Hurricanes, Earthquakes & Tornados

WOOD DESIGN FOR EXTREME FORCES

Bryan Readling, P.E.



National Sponsors
The Wood Products Council

is a Registered Provider with The American Institute of Architects
Continuing Education Systems (AIA/CES). Credit(s) earned on
completion of this program will be reported to AIA/CES for AIA
members. Certicates of Completion for both AIA members and non-
AIA members are available upon request.

This program is registered with AIA/CES for continuing professional

education. As such, it does not include content that may be deemed
or construed to be an approval or endorsement by the AIA of any
material of construction or any method or manner of handling, using,
distributing, or dealing in any material or product.

Questions related to specic materials, methods, and services will be
addressed at the conclusion of this presentation.

Copyright Materials

This presentation is protected by US and
International Copyright laws. Reproduction,
distribution, display and use of the presentation
without written permission of the speaker is
prohibited.

The Wood Products Council 2013


Learning Objectives
At the end of this program, participants will be able to:

1. Explain the fundamental behavior of wood structures especially as it pertains
to diaphragms, shear walls, and the connections therein.
2. Identify new technologies such as designing wood structural panel wall
sheathing to resist simultaneous shear and uplift forces.
3. Recognize common failure modes using photographs from APA post-disaster
evaluations.
4. Identify the relationship between load-path discontinuity and structural
damage by viewing common failure modes.

Governing Codes for Wood Design
2006 IBC (International Building Code)
Chapter 16 Loads
Chapter 23 Wood
Governing Codes for Wood Design
SEI/ASCE 7-05
Design Loads
2005 NDS
Load Resistance
Code Adopted ANSI Process
Governing Codes for Wood Design
2005 NDS
(National Design
Specification for
Wood
Construction)
Governing Codes for Wood Design
2005 & 2008 SDPWS (Special Design Provisions for Wind and Seismic)
Available at: http://www.awc.org/Standards/SDPWS.html
Free download!
Provisions for wood
members, fasteners, and
assemblies for resisting wind
and seismic forces ASD/
LRFD
SDPWS Referenced in IBC
2006 IBC
Permitted Alternative to IBC 2305
Reference to 2005 SDPWS
2009 IBC
2008 SDPWS Mandatory
in IBC 2305 for Lateral Design
2008 Edition - SDPWS
WSP Combined Shear and Uplift
Unblocked Shearwalls
2-Sided Shearwalls
Perforated Shearwalls- SCAF Equation
Increased Strength Limit for PSW
High-load Diaphragms
Governing Codes for Wood Design
Wood Frame Construction Manual
For One- and Two-Family Dwellings
Prescriptive Wind Standards
For One- and Two-Family Dwellings



Wood Frame Construction Manual


90 130 MPH
High Wind Guides

Prescriptive Standards
ICC 600-2008 Standard for
Residential Construction in High
Wind Regions
ICC 500-2008 Standard for
the Design and Construction
of Storm Shelters
Introducing: New APA Publication!
Load Path
(IBC 2006 1604.4)
Any system of method of construction to be used shall be based on a rational
analysis in accordance with well established principles of mechanics. Such
analysis shall result in a system that provides a complete load path capable of
transferring loads from their point of origin to the load-resisting elements.
Vertical Load Path Lateral Load Path
Lateral Load Systems
Less Intuitive
More Circuitous
Interruptions in
Load-path less
obvious
Lateral Loads
(Wind)
F = PA
Effort is devoted to
determining
P wind pressure
Lateral Loads
(Seismic)

F = ma
Effort is devoted to
determining:
a acceleration
Force =(Mass) x (Acceleration)
Seismic Performance for Wood
Structures
Advantages
Lightweight
Flexible
Highly redundant
Good Balance of
Strength and
Stiffness
Good Energy
Dissipation
Hurricane Katrina
Fully Sheathed Box

Prescriptive
Bracing
International Res. Code
Limitations:
3-stories max.
Wind < 100 mph*
Uses Braced wall panels
without hold downs
Engineered
Shearwalls
International Bldg. Code
Applications:
Any size/shape
Wind - No limit
Uses Shear walls
with hold downs
* In hurricane regions, <110 mph otherwise

Prescriptive designs for wind speeds over 100 are provided by:
Wood Frame Construction Manual American Wood Council
IBHS Guidelines for Hurricane Resistant Residential
Construction or SSTD-10


F-5 Tornado Oklahoma 1999
Why Build to Resist Tornados?

