Time Travel - More Than A Physical Concept

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Groupe International de recherche
sur lenseignement de la Physique
University of Udine
Interdepartmental Centre
for Research in Education (CIRD)
editors
Marisa Michelini
Marina Cobal
Developing Formal
Thinking in Physics
First International Girep seminar 2001
Selected contributions
Editorial board
Manfred Euler, President of Girep, Department of Physics Education, IPN, Kiel, Germany
Marisa Michelini, Vicepresident of Girep, CIRD, University of Udine, Italy
Ian Lawrence, Vicepresident of Girep, Department of Education, University of Birmingham, UK
Seta Oblack, Secretary of Girep, Board of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Lorenzo Santi, Physics Department, University of Udine, Italy
Christian Ucke, Physics Department E20, Techn. Universitt Mnchen, Germany
Editors
Marisa Michelini
Marina Cobal
2002 Forum, Editrice Universitaria Udinese srl
Via Palladio 8, I - 33100 Udine, Italy
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated, reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by other any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the publisher.
Printed in Italy - Lithostampa, Pasian di Prato (UD) - December 2002
ISBN:
Developing Formal Thinking in Physics
of the First Girep seminar, 2-6 September 2001, Udine, Italy
First International Girep seminar 2001
Groupe International de Recherche
sur lEnseignement de la Physique
University of Udine
Interdepartmental Centre
for Research in Education (CIRD)
editors
Marisa Michelini
Marina Cobal
Developing Formal
Thinking in Physics
Table of contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1. Background Aspects
IMAGERY AND FORMAL THINKING: APPROACHES TO INSIGHT AND UNDERSTANDING
IN PHYSICS EDUCATION,
M. Euler, Leibniz Institute for Science Education, University of Kiel (Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PHYSICS CURRICULUM REFORM: HOW CAN WE DO IT?,
G. Fuller, Physics Department and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (USA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
REAL-TIME APPROACHES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL THINKING IN PHYSICS,
E. Sassi, Physics Department Science, University Federico II of Napoli (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE USE OF MATHEMATICAL ENTITIES IN MATHEMATICS
AND PHYSICS AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR AN INTEGRATED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT,
T. Ellermejer and A. Heck, AMSTEL Institute, University of Amsterdam (Netherlands). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR LABWORK IN EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES,
M. Vicentini, Physics Department, University La Sapienza, Roma (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
IS FORMAL THINKING HELPFUL IN EVERYDAY SITUATIONS?,
S. Oblak, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
THE FORMAL REASONING OF QUANTUM MECHANICS: CAN WE MAKE IT CONCRETE? SHOULD WE?
D. Zollmann, Kansas State University (USA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
JUMPING TOYS: A TOPIC FOR INTERPLAY BETWEEN THEORY AND EXPERIMENTS,
C. Ucke, Physics Department E20, Technical University of Munich (Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2. Special Aspects
A. INTERPLAY OF THEORY AND EXPERIMENT,
De Ambrosis, Physics Department, University of Pavia (Italy)
G. Rinaudo, Department of Experimental Physics, University of Torino (Italy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
EXPERIMENTS AND REFLECTIVE LEARNING,
M. Bandiera and M. Vicentini, Physics Department, University La Sapienza, Roma (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
GALILEIS EXPERIMENT ON INCLINED PLANE,
A. De Ambrosis, Physics Department, University of Pavia (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
WATER COOLING: HOW TO BUILD A PHYSICAL MODEL FOR AN EVERY DAY LIFE EXPERIMENT,
A. Sconza, Physics Department, University of Padova (Italy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
LEARNING PHYSICS VIA MODEL CONSTRUCTION,
R.M. Sperandeo-Mineo, Department of Physical and Astronomical Sciences, University of Palermo (Italy) . . . . 117
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL REASONING,
I. Lawrence, School of Education, University of Birmingham (UK),
P. Guidoni, Department of Physical Sciences, University of Napoli (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
TOYS FOR LEARNING PHYSICS,
C. Ucke, Physics Department E20, Technical University, Munich (Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
NEW TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTER IN PHYSICS LEARNING,
L. Rogers, School of Education, University of Leicester (UK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
TEXTBOOKS AS AN IMAGE OF PHYLOSOPHY OF TEACHING,
Z. Golab-Meyer, Physics Department, Jagellonian University (Poland) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3. Topical Aspects
3.1 Laboratory and Theory
USING EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORIES TO TEACH FORMAL PHYSICS,
S. Kocijancic and C. OSullivan, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
PHYSICS: FACING THE PRESENT TO FOSTER THE FUTURE,
T. Lobato and M. Saraiva-Neves, Escola Secundaria de Fonseca Benevides, Lisbon (Portugal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
TORSION PENDULUM: THE MECHANICAL NONLINEAR OSCILLATOR,
S. Lasi, G. Planini, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia),
G. Torzo, Physics Department, University of Padova (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
ELECTROSTATIC MOTOR,
N. Miklavi, Srednja Pomorska Sola Portoroz (Slovenja) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
HOLOGRAPHY: A PROJECT-TYPE APPROACH FOR CONTEXTUALIZED TEACHING OF OPTICS,
P. Pombo and J. Pinto, Physics Department, University of Aveiro (Portugal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
EXPERIMENT AND THEORISATION: AN APPLICATION OF THE HYDROSTATIC EQUATION AND
ARCHIMEDES THEOREM,
L. Santos and M. Talaia, Physics Department, University of Aveiro (Portugal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.2 Problem Solving
PROBLEMS IN THE PHYSICS OLYMPIADS,
G. Cavaggioni, A.I.F. Committee, responsible for the Physics Olympiads in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITIES IN TRAINING THE ITALIAN CONTESTANTS OF THE PHYSICS
OLYMPIADS IN A SUMMER SCHOOL,
D.L. Censi, Italian Physics Olympiads National Group of the Associazione per l Insegnamento della Fisica (AIF, Italy) 151
HOW TO START A PROBLEM,
F. Minosso, Board of Olympiads (AIF, Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
DOES PHYSICS FORMAL KNOWLEDGE REALLY HELP STUDENTS IN DEALING WITH
REAL-WORLD PHYSICS PROBLEMS?
N. Grimellini Tomasini and O. Levrini, Physics Department, University of Bologna (Italy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
INFLUENCE OF NARRATIVE STATEMENTS OF PHYSICS PROBLEMS ON THEIR COMPREHENSION,
E. Llonch, M. Massa, P. Sanchez and E. Petrone, Facultad de Cs. Exactas, Ingeniera y Agrimensura,
Universidad Nacional de Rosario (Argentina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
DIFFICULTIES ON INFERENCIAL PROCESS. A STUDY OF THERMODINAMIC PROBLEMS,
M. Massa, M. Yanitelli and S. Cabanellas, Facultad de Cs. Exactas, Ingeniera y Agrimensura,
MATHEMATICS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND PROBLEM SOLVING IN PHYSICS,
D. Pescetti, Physics Department, University of Genova (Italy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
DEVELOPING THINKING IN PHYSICS THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING,
S. Sawicka-Wilgusiak, Faculty of Pedagogy, Warsaw University (Poland). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.3 Modelling
MATHEMATICAL FORMAL MODELS FOR THE LEARNING OF PHYSICS: THE ROLE OF AN HISTORICAL
EXAMPLE,
G. T. Bagni, Department of Mathematics, University La Sapienza, Roma (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
MODELLING PHYSICAL PROCESSES: THE EXAMPLE OF A MAGNET GLIDER,
M. DAnna, Liceo Cantonale Locarno (Switzerland) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
MODELS IN SCIENCE AS METAPHORS OF THE WORLD AND OF THE HUMAN BODY,
F. de Stefano, Liceo Scientifico G. Marinelli, Udine (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ??
6
MODELLING PHENOMENA IN VARIOUS EXPERIENTIAL FIELDS: THE FRAMEWORK OF NEGATIVE
AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
C. Fazio, A. Giangalanti, G. Tarantino, I.P. Enrico Medi, Palermo (Italy), R.M. Sperandeo-Mineo,
Department of Physical and Astronomical Sciences, Univesity of Palermo (Italy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
THE LEARNING OF MODELING: A SCIENTISTSVISION,
S. M. Islas, Departamento de Formacin Exactas-Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia
de Buenos Aires, Campus Universitario, Tandil (Argentina),
M.A. Pesa, Departamento de Fsica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Tecnologa, Universidad Nacional
de Tucumn (Argentina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
MODELLING WITHOUT NUMBERS,
I. Lawrence, School of Education, University of Birmingham (UK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
LEARNING DATA ANALYSIS,
D. Moreno, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (Mexico),
G. del Valle, Division de Ciencias Basicas e Ingenieria, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana,
Azcapotzalc (Mexico) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
MODELS-THE BASICS OF PHYSICAL THINKING: CONCLUSIONS FOR MULTIMEDIA,
T. Romanovskis, Institut fr Experimentalphysik, Universitt Hamburg (Germany), on leave from Faculty
of Physics and Mathematics, Latvia University, Riga (Latvia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
MODELS, MENTAL IMAGES AND LANGUAGE IN SCIENTIFIC THINKING,
J.A. Smit, Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir CHO, Potchefstroom (South Africa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
LEARNING PHYSICS VIA MODEL CONSTRUCTION,
R.M. Sperandeo-Mineo, Department of Physical and Astronomical Sciences, Univesity of Palermo (Italy) . . . . . 224
3.4 Hands-on/Toys
FROM PLAYING WITH TOYS TO MEASUREMENTS,
M. Bertoncelj and A. Gostinar Blagotinek, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) . . . . . . . . 224
HOW SCIENCE CENTERS AND MUSEUMS CAN SERVE THE FORMAL LEARNING IN THE SCHOOLS,
P. Cerreta, ScienzaViva, Associazione per la divulgazione scientifica e tecnologica, Sezione AIF di Calitri (Italy). . . . . . 228
TOYS IN MOTION,
A. Gostinar Blagotinek, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
PHYSICS IS MIGHTY AS IT IS EASY,
K. Papp, A. Nagy, M. Molnar and J. Bohus, University of Szeged, Department of Experimental
Physics (Hungary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
TEACHING MECHANICS AND BIO-MECHANICS,
P.B. Pascolo, University of Udine and Bioengineering Department of CISM (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS HELP IN GAINING A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF PHYSICS CONCEPTS,
G. Planini, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia),
M. Kos, Ustanova Hia exsperimentov, Slovenian Hands-on science centre, Ljubljana (Slovenia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
LEARNING BY PLAYING OR PLAYING BY LEARNING,
N. Razpet, The National Education Institute, Ljubljana (Slovenia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
DEVELOPING FORMAL THINKING THROUGH TOYS AND EVERYDAY OBJECTS FOR THE
FORMATION OF FUTURE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS,
D. Allasia, V. Montel, G. Rinaudo, Department of Experimental Physics of the University of Torino (Italy) . . . . . 254
SOME PHYSICS TEACHING MITHS, C.H. Worner,
Instituto de Fisica, Universidad Catlica de Valparaso (Chile) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
3.5 First Steps in Formalization
BUILDING FIRST EMPIRICAL CONCEPTS AND KNOWLEDGE BY ONESELF AND OTHERS, IS THE
WAY TO FORMAL THINKING FOR YOUNGSTERS,
C. Balpe, Institut Universitaire de Formation de Matres dAquitanie (France) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7
INTRODUCING THERMAL PHENOMENA QUANTITIES,
D. Ferbar, Pedagoska Fakulteta Ljubljana (Slovenia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
WHAT FRACTION OF PUPILS REALLY REACH THE STAGE OF FORMAL THINKER IN PHYSICS?,
R. Krsnik, P. Peina, M. Planini and A. Suac,, Physics Department, PMF, University of Zagreb (Croatia),
I. Buljan, Primary School Zaprude, Zagreb (Croatia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
COGNITIVE LABS IN AN INFORMAL CONTEXT TO DEVELOP FORMAL THINKING,
A.Stefanel, C. Moschetta, M. Michelini, Research Unit in Physics Education, University of Udine (Italy) . . . . . . 276
MAKING PHYSICS FASCINATING TOALL!?,
G. Zini, Dipartimento di Fisica, Universit di Ferrara (Italy),
A.Turricchia, Aula Didattica Planetario, Comune di Bologna (Italy), L. Bernacchio, Osservatorio Astronomico,
Padova (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
3.6 Strategies: Methods and Tools
SWITCHING FROM EVERYDAY FACTS TO SCIENTIFIC THINKING,
P. Len, Univesidad Simn Bolvar (Venezuela), M. Castells, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain) . . . . 288
ENGLISH AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTIONS IN SCIENCE TEACHING,
C. Haagen-Schtzenhfer and L. Mathelitsch, Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of Graz ( Austria) . . 293
DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL THINKING ON KINEMATICAL ASPECTS OF MOTION FROM CHILDREN
KNOWLEDGE TO EARLY MATHEMATISATION,
M. Gagliardi, N. Grimellini Tomasini, B. Pecori, Physics Department, University of Bologna (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . 296
WHY DO WE RUN WHEN WE WANT TO MOVE FASTER?,
E. Reichel, Bundesgymnasium und Bundesrealgymnasium, Graz (Austria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
TIME TRAVEL MORE THAN A PHYSICAL CONCEPT?,
T. Tajmel and L. Mathelitsch, Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Graz (Austria). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
THINKING ON VECTORS AND FORMAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LIGHT POLARIZATION
FOR A NEW EDUCATIONAL APPROACH,
M. Cobal and M. Michelini, Physics Department, University of Udine (Italy),
F. Corni, Physics Department, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
HIGHER ORDER THINKING IN OHYSICS EDUCATION (HOT-PHYSICS),
J.D. Holbech and P.V. Thomsen, Centre for Studies in Science Education, University of Aarhus (Denmark) . . . . 320
COMPREHENSION AND TEST RESULTS AFTER INTRODUCTION OF WORKSHOP PHYSICS,
T. Lundstrom, M.D. Lyberg and A. Svensson, School of Mathematics and System Eng., Department
of Physics, Vxj University (Sweden). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
3.7 Mathematisation
ON HOW TO BEST INTRODUCE THE CONCEPT OF DIFFERENTIAL IN PHYSICS,
R. Lopez-Gay and J. Martinez-Torregrosa, Dpto. de Didctica General y Didcticas Especficas, Alacant (Spain),
A. Gras-Mart, Dpto. de Fsica Aplicada, Universitat dAlacant (Spain),
G. Torregrosa, Dpto. de Anlisis Matemtico y Didctica de las Matemticas, Alacant (Spain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
TEACHING QUANTUM THEORY,
H. Grassmann, Physics Department, University of Udine (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
ANALYSING DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRESENTING NEWTONS LAWS EMPHASIZING THE
RELATED CONCEPTS,
J.L. Jimnez, Departamento de Fsica, Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa (Mxico),
I. Campos, Departamento de Fsica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (Mxico),
G. Del Valle, rea de Fsica Atmica y Molecular Aplicada, Universidad Autnoma
Metropolitana-Azcapotzalco (Mxico) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8
HOW TO AVOID WORK. UNDERSTANDING THE WAYS IN WHICH PHYSICS USES
MATHEMATICS TO RECOGNIZE THE CONSTANT OF MOTION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY,
M. Michelini and G.L. Michelutti, Physics Department, University of Udine (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
ONE DIMENSIONAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS AND SQUEEZED STATES,
C.A. Vargas, rea de Fsica, Departamento de Ciencias Bsicas, UAM-A, Azcapotzalco (Mxico),
A. Ziga-Segundo, Departamento de Fsica, Escuela Superior de Fsica y
Matemticas-IPN, Zacatenc (Mxico) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
3.8 Software Packages-Multimedia
GRAPHS AS BRIDGES BETWEEN MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION AND EXPERIMENTAL DATA,
L. Rogers, School of Education, University of Leicester (UK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
THE USING OF MULTIMEDIA COURSEWARE FOR COLLEGE PHYSICS RELATIVITY
TEACHING AT HARBIN NORMAL UNIVERSITY,
Z. Changbin, S. Guilian and M. Hongchen, Physics Department, Harbin Normal University (China) . . . . . . . . . . 361
DEVELOPING STUDENTS COMPETENCES BY MEANS OF SIMULATION: USE OF A RESEARCH
TOOL FOR UNDERSTANDING ION-MATTER INTERACTIONS IN SOLID STATE PHYSICS,
F. Corni, Physics Department, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
MULTIMEDIA PROGRAM-ELECTRIC CURRENT,
L. Konek, E. Mechlov, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava (Czech republic). . . 375
DO YOU HEAR THE SEA FROM A SHELL?,
I. Verovnik, National Education Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana (Slovenia),
L. Mathelitsch, Institut fr Theoretische Physik, Universitt Graz (Austria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
3.9 Text Books
DISCUSSING THE PROBLEMS IN TEXTBOOKS,
C. Escudero and M. Garca, Physics Departmen., Fac. de Ingeniera, Universidad Nacional de San Juan (Argentina),
S. Gonzlez, Physics and Chemistry Department, Facultad de Filosofa, Humanidades y Artes, Universidad
Nacional de San Juan (Argentina)
M. Massa, Physics and Chemistry Department, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Ingeniera y Agrimensura,
DO PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TEXTBOOKS CONTRIBUTE TO SCIENTIFIC REASONING?,
M. Massa and H. DAmico, Physics and Chemistry Department, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas,
Ingeniera y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (Argentina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
3.10 Teacher Training
FORMALIZING THERMAL PHENOMENA FOR 3-6 YEARS-OLDS: ACTION-RESEARCH IN
A TEACHER-TRAINING ACTIVITY,
L. Benciolini, Dipartimento di Georisorse e Territorio, University of Udine (Italy),
M. Michelini, Physics Department, University of Udine (Italy), A. Odorico, Facolt della Formazione,
University of Udine (Italy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
THE DIDACTIC LABORATORY AS A PLACE TO EXPERIMENT MODELS FOR THE INTERDISCIPLINARY
RESEARCH,
M. Fasano, University of Basilicata (Italy), F. Casella, IRRE, Basilicata (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
A MODERN TEACHING FOR MODERN PHYSICS IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS TRAINING,
M. Giliberti, Physics Department, University of Milano and INFN Milano (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
TEACHING ENERGY IN HIGH SCHOOL: CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND PROPOSALS
J. Ll. Domnech, D. Gil-Prez, Universitat de Valncia, Spain,
A. Gras-Mart, J. Martnez-Torregrosa, Universitat dAlacant, Spain,
G. Guisasola, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Spain, J. Salinas, Universidad Nacional de Tucumn, Argentina . . 406
9
OBSTACLES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING IN OBSERVATIONAL
ASTRONOMY: THE CASE OF SPATIAL REASONING DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED BY
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS,
Ch. Nicolau and C.P. Costantinou, Learning in Physics Group, University of Cyprus (Cyprus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
A STUDY OF THE COMPETENCE AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE/PHYSICS
TEACHERS IN ANTALYA PROVINCE OF TURKEY, I.S.
Ustuner, Akdeniz University, Antalya (Turkey),
Y. Ersoy, Middle East Tech. University, Ankara (Turkey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4. The Seminar
4.1 First International Girep Seminar
DEVELOPING FORMAL THINKING IN PHYSICS
University of Udine, 2-6 September 2001, M. Cobal, L. Santi, Physics Department of the University of Udine (Italy) . . . 427
4.2 Welcome of the Rector, F. Honsell, University of Udine (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
4.3 Introduction to the Seminar, M. Michelini, CIRD, University of Udine (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
4.4 The organization of the Seminar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
4.5 Structure of the Seminar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
10
Introduction
11
This book includes a selection of the contributions presented at the First International Girep
Seminar on Developing Formal Thinking in Physics. The selection has been done by a wide group
of referees: each paper has been examined by two or more referees chosen in between the experts
of the field.
