and currents will decay. This is a lattice of Vortices .
A Vortex is an N-S interface with cylindrical symmetry. The free energies inside and outside
the Vortex are equal.
Note : For N = 2 we get a Triangular Lattice which is of lower energy than the Square Lattice.
However Abrikosov made a numerical error in his paper and concluded that the Square Lattice
was the optimal lattice.
(a) (b)
(a)Lines of constant in Square Lattice (b)Observation of Triangular Lattice by Electron
Microscopy
7 Isolated Vortex
When the eld begins to penetrate, it results in the formation of periodic vortices, with each
vortex, resembling a lament. At the center of these laments, the material is normal( = 0)
and eld is maximum. Further away from the center, the Order Parameter saturates to a non-
zero value, while the eld decays to zero.
We shall assume >> 1 for simplifying calculations.
The Order Parameter is assumed to be cylindrically symmetric ( r,

, z), and be written in the
form:
(r, ) = f(r)e
i()
(66)
The vector potential A is along the

direction, the magnetic eld along z. Let Q = A

11
Substituting the above form of in the GL equations and equating the real and complex parts,
we get:(in dimensionless units)
1
r
2
d
dr
_
r
df
dr
_
+ Q
2
f = f f
3
(67)
d
dr
_
1
r
d
dr
(Qr)
_
= Qf
2
(68)
In the above steps, we obtain that be linear in , which we take to be = . This is physically
meaningful when considering a single isolated vortex.
The eld is given by:
H =
1
r
d
dr
(Qr) (69)
r, f 1, H 0, Q 0 .
r 0, f 0 Q 1/r .
The distance over which f varies signicantly is r 1/(coherence length) and the distance
over which Q(or H) varies signicantly is r 1(penetration depth). Using these asymptotic
properties, we will stitch together a solution for f and Q.
We begin by assuming that f has already attained its asymptotic value, in which case, the
solution for Q is
Q =
K
1
(r)

(70)
(K
1
is the modied Bessel function of order 1)
When r << 1 (within penetration depth), Q = 1/r. The dierential equation for f gives:
1

2
_
f

r
+ f

f
r
2
_
= f
3
f (71)
When r <
1

(within coherence length), f is linear in r; f = Cr. When r >

1

, the solution is
f =
_
1
1

2
r
2
We will now calculate the laments energy (per unit length of penetration), which is given by:
= 2
_

0
_
H
2
+
1 f
4
2
_
rdr (72)
using the equation for H, the above integral simplies into:
=
_

0
_
(1 f
4
)r f
2
d(rQ)
2
dr
_
dr (73)
when r >> 1, f = 1 and H decays exponentially; also if we assume that the >> 1(coherence
length is small), then the contribution to the energy will mostly be from
1

<< r << 1.
Substituting the appropriate Q and f in this range, the integral becomes:
=
_
1
1

_
2

2
r

1

4
r
3
_
dr (74)
and the solution for >> 1 is
=
2

2
ln (75)
numerical integration leads to a correction :
=
2

2
(ln + 0.081) (76)
12
To estimate the First Critical eld (H
c1
), The Magnetic Field must be such that F H
2
o
is
negative where F is the Free Energy of the whole sample.
F H
2
o
= F
1
2H
o
B (77)
where 2H
0
B is the taylor expansion of H
2
0
about H = B
F
1
= n, where n is the number of laments per area.
B = H = n
_
HdS = n
_
Adl
the contour of integration extends to innity, where Q = 0, and A is given by
A =

=
1
r
(78)
This gives us
B = H =
2n

(79)
Hence the eld strength when laments start forming is
H
o
=

4
H
c1
(80)
For >> 1, we get:
H
c1
=
1
2
(ln + 0.081) (81)
From the GL equation for the eld, the eld strength at the core of the vortex is given by:
H(0) =
_

0
Qf
2
dr (82)
substituting the appropriate functions, we get (for >> 1)
H(0) =
1

(ln 0.18) (83)

8 Variational solution to Single Vortex
A variational solution for the Single vortex equation is presented. A variational ansatz for the
Order Parameter is guessed. This is used to solve for Q = A 1/r. The solution for Free
Energy is obtained. The optimal value of the variational parameter is chosen by minimising
the Free Energy. The results are checked with standard values. The external eld is close to
the First Critical Field (H
c1
) where vortices are assumed isolated.
All numerical calculations were done using Mathematica.
Trial function for Order Parameter
Assuming the form of the Order Parameter to be (r, ) = f(r)e
i
, we will choose a trial
function that is qualitatively similar to the Vortex order parameter.
f(r) = Tanh(r/) (84)
where is a variational parameter.
Solving for Magnetic Vector potential
The GL equation for the vector potential is set up. The boundary conditions are xed according
to Abrikosovs solution for the asymptotic eld (r >> 1) and eld close to origin (r << 1/).
The dierential equation cannot be solved analytically and hence was solved numerically.
The solution depends parametrically on . A plot of the solution is shown :
13
Spatial variation of f(red) and

2H(blue) ; = 1/

2, = 1.68
Optimal value of
The Integral for the Free Energy was calculated by numerically evaluating Q(r) and H(r). The
range of integration is chosen to be nite a < r < b where a << 1/ and b >> 1.Plot of
Free Energy against the parameter for (a) = 1/

2 (b) = 1 (c) = 3 (d) = 5 (e) =

10 (f) = 50 are shown:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
14
(e) (f)
The optimal was picked by minimising the Free energy with respect to .
Discussion
Our results are used to compute values of H
c1
/H
c
for dierent values of and the corresponding
optimal . The values are compared with results given in [7].
Numerical Result Standard Result Error
1/

2 0.977 1 2.3%
1 0.833 0.818 1.8%
3 0.414 0.433 4.5%
5 0.289 0.317 8.8%
10 0.186 0.202 8.6%
50 0.055 0.0626 13%
The results seem to diverge more for larger values of . However, when they were compared
with Abrikosovs solutions[5], the errors were smaller. For example, at = 50, the value of
H
c1
/H
c
from Abrikosovs solution is 0.058, which corresponds to an error of 5.4%. This could
be because of using Abrikosovs solutions for setting the boundary conditions. The origin of
the divergence from the results in [7] is unclear.
Bibliography
1. M.Tinkham, Introduction to Superconductivity, Dover, 2004
2. V.L.Ginzburg, L.D.Landau, L. D. Landau, Collected papers, Oxford: Pergamon Press,
1965, p. 546
3. D.Shoenberg, Superconductivity, Cambridge University Press, 1952
4. R.D.Parks, Superconductivity: vol.1, vol.2, Marcel Dekker, 1969
5. A. A. Abrikosov, On the Magnetic Properties of Superconductors of the Second Group,
Soviet Physics JETP 5, 1174 (1957)
6. P.G. de Gennes, Superconductivity of Metals and Alloys, Perseus Books,1995
7. L. Neumann and L. Tewordt, Z. Phys. 189, 55 (1966)
8. John R. Clem, Simple Model for the Vortex Core in a Type II Superconductor, 1974
15