Facts
90% of all tornados are EF2 and below
70% of tornados are <110 mph
Damaging winds outside vortex are slower than max.
Unrealistic to protect against EF4, EF5, and some EF3.
Safe rooms are NOT a panacea.
Provide recomendations to protect building shell.
Tornado loads more unknown than seismic!
Enhanced Fujita Scale

EF-Scale
Tornado
description
Wind Speed
(3-sec gust) Description of Expected Damage
EF-0 Gale tornado 65-85
Minor or no damage. Peels surface off some roofs; some
damage to gutters or siding; branches broken off trees;
shallow-rooted trees pushed over.
EF-1 Moderate tornado 86-110
Moderate damage. Roofs severely stripped; mobile homes
overturned or badly damaged; loss of exterior doors; windows
and other glass broken.
EF-2
Significant
tornado
111-135
Considerable damage. Roofs torn off well-constructed
houses; foundations of frame homes shifted; mobile homes
completely destroyed; large trees snapped or uprooted; light-
object missiles generated; cars lifted off ground.
EF-3 Severe tornado 136-165
Severe damage. Entire stories of well-constructed houses
destroyed; trains overturned; trees debarked; heavy cars
lifted off the ground and thrown
EF-4
Devastating
tornado
166-200
Extreme damage. Well-constructed and whole frame houses
completely leveled; cars and other large objects thrown and
small missiles generated.
EF-5
Incredible
tornado
>200
Total Destruction. Strong framed, well built houses leveled off
foundations and swept away;
Percentage of Occurrence

EF-Scale Wind Speed
(3-sec gust)

Relative
Frequency
Cumulative
Percentage
EF-0
65-85

53.5 % 53.5 %
EF-1
86-110

31.6 % 85.1
EF-2
111-135

10.7 % 95.8
EF-3

136-165

3.4 % 99.2
EF-4
166-200

0.7 % 99.9
EF-5
>200

< 0.1 100
Tornado Intensity Along Path
Building for High-Wind Resistance
in Light-Frame Wood Construction
Roof Sheathing Attachment

Gable end connections

Cladding attachment

Roof to wall connection

Wall to wall continuity

Wall sheathing attachment

Wall sheathing continuity

Wall connection to sill plate

Sill plate anchorage
Roof Sheathing Attachment
Nail roof sheathing with 8d ring shank (0.131" x 2-1/2" )
or deformed shank nails at 4" on center at panel ends
and edges and 6" on center in the intermediate framing
8d Common nails - 6"
on center along
intermediate framing
8d Common nails
- 4" on center at
panel ends
Roof sheathing Roof framing
Step Down Trusses
More Challenging Connections!
Fayetteville, NC
Gable-end Framing
Tie gable end walls back to the structure
Gable end truss top chord
Tension-tie strap, attach with (8) 10d common nails, each end of
strap
Roof Trusses
(3) 10d Common
nails (typical)
2" x 4" continuous lateral brace
@ 6' on center. Lateral brace
sized to extend from end wall to
over 3 interior trusses plus 6".
2x4 flatwise
blocking
between truss
bottom chords
Gable end
truss bottom
chord
Gable-end Framing
2011 Fayetteville, NC
Gable-end Framing
2011 Pleasant Grove, AL
Resisting Pressure on Components and
Cladding
Sheath gable end walls with wood structural panels,
such as plywood or oriented strand board (OSB)
8d Common nails - 4" on
center perimeter of
panel
Wood structural panel
sheathing
8d Common nails - 4" on
center perimeter of panel
nailed to the top of the
double top plate
Gable end truss top
chord
Gable end truss
vertical web member
Gable end truss bottom
chord
8d Common nails - 6" on
center along intermediate
framing
Components and Cladding Loads

Wind Pressure Resistance
(APA form TT-105)
Table 1. Maximum wind speed (mph - 3 second gust) permitted for wood structural panel
sheathing used as wall covering to meet IRC Table R301.2(2) requirements
1, 2, 3