The First International Girep Seminar has represented a completely new way of meeting to
exchange researches, experiences and connected activities at an international level. Participants
have been selected in a number to realize such a working condition that the discussions on the
various topics could be favoured with respect to the presentation of those works already prepared.
The large majority of the time during this Seminar has been dedicated to thematic discussions in
specific Workshops. Some of the invited talks which appear in Chapter 1 of this volume offer
an overview of the problematic involved with the Seminars topic.
Chapter 2 contains the short reports from each Workshop responsible. These reports include the
outcomes of the discussions carried out in the Workshops, which had as a starting point the papers
presented by the participants.
Chapter 3 collects the selected papers of the participants to the Seminar. These papers are
organized by topics according to the main problems identified for the development of the formal
thinking in physics.
Finally, Chapter 4 recalls the characteristics of the Seminar.
Chapter 3 is surely the wider one and shows some of the more important studies related to the
development of the formal thinking in physics. Therefore, can be useful to give here some
comments on the single paragraphs.
In Laboratory and Theory some interesting experimental proposals are presented: advanced, for
example related to holography, as well as elementary, for example an application of the
Archimedess principle. They offer indications on how to set up and carry out the experimental
work in order to favour the formal reflection.
The Problem solving for the development of the formal thinking is illustrated as a methodology of
approach but also as a modality to overcome the disconnected view that students seem to have
between the common sense vision of the world and the scientific one learned in the school.
The way to implement this activity and the presence of some cases from specific physics fields offer
us a rich source of examples that comes in parallel with an analysis of the difficulties that can be
encountered.
Modelling activities as a methodological tool for physics are proposed in a more profound way,
with contributions of historical examples, with examples in various fields of physics, with proposals
related to the experimental work, with indications for the qualitative activities and with
contributions which make use of the communication, information and multimedia technologies.
The informal education and the importance of an active role of the learner, realized as well by
means of games and toys, constitute a motivational proposal for all ages: contributions for the
primary school and examples of didactic on kinematics for engineering studies, are some of the
experiences offered, together with a reflection based on the learning by playing and on the
learning from everyday life.
First step in formalization offers proposals of didactical activities and cognitive analyses, which are
a challenge to the basic formation in physics starting from the primary school, for the scientific
formation of all the citizens, as a complement to the group of works on toys.
Strategies: Methods and Tools is a paragraph related to the cognitive link with everyday life and
related to the understanding of the role of formal tools, as vectors, and/or of formalized contexts,
as the kinematics one.
Mathematization treats specifically the problem of the role of mathematics and of the link with
mathematics in various fields for the didactic of physics.
It is discussed here the conceptual role of the formalism in quantum mechanics and the meaning
of the Newtons laws, as well as how the formalism can lead to the recognition of the constants of
motion.
Software Packages and Multimedia are representatives of the ways in which the ICTs can either be
a bridge between the experimental results and the mathematical description of the phenomena, or
can allow to perform measurements with sensors connected to the computer, or can offer useful
simulation to analyse predictions or can constitute the courseware contest.
The last paragraph of Chapter 3 is devoted to the teacher training. Some proposals are presented
to activate formalization processes or thoughts on how to train and educate teachers. The goal is
for the teachers to be able to start a deep process to get the formal tools in physics, knowing how
to deal with the meanings.
The choice of publishing a thematic book has been driven by the need of specialization that
emerged in the studies of didactic and physics education research and in the teachers training paths.
We worked in a rigorous way and with dedication to offer an useful tool. We are sorry for the
possible errors that have been done, and we wish that this could be useful to teachers and
colleagues who work in the physics education research and in the teacher education fields.
The Editors:
Marisa Michelini and Marina Cobal
12
Introduction
1. Background Aspects
IMAGERY AND FORMAL THINKING: APPROACHES TO INSIGHT AND
UNDERSTANDING IN PHYSICS EDUCATION
Manfred Euler, Leibniz-Institute for Science Education (IPN), University of Kiel, Germany
This lecture is dedicated to the memory of the late GIREP president Karl Luchner.
Physik ist berall (Physics is everywhere)[1]
K. Luchner
1. Deficits in science education: the quest for understanding and insight
This is the first GIREP seminar held between the biannual meetings. In focusing on the develop-
ment of formal thinking the present conference addresses a problem, which is of vital importance
for the future of physics education. Since long, we can observe a declining interest in physics. This
trend is ubiquitous, and many reasons can be found to account for this phenomenon. In close corre-
spondence with the motivational deficits the cognitive outcomes of physics teaching are far from
what is expected. An adequate unfolding of formal thinking is undoubtedly one of the crucial prob-
lems of learning and understanding physics.
The development of formal thinking can be seen as the acquisition of networks which assign
meaning to symbolic elements and which allow students to navigate in the world of physics [2].
Formal thinking, creating symbolic descriptions that model structures and processes in the real
world, is at the heart of the methodology of physics. As formal thinking obviously is not the normal
mode of mental activity, it is also at the heart of the difficulties of learning physics. Thus, finding
better ways of promoting formal thinking and of moving from the concrete to the abstract is essen-
tial for restructuring the ways we teach and learn physics.
It is useful to consider the subject of the present seminar in the context of international efforts to
monitor scientific literacy. The status and the effectiveness of science education in many countries
are not considered satisfactory and sufficient to master the challenges of the future. We are amidst
a transformation process from the post industrial to the knowledge society. There is the general
fear that scientific literacy and the public awareness of science do not comply satisfactorily with
the needs of a global knowledge societ [3].
The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has addressed some
questions which are considered vital in view of the rapid global changes [4]. Are students well
prepared to meet the challenges of the future? Are they able to analyse, reason and communicate
their ideas effectively? Do they have the capacity to continue learning throughout life? The term
literacy is used in a metaphoric way to describe a broad conception of knowledge and skills for
life, which are broken down to various processes, including, among many other aspects, the ability
to apply knowledge from science in more or less authentic real world situations. Due to the
comprehensive approach of assessing student performance and of collecting ample context
information, PISA provides the empirical framework for a better understanding of the causes and
possible consequences of observed skill shortages.
Among other findings, PISA confirms the results of earlier studies like TIMSS (Third International
Mathematics and Science Study [5,6]). With respect to the consequences, I can speak only for my
country: The TIMSS results have shattered the long-held beliefs about the high standards of
physics education. Science education is more or less efficient only with respect to imparting the
knowledge of facts. However, broad deficits exist on the level of more demanding science
processes, e.g. applying knowledge to new situations. Broadly speaking, physics teaching focuses on
conveying factual knowledge (know what). Approaching the know how and the know why
poses big problems. Physics education falls
short of attaining more challenging goals
like flexible application of knowledge in
new contexts, and of fostering insight and
understanding. Formal thinking, as such, is
not addressed in these studies but their
results clearly point out deficits in applying
what has been learned. This deficit is closely
related to formal thinking, as learners are
unable to abstract sufficiently and transfer
knowledge from one context of experience
to a related domain. However, international
comparisons do show that there are specific
differences between countries in attaining
these more demanding goals.
Under what conditions can one expect
physics education to promote insight and
understanding? This article approaches the
elusive phenomenon of insight from various
perspectives and discusses its specific
meaning for cognitive processes by using
examples from physics and mathematics.
Intuitive pictures, mental transformations of
imagery and reflections about these
processes are considered important for learning and for doing physics as well. In this context,
images represent the (more or less) concrete symbolic substrate from which formal thinking
emerges. All learning theories agree on learning being an active process. Active transformation
processes of mental imagery are necessary to build up more and more abstract representations.
How can we link the mental images and their transformation processes with concrete experiences
in a meaningful way?
On a more general level the question of the relation between instruction and autonomous
construction is touched upon. Insight and understanding result from genuine individual mental
construction processes. From an external perspective these processes are difficult to investigate as
they are accessible only indirectly and incompletely. Is it possible to stimulate processes of insight
and to support meaningful learning by suitable instructional means? We are far from being able to
offer a patent solution but the present article intends to focus on these issues and to initiate broader
discussions.
2. The elusive nature of insight: is it something special?
By insight one generally means the ability of immediately knowing and of seeing clearly by mental
activities which are not fully transparent. This mode of thought is felt in sharp contrast to rational and
analytical reasoning. In the context of physics and mathematics, insight means the ability to see the
solution even without running logically through all the steps of problem solving. In insights, the
essence of phenomena or processes is intuitively grasped or linked with other phenomena without
fully decoding the path of argumentation. There is a close connection to creative thinking, when new
solutions to problems are generated. Insight describes the transition process of our minds from the
state of ignorance to the state of clarity about the solution to the problem [7].
There are many metaphors for insight; the sudden beginning to see the light is one, the flash of
genius is another. In a letter to a friend the famous mathematician Gauss describes the process in
the following way: Just like lightning strikes, the puzzle is solved. I myself would not have been able to
prove the guiding line between what I already knew ... and how it was possible to prove it finally [8]. A
14
Background Aspects
Fig. 1. Insights in insight: How to circumvent self referential
circles?
common characteristic in almost all of the reports about sudden insight in mathematics and the
sciences is in addition to the affective moment its visual character. Insight depends on pictures
that entangle concrete experience and visual imagination with abstract, symbolic elements.
An overview of the current state of psychological research may be found in the volume entitled The
Nature of Insight [9], which also gives some useful references for insights relevant to physics. As
everyone will know from more or less intensive personal introspective experience, processes of
insight are associated with the following characteristics [10]:
suddenness: A discontinuity or an abrupt transition from ambiguity to understanding the prob-
lem and its solution is perceived instead of a gradual steady transition process.
spontaneity: Insight cannot be forced, but rather happens intrinsically and spontaneously without
an apparent agent.
unexpectedness: Insights can emerge even when one is not consciously involved in the problem.
correctness: Often, insights are accompanied by an immediate feeling of correctness, although a
full logical justification is missing.
satisfaction: A deep feeling of satisfaction may accompany or even precede the moment of
insight.
Dissolving the tension of hitherto unsolved cognitive conflicts may result in exclaiming a loud
Eureka!, as we know from folklore reports about Archimedes and his bathtub insight on buoyancy.
A more quiet everyday form of satisfaction is the Aha! experience. In any case we must not
underestimate the strong affective element of the moment of insight, which drives our mental
activity and finally rewards tedious thoughts and hard labour.
Generally, one finds two basic assumptions about the character of insight which express two con-
tradictory points of view [11]:
Insight is not a special process. It is rather considered as a smooth extension of common percep-
tion, learning and thinking processes. This point of view emphasises the continuity, the cumula-
tivity and the associativity of the process: The way, how a new problem is solved only depends on
prior knowledge. One produces new solutions by combining what one already knows. Thus,
insight is nothing more than a chain of associations of elements available to the somehow
prepared mind. It is doubtful whether it is possible to solve new problems according to a kind of
flash of genius independent of previous experience.
Insight is a special process. It can be understood as an acceleration or - in the extreme - even as
a circumvention of the normal, conscious chain of arguments. Insight is considered an uncon-
scious process, restructuring knowledge in such a way that new connections emerge. Insights are
seen in close analogy to visual perception processes. Similar to the emerging of visual perceptions
from optical input signals by means of an active structuring process, knowledge is restructured in
creative thought processes. This can take place in various ways, e.g. by completing missing
information, by reformulating the problem, by eliminating thought blockades, by separating an
object from its functional context, or by transforming it to an analogous problem for which the
solution is already known.
While the first point of view developed out of traditional psychological research, the second
approach came from the field of Gestalt psychology. It was scorned for a long time for its presumed
lack of methodological strictness and theoretical clarity. This point of view, it was argued, is based on
anecdotic evidence and not on facts that can be proved by experiments. Emotionally, however, it is
very attractive as it describes characteristics of insight that everyone can perceive introspectively. Can
ones own intuition (and the intuition of many great spirits of the scene) be so wrong?
From the perspective of modeling cognitive processes within the framework of neural networks,
the differences in the two points of view become irrelevant. Interestingly enough, many features of
the phenomenology of Gestalt perception can be modelled by neural networks [12]. Instead of an
exclusive either - or it seems to be better to view the two perspectives as the extremes of an
approach to insight which allow a continuum of possible intermediate forms depending on the
complexity of the problem and the level of expertise the problem solver has.
15
3. Metaphors and models for insight: metamorphoses of internal images
To resolve the conflict between the business as usual standpoint and the view of insight being
something special, we discuss optical pattern recognition processes. They can serve as a metaphor
or even an analogy of higher cognitive processes. This analogy suggests that there is nothing special
about insight processes. They are compatible with conventional sensory, learning and thinking
processes. At the level of perception analogous processes are continually taking place almost
unnoticed. Nevertheless, we as our own internal observers perceive them as having the char-
acteristics described in the second point of view.
This is one of the oddities of the internal and external view of complex systems, and our head is
undoubtfully such a complex system. The internal observers view and the descriptions of the
participant can be incompatible with those of the detached observer, a fact that is just as
important for physics as for cognitive science [13]. The view from within the system compared to
the view from the outside, the endoperspective and the exoperspective, are conflicting. This
incompatibility expresses more than the normal observer dependency of descriptions of reality, in
which the results of measurements may depend on the individual frame of reference. In the latter
case, it is possible to construct smooth transformations that relate consistently the outcomes of an
experiment in one system to the descriptions of reality given in another system.
The problem of internal observers is more deeply rooted and cannot be reduced to smooth
transformations from one perspective to the other. It is closely connected to the emergence
phenomenon, where new entities are generated by a spontaneous re-ordering process, as soon as
the (open) systems are complex enough. In physics, these processes occur in dynamical systems far
from equilibrium (cf. par. 7).
Two perception experiments are presented that elucidate by analogy how this puzzle of conflicting
discreteness and continuity might be solved. On the one hand, one can maintain the belief gained
from the view of the internal observer that insight is a discontinuous process. On the other hand,
in spite of the emergent discontinuity, the underlying processes can be regarded as fully continuous,
building upon what one already knows. In order to accept this unifying view, one has to change the
perspective and compare the view from within the system with the description from the outside. In
general, such a switch from the internal view to the reflective meta-perspectives is also a decisive
step moving from learning facts to conceptual understanding.
Experiment 1: Gestalt-Perception - spontaneous and induced switching processes
Have a look at Fig. 2 on the left (Necker Cube). You clearly perceive a cube in two possible spa-
tial configurations. Although the drawing is one dimensional and unique, the percept is spatial and
bistable. The actions of the observers conscious mind appear to animate the image. In case that you
have no prior experience with this figure, the switching between the two arrangements of cubes is
16
Background Aspects
Fig. 2. The Necker cube. Bistability in visual perception can be perceived as a
spontaneous process, but it can also be stimulated externally or induced voluntarily
by guiding the eye movements
completely spontaneous. This subjective impression of spontaneity is fully correct as psycho-
physical experiments confirm! When the switching sequence is registered (by pushing a button,
whenever the percept snaps into another configuration), a time sequence of events results that will
pass all the tests for randomness. The switching sequence corresponds to a Poisson-process which,
for instance, also shows up in spontaneous emission of light quanta from excited states or in
radioactive decay, both phenomena being physical archetypes for spontaneous processes [14]. The
observed spontaneous switching processes from one percept to the other exhibits many
characteristics of insight that were described earlier. Snap! The insight shows up spontaneously and
the subject appears to have no possibility of controlling the process.
From the external view, however, the processes are transparent and they can be controlled (theo-
retically at least). In fact, an expert with enough background knowledge can voluntarily induce
the transition from the one state to the other. To such an expert, the spontaneity vanishes. A simple
trick suffices to turn a novice into an expert for switching Necker cubes. A change in the direction
of gaze indicated by the two dots in Fig. 2 (right) helps to break the symmetry of the figure.
Focussing on one of the two dots will induce the switch. One can even move the tip of a pencil
periodically back and forth along the lines, and ask the subject, to follow the tip. In this case, the
subject will perceive the switching in synchrony with the periodic motion. This little experiment
turns the spontaneous switching into an induced transition process, that can even be guided
externally.
Transferred to the insight-experience, we can conclude that, whenever a sufficient level of knowl-
edge is available, the insight-feeling is turned into nothing special. There is business as usual, and
the feeling of not being able to do anything about it disappears. The mystery of insight becomes
demystified in so far as a fully regular and continual association with other mental or bodily activi-
ties can be produced. In the present experiment these activities (eye movements) are rather trivial.
The next demonstration focuses on
the crucial role of prior knowledge.
Experiment 2: When do Pictures
say More Than a 1000 Words?
Do you recognise the two rather
coarse grained faces in Fig. 3? A hint:
Squint your eyes and have a blurry
look or look from a distance - that
helps! Optical pattern recognition -
like insight - requires at least in
certain phases oversimplifying and
generalising. After a short incuba-
tion period the insight should come
abruptly. All the faces shown are
those of physicists. Insight should come quickly in the case of the right-hand picture, since the
person is well known and almost everyone has seen this specific picture. Additionally, when you
know that this person once stuck his tongue out at obtrusive photographers, then the task is an easy
one. Previously acquired knowledge and the access to available information determine how quickly
a new problem can be solved.
Recognising the face on the left is more difficult; it is practically impossible! This person does not
exist in the classical sense. It is a superposition of the faces of two physicists, Feynman and Gell-
Mann. As the prior knowledge is not available, no insight can arise. Insight without some form prior
knowledge is apparently not possible according to this visual analogy.
A reflection of the processes that generate meaning in these cases give some hints about the condi-
tions under which pictures work effectively. The proverb a picture says more than a thousand words
is incorrect in the naive, literal version. There is a plethora of potential information in pictures (just
17
Fig. 3. Pictures of famous physicists. Who is who?
think of the many kilobytes or even megabytes that uncompressed images use in computer
memory). The effective information that is actually involved in making the image happen and
activating internal rearrangement processes that finally switch to the percept is, on the other hand,
quite limited. In the example of the Einstein picture about 200 pixels with 3 bits each (2
3
shades of
grey), i.e. about 600 bits - far less than the information contained in 1000 meaningful words - suffice
to describe the person and even what is happening in the scene.
Both experiments tell us something about dynamical processes in visual perceptions that shed light
on the function of mental imagery. The theoretical biologist von Bertalanffy remarked The forms
of life are not, they happen [15]. Along the same line on could reformulate the statement with
respect to images and insight: Images are not, images happen. Images are no static objects. They
correspond to dynamic processes and are linked with prior experience. Images are models that can
be run mentally. When do images occur? The first experiment shows, that they occur spontaneously
- but nevertheless they can be triggered or stimulated by suitable arrangements. The second
experiment demonstrates the happening, that is the linking process with prior experience. Both
experiments can be used as metaphors for insights.
Although deep insights and visual pattern recognition differ considerably by the time scale of the
response and the complexity of the percepts it is not unreasonable to assume close links. If this is
acceptable, one cannot circumvent the conclusion that insights (like visual perceptions) can be fos-
tered and stimulated to some extent - a conclusion that has far reaching implications for teaching
and learning. In science teaching, images are often considered from a passive perspective, showing
things and situations statically. We have to do more in teaching and learning to make images
happen. Fostering insightful learning processes requires a delicate balance of instruction (providing
suitable learning arrangements) and construction (giving ample space to explore and reflect own
approaches).
Deficiencies in meaningful mental imagery can be considered one of the causes for the poor
achievements of students in the know how tasks reported earlier. The following selection of ex-
amples is guided by the assumption that intuitive pictures, their metamorphoses, or, to be more spe-
cific, their active transformation processes, and the conscious reflection of these transformations
are crucial for learning and for doing physics.