Minimum Nail
Minimum
Wood
Structural
Panel
Span
Rating
Minimum
Nominal
Panel
Thicknes
s (inches)
Wall
Stud
Spacing
(inches)
Panel Nail Spacing
Maximum Wind Speed
(mph)
Size Penetration Edges Field
Wind Exposure
Category
-- (inches)
(inches
o.c.)
(inches
o.c.)
B C D
6d
(0.113"
x 2.0")
1.5
24/0 3/8 16 6
12 110 90 85
6 110 90 85
24/16 7/16 16 6
12 110 100 90
6 150 125 110
8d
(0.131"
x 2.5")
1.75 24/16 7/16
16 6
12 130 110 105
6 150 125 110
24 or
less
6
12 110 90 85
6 110 90 85
1. Panel strength axis parallel or perpendicular to supports. Three-ply plywood sheathing with
studs spaced more than 16 inches o.c. shall be applied with panel strength axis perpendicular
to supports.
2. Table is based on wind pressures acting toward and away from building surfaces per
R301.2, lateral bracing requirements shall be in accordance with R602.10.
Deformed Shank Nails
Enhanced pullout is
achieved with ring or spiral
shanks nails for enhanced
uplift resistance
Not code required!
Larger heads enhance
pull-thru resistance
Forces to Resist: Uplift
Roof to Wall Connection
Roof framing to wall connection with hurricane/seismic
framing anchor or equivalent connector attached on
sheathing side of the exterior walls
Uplift
Shear
Roof framing - trusses or lumber framing
Framing anchors with uplift and shear capacity
Double top plate
Must be driven straight into
middle of rafter tail.
Wind zone and local
building code
requirements can be met
using code evaluation
reports (i.e. Fastenmaster
ESR-1078)
Rafter to Top Plate
Structural Screws
WSPs Used to Resist
Combined Uplift and Shear

Using WSP to Eliminate Metal Hardware
Lower Cost
Reduced Construction Time
Sized for 8, 9, 10 ft. walls
Eliminates blocking
Easy to inspect
Less air infiltration
More direct uplift and
lateral load-path

Oversize OSB Wall Sheathing

Wal l Sheat hi ng used f or
Upl i f t
Metal straps still needed
around windows and door
openings

Combined Shear and Uplift
Tension Transferred by Studs
Nail pattern
at each stud
Tension Splice at Rim J oist
Tension splice at
horizontal wall
sheathing joint
Nail pattern at
rim joist
Ri m Boar d
Tension Transferred by Splice Plate
WSP Tension Splice
space
Lumber
Uplift Nailing
Wall Sheathing Attachment
Nail wall sheathing with 8d common
(0.131" x 2-1/2") nails at 4" on center in
the boundary of wood structural panel
wall sheathing and 6" on center in the
intermediate studs
8d Common nails at 4" on center
at panel ends and edges
8d Common nails at 6" on center
at intermediate supports
Fully Sheathed Walls
Sheath all walls with wood structural panels
Building
paper
Even with the loss of wall
covering and building
paper, continuous plywood
and OSB sheathing offers
Building
paper
Fully Sheathed Walls
Hurricane Katrina
2011 - Pleasant Grove, AL 2011 - Pleasant Grove, AL
2011 - Raleigh, NC 2011 - Raleigh, NC
Flying Debris
Components and Cladding Loads

Reference: Requirements for Wall Coverings and Wind
Pressures, APA publication TT-105
NC Tornados 4-16-11

Non-Structural Sheathing
2011 - Wilson, NC
Corner Bracing
2011 - Wilson, NC
Wilson, NC
Non-Structural Sheathing
2011 - Raleigh, NC
Non-Structural Sheathing
Wall Framing to Sill Plate Connection
Extend wood structural panel sheathing at bottom of
wall to sill plate intersection
I-joist

Rim Board

Wall sheathing

Other connections are
not shown for clarity
2011 - Raleigh, NC
Raleigh, NC 2011 - Raleigh, NC
Raleigh, NC
Bottom Plate Anchorage
Space 1/2" anchor bolts 32" to 48" on center with 0.229" x 3" x 3"
slotted square plate washers at the wall to sill plate intersection
I-joist

Rim Board

Wall sheathing

1/2" anchor bolts at 32" to 48
on center tie the structure
to the foundation

Anchor-Bolt Connection to Foundation
Limited by steel-
to-wood bearing
area
Allowable stress
perpendicular to
grain often
controls
Material Properties of Wood
Very strong parallel to grain
Material Properties of Wood
Relatively weak perpendicular to grain
Vocabulary word for today! Anisotropic
Larger Washer Increases Uplift
Capacity
Large plate washers (3 x3 x0.229 ) prevent
cross-grain splitting of sill plate
Required for SDC D, E or F (IBC 2305.3.11)
Plate washer
Sill plate
Cross grain
bending is
Restrained by
Plate Washer
Wood
structural
panel - uplift
2011 - Raleigh, NC
Foundation Anchorage
2011 - Raleigh, NC
2011 - Raleigh, NC 2011 - Coaling, AL
Foundation Anchorage
2011 - Coaling, AL Coaling, AL
2011 - Coaling, AL 2011 - Coaling, AL
2011 - Coaling, AL
Square Plate Washer
Dramatically Increases Uplift Capacity
Large plate washers (3 x3 x0.229 ) prevent
cross-grain splitting of sill plate
Required for SDC D, E or F (IBC 2305.3.11)
Plate washer
Sill plate
Cross grain
bending is
Restrained by
Plate Washer
Wood structural
panel - uplift
Combined Uplift & Shear
APA Pub. SR101
Anchor Bolt Spacing for Combined Shear and
Wind Uplift from SR-101
Based on Full-scale Test Results
Eliminate splitting of bottom plate as a failure mode
Podium Construction
Town Brookhaven Atlanta, GA
Anchoring to Concrete Podium Slab
Anchor Connection to Concrete Podium
at Steel Embed

Dia. Threaded
Stud Anchor Bolt


1 Diameter Steel
Pipe Sleeve pack
with epoxy grout.


Steel Embed Plate w/
Welded Headed
Studs
1 Diameter Steel Pipe Sleeve
1 Packed with expansive epoxy grout
Increases wood bearing area
Threaded rod welded to steel embed
Follow the Load
PLAN VIEW
Idealize sloped wood roof diaphragms as if
they are flat
Sloped Roofs
Blocked Diaphragm Unblocked Diaphragm
Unblocked Shearwalls
Shear capacity reductions
16 Maximum wall height
Based on cyclic testing
Up to 2:1 aspect ratio
Flexible vs. Rigid Diaphragms
Flexible
diaphragm > 2shearwalls
Diaphragm load is distributed to shear walls by tributary area
Diaphragm acts like series of simply supported beams
Rigid
diaphragm < 2shearwalls
Diaphragm load is distributed to shear walls by wall stiffness
Torsion considered in design
Provides more flexibility for shearwall layout
More complicated analysis
Prescribed Rigid Wood Diaphragms
(IBC 2305.2.5)
Open front and
Cantilevered diaphragms

w

L/2

L/2

Di aphr agm (Pl an Vi ew )
Fl ex i bl e Di aphr agm

sw

di
w

L/2

L/2

.25wL

.25wL

.50wL

Flexible

sw
w

L/2

L/2

.333wL

.333wL

.333wL

Ri gi d - Al l Wal l s I dent i c al
Rigid (no
Torsion)

w

L/2

L/2

2K

2K

K

Stiffness

.25wL

.25wL

.50wL

Flexible

Rigid (no
Torsion)

.40wL

.40wL

.20wL

Fl ex i bl e v. Ri gi d
Prescribed Rigid Wood Diaphragms
(IBC 2305.2.5)
Torsion Effects
Shear Transfer from Roof Diaphragm -
to Shearwall
2012 IRC
Roof Framing
Force Transfer from
Diaphragm to Shearwall
F
B C
G
Overturning of Shearwalls Shearwall Hold-Down Anchors
Holddown
Anchor

Holddown
Anchor
Low-slip fasteners
Pre-deformed base
A plus in seismic loading
Holddown
Anchor

Multi-story apps.
Self-tightening
A plus in taller
structures
Continuous Threaded Rod
Timbers carry
Compression forces
at holddown
Overturning Forces
Only 0.6 x design dead load can be used to resist
overturning from wind or earthquake (IBC
1605.3, ASCE 7 Sec. 2.4)
Shear Wall Capacity
Based on:
Specific nail
size and
spacing
requirements
APA wood
structural
panels of
specific grade
and thickness
Specific
stud species
anchor bolts
Hold-down
anchors
Shearwall Minimum Aspect Ratios
w = h/3.5 for wind
w = h/2 for seismic

exception: 3.5:1 can be
used with penalty (2w/h)


h
w
40% Increase for Wind Capacity - 2006 IBC 2306.3.2
and 2306.4.1

The current shear wall and diaphragm tables
are based on a 2.8 min. safety factor

Code authors agreed that a 2.0 safety factor is
adequate due to confidence in wind load
accuracy - thus a 40% increase in tabulated
values
Summing Shear Capacities of Dissimilar
Materials
Section 2305.3.8
For wind design, adding the gypsum capacity on
the inside face of wall is allowed
How about composite action using
Adhesives?
Theoretically possible!
But true composite action requires rigid structural
adhesive.
Rigid structural adhesives are not suitable for field
application.
(Construction adhesives creep under load and do not
give 100% composite action.)
Wind v. Seismic
Shear Walls
Wind Design:
40% increased capacity
Gypsum strength can be added
3.5:1 max. aspect ratio
Seismic Design:
Requires 3x framing more often (SDC D-F)
2:1 max. aspect ratio without penalty
3.5:1 permitted with penalty (2w/h)
Wind v. Seismic
Shear Walls
Given:
7/16 OSB
8d common
3 / 6 edge/field nail
spacing
Gypsum on opposite face