4. No insight without internal images: imagery and scientific imagination
What role do insights and images play in learning? Certainly their role will not be very different
from research processes. Thus a short glance at the latter will be helpful. Although research in sci-
ence and mathematics is generally considered as being especially analytic, logical and rational, the
creative processes in these fields are inspired by imagery and intuition. Much evidence for this can
be found in the biographies and correspondence of well known researchers, although such reports
have to be read with a certain amount of critical distance.
An especially notable example is W. Pauli, who is generally considered one of the most rational and
critical minds in physics [16]. In spite of his rational attitude he has always tried to account for what
he called underground physics giving way for creative mental processes. The Pauli-Jung
correspondence documents his effort to understand the role of unconscious processes in creative
scientific thought and demonstrates the meaning the attached to symbols and symbolism, light as
well as dark symbolism [17,18]. Paulis reports show the difficulty of reconstructing the mostly
unconscious creative processes rationally, due to the interweaving of dreams, concrete pictures,
abstract ideas, symbols (scientific as well as religious) and highly emotional personal experiences.
There is no insight without internal images! This is how the theoretical chemist Primas saw creative
processes in the field of mathematics and the sciences [19]. As he emphasises, the pictorial intuition
is, however, only one part of the creative process. What is intuitively seen must be corroborated and
critically questioned by rational reconstruction, otherwise intuition is nothing more than shallow
fantasies. An adequate interplay between intuition and rational reconstruction is crucial not only
for doing physics but also for learning physics.
18
Background Aspects
The evidence that images promote insight and understanding in science (and mathematics as well)
is overwhelming. So we have to ask, why only little effort is made in physics education to account
for the role of imagery for a better understanding of physics. Apparently, visual approaches have
been banned by a formalistic tradition. The relations between the concrete and the abstract are not
sufficiently balanced. While the formalistic approach tries to prevent misconcepts based on false
intuitions it often falls short of giving the abstract symbols and formal operations a concrete mean-
ing which we need to operate successfully with these concepts.
We must reconcile ourselves and our students with the fact, that we need concrete images and sym-
bols of physical entities, even though physical reality is not fully imaginable in terms of everyday
reality. We are forced to use abstractions, but there remains some important residual concreteness
in the abstract symbols. There are physical as well as psychological grounds for these elements of
reality in the abstract formalism.
Although many textbooks use images on a superficial level, only few encourage visualisation and
even fewer reflect the role of imagery and imagination. The Feynman lectures are a notable excep-
tion. In a chapter on the solution of Maxwells equations in free space Feynman lines out the de-
mand on scientific imagination in the context of classical field theory. He conveys a vivid picture of
his own struggle for a visualisation of the invisible and the untouchable that mixes abstract symbols
with concrete actions and perceptions. He confesses that I have... no picture of this electromagnetic
field that is in any sense accurate. .... When I start describing the magnetic field moving through space,
I speak of the E- and B-fields and wave my arms and you may imagine that I can see them. Ill tell
you what I see. I see some kind of vague shadowy, wiggling lines here and there is E and B written
on them somehow, and perhaps some of the lines have arrows on them an arrow here or there which
disappears, when I look too closely at it. .... I have a terrible confusion between the symbols I use to
describe the objects and the objects themselves [20].
Retreating to the purely mathematical view is not a solution either. On the one hand, any attempt
to make the electromagnetic field fully touchable is bound to fail. On the other hand, the electro-
magnetic field is more than merely an abstract and arbitrary mental construction. Although our
minds are unable to conceive an adequate picture of the electromagnetic field, like, for instance a
mechanical model that we can grasp, the instruments that we build according to the laws of physics
can grasp the field in a predictable way.
An analysis of Feynmans struggle for appropriate visualisation points out some reasons, why it is
so difficult to convey images of physical processes. On the psychological side there is the absolute
privacy of mental imagery. Images are ones own individual constructions that depend on prior ex-
perience. Even though two persons see the same picture, the meaning they attach to it may be very
different. Images cannot simply be implanted. Images are often highly resistant to teaching and
changes of mental imagery is a long process, as overwhelming evidence from research on
conceptual change and reasoning in physics shows [21].
On the physical side, meaningful images are everything but arbitrary inventions. They must be con-
sistent with the part of reality that we try to model. This requires sufficient complexity of our
images to map the essentials of the target domain on the structural and functional level. Such a
requirement still leaves ample space for concrete, engineering type of models, for instance models
used in graphical model building that are based upon state and rate variables. These models can be
viewed as having some concrete underlying quasi mechanical or fluid-dynamical machinery. On a
more abstract level, however, our images must be in accord with general principles of physics like
symmetry and invariance. Ultimately, such general principles will kill all concrete images of some
underlying machinery and will leave us alone with abstract mathematical structures.
Somehow, the role of mental imagery in the modelling process of physics can be compared to a
ladder. We climb up the ladder from concrete pictures to increasingly formal and abstract
representations. Sometimes we even forget about the ladder, that we used to climb up. From time
to time it is good to step down the ladder, reflect the situation, and link the formal and abstract
ideas of physics with the concrete experiences, from which they emerged. Therefore, a glimpse on
19
concrete imagery for problem solving at basic levels of mathematics and physics is helpful to reflect
the role of imagery for formal thinking.
5. Linking the concrete with the abstract: examples for image driven problem solving
The potential of concrete images for problem solving and the richness of individual images and
strategies can be demonstrated by the problem in Fig 4. The item is taken from the exposition of
the PISA framework [22]. Two arrangements of T-shirts and drinks are shown and the problem is
to find out the respective prices. I
exposed students and teachers with
the item at various occasions.
Usually, they start writing down two
equations and begin to solve them
formally. They have to be instructed
to solve the problem mentally without
writing down equations. After this hint
most people are fascinated by the
variety of successful methods of
solving the problem and of seeing
the solution.
One way of solving the problem is
the following. Because of the
symmetry of the above arrange-
ment, one knows the price of one T-
shirt and one drink. This amount can
be taken off mentally from the lower arrangement. From the remaining parts on both sides one
knows the price for two drinks and the problem is solved. This procedure combines visual elements
(symmetry) with mental arithmetic and algebra (substitution, carrying out the same operation on
both sides of the equation).
There exist other solutions which are even more visual. Some students have argued in the way
shown in Fig. 5, which comes very close to a proof without words. Both images are extrapolated
as a logical sequence (both on the side of the objects and the respective prices). This approach is a
very convincing example for the
creative role of visual schemata for
non-routine problem solving. This
type of problem and the
encouragement of the non-formal
yet highly insightful way of problem
solving is very far away from the
standard repertoire of textbook
problems, however.
Another example for insight refers
to a problem that elementary school
children are able to solve
spontaneously. The parallelogram
puzzle, investigated by Wertheimer
is a classical example from
psychological research of insight
[23] and the underlying processes
are basic to modelling in physics on
various levels of abstraction.
Children explore how the area of a
rectangle can be measured by
20
Background Aspects
Fig. 4. How much is a T-shirt, how much is a drink?
Explain how you found the solution.
Fig. 5. A visual solution of the problem
counting the number of small squares, that
cover the rectangle. After the children
have understood the method, they are
confronted with the problem of measuring
the area of a parallelogram with the same
width as the rectangle. Of course, the
original method fails as the oblique sides
do not fit the squares (Fig. 6).
Wertheimer gives a very detailed and vivid
account of the case of a little girl (age 5.5
years!). Confronted with the parallelogram
problem she says, I certainly dont know
how to do that. Then after a moment of
silence: This is no good here, pointing to
the region at the left end; and no good here,
pointing to the region at the right. Its
troublesome, here and here. Hesitatingly
she said: I could make it right here . . . but .
. . Suddenly she cried out, May I have a
pair of scissors? What is bad there is just
what is needed here. It fits. She took the
scissors, cut the figure vertically, and placed
the left end at the right ([23], p. 49). Other
children bend the parallelogram to a ring
so that the oblique parts fit together and
find the solution that way.
This problem solving task demonstrates
that visual imagination is connected with
concrete experience (cutting out areas,
putting them together). Yet there is much
more involved that goes beyond mechanically carrying out actions. Some children are able to
anticipate their actions, finding ways to solve the problem without ever having seen the solution
before. They go beyond their past experience and create something new.
The underlying visually driven problem solving processes reach out deeply into a type of mental
modelling which is relevant both in physics and in mathematics. In an abstract sense the little girls
insight is an early example for seeing invariants and constructing conserved quantities by suitable
mental transformation processes (which have to be grounded by concrete experience). The require-
ments on mental modelling are closely related to modelling processes in physics, creating a deeper
insight into the concept of torque and of angular momentum. For instance, in order to understand
Keplers second law one must find out why in any central force field planets sweep equal areas in equal
times. As Newtons geometrical derivation of Keplers second law shows, this requires the trans-
formation of the areas of parallelograms (respectively of triangles) [24, 25].
The little girls insight opens up a broad road towards mental modelling and a deeper understanding
of heavenly and earth-bound motion. This line of thought shows that great ideas and achievements in
the history of science are not very different from everyday insights that even children can develop at
an early age. As a consequence, we must make our teachers sensible for the potentials of visual literacy
and foster cognitive development along these lines at a much earlier age.
The potential of images is not sufficiently exploited in physics and mathematics teaching. Images
do have an important function not only as and external medium of representation but also as an
internal medium of problem solving. In general, teachers do only very little to challenge the mental
imagery of pupils. They do not support systematically multiple ways of problem solving, in which
21
Fig. 6. The parallelogram problem. Children who know how to
measure the area of a rectangle are asked to measure the area
of a parallelogram
images and their reflections would quite naturally play a stronger role. This can be seen from video-
analyses of physics lessons [26]. The education of future physics teachers has to address these
problems adequately. At present, however, the formal way of physics teaching at universities is, in
my view, one of the biggest obstacles for making future teachers susceptible to more appropriate
approaches to formal thinking in schools. It is quite natural to copy bad examples!
6. From concrete actions to general principles: insights require reflections
Fig. 7 shows a mechanical balance at equilibrium. Similar to the T-shirt item shown in Fig. 4, this
problem can be solved more effectively by using concrete pictorial operations rather than by solving
an equation. Removing mentally one brick from each side of the scales is a good strategy and a good
indicator for insight, although the argumentation - in comparison to the formal algebraic solution -
only takes place at a concrete level.
The example demonstrates the close interplay between the pictorial, concrete, physical access and
the symbolic, formal mathematical one. The physical
object balance is a possible realisation of the
mathematical object equation. Algebraic
operations at the abstract level correspond to
physical processes at a concrete level. The equi-
librium is not disturbed when the same processes
take place on both sides of the physical or
mathematical object. Our mental images and the
abstract mathematical symbols that we use are
embodied in such a way that they are based on
concrete experience about physical systems.
It is interesting to note that the physical system
balance corresponds to a basic mathematical
metaphor giving birth to algebra, an abstract subject
within mathematics. Algebra comes from the Arabic
word al jabr, the meaning of which is connected with balance and compensation [27]. As we all
know that mathematical formalism develops a life of its own, many students (and teachers too)
often forget about this correspondence. In his criticism of the pure formalist approaches to
mathematics, the famous Russian mathematician Arnold opens an article on teaching mathematics
with the statement Mathematics is a part of physics and he goes on saying Mathematics is the part
of physics where experiments are cheap [28]. Penrose, a master in visualizing abstract ideas,
promotes an evolutionary view of our mathematical abilities, which he considers an incidental fea-
ture, a by-product of evolution [29]: For our remote ancestors, a specific ability to do sophisticated
mathematics can hardly have been a selective advantage, but a general ability to understand could
well have. An important feature of understanding is mental model making, including reflections
about models and the modeling process. Models are executable mental images, mapping essential
features of reality and allowing to anticipate the future. They can be run at practically no cost and
their biological relevance for survival is evident.
To some, Arnolds criticism may sound too strong but in my personal view it is important to keep
in mind that the mathematical enterprise is based primarily upon physical experience and gains its
potential in a social context (communicate an externalize ideas). Our conceptual system (including
the formal mathematical system) is embodied. Most abstract ideas in the domain of science and
mathematics arise via conceptual metaphors. This is a mechanism that projects concrete, embodied
(that is, sensory-motor) reasoning to abstract reasoning. Thus, many abstract inferences can be
considered as extensions or projections of sensory-motor inferences. Such a line of thought about
formalism has been developed from linguistic approaches [30]. It may sound heretic to a formalist,
but for learning and doing physics it is important to keep in mind that formal thinking has a human
face and builds upon concrete experience.
22
Background Aspects
Fig. 7. The scale is in equilibrium. On the left scale
is a 1kg piece and half brick. On the right scale is
a full brick. What is the mass of the full brick?
Nevertheless, the abstraction processes (as the development of physics shows) transcend the con-
crete experience on which they are based. How is that possible? There is a creative element in
making models. Going from the level of concrete experience to the level of generalisations (or,
more formally, to the level of axioms) always involves a creative jump. This is very clearly expressed
in Einsteins view on the modelling cycle. His EJASE-scheme connects the level of experience (E)
with the level of axioms (A) and the conclusions (S), formally derived from the axioms, by a crea-
tive process depicted by J for jump [31] for a more detailed exposition). In many pedagogical
discussions on the modelling cycle this creative element is completely ignored!
It is important to reflect the transition from concrete experience to abstraction in detail. Again, we
can use a simple example, closely related to the scale problem and transformations of mechanical
equilibrium. Fig. 8a shows a visual approach to the lever principle which is attributed to Archimedes
[32]. We start with a symmetric configuration. We accept that it is in balance due to the symmetry
principle. With a few transformations, that add additional loads and shift them, leaving the system
in equilibrium, we arrive at an asymmetric configuration: One unit of load at triple distance from
the center is in balance with three units of load at one unit of distance. The sequence of pictures
speaks by itself. It acts quasi like proof without words. But nevertheless it is not a proof. Why?
There is a circularity in the argumentation. Some of the transformations (shifting the loads by one
unit in one direction and compensating the effect by an equal shift in the opposite direction) take
for granted the principle that is intended to be proved by the whole procedure! The same holds for
the demonstration of the center of mass (Fig. 8b). In rigid body mechanics, there are three princi-
ples that are closely interrelated: The lever principle, the superposition principle of torques and the
center of mass - principle. They are part of experience that we take over to the system of axioms.
They cannot be proved. But taking one of these principles for granted, the others can be derived.
There is a certain freedom of constructing the system of axioms that requires a creative jump from
experience to theory. Making this transition explicit is one of the most difficult stumbling blocks in
model making and formal thinking.
7. Metamorphoses of complex open systems: metaphors for insight?
In our attempts to foster understanding and insightful learning of physics we have to put more
23
Fig. 8. Insight into the
lever principle (a) and
the center of mass
principle (b).
emphasis on the nature of human understanding and the concrete embodied base of abstraction
and formalisation. Although understanding has the appearance of being a simple and common-
sense quality, it is impossible to define it. In his popular writings on atomic physics and human
knowledge Bohr noted that an analysis of the very concept of explanation would, naturally, begin
and end with a renunciation as to explaining our own conscious activity [33]. While our experience
starts with concrete concepts, the development of physics has led to the insight that physical reality
is not comprehensible in terms of concrete touchable systems. Questions, that have arisen in the
early days of quantum physics are still on the agenda today and will persist as we cannot circum-
vent the abstractness of physics. The way to abstract and formal thinking is unavoidable, but what
can we do not to lose too many students on that way?
Making physics more meaningful to the inquiring mind is important. This includes, among many
other aspects, the question, what kind of physics we have to learn, in order to make the physics in
our heads more tangible. The embodied mind, our mental imagery and intuition are based
considerably on mechanical experience. In accordance with the concrete nature of experience we
have restricted the present discussion to examples that are more or less mechanical in nature.
Mechanical systems can be grasped, they are visual and comprehensible. Promoting mechani-
cal imagery and its critical reflection is highly promising. It is surprising how far we can get by using
mechanically inspired imagery. Rather simple mechanical systems of our everyday world like
driven oscillators or coupled clocks behave in surprisingly complex ways [3] and the experiments
described there). These mechanical systems serve as models for complex dynamical processes of
open systems far from equilibrium. New properties emerge, like adaptive behavior and perception
like qualities, that we usually refer to the mental realm. The more we understand the complex
behavior of matter far from equilibrium, the more we also learn about the workings of our mind.
Along this line of thought we can even try to model
the metamorphoses of internal images. The phe-
nomenon of bistability that is found in many
complex systems can serve as a model for mentally
switching bistable percepts like the Necker cube in
Fig. 9. The spontaneous switching corresponds to a
thermally driven process, giving rise to a Poisson
sequence of events that compares to the
spontaneous switching of the cube. This model even
allows predictions for the transition from
spontaneous to the induced switching mode.
When the eyes follow a periodically moving dot as
the experiment in Fig. 2 shows, the switching
process locks to the periodical signal in spite of the
spontaneous noise. The switching becomes
synchronized with the external drive signal. There
is a close connection with the phenomenon of
stochastic resonance that is ubiquitous in nonlinear
dynamics. Noise plays a highly constructive role in
that phenomenon on many levels of biological
information processing and in neural computation
[34].
These models of complex phenomenon emanate
from mechanical intuition. Nevertheless, they
lead to concepts that are no longer mechanistic in the strict sense. One hardly recognizes the me-
chanical substrate they originated from. They even supply models for physics in the head, e.g.
for the metamorphoses of pictures or for other complex dynamic processes in our brains. These
systems can be modelled from first principles by field-theoretical approaches and show, to a certain
24
Background Aspects
Fig. 9. Transformations of inner landscapes.
A model for mentally switching bistable figures.
extent, universal behavior. In my personal view the universality of dynamical processes far from
equilibrium is one important factor why our brain can represent relevant aspects of reality.
Considering mental images through the looking glass of physics creates new insights on the
working of our brains, whose collective effects over the centuries finally set up the program of
physics. Is the theoretical frame of todays physics sufficient to model internal observers?
How far can such imagery guide our intuition? Although concrete pictures are necessary for our
understanding, physical reality transcends concrete imagery. Behind all our attempts to create con-
crete pictures lurks the paradox. Our visual imagination is powerful enough even to handle
paradoxical situations. Fig. 10 shows a strange picture of reality, which is also a metaphor for gaining
insight into the modelling method of physics. We make categories and models for certain aspects of
reality that appear consistent as long as they are viewed separately. The two shelves with the objects
on them might correspond to the particle or the field approach in physics. However, when we try
to put both systems together (as it happened in the development of quantum theory), we arrive at
a paradox (the impossible shelf).
Such impossible pictures link physics with arts. Combining physics and arts is one important
subject. Physics as the art of model making is another one. The real challenge, however, is to convey
how much our naive conceptions of reality are challenged by the program of physics! The
perception of physics in the future will depend critically on how we can convey to a broader public
that Physics is everywhere, how the late GIREP president Karl Luchner put it in his book. There is
much to be done to make physics education more attractive and effective!
References
[1] K. Luchner, Physik ist berall, Mnchen, (1991).
[2] M. Michelini, Introduction to the First GIREP Seminar, Udine, (2001).
[3] M. Euler, Physics and Physics Education Beyond 2000: Views, Issues and Visions. In, R. Pinto, S. Surrinach (Eds.),
Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000, Proc. Int. GIREP Conference Barcelona 2000, Paris, (2001).
[4] Knowledge and Skills for Life. First Results from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2000, Ed.: OECD, Paris, (2001).
25
Fig. 10. Images of
physics: from everyday
objects to strange
realities.
[5] A.E. Beaton et al, Mathematic Achievement in the Middle School Years: IEAs Third Int. Mathematics and Sci-
ence Study (TIMSS), Chestnut Hill, (1996).
[6] A.E. Beaton et al., Science Achievement in the Middle School Years: IEAs Third Int. Mathematics and Sci-
ence Study (TIMSS), Chestnut Hill, (1996).
[7] R.E. Mayer, Thinking, Problem Solving, Cognition, New York, (1992).
[8] C.F. Gauss, Brief an Olbers, Werke, Vol. X.1, Leipzig (1917), 24.
[9] R.J. Sternberg, J.E. Davidson (Hrsg), The Nature of Insight, Cambridge, Mass., (1995).
[10] C. M. Seifert, D. E. Meyer, N. Davidson, A. L. Patalano, I. Yaniv, Demystification of Cognitive Insight:
Opportunistic Assimilation and the Prepared-Mind Perspective, in [9], 65.
[11] R. E. Mayer, The Search for Insight: Grappling with Gestalt Psychologys Unanswered Questions, in [9], 3.
[12] M. Spitzer, Geist im Netz: Modelle fr Lernen, Denken und Handeln, Heidelberg, (1996).
[13] H. Atmanspacher, G. Dalenoort (Hrsg.), Inside Versus Outside: Endo- and Exo-Concepts of Observation and
Knowledge in Physics, Philosophy and Cognitive Science, Springer Series in Synergetics, Berlin, (1994).
[14] F. Moss, D. Pierson, D. OGorman, Stochastic Resonance: Tutorial and Update, Intern. Journal of Bifurcation
and Chaos, 4, (1994), 1383
[15] L. von Bertalanffy, Theoretische Biologie, Francke, Bern, (1951).
[16] W. Pauli, Physik und Erkenntnistheorie, Braunschweig, (1984).
[17] C. A. Meier (Hrsg), Wolfgang Pauli und C.G. Jung: Ein Briefwechsel 1932-1958, Berlin, (1992).
[18] H. Atmanspacher, H. Primas, E. Wertenschlag-Birkhuser (Hrsg.), Der Pauli-Jung-Dialog und seine Bedeutung
fr die moderne Wissenschaft, Berlin, (1995).
[19] H. Primas, Es gibt keine Einsicht ohne innere Bilder, GAIA 1 (1992), 311
[20] R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, II, Ch.
20-3, (1963).
[21] See articles on students knowledge and learning in: A. Tiberghien, E.L. Jossem, J. Barojas (Eds.), Connecting
Research in Physics Education with Teacher Education, ICPE-Book, 1997; available for download at
http://physics.ohio-state.edu/~jossem/ICPE/BOOKS.html
[22] Measuring Student Knowledge and Skills: A new framework for Assessment, OECD, (1999).
[23] M. Wertheimer, Productive Thinking, Harper & Row, New York, (1959).
[24] J. Fauvel, R. Flood, M. Shortland, R. Wilson (Eds.), Let Newton be! A New Perspective on his Life and his
Works, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, (1992).
[25] D.L. Goodstein, J.R. Goodstein, Feynmans Lost Lecture, Norton, New York, (1996).
[26] T. Seidel, M. Prenzel, R. Duit, M. Euler, H. Geiser, L. Hoffmann, M. Lehrke, C. Mller, R. Rimmele, Lehr-
Lernskripts im Physikunterricht und damit verbundene Bedingungen fr individuelle Lernprozesse,
Unterrichtswissenschaft, 30, (2002), 52
[27] A.K. Dewdney ,A Mathematical Mystery Tour, Wiley, New York, (1999).
[28] V. I. Arnold ,On Teaching Mathematics, Russian Math. Surveys 53, 1 (1998), 229
[29] R. Penrose, Shadows of the Mind, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, (1994).
[30] G. Lakoff, Nunez R.E, Where Mathematics Comes From, Basic Books, New York, (2000).
[31] G. Holton, Thematische Analyse der Wissenschaft, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, (1981).
[32] K. Simonyi, Kulturgeschichte der Physik, Harri Deutsch, Frankfurt, (1990).
[33] N. Bohr, Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge, Wiley, New York, (1958).
[34] E. Simonotto et al, Phys. Rev. Letters, 78, (1997), (1186).
26
Background Aspects
PHYSICS CURRICULUM REFORM: HOW CAN WE DO IT?
Robert G. Fuller, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska -Lincoln, USA
The physics community in the United States of American is facing a crisis. This crisis has been
described in presentations and papers at professional meetings in various ways. Let me introduce
you to the crisis faced by the physics community by discussing three different published papers that
present views of this crisis.
First is the paper by David Goodstein, Provost of the California Institute of Technology and a
physicist who co-authored The Mechanical Universe television series and textbook. According to
Provost Goodstein The Big Crunch occurred in the 1970s which was the end of 100 years of
exponential growth of science in the USA. No longer was increase financial support and national
interest in science guaranteed. Our educational institutions are poorly adapted to deal with a
different future.
In the USA science education has produced the Paradox of Scientific Elites and Scientific
Illiterates. We have a small cadre of exceptional scientists and a broad population of scientific
illiterate people. The model for science education in the USA has been described as a leaky
pipeline. This is the wrong. Mining and Sorting is a better metaphor for science education in the
USA. The purpose of the education enterprise has been to sort out the student unworthy of a
professional degree in science. It reaches its culmination in graduate school. Research professors
obtain external funding, independent of the needs of the institution, to run their research
programs. In the steady state each professor needs to turn out ONE Professor for the
next generation. In the golden era of physics, research professors would turn out one PhD per year!
The profession of teaching physics in the USA today has only two purposes:
to turn out physicists and to act as a gate keeper
We must turn the problem around. Physics has tremendous assets. Physics is a vast body of human
knowledge. In some ways, physics is the central triumph of human intelligence. Physics has paved
the way of civilization to our victory over mystery and ignorance. The methods of inquiry and
analysis used in physics that have produced that body of knowledge. The reasoning patterns used
and developed in the study of physics are the keystone of scientific reasoning. Hence, an
undergraduate physics major program must become the essence of a liberal education for the 21st
century. Unfortunately, everything about the way we teach physics today is useless for this vision
and I do not know the first step in that direction.
How do we teach physics for all citizens rather than just a scientific elite? I believe the key to
teaching anything is to remember what it was like not to understand the thing. Provost Goodstein
ends his paper by pointing us in a direction for physics education for the next generation [1].
The next paper I want to discuss is a paper by Sheila Tobias. Ms. Tobias is not a physicist. She was
trained in the humanities and first became noted for her famous book on mathematics anxiety.
{Sheila Tobias first wrote Overcoming Math Anxiety in 1978. In her updated version, published by
W. W. Norton in 1994, she enlarges on her analysis of the attitude and approach variables that
interfere with students performance in college-level mathematics.} In her paper published in the
American Journal of Physics in 2000, Ms. Tobias raises several questions about various aspects of
physics education in the USA.
Many of the most prestigious secondary schools in the USA, offer advanced placement (AP)
physics courses. These AP courses are a second year of physics intended for an elite corps of
secondary school students. How useful is AP physics?
There is a national movement in the USA towards standardized testing and in-class examinations.
Yet examinations can constrain educational innovation.
There are a variety of national rankings of physics departments. How do we figure teaching into a
departments rank? In fact, if you look at the descriptions of the interests of physics faculty
members at major universities you will almost find none who express a professional interest in
physics education!
We must start a national movement to require high school physics for entrance into college. This
means that we must develop courses in Science for all...not just an option for some.
Physics departments must cultivate their clients. They need to establish permanent liaisons with
the engineering and life science communities who require their students to take physics courses.
Universities need to revisiting the issue of class size. Is class size a meaningful arena for change?
Finally, Ms. Tobias urged physics departments to examine and transform the physics major for
undergraduates. It needs to become, not just a path for physics elites who intend to go to graduate
school in physics, the physics major must become attractive for students with undecided career
goals [2].
The third paper I want to discuss is the paper by Professors Ruth Howes and Robert Hilborn, both
former presidents of the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT). Their paper was also
published in the American Journal of Physics in 2000.
Professors Howes and Hilbom assert that Physics departments may not have changed much in the
past few decades but the educational, but the scientific and social environments in the USA have
changed considerably.
Physics has expanded and spun off numerous subfields.
The educated public views the frontiers of science as in the life sciences and physics is no longer
where the action is.
The educational environment has changed. The students are more diverse.
Client disciplines have begun to consider teaching introductory physics themselves.
The number of undergraduate physics majors has sunk to below pre-Sputnik levels while the total
number of undergraduates has doubled.
Four principles need to guide our response:
1 A wide spectrum of physicists recognize the need for change, but many still do not.
2. The fundamental unit of change is the department.
3. An undergraduate physics program is more than just the curriculum.
4. Every physics department is different.
The new environment is unlikely to return to its state of 30-some years ago. It will probably take
sustained efforts on many fronts before we see substantial results [3]. Taken in toto these three
papers are an urgent plea of major reforms in the physics curricula used in the USA. I want to
suggest a direction for such curriculum reform efforts by looking back at the work of a famous
physicist and physics educator and try to draw from his work guidelines for national physics
curriculum reform efforts.
Basing Physics Curriculum Reform On the Second Career of Robert Karplus
Let me begin by telling you about the first career of Robert Karplus. He was born in Vienna,
Austria, in 1927. His family moved to the USA when he was 10 years old. His first career was in
theoretical and experimental physics. He obtained a double degree from Harvard University in
physics and chemistry in 1945 and one year later got a masters degree in chemistry, also from
Harvard University. He completed his Ph. D. in chemical physics at Harvard in 1948. His thesis
research included both experimental and theoretical work on microwaves for Professor E. Bright
Wilson, Jr. He moved from Harvard to the Institute for Advanced Studies, directed by J. Robert
Oppenheimer, at Princeton University in 1948. He married Elizabeth Fraizer in December of 1948.
He began to work in quantum electrodynamics (QED). In 1950 Karplus and Kroll published the
first detailed calculations of a physics observable based on QED [4].
In 1950 Dr. Karplus returned to Harvard University where he served as an assistant professor of
physics from 1950 until 1954. In 1954 he moved to the University of California, Berkeley where he
was an Associate Professor of physics from 1954 until 1958 when he was promoted to full professor.
From 1948 to 1962 he published 50 research papers in physics, mostly in QED, but also on the Hall
effect and Van Allen radiation. He was the senior or only author of the first 19 papers. He published
with 32 different scientists, including 2 Nobel prize winners. More than 90% of his co-authors are
28
Background Aspects
now fellows of the American Physical
Society. Professor Karplus made his first
visit to his daughters elementary school
class in 1959-60. He probably did an
electrostatics demonstration with a
Windhurst machine
1
. Some thing
happened to his intellectual curiosity in
those visits to his daughters class and he
became more and more interested in the
kind and quality of science being taught
to children in elementary schools in the
USA. He joined in an elementary school
project with some other University of
California Berkeley faculty in 1959. He
published his first education paper with
J. M. Atkin in 1962, Discovery or
Invention? in The Science Teacher
periodical [5].
Karplus and Herb Thier started the Science Curriculum Improvement Study(SCIS) in 1961 with
financial support from the National Science Foundation. Over the next several years they and their
co-workers developed a complete K-6 science curriculum, (for children ages 5 through 11) the SCIS
curriculum, that is still in use today.
Robert Karplus was president of the AAPT in 1977 and he received the Oersted Medal in 1980. He
suffered a cardiac arrest while jogging in June of 1982 which ended his professional career . He died
in 1990.
As a part of faculty development leave in 1999, I collected a sample of his publications in science
education and based on those works I want to lift up for your consideration the enduring
contributions the work of Robert Karplus has made to science education [6].
Robert Karpluss enduring contributions to science
education:
1) He took Piagets work seriously. Robert Karplus was one of
the first educators in the USA to see the relevance of the work
of Jean Piaget to curriculum development. Based on his study
of Piagets work he came to believe that new knowledge must
be constructed by the mind of the learner and not simply
transmitted by the teacher. In this sense, then Karplus was one
of the first constructivists.
Therefore, I think a start toward understanding the impact of
the work of Robert Karplus in science education is to do a
brief review of the life and work of Jean Piaget.
Professor Jean Piaget (1895-1980) lived and worked most of
his life in Geneva, Switzerland. His work can be described by
three different periods. His first period (1922-29) began in
Binets laboratory in Paris, France. He began his style of semi-
clinical interviews, placing simple apparatus in front of
children and asking them to explore and explain its behavior.
He discovered and described childrens philosophies, such as
29
1
He and Betty were the parents of seven children bom between 1950 and 1962, three daughters and four sons.
their belief that the sun followed them, a property of childrens thinking that he called egocentrism.
The second period of the work of Piaget (1929-40) was when he studied his own three children. He
traced the origins of a childs spontaneous mental growth and realted it to infant behavior. He
postulated a variety of conservation reasoning patterns whereby the child comes to believe that
certain properties of a system remain the same even though the appearance of the system may
change dramatically, as in the game of Peek-a-Boo.
In the third period of his work (1940-80) Piaget concentrated on the development of logical
thought in children and adolescents. He observed how a child constructs ones world. A childs
mind is not a passive mirror. At first a child can reason about things but not about propositions.
Based on his own observations, Piaget developed his concept of the stages of cognitive develop as
summarized in the table below:
Logical Knowledge
Stages of Cognitive Development
(Jean Piaget)
Stage Characteristics Approximate Age
Range (Years)
Sensory-Motor Pre-verbal Reasoning birth -2
Pre-operational No cause-and-effect
Uses verbal symbols,
simple classifications,
but lacks conservation reasoning 1-8
Concrete Operational Reasoning is logical,
But concrete rather
than abstract 8 - ?
Formal Operational Hypothetical- deductive reasoning 11 - ?
According to Piaget, cognitive development explains learning. Development occurs by four main
factors:
Maturation
Experience - the effect of the physical environment on the mental structures of intelligence
Social, or education, transmission
Equilibration or Self-regulation-the fundamental one
Professor Karplus wrote his summary of major ideas of Piagets work for educators as a part of the
Workshop on Physics Teaching and the Development of Reasoning that he developed for the
AAPT.
Major Ideas from Piagets Work (by Karplus, 1975)
1. Piagets theory describes two major stages of logical, operational reasoning in human intellectual
development, the stage of concrete reasoning and the stage of formal reasoning. Earlier stages
identifiable in the behavior of young children may be called pre-operational.
2. Each of these two major stages is characterized by certain reasoning patterns, used by individuals
to classify observations, interpret data, draw conclusions, and make predictions.
Characteristics of concrete and formal reasoning
Concrete Reasoning
Individuals-
(a) Need reference to familiar actions, objects, and observable properties.
30
Background Aspects
(b) Use classification, conservation, and seriation reasoning patterns in relation to concrete items
a) above. Have limited and intuitive understanding of formal reasoning patterns.
(c)Need step-by-step instructions in a lengthy procedure.
(d) Are not aware of their own reasoning, or inconsistencies among various statements they make,
or contradictions with other known facts.
Formal Reasoning
Individuals-
(a) Can reason with concepts, relationships, abstract properties, axioms, and theories; use symbols
to express ideas.
(b) Apply classification, conservation, seriation, combinatorial, proportional, probabilistic,
correlational, and controlling variables reasoning in abstract items (a) above.
(c) Can plan a lengthy procedure given certain overall goals and resources.
(d) Are aware and critical of their own reasoning, actively seek checks on the validity of their
conclusions by appealing to other known information.
3. The formal stage is an idealization in that most persons after age twelve use formal reasoning
patterns under some conditions and concrete reasoning patterns under others. The latter is likely
to occur whenever the subject matter is unfamiliar, as is the case for a student beginning work in a
new area. The former is likely to be the case for an experienced worker in the field.
4. The process of self-regulation plays a vital role when an individual advances from the use of
concrete reasoning patterns to the use of formal reasoning patterns. Self-regulation begins with
ones awareness that the concrete reasoning patterns are inadequate. It proceeds through direct
experience with phenomena supplemented by the introduction of related organizing principles and
major concepts.
5. A person who uses only concrete reasoning patterns is likely to proceed through self-regulation
in a new subject much more slowly than a person who reasons formally in connection with other
studies. The latter individual benefits from the possibility of transferring formal reasoning patterns
to the new area, especially if the new and old are closely related as is the case with mathematics
and physics.
6. Some students who are required to learn formal-level material in a subject in which they so far have
only used concrete reasoning may go through self-regulation spontaneously. Other students, with less
experience or self-awareness, are not likely to experience the necessary self-regulation; instead, they
will memorize certain prominent words, phrases, formulas, and procedures, but will apply these with
little understanding unless the teaching program takes their specific needs into account.
7. Tests should be designed to evaluate the students reasoning and also help them engage in self-
regulation.
8. The Learning Cycle can be an effective strategy in classes where some students display concrete
reasoning patterns and some formal reasoning patterns [7].
Robert Karpluss enduring contributions to science education (continued):
2) Professor Karplus focused on student reasoning. Based on his understanding of the work of
Piaget, he developed a series of paper and pencil tasks that he could use with students to reveal the
reasoning patterns they used. He published this work in a number of articles about reasoning
beyond elementary school. The first puzzle he used by the Mr. Short-Mr. Tall Puzzle [8], as follows:
The Mr. Short - Mr. Tall Puzzle
The figure below is called Mr. Short. We used large round buttons laid side-by-side. To measure Mr.
Shorts height, starting from the floor between his feet and going to the top of his head. His height
was four buttons. Then we took a similar figure called Mr. Tall, and measured it in the same way
with the same bottom. Mr. Tall was six buttons high.
31
Professor Karplus collected a number of student responses to the Mr. Short/Mr. Tall task and then
he developed a classification system for these responses. Finally, he organized the classification
system into a sequence of reasoning patterns based on the stages of cognitive development
postulated by Piaget.
Student Responses to the Mr. Short/Mr. Tall Task:
Category N: no explanation or statement, I cant explain.
Category I (intuition): An explanation referring to estimates, guesses, appearances, or extraneous
factors without using the data.
Examples of the predictions and related explanations are:
9 1/2-The big man just looks that much bigger than the little man.
9 -Because thats what I think it is.
9 1/2-You use a ratio factor, but I dont remember how, so I guessed
10-A guess.
Category IC (intuitive computation) : The subject makes use of data haphazardly and in an illogical
way. Examples are:
16-By multiplying.
10-I figured out that if he had bigger paper clips, you add 6 with the other 4 and you have 10.
12 1/2-Half of 12 is 6, so youd take the paper dips and measure him twice
because hes longer than Mr. Short, so naturally it would be 121/2.
10 3/4- Since it took 4 biggies for Mr. Short and 6 1/4 smallies, there is 2 1/4 difference, and it
tool, 6 biggies for Mr. Tall, 2 more than for Mr. Short, so I added 2 1/4 + 2 1/4 together and got 4 1/2
and added that to 6 1/4 and got 10 3/4 for an answer.
Category A (addition) : An explanation using all of the data, but applying, the difference rather
than the ratio at measurements. Examples are:
8-The little man was 4 of his and 6 of mine so I added 2.
8 1/2 -When you did it, the large man was 2 big paper clips bigger than your small man. So mine
must be 8-if 6 smallies equal
4 biggies, then 6 biggies must equal 8 smallies.
Category S (scaling) : The subject makes a change of scale when he predicts. He does not relate this
operation to the scale inherent in the data, thereby failing to see the whole problem. He expresses
a tentative attitude toward his estimate. Examples are:
32
Background Aspects
1. Measure the height of Mr. Short
using paper clips in a chain provided.
The height is
2. Predict the height of Mr. Tall if
he were measured with the same paper
clips.-
3. Explain how you figured out your
prediction. (You may use diagrams,
words or calculations. Please explain
your steps carefully.)