H H
v
V
8
2.25
Wind v. Seismic
Shear Walls
Wind Capacity:
V=(450 plf x 1.4+100 plf) x 2.25 =1640 lb



Length of wall
WSP capacity from table
40% increase for wind
For gypsum from table
When less than 2:1 aspect ratio, 2w/h
adjustment
Seismic Capacity:
V=450 plf x 2(2.25)/8 x 2.25 =570 lb
Site-Built Portal Frame
Bracing Methods

St ur d-I -Fr ame w i t h Hol d Dow ns
Ref er enc e: APA Repor t TT-100
Overdriven Fasteners
Overdriven Fasteners
APA Recommendations
If <20% fasteners overdriven by <1/8", then they may be ignored.

If >20% fasteners overdriven by >1/8", then:
Prescriptive add 1 additional fastener for every 2 overdriven
Mechanics based re-analyze capacity based on average
thickness of panel measured from the bottom of the nail head. (5/8"
panel with fasteners overdriven by 1/8" =capacity of 1/2" panel.)
Reference Publication: APA Technical Topics: Power-
Driven Fastener Considerations, (Form TT-056, 1 page)
Reducing Hold-Down Anchorage
Segmented Shearwalls Continuous Shearwalls
Shearwall Design Methods
Segmented
1. Aspect Ratio for
seismic 2:1
2. Aspect ratio up to
3.5:1, if allowable
shear is reduced by
2w/h
IBC 2305.3.3
Force Transfer
1. Code does not
provide guidance for
this method
2. Different approaches
using rational
analysis are used
IBC 2305.3.8.1
Perforated
1. Code provides
specific requirements
2. The capacity is
determined based on
empirical equations
and tables
IBC 2305.3.8.2
Segmented (Traditional) Wood Shear Walls
(IBC 2305.3)
Only full height
segments are
considered
Max aspect ratio
2:1 for seismic
3.5:1 for wind
Current Code design
values based on data
dating back to 1950s.
H H H H
v v
V
Aspect ratio applies to full
height segment (dotted)
Shear Wall With Openings
Force Transfer Around Openings
(IBC 2305.3.7.1)
Shear around
openings accounted
for by strapping or
framing
based on a rational
analysis
H/w ratio defined by
wall pier

V
H
H
v
Wall
Pier
Aspect ratio applies to wall
pier segment (dotted)
Shear Wall With Opening
Force Transfer Around Opening
Hold-downs only at
ends
Extra calculations
and added
construction details
(connections &
blocking)
Uses traditional
design values

V
H
H
v
Shear Wall With Opening
Perforated Shear Wall
(IBC 2305.3.7.2)
Openings accounted for by
empirical adjustment
factor
Hold-downs only at ends
Uplift between hold downs,
t, at full height segments is
required
Limited to 490 plf
980 plf Seismic
1370 plf - Wind
V
H H
v
t
Aspect ratio applies to full
height segment (dotted)
X
Shear Capacity Adjustment
Shear Capacity Adjustment
Equation for Perforated Shearwalls
Shear Capacity Adjustment
Equation for Perforated Shearwalls
Suggested
References

Hold-Down Placement
Traditional
Hold-Down Placement
Perforated
Performance Based Seismic
Design
PBSD offers owners/operators the opportunity to limit
business interruption, economic loss, and other
consequences for less severe but more probable
earthquake hazards
Necessitates accurate modeling of structures under
seismic loading which for wood light-frame structures, this
is complex because the load path is not as discrete
NEESWood Capstone Tests
APA Publications and Website
For free publications
go to:
www.apawood.org

and enter the
Publications Store
A Sampling of APA Publications available at:
www.apawood.org
T300 Glulam connection details
E30 Engineered Wood Const. Guide
L350 Diaphragms and Shear Walls
T325 Roof fastening for wind uplift
Y250 Shear transfer at engineered
floors
A410 Roof retrofitting for wind uplift
D485 Corrosion resistant fasteners
A Sampling of APA Technical Topics - available at
www.apawood.org
TT-035 Corrosion resistant fasteners
TT-036 Glued floors
TT-039 Nail withdrawal
TT-070 Nail pull through
TT-045 Min. nail penetration
TT-012 Overdriven fasteners
TT-056 Power driven fasteners
TT-050/051 Screw withdrawal
TT-058 Slant nailing
TT-061- Nailing thin flange I-joists
TT-020 Dowel bearing strength

This concludes The
American Institute of
Architects Continuing
Education Systems Course

Quest i ons?

Bryan Readling, P.E.
bryan.readling@apawood.org

APA Help Desk
help@apawood.org
253-620-7400