12-The large man is two times bigger than the little man; the little man is 6, so I think it is 12.
12-I think, it is twelve because in biggies it is six, and small ones are about half that size, and so
I thinl, it is about 12.
Category AS (addition and scaling) : The subject focuses on the excess height of Mr. Tall, but scales
up the excess number of jumbo paper clips by a factor of two to compensate for the size difference;
An example is:
10-1 think, two smllies are as big as one biggie, so I added four smallies for the two extra
Category P (proportional reasoning): The subject uses proportionality and makes clear how the
ratio is derived from the measurements on the two figures. He may or may not use the word ratio.
Examples are:
9 -There is a mathematical problem in 4 big, and 6 big, 4 is 2/3 of 6, so it should be 9.
9 -6 4 = 1 1/2, 6 x 1 1/2 = 9.
9 -The ratio of the biggies is 2:3, so you figure the small paper clips would also have the ratio 2:3.
9.75 -It was a direct ratio and proportion, small to large, small to large.
9 -Set up a ratio, 6/4= x/6
9 6/4 =x/6, x = 9
The results Professor Karplus obtained for students from ages 9 (4th grade) to 17(12 th grade) are
shown in the bar graph below:
33
Another task that Professor Karplus developed by the island puzzle [9], see below:
The Islands puzzle
The puzzle is about Islands A, B, C, and D in the ocean. People have been traveling among these
islands by boat for many years, but recently an air-line started in business. Carefully read the clues
about Possible plane trips at present. The trips may be direct or include stops and plane changes
on an island. When a trip is Possible, it can be made in either direction between the islands. you
may make notes or marks on the map to help use the clues.
First Clue: People can go by plane between Islands C and D.
Second Clue: People cannot go by plane between Islands A and B, even indirectly.
Use these two clues to answer Question 1. Do not read the next clue yet.
Question 1: Can people go by plane between Island B and D?
Yes_________ No _________ Cant tell from the two clues
Please explain your answer.
Third Clue (do not change your answer to Question I now!): People can go by plane between Island
B and D.
Use all three clues to answer Question 2 and 3.
Question 2: Can people go by plane between Island B and C?
Please explain your answer.
Question 3 :Can people go by plane between Islands A and C?
Please explain your answer..
Island Puzzle Responses
Category N: no explanation or statement I cant explain.
Category I (pre-logical): an explanation which makes no reference to the clues and/or introduces
new information. Subcategories are the mere repetition of the answer to be explained (to #2, Yes,
because there are flights), appeal to the diagram itself (to #2, Yes, because it is the diagonal or
to #3, Yes, because it is close), and fanciful stories (to #1, No, because there is a strong air pocket
that no one can survive or to #2, No, because the plane can run out of gas and go down in the
water)
Category Ila (transition to concrete models) : direct appeal to or repetition of clues (#1, No,
because you did not say so or to #1 Cant tell because you didnt say). Since all three questions
require inferences, a direct appeal to the clues does not provide a logical justification.
Category Ilb (concrete models) : the clues are used to construct models which are then used to
make the predictions. The most common model provides for the presence or absence of airport
facilities on an island, according to whether flights were or were not said to reach it (to #l, Cant
tell, because Bean Island has an airport, but Bird Island might or might not have an airport; to #2,
Yes, because there must be an airport on Bird Island, so the people from Fish lsland can get there;
to#3, No, Snail must be the one with no airport, so people from Fish Island cant get there). This
model-based approach, when correctly used, leads to correct answers to all three questions in the
problem. It assumes information not given in the clues, however, and cannot be generalized to solve
similar puzzles with different data.
Category IIIa (transition to abstract logic): logical explanation to question 2, that Bird Island can
34
Background Aspects
The puzzle is about Islands A, B, C, and D in
the ocean. People have been traveling among
these islands by boat for many years, but
recently an air-line started in business.
Carefully read the clues about Possible plane
trips at present. The trips may be direct or
include stops and plane changes on an island.
When a trip is Possible, it can be made in
either direction between the islands. you may
make notes or marks on the map to help use
the clues.
certainly be reached from Fish Island by way of a stop at Bean Island (to #2, Yes, Fish to Bean to
Bird). Since the logical inference from the two positive statements (clues I and 3) needed for
question 2 is easier, in our view, than the use of the negative statement (clue 2), question 2 does not
make maximum demand on the subjects reasoning ability.
We have therefore classified the logical answer here as being transitional to the abstract stage,
rather than representing attainment of the abstract stage.
Category IIIb (abstract logic): logical explanations to questions 1 and 3 (to #1, Cant tell because
there is no information linking either Bean or Fish Island with Bird Island; to #3, No, because a
flight between Fish and Snail would make possible a route between Bird and Snail via Bean and
Fish; this contradicts the second clue).
Karplus collected responses to the Island Puzzle from students from ages 10 to 17 as well as from
members of the National Science Teachers Association and the AAPT. The results of his
investigations are shown in the following bar graph.
35
Based on the work of Karplus we wondered about the reasoning patterns typically used by college
students in the USA. Furthermore, we decided that proportional reasoning is a pattern that is
essential for understanding college level mathematics and physics.
So we solicited the help of many faculty colleagues to collect data about the reasoning of a large
number of college students doing a variety of proportional reasoning tasks.
We give three examples of the kinds of proportional reasoning tasks we developed [10] to use with
college students
2
.
The Wahoo Puzzle
The state of Ohio is converting all of their highway distance road signs to a dual English-metric
system. Shown below is an example of a sign that you might see as you drive towards Cleveland,
Ohio.
2
With the help of other faculty members we collected student responses to proportional reasoning tasks from more that
eight thousand college students in the USA. We developed five categories of responses, ala Karplus, to these tasks.
CLEVELAND
94 MILES
152 KILOMETERS
Assume that the state of Nebraska also converts its road signs to the same system. As you drive
towards Wahoo, Nebraska, you might see the following sign.
WAHOO
_______ MILES
380 KILOMETERS
Are you able to compute the number to put in the blank shown on the sign above from the data
you are given on this page? Yes_______ No _______
Explain your answer-
If you can compute the number to put in the blank, please do so. Write
it in the blank above and explain in words how you calculated your result.
Show your work below:
The Recipe Puzzle
A recipe for pumpkin pie requires that milk be added along with other
ingredients. This modern recipe gives both the old English and the new
metric equivalents as shown below.
Recipe #1 Pumpkin Pie
Add
21 teaspoons of milk
or
99 milliliters of milk
Another metric recipe calls for a similar ingredient but does not give the
English unit equivalent.
Recipe #2 Chocolate Cake
Add
_______teaspoons of milk
or
231 milliliters of milk
Are you able to compute the number to fill in the blank shown in Recipe #2 ?
Yes_______ No _______
Explain your answer-
If you can compute the number, please do so. Write your answer in the blank above, and show and
explain how you did the calculation below.
36
Background Aspects
The Shadows Puzzle
Walking back to my room after
class yesterday afternoon, I
noticed my six-foot frame cast a
shadow eight feet long. A rather
small tree next to the sidewalk
cast a shadow eighteen feet long.
My best guess of the height of the
tree would be Please explain the
reasoning you used to find your
answer
Proportional Reasoning
Responses
1. Intuitive: No response or a
guess with little evidence of reasoning.
Examples: Cant tell.
Im not good at numbers.
2. Additive: Adds or subtracts to obtain an answer.
Example (Shadows): 8 is to 6 as 18 is to 16.
3. Ratio attempt: Attempts a ratio but fails for reasons other than arithmetic: wrong ratio, cant
solve for x, etc.
Example (Recipe): May try to find how many times 99 goes into 231, what remainder will exist,
then somehow try to convert the 33 ml remainder into teaspoons.
4. Ratio formula: Uses proportional reasoning to set up an equation and then solve for unknown.
Example (Shadows): 6/8 = x/18 so x = (6/8) 18 or 13 feet.
5. Conversion: Introduces a new quantity as a conversion factor then multiplies or divides. Example
(Shadows): The height is 6/8 or 75% of the shadow so the tree is 0.75 x 18 = 13.5 feet high.
You will notice on the following bar graph of our results that a significant fraction, about forty
percent, of typical USA college students do NOT systematically use proportional reasoning.
Before we can begin to develop a new physics curriculum, we must address a more fundamental
question. How do we foster the
development of more advanced
reasoning by college students?
Let us turn our attention back to the
work of Robert Karplus as we attempt
to answer that question.
Robert Karpluss enduring contributions
to science education (continued):
3) Karplus developed the learning
cycle instructional strategy [11]. He
believed this strategy was most likely
to encourage students to go through
the process of self-regulation and
develop more advanced reasoning
processes.
Classroom activities may play a central
role in the improvement of student
reasoning. A classroom instructional
strategy based upon the work of Piaget
37
and Karplus is called the Learning Cycle. The entire learning cycle consists of three phases that are
called exploration, and application.
During exploration the students learn through their own more or less spontaneous reactions to a
new situation. In this phase, they explore new materials or ideas with minimal guidance or
expectation of specific achievements. Their patterns of reasoning may be inadequate to cope with
the new data, and they may begin self-regulation.
During the invention phase, a new concept is defined or a new principle invented to expand the
students knowledge, skills, or reasoning. This step should always follow exploration and relate to
the exploration activities. It will thereby assist in your students self-regulation. Do encourage
individual students to invent part or all of a new idea for themselves, before you present it to the
class.
During the last phase of the learning cycle, application, students find new uses for the concepts or
skills they have invented earlier. The application phase provides additional time and experiences
for self-regulation to take place. It also gives you the opportunity to introduce the new concept
repeatedly to help students whose conceptual re-organization proceeds more slowly than average,
or who did not adequately relate your original explanation to their experiences. Individual
conferences with these students to identify their difficulties are especially helpful.
A wide variety of evaluation projects were able to demonstrate the efficacy of this instructional
strategy.
Robert Karpluss enduring contributions to science education (continued):
4) Professor Karplus developed a scientific process of curriculum development.
It seems so logical now. The process that Karplus developed has become widely used by people
who are unaware of his work. He brought the feedback loop of the scientific method to the task
of curriculum development. Field testing materials with students was a keystone of his process.
The process that he used is to develop the materials, then field test them in a wide variety of
classrooms and then use the feedback from the classroom activities to revise the lessons and
field test them again and revise them again, etc. In such a process, only the very best lessons
survived [12].
5) Dr. Karplus realized that the central figure in the school learning experience of science is the
teacher. Elementary school teachers had to become comfortable with hands-on science activities in
order for his SCIS program to succeed. Karplus emphasized teacher development. He created a
series of teacher workshops on the theme of science teaching and the development of reasoning
[13].
In addition to the workshops, Professor Karplus and his co-worked created a series of movies that
show how students react to a variety of reasoning tasks, many of them taken from Piagets work.
The film of most use to college faculty is his film on formal reasoning patterns. It shows the
behavior of students from 10 to 17 years of age as they approach tasks requiring combinatorial
reasoning, proportional reasoning, separation and control of variables and multiplicative
compensation [14].
6) Karplus emphasized that science for everyone, not just an elite few. As a result of his conviction
about this, they tried SCIS lessons on students of all kinds. The modern day movement of science
for all students can look back and find its roots in the work of Robert Karplus.
7) Finally, Karplus loved the act of discovery. He never tired of discovering things for himself and
he wanted children to know the joy of discovery. Dont tell me, let me find out. is the title of the
film that they made about the SCIS curriculum.
In conclusion, then, it seems clear to me that important curriculum work in physics and other
sciences will find its strength in the enduring contributions that Robert Karplus has made to
science education. A successful physics curriculum for the 21st century will be one in which
students in physics classes are encouraged to have their own wonderful ideas [15].
38
Background Aspects
References
[1] D. Goodstein, Now Boardng: The Flight from Physics, Amer. J. Phys., 67(3), (1999), 183-6.
[2] S. Tobias, From innovation to change: Forging a physics education reform agenda for the 21st century, Amer.
J. Phys., 68(2), (2000), 103.
[3] R. Howes and R. Hilborn, Winds of Change, Amer. J. Phys., 68(5), (2000), 401-2.
[4] R. Karplus et al., Fourth Order Corrections in QED to the Magnetic Moment of the Electron, Phys. Rev. 77,
(1950), 536-49.
[5] R. Karplus and J.M. Atkin, Discovery or Invention?, The Science Teacher 29(5), (1952), 45-47.
[6] A Love of Discovery: Science Education - the Second Career of Robert Karplus, R.G. Fuller (Ed), Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers, , (2002).
[7] R. Karplus et. al., Physics teaching and the development of reasoning workshop. American Association of
Physics Teachers, (1975).
[8] R. Karplus and R. W. Peterson, Intellectual development beyond elementary school ii: ratio, a survey, School
Science and Mathematics, 70(9), (1990), 813-820.
[9] E. F. Karplus and R. Karplus, Intellectual Development Beyond Elementary School 1: Deductive Logic, School
Science and Mathematics, 70(5), (1970), 39@-406.
[10] M.C. Thornton and R.G. Fuller, how do college students solve proportion problems? J. Res. Sci. Teach., 18,
(1981), 335.
[11] R.G. Fuller, R. Karplus, and A.E. Lawson, Can physics develop reasoning?, Physics Today, 30 (2), (1977), 23;
R. Karplus, Science Teaching and the Development of Reasoning, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 14
(2), (1977),
169-175.
[12] R. Karplus, Strategies in Curriculum Development-The SCIS project, Strategies for Curriculum Development,
Jon Schaffarzick and David H. Hampton (Eds), McCutchan Publishing Corp., Berkeley, CA, (1975), 69-88.
[13] R. Karplus, A. E. Lawson, W. T. Wollman, M. Appel, R. Bernoff, A. Howe, J. J. Rusch and F. Sullivan. Workshop
on Science Teaching and the Development of Reasoning, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Hall of Science, March (1976)
(trial edition), Final edition, (1977)]
[14] R. Karplus and R. Peterson, Formal Reasoning Patterns (a film illustrating Jean Piagets developmental theory
of intellectual development), San Francisco: Davidson Films, (1978).
[15] [Eleanor R. Duckworth, The having of wonderful ideas & other essays on teaching & learning, 2nd ed, Teachers
College Press, Teachers College, Columbia University, (1996).
39
40
Background Aspects
REAL-TIME APPROACHES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL THINKING IN
PHYSICS
Elena Sassi, Department of Physical Science, University of Naples, Italy, EU project STTIS
Science Teacher Training in an Information Society, Italy
1. Introduction
There is a widely acknowledged consensus, both in the educational research and in the school
communities, about the very relevant role of Formal Thinking in building a well sound knowledge
in Science Education, and expecially in Physics Education. A piece of evidence is the decision of
having this Seminar and the many contributions presented.
In school practice several learning difficulties are very likely related to insufficient awareness of the
relationship between experiment and theory, and/or phenomenology and its formal description.
For the sake of brevity no detailed discussion of Formal Thinking will be addressed here; the
presentation of this Seminar has offered many hints and a broad meaning has been proposed in
the presentation of WorkShop1 (De Ambrosis & Rinaudo, 2001) .
To frame the content of this paper it may be useful to briefly recall some features of the current
situation.
A first one is the general consensus nowadays acknowledged by science education researchers
about the urgent need of connecting more intensely research results with the fields of teachers
education, class-practice and work of practitioners. (Osborne & Millar, 2001; Viennot 2000, 2001).
Another one is the growing interest in Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK which, since the
last 80s, calls attention on the awareness that, in order to reach a teaching practice of high quality,
the indispensable knowledge of disciplinary content needs to be transformed into a subject matter
knowledge for teaching.
A main focus is that at least these types of knowledge are key components of PCK: representations
of content suitable for teaching; teaching strategies coherent with these representations; students
common-sense knowledge and learning difficulties (De Jong, 2001).
A third one is that educational research is more and more demanded to demonstrate that its
results are valid and useful contributions to teachers and school practice. In the the presidential
address of 2001 ESERA Conference, Robert Millar (Millar 2001) pointed out that in many
countries, research in education (including science education) is under increasing pressure to
demonstrate that it is useful to teachers and to other such as policy-makers and can help them
to do their jobs more effectively. A growing effort is being put in developing research based
teachers education programs, for instance in the EU Project STTIS (cfr. in the following) (Colin
et al, 2001; Monroy et al. 2001; ; Pint et al., 2001; Stylaniadou et al., 2001).
This paper presents some viewpoints about the main contributions that Real-Time approaches can
give to the development of Formal Thinking (FT) in basic physics education.
The results underlying these viewpoints come from three sources: research studies of the physics
education group I am working with, which has been involved, since the early 80s, in studying and
using Real-Time approaches; the EU three years project STTIS (Science Teacher Training in an
information Society) which very recently has been completed
1
and literature.
Section 1 indicates very briefly some aspects of the development of Formal Thinking in physics
and science education and some main difficulties encountered in this process.
Section 2 discusses the main contributions that Real-Time Experiment and Images can give to
Formal Thinking.
In Section 3 presents comments about the current use of RTEI in ordinary class practice and the
main transforming trends of its rationale.
Section 4 concludes with a possible project aimed at facilitating RTEI adoption.
1
Public Documents of the STTIS project can be found at http://www.blues.uab.es/~idmc42/archive/index.html
2. Learning/teaching problems related to development of formal thinking
It is commonly acknowledged that the development of Formal Thinking is a complex process,
involving the acquisition of multiple types of knowledge and the integration of skills belonging to
different areas. A schematic, non exhaustive representation is shown in Fig.1; it depicts two large
areas which do play important roles in the process and which have been labelled Models and
Experiments for the sake of brevity.
41
Fig.1: Some components of the development of Formal Thinking
To develop a sound FT in physics the knowledge of the language and meaning of Mathematics is
a crucial element. The relationship between Physics and Mathematics has been defined as a
constitutive one (Levy Leblond 1991) and the students need to be helped to become aware of
the fact that Mathematics is the language needed by Physics to articulate its description of that part
of natural reality which has been and is studied scientifically. Other crucial elements are the
knowledge of the basic principles of physics and the awareness of the values and beliefs that the
physics community has developed along the development of the discipline. This framework is
represented in the schema as a kind of net that is a background element of the process.
The two blobs Models and Experiments are linked through many activities, as for example those
indicated between the two arrows. These activities aim at acquiring capabilities about the links
amongst phenomenological observations, experimental results, data of different types and their
possible formal representations, such as: - data fitting, exploring/using models already made,
building ones own models. A well sound FT in physics implies the capability of moving back and
forth phenomenology and its formal descriptions and explanations.
The blob Models refers to all those learning/teaching activities that help to become aware of the
various types of models (qualitative, quantitative, mathematical, etc..); of the difference between
natural reality and models as mental representations of some of its aspects; of the various levels of
formalisation involved in modelling (Sperandeo 2001). Above Models are indicated some
specific activities related to: awareness of the limits of models; capability of prevision of
experiments and extrapolated trends; verification of models validity; comparison amongst models;
criteria for choosing an appropriate model, etc
The blob Experiments indicates those activities related to lab-work, observation and exploration
of phenomenology that are typical of an experimental discipline as physics. Below Experiments
some key aspects participating to the development of FTare summarised; from right to left some
significant areas a learner goes through in becoming capable of FT. The identification of
significant versus not significant variables and the issues of approximation and errors, unavoidable
in every measure and experienced in laboratory work with real apparatuses, are contents to be
familiar with in order to be able to think in formal terms. They are followed, in the schema, by three
other components of the complex conceptual chain leading to FT: - to distinguish between trends of
experimental data and specific details (the first inform on the global behaviour of the evolving physics
system; the second allow to study local aspects); - to explore the evolution of the studied phenomenon
according a variational approach which changes one condition at a time and allows to answer
questions like What changes or remain constant if this or that varies?; - to practice a from Real
phenomena to Ideal cases rationale that helps becoming aware of the many steps needed to proceed
from the features of complex, real phenomena to the formal representation of ideal cases in terms of
physics laws. The last three aspects are labelled with a star to indicate that they can be experienced
more easily (or almost uniquely) in Real-Time approaches (cfr. in the following).
Very many learning and teaching difficulties have been researched (cfr. Bibliography by Pfundt and
Duit, 1994) according to age level of students, type and level of addressed physics content, teaching
strategy and teachers beliefs and convictions (Hewson & Hewson, 1988; Tobin, 1988; Briscoe, 1991;
Bell and Pearson, 1992; Crawley & Salyer, 1995; Couchouron et al., 1996; Hirn, 1998; Van den
Akker, 1998; Van Driel & Verloop, 1999). Most of the comments presented here refer to problems
encountered in secondary education, at age range about 13-17. Several of them influence the
development of FT or are kinked to difficulties related to reasoning in formal terms.
A list of common problems in the development of FT contains many items and is not exhaustive;
here may be useful to recall some amongst the relevant ones.
Both experienced teachers and educational researchers do know that there are common difficulties
in linking formal representations of physics phenomena with the naive and interpretative
descriptions students give using ordinary language, intuitive images, spontaneous metaphors, etc..,
based on their robust common-sense knowledge. The translation processes needed to relate such
different languages with forms of FT are not easy nor immediate for young students, specially when
abstract representations are involved, as mathematical expressions and/or graphs. Unfortunately,
very often there is insufficient emphasis on helping the students to become aware of the links
between physics phenomenology and mathematical model describing and representing it;this weak
focus may easily produce obstacles in developing those aspects of FT needed to build a long lasting,
well integrated physics knowledge,
Difficulties are also encountered by students in becoming familiar with the various levels of
formalisation required, from regularities that can be inferred from phenomenological observation,
to formal rules representing such regularities, to mathematical models that represent and predict
trends/features, to synthetic physics laws of ideal cases referring to abstract situations.
Quite often students have problems in acquiring the capability of understanding and using
multiple-representations of the same data and of choosing the most suitable one according with the
objective aimed at. An example case is that of graphic representations where the same information
can be represented in different modalities emphasising different aspect of the same phenomenon.
Last but not least, several learning/teaching obstacles are found in the interplay of experimental
and modelling activities; the latter still being not enough practised (STTIS 2000a). The result is
often missing a royal way to help the development of FT.
3. Formal thinking and real-time experiment and images
The Real-Time approaches are based on experiments with sensors driven by computers, on-line
display of collected data and use of images of resulting graphs, (the main language for
representing the measures); for the sake of brevity, the acronym RTEI (Real-Time Experiment and
Images) will be used here in order to avoid specific reference to any of the available systems.
RTEI has been first proposed in the early 80s and many user friendly systems are available
2
; it uses
42
Background Aspects
2
Information on Real-Time systems can be found at: www.vernier.com; www.pasco.com; http://www.cma.science.uva.nl/english/index.html
a mature technology and therefore it is not a novelty, its innovative educational value is supported
by many research studies and experiences. (Sokoloff and Thornton, 1997; Workshop Physics, 2000;
Ellermeijer and Heck, 2002; Sassi 1995, 19996, 1997, 2001a). Nowadays many researches do focus
on its value as a cognitive tool other than a powerful technological system and propose its use in
school practice. Very briefly, its major areas of impact on the quality of learning/teaching processes
deal with the integration of diverse types of knowledge, as for instance perceptual, common-sense,
abstract and experimental knowledge; the re-structuring of the contents to be taught, both usually
addressed ones and new ones; the implementation of innovative strategies for addressing robust
learning/teaching difficulties that impair the understanding of basic physics, as for instance the
from Real phenomena to Ideal cases rationale; the possibility of easy practice of the effective
PEC (Prediction Experiment Comparison) learning cycle which usually is not much practised,
given the long time required by its iteration with traditional lab-work.
Before discussing some aspects of the contributions RTEI can give to Formal Thinking, in the spirit
of the scientific rationale of this Seminar, the many links of this paper with other products of the
Seminar have to be explicitly indicated. Three Workshops have addressed themes deeply related to
what is discussed here. In Workshop 1 Interplay of Theory and Experiments (De Ambrosis, 2002)
two of the proposed questions: Computer based laboratory: how can it favour the formalisation
process? and Discovery experiments: how easy is it to prepare them and to relate them with
theory? relate much to RTEI. Workshop 2 Learning Physics via Model Construction has
(Sperandeo, 2001) looked at the integration between laboratory work and use of modelling
software and has discussed how to bridge qualitative, informal description of data trends and their
representation through mathematical functions. The study of everyday, complex phenomena, well
known to students in terms of their perceptual and naive knowledge, is made possible and facilitate
by RTEI; this helps the development and the interpretation of explanatory models of these familiar
phenomena. Finally, RTEI is obviously a not trivial theme of Workshop 6 New technologies and
computers in physics learning (Rogers, 2002).
Many reasons justify and support the use of RTEI to foster the development of FT in physics.
Amongst the main ones are the following.
First of all is the fact that phenomenological exploration and experiments are an indispensable,
ground basis in the path aiming at understanding the role of formalisation in physics and at
acquiring capabilities in FT. Amongst the different types of experimental activities, RTEI plays a
very important role, for its unique feature of displaying the results of the measurement while the
studied phenomenon happens and evolves and for the many measurable physical quantities given
the available variety of sensors.
Second is the bridge between common-sense knowledge interpretations of phenomena and some
of their possible abstract representations, and amongst these the one through Cartesian graphs.
Since the natural RTEI language is that of graphs showing the evolution in time of the measured
variables, this bridge is facilitated by the very fact that the graph is built and displayed while the
phenomenon happens and evolves.
Third, user-friendly software tools for data fitting are nowadays present in all available RTEI
systems (and sometimes also a modelling environment is provided); therefore modelling activities
are facilitated and fostered. Expecially in the case of phenomena well known to students in terms
of their nave knowledge, the data fitting phase is a useful first step toward the development and
the interpretation of explanatory models.
Since RTEI is an approach and not a proposal to teach a specific subject, it is transversal with
respect to specific disciplinary contents, even though its implementation in class practice calls for a
specific content to be addressed. An adoption of RTEI coherent with its rationale implies a
complex process usually resulting in not minor re-design of teaching and deep changes in school
practice. This shows usually through becoming able: of implementing RTEI approaches in various
contexts; of realising learning situations focused on both phenomenological and formal aspects; of
centring on learning difficulties to be addressed.
43
Several peculiar features of RTEI do contribute to foster the development of FT in physics;
according to research and experience at least the following ones play an important role.
* In developing FT it is crucial to identify which variables are significant for the description of the
phenomenon being studied; RTEI allows and facilitates a variational analysis through a rapid
repetition of experiments under different conditions. Changes that do (and do not) influence
experiments results can be easily identified through activities of the kind What happens if ..?,
worthwhile both from cognitive and motivational viewpoints.
The sensors used in RTEI usually collect tens of measures per second, this allows and facilitates the
observation of very many details in the time evolution of the studied phenomena. A central
capability in the process of developing FT is the awareness about which details should be described
by the formal representations aimed at. Given the richness of the measured data and the
consequent details, its necessary to choose which aspects to take into account and which to
disregard, in order to proceed toward modelling activities. What becomes visible in a real-time
approach fosters and supports this choice; the development of explanatory models of the studied
phenomena is therefore facilitated. Specially in the case of complex, everyday phenomena, well
known to students in terms of common sense knowledge, a noticeable resource to build on, in the
development of FT, is the comparison between predictions about their features (as for instance
trends in their time evolution, co-relation amongst significant variables, shapes of graphs, etc..) and
the result of experiments.
The goal of making concrete important aspects of FT is facilitated by RTEI also through the easy
implementations of the PEC learning cycle (Prediction Experiment Comparison), a well known,
not much practised learning tool, about whose educational usefulness there is wide consensus. PEC
helps in acquiring high level cognitive capabilities, as expressing ones own ideas and reasoning
strategies; analysing and modelling experimental data; comparing predictions with results; all three
phases of the cycle contribute significantly to develop FT and to be able of its concrete applications.
The phase Prediction allows to elicit students ideas which, in some cases, might conflict with
acknowledged physics. Moreover, according to the language used, possible problems about
relationships amongst verbal expressions, graphs, schema, diagrams, formulas, etc.. may appear and
be addressed. All these elements play important roles in the construction of formal reasoning. The
phase Experiment, other than helping in acquiring operative skills in assembling and optimising
experiment set-ups and in using the system software, allows to address possible confusion between
phenomenology and explanatory models. The distinction between facts and models is essential in
the development of FT; a recent document of the Nuffield Foundation calls attention on the fact
that :Students tend to believe that theoretical models emerge directly from data, and that all
features of a theoretical model correspond directly to features in the real world. Students often fail
to recognise the conjectural and tentative nature of many scientific explanations, and that scientific
explanations are often expressed in terms of theoretical entities which are not there to be seen in
the data. (Teaching about Science, http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/aboutscience/).
In the phase Comparison the students reasoning strategies and their formal expressions play
important roles. If there are non trivial discrepancies amongst meaning of predictions, their formal
representations and results of experiments and/or models, it is needed to identify plausible
factors/reasons for them and decide what has to be changed in the next run of the cycle. On the
other hand, if prevision and results agree, it is appropriate to consolidate this coherence. The
iteration of PEC cycle is a powerful opportunity, not only to address conflicts between previsions
and results (and proceed in the development of FT), but also to become aware of the fact that the
existence of various (disciplinary correct) viewpoints is a resource to be exploited, in order to
become capable of choosing the most suitable solution (and its formal representation) for a given
problem. One aspect of formal reasoning is the capability of identifying the most convenient (in
terms of global effort) path(s) to solve a problem.
* Another noticeable resource to build on, in the development of FT, is an educational rationale,
made possible by RTEI, that have been tested at length in our research; for the sake of brevity, it
44
Background Aspects
is labelled as from Real to Ideal rationale. The conceptual chain proposed starts from exploration
of real, complex (often everyday) phenomena and proceed toward models of ideal cases. The
intermediate steps of the chain are: to identify and recognise regularities in the evolution of the
studied phenomenon; to co-relate diverse abstract representations (mainly graphical ones) of these
regularities; to infer rules from them and express these rules in formal terms; to choose the effects
to be disregarded and consequently perform more clean experiments; to model the experiment
results; to abstract to the ideal case and its formal physics law.
In traditional teaching this approach is seldom practised, almost always the presentation of the
ideal case is the starting point and lab work is intended and proposed as a verification of some
already studied features of ideal situations. When exposed to such an approach young students
often encounter learning difficulties; on one hand it requires a non trivial capability of abstraction,
on the other it may reinforce the rather common idea/interpretation that physics laws are objects
of the natural reality and not constructions of human minds aimed at representing some aspects
of the physical world.
*
Another important component of the FT development process is that of modelling activities,
which, again, is easily supported and fostered by RTEI approaches. Fig. 2 shows a schematic
representation of the main relationships between RTEI and modelling and of the range of activities
that may help to connect physics phenomena and their mathematical, formal descriptions
Fig. 2: Schematic relationships between RTEI and Modelling
On the left, for the indicated types of activities the horizontal dimension suggests the development
of abstraction capabilities, while the vertical one recalls a path going from qualitative to
quantitative analysis. The first type of activities is related with the identification of qualitative
trends in the observed phenomenology which can be expressed in words and with order relations
as when x increases (decreases or is constant), y increases or .. The second type addresses the
representation of the same data in diverse forms and the identification of co-relation amongst such
representations. Both aspects help in developing an important aspect of formal reasoning; namely
students often find difficulties in establishing such co-relation since a particular representation is
45
perceived as the right one, as for instance position versus time in the kinematics description of
motion. The third type of activities is related with the fit of experimental data that quite often is
the first type of modelling activity, since data fitting aims at finding simple mathematical functions
taking into account the most important aspects of data trends. All available RTEI systems have
friendly data fitting tools , students are therefore facilitated in focusing their attention on the fit
meaning , the role of different elements of the mathematical function, the distinction between
predominant effects and secondary ones. In brief they are helped to reflect about the descriptive
power of the fit/model. The forth type of activities aims at becoming capable of extrapolating the
behaviour of the studied phenomenon in variables ranges different from the measured ones;
consequently new experiments can be planned and performed and the fit/model can be checked.
Last but not least, the fifth link indicates those activities that help students become aware of
capabilities and limits of data fitting procedures.
The right part of the figure schematises a range of modelling activities that help interpreting FT
also as a continuous bridge linking Physics and Mathematics. Rather common learning difficulties
are related to issues as: - the same mathematical model describes different physics phenomena,
according to the meaning given to the model variables; - the capability of interpreting proposed
models is other with respect to that of building a model for the case in study. The latter needs that
some idea about aspects/nature of the phenomenon comes from outside the data or adds to their
analysis. The RTEI systems now available often offer also modelling environments, so activities
aimed at acquiring the above mentioned capabilities are facilitated.
3.1 An example of a Real to Ideal path
For the sake of clarity, an example of a from Real to Ideal path is briefly described. It deals with
Inversions of motion and has been proposed in teachers education programs and in ordinary
class-work in secondary school basic physics courses. It is part of KINFOR - Teaching and Learning
about Kinematics and Force (SECIF 2001a), a web-supported set of resources developed in the
framework of SECIF, a recently completed in physics education project, funded by Italian Ministry
of Education and Research (SECIF 2001b).
This path aims at two main objectives: to address/overcome common learning difficulties related to
understanding motion inversions; to introduce impulsive forces, as those that intervene in hits, in
order to make plausible and clarify some aspects of the third Dynamics principle. The experiments
proposed deal with motions well known by students in terms of common-sense knowledge as
regular walks, ball bouncing, cart going up/down ramps. Both motion and force sensors are used.
The motion inversions addressed are of two kinds: - natural ones as those occurring when the
moving system inverts its motion without any interaction with another systems so that the acting
forces are the same than before the inversion (ex: a cart moves up a ramp, reaches the maximum
height and moves down, a ball launched in air, at the top starts coming down, etc ); - induced
ones as those when on the moving system intervenes a force that was not acting before the
inversion (ex: a cart goes down a ramp, hits an obstacle at the bottom and moves up; a falling ball
hits the floor and bounces up; etc)
The first type of experiments proposed explore regular walks of students who move away and
toward the motion sensor, the inversion is decided by the walker who changes direction as fast as
possible, according to his/her type of reflexes. By analysing position and velocity versus time
graphs, students are helped to identify as indicator of motion inversion a maximum (minimum) in
s(t) and a zero in v(t). Moreover, emphasis is put on the fact that the iconic indicator of motion
inversion in a v(t) graph is not a step like mathematical function but a smooth transition through
zero, the smoothness being related to the inversion duration. An important component in the
development of FT is the awareness that instantaneous changes are forbidden in physics
phenomena and therefore some formal representations (as step discontinuity) are extrapolation to
abstract models.
46
Background Aspects
The second type of experiments, where the reflexes effect has been eliminated, deals with a cart
moving on an horizontal smooth track, it hits an obstacle at the track end and moves back. The
analysis of the kinematics graphs is aimed at: comparing with the motion inversions in walks;
discussing the effects of the hit; introducing impulsive forces and eliciting intuitive ideas about
them. Useful clarifications of common difficulties related to such themes come from experiments
about the collision of two carts with force probes mounted on them; the probes touch when the
carts collide and analysis of the force versus time graphs allow to address the symmetry of the
interaction and offers elements of plausibility for the Action-Reaction 3
rd
principle.
The third type of experiments deals with a cart moving up/down a ramp: when launched up it
reaches a maximum height and moves down to the bottom where it hits an obstacle; it goes up again
and so on. In this motion the two types of inversion are present; the graphs analysis allow to
address aspects of formal representation of motion inversions as for instance how they appear
diversely in s(t); the influence on the representation of a change in the coordinate system (sensor
at top or bottom of ramp) and other aspects relevant in formal reasoning.
The forth type of experiments deals with a multi-bouncing of an elastic ball falling on the floor and
the comparison of its motion with the cart going up/down the ramp.
The last type of experiments studies the natural inversion of motion of an spring- mass system
that oscillates vertically. The identification of similarities and differences with the previously
analysed inversions allows to recognise rules valid for any motion inversion and proceed to their
formalisation.
4. RTEI and its use in current class practice
Despite the many didactic advantages of real-time approaches, also from the viewpoint of the
development of FT and the many years since RTEI first proposal, the naturalisation process is
slow(STTIS 2001a); that is RTEI adoption is not yet kind of a default choice made by teachers,
when appropriate. While very many physics teachers are interested in adopting RTEI, its use in
ordinary class-practice is not common as it would have be expected according to research results.
The STTIS project studies have addressed how RTEI and others innovations are being used by
teachers; a transformative viewpoint has been adopted, i.e. to look at teachers as transformers of
the didactic intentions and/or of the rationale of the proposed innovations (STTIS 1998). One of
the results is that several transforming trends have been detected in the case of RTEI; while some
teachers have resonated with the proposed rationale, making enriching transformations, many have
interpreted it in reductive ways and dissonant transformations have resulted.
A component of teacher training, not yet much acknowledged, is the analysis of the difficulties teachers
encounter when adopting innovative approaches and/or teaching proposals of specific contents. This
component is rather important since it addresses the possibility of changing ineffective teaching patterns
and of starting new valuable ones; its implementation may proceed through a two-steps procedure: -
recognition of difficulties that fellow teachers have found in adopting RTEI; - experimentation of
strategies/materials facilitating RTEI adoption and its integration in class practice.
Some of the observed transforming trends made by teachers using RTEI should be taken seriously
into account in those teachers education programs that aim at increasing the capabilities to guide
students in the development of Formal Thinking.
These transforming trends are briefly discussed here in order to suggest aspects to focus on in a
training program;, for the sake of brevity, only the main dissonant transformations which relate
more to the development of FT are presented.
They can be summarised in four groups which for brevity are labelled as: PEC cycle, Variational
approach and Global versus Local viewpoints, from Real to Ideal rationale, and Iconic
difficulties. The first three are reductive interpretations of RTEI rationale while the forth is spread
all over the use of RTEI and, very likely, is linked with an insufficient awareness of problems
students have in reading and interpreting Real -Time graphs. These transforming trends are due to
47
several factors, such as: teachers ideas about teaching/learning processes; insufficient focus on
development of formal reasoning; possible uncertainties in disciplinary knowledge; capability of
integrating RTEI with other class activities; experience with computers and lab-work; objective
circumstances; etc..
* PEC cycle: it has been observed that both the practice of reasoned prediction before experiments
and of critic comparison is scarcely adopted. Similarly, not much emphasis is given to the iteration
of the cycle, when not minor discrepancies results in the comparison phase. Both attitudes can
impair the learning of important aspects of formal reasoning.
* Variational approach and Global versus Local viewpoints: insufficient resonance with these
aspects of the proposed RTEI rationale has been observed. The scarce focus on the powerful
strategy What happens if ? that makes observable the effects of changes in the experiment set-
up and other conditions weakens the awareness of central features of FT, such as what is invariant
in the time evolution of the studied phenomenon. Similarly, the research results indicate a low
effort in helping students to become capable of using both a global and a local viewpoint (and
switching between them) in analysing the Real-Time graphs. Often the distinctions between these
two viewpoints, that is relevant for the development of a well sound formal reasoning, has been
overlooked; the local details revealed by the many data have been disregarded without any
justification and the experimental results have been forced to resemble ideal trends, as if they were
of a poor quality, as if only mathematically regular graphs were worthwhile to analyse. With such
an attitude there is the risk that the process for reaching a formal descriptions of data is
oversimplified and that some important steps in the abstraction process are missed.
* from Real to Ideal approach: it has been observed that often this rationale has been reductively
interpreted, with changes or overturning of the proposed conceptual chain, omission or
undervaluing of crucial phases or changes in the order of proposed tasks. In some cases, the ideal
case has been taken as starting point, despite the acknowledgment, on a declarative level, about
the didactic value of the proposed approach. Other steps significant for the development of formal
reasoning were not much practised, as for instance the searching for regularities and rules and
the modelling phases that have been omitted or undervalued. These transformations may be
related to specific viewpoints about teaching strategies and/or to difficulties in appropriation of an
approach which implies to move away from the usual ones .
* Iconic difficulties: a global low awareness of students difficulties in reading and interpreting
images of Real-Time graphs has been observed. This transforming trend has appeared in many
ways teachers have used images of graphs; for instance: uncertainties in clarifying what systems
artefacts are and their difference with respect to relevant local details ; weak focus on the co-
relation amongst two (or more) graphs in the same image; over-focus on the shape of the graph
that shadows the meaning of the variables on axis; weak effort to improve the readability of the
used images and to teach how to optimise a graph; etc.. . A scarce awareness of teachers about
students iconic obstacles may, very likely, results in impairing the development of FT; namely the
capability of reading/interpreting graphs in such process plays an important role.
These results about transforming trends made by teachers in ordinary class use of RTEI strongly
suggest to reflect on them, also from the viewpoint of the development of FT; not only to improve
teachers training about RTEI, but also to support the guidance teachers offer to students in
acquiring capabilities in formal reasoning.
5. A possible project for speeding RTEI naturalisation
The results and comments presented above suggest that it is now appropriate to suggest guidelines
and to produce materials in order to facilitate the adoption of RTEI in current class practice, also
from the viewpoint of fostering and supporting the development of Formal Thinking, since early
phases of basic science education. While there is an increasing emphasis and consensus on teaching
as a research-based profession, there are still difficulties in the process of constructing a culture in
48
Background Aspects
which communities of researchers and teachers work together to create a shared body of
knowledge. This effort should address many types of resources, a not exhaustive list contains:
resources for teachers professional growth and education; research-based materials for class
activities and self-learning; research findings; environments for connecting research and
educational practices; environments for sharing experiences/problems; joint projects between
teachers, students and innovators; suggestions for policy-makers. This body of knowledge should be
made easily available, in a format easily accessed by a vast audience; in the current situation the
diffusion of ICT and the interest for its solution suggest a RTEI web portal.
The main added value of a project about such a portal comes from the objective of synergetic
integration of different viewpoints. The didactic perspective, together with the cognitive,
pedagogical and technological one, should be integrated in a global vision containing also the
viewpoints of class practice, teachers education, student self-learning, life-long learning of the
citizen; etc. All these perspectives are very significant in physics and science education; up to now
they are not available in an integrated format aimed at a wide public.
To design such an integration of viewpoints it is necessary to reflect on the accumulated
experiences/expertise and to come up with an innovative structure for the portal. Several research
groups have worked with RTEI approaches since long time and there is a large amount of results
suitable for contributing to such an integrated format.
The envisaged audience is potentially a large one, namely the knowledge of RTEI rationale, its
educational potentialities and related experiences can be interesting and beneficial to various
group of people.
Teachers may improve and innovate traditional teaching strategies expecially whose results are not
positive. Their self education process may also receive substantial trigger and benefit.
Teachers trainers may find both criteria and materials to be directly used in training sessions and
hints to design personalised activities.
Students may explore and use the available materials and be helped in their learning process and
in developing ideas/hints for their contribution to class activities
Researchers in science education may find another easy channel to exchange the results of their
studies. This sharing helps novices entering RTEI research, through an easy availability of already
accumulated knowledge which may minimise the risk of re-inventing the umbrella. It also helps
experienced researchers by offering, for instance, suggestions for both rapid synergetic
combinations of results and future study.
Schools may offer the most significant RTEI didactic experiences made by their teachers and
classes in order to share them. This process is beneficial for at least these reasons: a) submerged
resources of good quality become available to a wide audience; b) teachers practical research is
recognised and acknowledged, thus favouring increasing of self-esteem; c) isolation of teachers
decreases; d) another internal trigger enters the complex process of school practice innovation.
Policy-makers in Science Education may find suggested criteria and guidelines; their task is
facilitated by a contact with research results and school experiences.
Scientific Associations (as GIREP, ESERA, National Teachers Groups, etc..) may find suggestions
and occasions that help to reach some of their objectives.
EU funding Agencies may take advantage, in deciding their support, by the availability of this vast,
continuously updated body of knowledge.
As a project launched in an European context and given the de facto current situation it seems
appropriate to have an English version of the portal. Because of the aimed audience (cf. below), it
is necessary also to implement versions in National languages, in order to make possible and
facilitate the use of the portal in various EU countries.
In conclusion, to trigger the start of the project the following preliminary suggestions can be
considered.
The project of an RTEI portal implies an international collaboration aimed at making available
49
a first core of web-supported, various types of resources. A non exhaustive list contains: research
based results, example school experiences, proposals for class activities, materials for teachers
education, information on the available RTEI systems, commented summary of emblematic
experiments, links between experimental and modelling activities, suggestions for supporting
educational innovation; .
An international group, under the aegis of a scientific association, for instance GIREP, could
produce a preliminary identification of basic features of this core in terms of:
global structure and content;
conceptual design of the portal features and maintenance;
scheme of content implementation and maintenance;
scheme of technical maintenance; etc... The design and implementation of this first core obviously
needs to allow and support easy future expansion.
If the trigger of such a project might be numbered amongst the effects of this Seminar on
Development of Formal Thinking in Physics, it will be a useful contribution.
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51
52
Background Aspects
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE USE OF MATHEMATICAL ENTITIES IN
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR AN
INTEGRATED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Ton Ellermeijer, Andr Heck, AMSTEL Institute, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam,
Netherlands
1. Background
In The Netherlands, like in a few other countries, two fields of application of computers in science
education have been dominant: for data-acquisition and data processing, and for modelling.
Experience with data-acquisition started around 1980, as well by enthusiastic teachers, as well by
the Physics Education group of the University of Amsterdam (now part of AMSTEL Institute).
The interest in modelling has been triggered by the work of Jon Ogborn (DMS).
Soon the demand for an integration of these tools arose. Even in 1985 at an initiative of the
University of Amsterdam group, a small group with Philip Harris, London University, and Dutch
Telecom defined a concept for an integrated tool for Science and Technology education
(Ellermeijer et. al, 1988). Unfortunately this initiative was not granted by EC, but it did have a
major influence on further developments in The Netherlands. Due to the fact for the Dutch school
system IBM-PCs (or compatibles) became standard, we could start to develop for more powerful
computers. In 1988 the first integrated software with support for an interface for data logging and
powerful analysis tools including modelling was realized (IP-Coach 2).
Over the years other valuable tools have been added to the environment, like for Control activities
and for analysing digital video. The Coach 4 environment, still a DOS-software package, became
de-facto standard in Dutch schools, together with the hardware for data logging. Because of these
situation publishers, curriculum committees, teacher-training institutes could focus on this
environment, and schools and teachers received a consistent and strong support. Because of its
versatile character it is applied not only in Physics, but also in Chemistry, Biology and Technology.
The present environment, Coach 5, internationally achieved a breakthrough. This environment is
based on a new concept, made possible by the Windows environment. In addition to all the tools
for Science and Technology education teachers/developers have powerful authoring tools to
prepare activities for their students. They can select and prepare texts, graphs, videos and
measurement settings and choose the right level according to age and skills of their students. In
this way, Coach 5 can be adapted for pupils/students ranging from age 10 up to undergraduate
students.
Up to date information on the Coach environment can be obtained on the website:
http://www.cma.science.uva.nl/english. A demonstration version can be downloaded from this
site. A more detailed description of Coach 5 can be found in (Mioduszewska & Ellermeijer,
2001).
2. Demands for a learning environment for science and technology
The development of the Coach environment has been driven by a few key starting-points.
The choice for powerful tools, like data-acquisition, processing, modelling, was motivated because
we like that what we teach at schools should reflect the way scientist work at present. And since the
60s computers have become more and more dominant in all areas of scientific research and also
in industry.
Since the 70s many science educators are in favour of more realistic science education. With this
we mean the treatment of science concepts in a realistic, everyday life context. The powerful tools
have proven themselves as very helpful to bridge the gap between physics concepts and real life
context.
From the implementation point of view an environment that teachers and students can use
frequently and throughout the curriculum has many benefits. It means for them that it makes sense
to become familiar with the environment, and a learning path from simple use up to the use in
advanced projects can be developed. The integration of tools enables them to move data to other
parts of the environment and compare for instance in the same graph data obtained from
measurements with data from modelling.
On the other hand, such a versatile tool might become complicated. It has to be possible to adapt
the complexity and the features needed to the level of the student. In the Coach 5 environment an
author has the facility to create tailor-made activities.
The development of the Coach environment is an ongoing research project since 1986 driven by
classroom experience, educational research and technology. A multi-disciplinary team of science
educators, curriculum developers, teachers, software and hardware specialists is responsible for the
development and for the new implementations. Many smaller improvements are based on
experience from teachers, from inservice course, and from authors of activities (publishers, teachers,
curriculum developers).
More dramatic changes are most of times supported and guided by intensive scientific research, for
instance in the framework of PhD studies. The extensions planned for Mathematics are an example
of this and in the next parts of this contribution we report about it. Another important future
development will address the connectivity with Internet. Internet will allow for collaborative work
of students, for remote laboratories and remote control and for easy exchange of data and lessons.
Also the hardware tools for students will become more flexible and powerful. Think of dataloggers
that can communicate with powerful computers applying wireless techniques. The challenge will be
to use these new technologies for the benefit of science education and to keep our teachers
informed and prepared.
3. ICT-rich mathematics activities
The first step in the redesign of Coach towards an integrated environment is to investigate what
mathematics can be dealt with already, what kind of problems one encounters in doing so, and
what needs can be identified. After all, the present software environment offers many
mathematical tools: the use of tables, diagrams, data analysis, computer models, amongst other
things. Here, we shall briefly report about recent try-outs of mathematics activities and present
some findings about Coach for mathematics. More details can be found elsewhere (Heck, 2000;
Heck & Holleman 2001a, 2001b).
Modelling human growth
The recent Dutch human growth study (Wit,
1998) has been used to create learning material
for pupils in their first year of the second stage of
pre-university education (age 15-16 yr.), who
have no experience with practical investigation
tasks, and who have not worked with the
software environment before. Main objectives
are to let pupils
work with real data and with diagrams that
are actually used in health care;
experience how much useful information can
actually be obtained from diagrams;
see that the change of a quantity is often as
important and interesting as the quantity
itself;
practice ICT-skills;
carry out practical work in which they can
apply much of their mathematical knowledge.
A mathematical highlight is the ICP-model that models mean height for age within millimetres. It
is used in medical literature and yet consists of mathematical submodels that are studied at school,
viz., exponential growth, quadratic growth, and logistic growth.
53
Fig. 1: Manual function fit of childhood component.
By seeing various regression models in a menu, pupils feel free to try any function type in the tool,
for example, to fit growth data by a modified rational function or by a modified exponential curve.
When asked a simple function-fit, most pupils interpret this as a fit with a straight line; a quadratic
fit is not simple for them. They have difficulty in analysing a curve in parts or at least they do not
do this independently. And the software does not support them much in this respect: all data are
used in regression; one cannot restrict the function fit to some range of the data. This would have
been useful in the study of the growth during infancy and puberty. The lack of possibilities to
restrict operations to parts of data also holds for other data processing and analysis tools in Coach.
In the current version, you can only copy a column in a table, discard unwanted data manually, and
apply processing or analysis tools to this adjusted copy.
4. Investigating bridges and hanging chains
The main objectives in this practical assignment for pre-university pupils are to let them
work with real data collected from digital images;
apply mathematical models to
investigate shapes;
practice ICT-skills, in particular use
tools to collect data from video clips
and images;
carry out practical work in which
they can apply much of their
mathematical knowledge.
The main task for the pupils, who are
novice users of Coach, is to get familiar
with the video tool and to use it to
investigate the mathematical shape of
bridges and hanging chains.
Let us describe briefly how the image
measure-ment activity shown in the
screen dump to the right takes place.
First of all, the activity allows collection
54
Background Aspects
Let us discuss some findings out of classroom trials about the Coach tools to graph and analyse
growth data. For this, it is important to realise that regression is not a subject in the Dutch
mathematics curriculum. How does it work in this activity? During childhood (from 3 years of age
to the onset of puberty), a simple quadratic function fits growth during this period very
well:
2 2
2
2 2
c t b t a H + + = . Pupils are expected to search for a parabola that on the one hand fits well
the height between 3 and 10 years of age, and that on the other hand reaches its maximum at the age
of 20 years, when height growth usually stops. This curve fitting process is supported in the
software by a manual function fit, as shown in the screen dump. The formula of a parabola,
c bx ax y + + =
2
, has been selected as function type; the selected column corresponds with the mean
height of Dutch boys. The icon of the pin on the screen dump is such that the approximation has
been fixed at that location. By dragging another point of the parabola with the mouse one can now
re-scale the graph. When the fixed pin is released by double clicking, then one can translate the
parabola, i.e., independently change the parameter c. This quadratic model is one of the regression
models that can be described by a formula of type o p v + + = ) ( x f y , where f is a simple
mathematical function.
The good news is that pupils have little difficulty in using this manual function fit. On the other
hand, we notice that some important mathematical regression models are missing, e.g., the cubic
polynomial model and the (modified) logistic model ( ) d e a y
c bx
+ + =
~ ~
1 . This is a pity, the more so
because these models are principally of the same form that is handled by the manual function fit.
Fig. 2: Analysis of the Zeeburger Bridge.
of position data from the digital
image. It is possible to place the origin
of the coordinate system at any
desired position and to rotate the axes,
if necessary. One chooses the correct
scale by matching a ruler with an
object in the image of known distance.
coordinates are gathered by clicking
on the location of points of interest.
Data can be plotted and used for
further analy-sis. In the lower-left
window of Figure 2, the regression
tool has been used to find the
quadratic function that fits the data
best. In the lower-right window, you
see the collected points once more,
together with the data plot of the
difference quotients (dy/dx) of
consecutive points (plotted with respect to a second vertical axis). The difference quotients lie
approximately on a straight line. The best line fit can again be found with the regression tool. The
third column of the table in the upper-right window shows as well clearly the pattern for the
difference quotients. It follows that the shape of the arch is a well described by a parabola. But,
with the regression tool one could easily discover that the sinusoidal model y = a sin(bx + c) + d
works almost as good. More is needed for good understanding!
Figure 3 shows a screen dump of the activity in which the mathematical shape of a hanging chain
is investigated. By collecting positions on the digital image and by trying a quadratic curve fit on
the measured data, a pupil quickly finds out that the form of the chain is not a parabola (as Galilei
erroneously claimed). At once, the simple question How does a chain hang? becomes a
meaningful and challenging problem.
In the activity, we let the pupils study a related, but simpler problem: How does a chain with five
objects of equal weight symmetrically attached hang under gravity? The case of weights at equal
horizontal distan-ces is investigated first. Measurements in the digital images (see Figure 4) reveal
55
Fig. 4: Measuring properties in the image
Fig. 3: Analysis of a hanging chain
that the slopes of the right segments of the chain have a fixed ratio, viz., 1:3:5. Measuring in other
images would convince pupils that this does not depend on the length of the segments or how far
the suspension points are apart from each other. It turns out that one always has the following fixed
ratio of positive slopes: 1:3:5:7:9: Basic physics can explain this: equilibrium of forces holds at
each point of application where a weight is attached. This simple observation about slopes allows
computation of the shape of the system and it explains that the points of application are necessarily
on a parabola under the given circumstances. In case of weights at equal distances along the chain,
one still has the above ration of slopes and one can follow in the footsteps of Huygens to conclude
that the points cannot be on a parabola.
What do we learn from trials of this assignment in classroom? On the one hand, pupils like this kind
of practical work and they have little difficulty in learning how to handle the video and image
measurement tool. On the other
hand, we observe that the pupils
are not much used in
mathematics lessons to make by
themselves choices in coordinate
systems, origin, scaling, to apply
symmetry, and so on. And this is
an essential part of a video and
image measurement activity.
The only technical problems that
pupils encounter in using Coach
in this task actually all have to do
with the fact that the software at
present only has a data video tool
built-in and that still images must
be treated as video clips with
identical frames. This makes it, for
example, cumbersome to add or insert more measurements afterwards. Once you have carried out
measurements, you cannot sort the data later on and at the same time maintain the immediate link
between table entries and measured points on the digital image. Some tools are missing, too: for
example, you cannot measure the length of a curve or the area of some region of the image.
In the pupils reports, the presence of units of length for slopes indicates that some pupils confuse
slope and increase of a quantity. Maybe this is caused by the difference between mathematics, in
which tangents are dimensionless, and science, where slope is treated as a quantity. Another
interesting difference between the use of diagrams in mathematics and science pops up in the
classroom experiment when pupils are making graphs invisible in a plot (by checking visibility
boxes of quantities). To their surprise, some pupils get weird diagrams with no coordinate system,
one axis only, or no labels near the axes. They are thinking of a graph as a representation of a
function, i.e., as a representation of a single object, so that it suffices to work with one variable. This
is common in mathematics. In science however, a graph represents a relation between quantities.
Then one must work with at least two variables. The envisioned integrated learning environment
must somehow link up with both graphical concepts.
Iterative processes
Mathematical functions are in Coach described by lists of numerical values. This has to do with the
science background of physical quantities, between which a functional relationship exists. Values of
quantities can be obtained in various ways:
via a real measurement with sensors
via measuring a video clip or digital
manually filling out a table
56
Background Aspects
Figure 5. Animation of a cobweb diagram.
importing results from a file
by a formula
via a computer program
Let us have a closer look at the last possibility. Figure 5 shows a cobweb diagram of iterations of
the function f (x) = 3.3(1 x) x. The program to make an animation is shown. A pupil only needs
to enter the initial value, the number of computational steps, or the function definition to do
investigations. The first three lines of the program code illustrate that the definition of a function in the
software differs from the usual mathematical notation. Another remarkable point is that although
Coach is list-oriented with respect to variables in graphs and tables, the system only allows the storage
of a single value at a time in a computer program. The programming code of this example and other
mathematical computer tasks would be a lot easier if working with lists was allowed, too. Some other
software limitations, which come out from trials of Coach for meaningful mathematics, are:
Quite some mathematical notions, e.g., functions, equations, and recurrence relations, cannot be
introduced and used in the standard mathematical way.
A calculation window for doing numerical and symbolic computations in the same style as a
calculator is missing. At present, you can only write computer programs for numerical purposes.
Regression and simple descriptive statistics of tabular data are the only tools for doing statistics.
Other statistical notions such as box plot, histogram, statistical distribution, and hypothesis test
are not supported.
Combination of diagrams originating from different sources, say combining graphs of functions,
parametric curves and measured data, is cumbersome in Coach
Sometimes the user of Coach is confronted in his/her activities with inconveniences that reveal
the science roots of the software. For example, all tables in an activity have the same number of
rows, viz., the number of measured data in an computer experiment. In mathematical
investigations however, it is not unusual to have tabular representations with various table sizes
at the same time.
Many of these limitations are not fundamental and can be or have been dealt with by the developers;
they only show that the present version of Coach is not yet optimal for doing mathematics. The more
crucial limitations all have to do with the issue of what kind of mathematical objects are supported by
the software. Two things must be kept in mind: Firstly, we quote (Yerushalmy, 1999): The tool IS the
design. Coach as a science tool has been designed for collecting, processing and analysing data, and
for working with computer model. These design intentions for example underpin the choice of
variables as references to samples of values, either in tabular or in graphical form. In a computer
measurement, one connects a column of a table with a measured quantity; derived quantities are
created by menu commands or by formulas in terms of columns and/or connected quantities. So, the
physical set-up of an experiment, where sensors have been connected to specific channels of a
measurement panel, determines strongly the mathematical processing and analysis of data. An
approach that is more detached from the physical set-up, instead identifies measured quantities by
symbols, and gives the notion of variable a more central role in activities, seems to be a more fruitful
approach towards an integrated math and science learning environment.
Secondly, Yerushalmy writes: The tool reflects curricular agenda. In this respect, the Coach
environment can be described as a set of tools to explore natural phenomena. It is an activity-based
system for students to carry out practical investigation tasks and to do research work at their level:
a student can use the computer environment to collect, process, and analyse data, and to report
about his/her work. Depending on the subject, a student can make a choice of tools. We wish to
extend this view of the use of a computer learning environment to the field of mathematics. So, the
integrated learning environment must provide tools to study mathematical phenomena, methods,
and techniques. For example, a natural choice would be a definition-window, a graph-window, a
table-window, and a calculation-window to have access to mathematical methods, at least at the
same level of functionality as a (symbolic) calculator provides.
Anyway, the development of the integrated learning environment is not only technology-driven,
57
but can also be seen as an attempt to answer the question What are the characteristics of
investigations that can lead to good math and science problems for students and how can
computers help?. (Clements, 2000) lists the following characteristics for mathematics:
are meaningful to students;
stimulate curiosity about a mathematical or nonmathematical domain, not just answer;
engage knowledge that students already have, about mathematics or about the world, but
challenges students to devise solutions;
invite students to make decisions;
lead to mathematical theories about (a) how the real world works or (b) how mathematical
relationships work;
open discussion to multiple ideas and participants; there is not a single correct response or only
one thing to say;
are amenable to continuing investigation, and generation of new problems and question.
Replace the word mathematics by physics, and you get a sensible list of characteristics of good
physics activities. The second part of the above question, how can computers help with a problem-
centered approach, is from software developers point of view the most interesting one. To be
better prepared for the creation of an integrated math and science learning environment, the
development team must have idea of how several concepts such as the notion of variable, function,
table, and graph are used in the various disciplines. As far as the mathematics component of the
learning environment is concerned, one must have a clear view on what requirements physics and
other sciences make for the mathematics and how this links up with the requirements from
mathematics as a discipline itself. In the next three sections we shall restrict ourselves to a
discussion of the concepts of variable, function, and graph.
5. The meaning of variable is variable in mathematics
In mathematics, the concept of variable has several meanings. See (Schoenfeld & Arcavi, 1988) or
the following examples from school mathematics, taken from (van Etten, 1980).
58
Background Aspects
1 2 : + x x f a
w l A = 7 = +b a
) 3 )( 3 ( 9
2
+ ~ = ~ a a a
N x 3 3 + = + x x
n is a divisor of 24
x x =
2
8 2 3 + = + x x
p is a prime number
y x =
r A 2 =
a b b a + = + 9
2
= a
Q C S
1 sin 3 cos = + x x
9 < x
2 2 2
z y x = +
k is parallel to the x-axis P lies on l
Even if letters are used for numbers only, different roles of letters in the algebraic context can be
distinguished (Kcheman, 1981; Usiskin, 1988). It may be
an indeterminate, in statements like ) 3 )( 3 ( 9
2
+ ~ = ~ a a a .
an unknown, in equations such as 7 = +b a .
a known number like .
a variable (generalised) number, e.g., in N x , in declaring p a prime number, and in
differences like ) ( ) 1 ( a f a f ~ + .
a computable number like A in the formula r A 2 = .
a placeholder, e.g., in function definitions 1 2 : + x x f a or 1 2 ) ( + = x x f .
a parameter, e.g., as a label in the function definition x p x f
p
= ) ( to distinguish several cases.
an abbreviation like { } 3 , 2 , 1 = V .
The multiple meanings of the term variable make it hard for secondary school pupils to
understand this concept. So, educators are constantly searching for ways to familiarise students with
59
however, is much used to applying the same algebraic symbolism for many purposes:
2
x y = may
stand for an equation, a function definition, an abbreviation of the expression
2
x , as well as for the
process of computing the value of y from the value of x .
The equal sign is anyway an intriguing symbol in mathematics. Consider the following two
statements:
a) For every real number x,
2 3
3 2
2
1
1
1
2
+ +
+
=
+
+
+
x x
x
x x
.
b) For every real number x,
2
1
1
1
2 3
3 2
2
+
+
+
=
+ +
+
x x
x x
x
.
In a formal sense, these statements are equivalent. But it cannot be denied that the first statement is
simply about computing the sum of two rational expressions, whereas the second one represents a
partial fraction decomposition. In the first statement the equal sign is not read as is formally
equivalent to, but as yields: it is about addition. The second statement can be interpreted as the
fraction
2 3
3 2
2
+ +
+
x x
x
yields
2
1
1
1
+
+
+ x x
when it is decomposed. Here, the expression refers to a
process of simplification. Again, the expression is not just a mathematical object with the structure
of an equation, but it has a process aspect, too.
With respect to learning algebra, much attention has been given in educational research to the dual
nature of mathematical entities, which have a procedural and a structural or conceptual aspect, and
to the way pupils can obtain such versatile understanding. In early algebra, a mathematical
expression is often introduced as a means to describe a process of computing. But gradually, pupils
are acquainted with the idea that an expression can also be viewed as a result of a computational
i b h i l bj i hi h b i l d
variables (e.g., see Kieran, 1997; Graham & Thomas, 2000) and to make the transition from
arithmetic to algebra, or generalised arithmetic as it is commonly called, easier for them. The main
strategy is to treat variables as primitive terms that are best learned by practice. If one cannot define
the concept of variable rigorously, then maybe one can better show how and for what reason
variables can be used. Basic idea of this approach is that pupils will learn from the examples and
the exercises and that they will gradually sense the meanings of variable.
Another obstacle in the transition from arithmetic to algebra is that mathematical meaning is often
determined by context rather than by formal rules and notation. For example, what does the
symbolism ) ( e x a + mean? Which of the following meanings would you choose?
a generalized number ) ( e x a + . By the way, does the symbol e stand for the base of the natural
logarithm?
the function a applied to e x + (or do you care that a, used as a function, is usually not in italics).
a function in x with parameters a and e.
a function in two or more indeterminates.
the instruction a applied to the argument e x + .
Because of your training and experience, you probably answered that you could not make a choice
without knowing the mathematical context or the wording used about the expression. However, for
a secondary school pupil it takes time and practice to get used to the fact that a variable actually
gets meaning in mathematics through its use (as indeterminate, as unknown, as parameter, etc.),
through its domain of values, and through the context in which it is used.
By the word context in the last sentence we also mean the context of doing school
mathematics, which has its own mathematical conventions. For example, the word formula has a
special meaning in school mathematics and the role of the letters in the formula
2
x y = is not the
same as in the equation 0
2
= ~ x y . The words formula and equation are used to distinguish
between the case of a functional relationship between the isolated variable y that depends on the
other variable and the case of a more general relationship between unknowns. For pupils it is
important to make a clear distinction between these different notions. A mathematician or scientist,
60
Background Aspects
Variables as placeholders mostly occur in function definitions: for example, the
definitions
2 2
) , ( y x y x f + = and
2 2
) , ( b a b a f + = both define one and the same function, viz., the
norm in two-dimensional Euclidean space. One also refers to these placeholders as dummy
variables: they do not indicate objects anymore, but rather the locations for replacements with
certain kind of objects. If other variables are present in a function definition, e.g., in
c x b x a x f + + =
2
) ( , they are distinguished from the dummy variables and they are called parameters.
At first sight this is an easy distinction, but the use of parameters is in practice more complicated
and more difficult to master (e.g., see Furinghetti & Paola, 1994; Drijvers & van Herwaarden,
2000). One of the greatest obstacles for a pupil to be able to handle a parameter is that (s)he must
see the structure of the formula, for instance see that x ~ 2 and 1 2 + x are both examples of the linear
expression b x a + .
2. as a polyvalent name, i.e., a name for an object that can take a multitude of values.
If n is a divisor of 6, the letter stands for any of the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 6. In the statement that we
have a real number x such that 0 2
2
= ~ + x x , the letter x refers to a number that is yet unknown, but
can be computed, and that has the property that the sum of this number, its square, and 2 is equal to
0. Without knowing its exact value, one can deduce that for this number holds
2 3
2 x x x + = . Solving
the equation means finding the x for which the statement is true. A priori x is indeterminate, a
posteriori x can take two values.
3. as a variable object, i.e., a symbol for an object with varying value.
In mathematics, the object to be thought of can be a number whose value may change like in the
process. An expression becomes a mathematical object on its own, which can be manipulated. In
(Gray & Tall, 1994), the authors introduce the word procept, which is a contamination of process
and concept, for the combination of symbol, process, and concept, to make clear that a
mathematical object never completely looses its process nature. For example, in the expression
1 2 + x the + is not only a symbol that defines the object the sum of x 2 and 1, but it also refers to
the process of add 1 to the product of 2 and x. Another example:
n n
a
-
lim represents both the
process of tending to a limit and the concept of the value of the limit. The interested reader is
referred to (Tall et al, 2001) for further discussion of the process/concept duality in algebra and its
impact on learning to think mathematically. The alternative conceptions are also referred to as
process and object (Sfard, 1991), where the word reification is used for the objectivation of a
process, and as procedure and structure (Kieran, 1992).
Gradually pupils learn to see variables as a replacement not only for numbers, but also for
expressions. They learn and practice the various ways in which algebraic expressions can be
manipulated: combining literal terms, replacing subexpressions, factoring, completing the square in
a quadratic polynomial, rationalising the denominator, subtracting the same term from both sides of
an equation, solving systems of linear equations, and equivalence testing are examples of activities
that are present in all mathematics curricula. In many research studies (e.g., see Kieran, 1989; Sfard
at el, 1994; MacGregor and Stacey, 1997; Stacey and MacGregor, 2000; Tall et al, 2001) is reported
that understanding generalised arithmetic is not easy: literal symbols are like numerals and words,
yet they are different, and pupils have to learn to deal with these differences. For many a pupil,
2
1
2
1
+ x relates to a straight line, but the equivalent expression 2 ) 1 ( + x is only considered as a
rational expression, which is something completely different in their eyes. The previous examples
illustrate that pupils must understand the underlying structure of algebra and become familiar with
the dual character of algebraic expressions (operational/structural, process/object) to gain
competence in mathematics.
Let us return to the concept of variable. That it is almost impossible to rigorously define the term
does not mean that one cannot classify the various appearances of variables in mathematics. The
following three uses of variable are distinguished in (Freudenthal, 1983):
1. as a placeholder, which denotes the places in an expression where the same object is meant.
61
pendulum. Another example is the role of the initial height
0
y , the initial velocity
0
v , and the
release angle o in the mathematical formula
2
2
1
0 0
) sin( t g t v y y ~ + = o that gives the vertical position
of an object that is thrown away. Typically, one keeps values of all parameters except one fixed and
draws graphs for several values of the free parameter in one picture, i.e., the parameter in its
generalising role is used to distinguish several cases.
Freudenthal mentions another occurrence of parameter, which does not seem to fit so well in the
previous three roles of parameters at first sight, viz., the parameter representation of curves and
surfaces. For example, the unit sphere in the x-y plane is parameterised by means of the arc length s
from a fixed point as ) sin( ), cos( s y s x = = . The parameter s arises as dependent variable (arc length),
dependent on the point of the curve. A posteriori it is used as independent variable in order to
represent the curve. Thus, the parameter in the parameter representation of a curve is mainly used
as a variable object.
Besides, parameter representation of curves and surfaces, there exist many more applications of the
concept of parameter in school mathematics. We mention three applications, in which software can
help to visualize parameters and to study the effect of changing parameter values (e.g., see van der
Giessen, 2001):
curve fitting: linear fit ( b x a y + = ), exponential fit (
x
g y y
0
= ), and sinusoidal fit
( d c x b a y + + = ) sin( ).
locutions 2
n
for n from 1 upward and a
n
converges to 0 as n goes to infinity. Of course, one can
replace these locutions with
n
2 for N n and 0 lim =
- n n
a , but then one looses the kinematic aspect
of the variable. However, this kind of variable very often occurs in mathematical models that are
constructed to study real-world phenomena. The object can be a physical quantity such as time,
position, and temperature, or an economic quantity such as price, capital, and income. Clearly
quantities, often depending on time, with varying values.
A variable object may be related with others. One speaks of independent variables, whose values
one is free to choose, and of dependent variables, whose values one can compute given the values
of the independent variables. Many applications can be given: the position of a moving object
depending on time, the room temperature depending on the time of the day, the temperature of a
long rod as a function of place, and so on. The roles of independent and dependent variables are
often not fixed during a computation. For example, studying the motion of a sprinter, one may on
the one hand consider acceleration as a function of time, but on the other hand describe it as a
function of the velocity of the sprinter. One of the big ideas in calculus, and in mathematics in
general, is the freedom of choosing independent and dependent variables.
The above distinction of three uses of variable can be applied to parameter as well: in the role of a
placeholder, the parameter has one value at a time. For example, in the formula g l T 2 = for the
period of the mathematical pendulum, the letter g stands for the gravitational constant. You may
study the motion of the pendulum on earth and as well as on moon, but always stands g for one
value only. The given formula expresses the relationship between the period of the pendulum (T)
and the length of the pendulum (l). So the letter l plays the role of a variable object. Rephrasing
Freudenthal, one speaks about the use of a secondary as it were sleeping independent variable,
which, if need be, can be accounted for as it were wakened up for instance in order to get a
system
l
T of periods by the variability of the parameter l. Thirdly, as a polyvalent name, a
parameter allows you to write general formulas or to distinguish various cases: the label p in the
function definition x p x f
p
= ) ( is used to distinguish several cases. Coming back to our example of
the pendulum: c (angular frequency), and | (phase) are used in the formula ) sin( | c + = t A u to
describe harmonic motion mathematically. c and | are according to their origin dependent
variables (dependent on the pendulum and its position at a certain time), but according to their
appearance independent variables and they serve to describe the general periodic motion of the
62
Background Aspects
single function value are mixed up easily and apparently without much harm: a physical quantity is
sometimes a function of time, in other occasions a finite sample of values measured at different
times, and sometimes a function value at a certain fixed time. As concrete example we consider
Boyles law constant V p = , for pressure p and volume V. The variables are in fact functions of time,
viz., ) ( p : p t t a and ) ( V : V t t a . Boyles law says that the product of these two functions is a
constant function, i.e., constant ) ( V ) ( p = t t , at every time t. In an experiment, one verifies or
rediscovers the relationship by measuring p and V under different conditions. Here, one compares
samples of function values. But in a school problem like suppose that dl 10 V = when bar 2 p = , how
much is V when bar 4 p = ?, p and V do not represent functions or samples of function values
anymore, but they represent single function values, viz., the pressure and volume at a certain fixed
time. In mathematics, this ambiguous use of notation for function, sample of function values, and
function value rarely occurs.
In mathematics it is often allowed to change names in an expression without changing the meaning:
for example, ( ) { } 1 , = y x y x is the same set of ordered pairs as ( ) { } 1 , = b a b a . There only exist some
generally agreed conventions about the use of letters such as x and y in order that almost every
mathematically trained person reads b x a y + = as a functional relationship between these two
exploring transformations of a function: e.g., starting from a standard function like
2
) ( x x f =
investigate the behaviour of ) ( ), ( , ) ( a x f x f a a x f + + and ) ( x a f .
Solving problems numerically or graphically: e.g., find a value of the parameter a such that the
graph of ) sin( a x y + = passes through the point (0,1) or that the graph of
x
a y = and its derivative
are equal.
6. Variables in physics
In (Vredenduin, 1979), the author discusses some of the differences in terminology and notational
systems between physics and mathematics. Some of his essential differences have to do with the use
of variables and have been incorporated in Table 1. Below we work out the details.
Mathematics Physics
Generalized arithmetic with
dimensionless variables is used.
Quantity arithmetic with its own rules
and use of units is dominant.
Names of variables are free to choose
and changing names in an expression
does not change its meaning
A variable is often related with some
physics concept and its name is an
abbreviation of this notion.
Irrational numbers like 2 , and e are
important; floating-point numbers are
without accuracy: 1.0 = 1.000.
In measurements, only natural numbers
and floating-point numbers with
accuracy occur:
1.0 = 1.000
There is a strong focus on special
properties of functions, e.g., on
asymptotic behaviour.
Properties and assumptions may rule out
parts of mathematical interest.
Words like big, small, negligible
have little meaning.
A small change of a quantity Q is also a
quantity AQ with its own arithmetic.
Table 1: Some essential differences between the use of variables in mathematics and physics.
In physics, a variable is most often used as a name for a quantity that can vary (often with respect to
time) and that in many cases can be measured. Physical quantities can be magnitudes such as tem-
perature, mass, and length, or vector quantities such as velocity, acceleration, and force. One
striking feature of the symbolic writings in physics is that function, sample of function values, and
63
this formula. When manipulating the formulas in a real world context, a pupil better keeps the
dimensions in mind to verify work. Physics teachers have good reasons to request from their pupils
that they check the dimensions and the units of measurement in their answers.
The focus of mathematical thinking may differ radically from the one in a study of a real world
problem. For example, when one encounters in mathematical work a rational function of the form
b x
x a
+
the attention goes almost automatically to the singular behaviour as x approaches b. Compare
this with the study of enzyme kinetics, where the Michaelis-Menten expression for the initial rate of
transformation of a substrate, S, by an enzyme, is
[ ]
[ ] S K
S V
v
m
+
=
max
, where [ ] S is the concentration of S,
max
V is the maximum rate, and
m
K is constant called the Michaelis-Menten constant. Since the
parameters and concentrations are positive, the singularity is never encountered and the common
mathematical analysis is irrelevant.
In physics, words like big, small, relatively small, negligible can be used while talking
about quantities. A small change of a quantity Q is also given a name, such as Q A , and one
variables with parameters a and b. This conventional use of letters makes a discussion about a
mathematical problem easier, because it takes away the need to explain every time the notation in
use. In physics, replacements of letters are almost always forbidden: replacing traditional names for
energy E, mass m, and the velocity of light c in Einsteins law
2
c m E = will ruin it. The reason is
simple: most variables in physics are not meaningless but deal with concepts in physics that have
the property of quantity. For this reason, one often chooses the first character of the name of the
concept as the name of the variable: F for force, m for mass, and a for acceleration in Newtons law
a m F = is one example of many.
Physical quantities can often be measured, but the measured values are always natural numbers (in
counting processes) or floating-point numbers, possibly with margins of error. Irrational numbers
like v2 or do not occur in measurements. Nevertheless, physicists mostly compute with quantities
as if they take real values. But they treat floating-point numbers differently than most
mathematicians do. For many a mathematician, the number 1.23000 is the same as the number 1.23
without the trailing zeros. However, in numerical analysis and in physics, the notation 1.23000
implies that the number is known more accurately than 1.23. If 1.23000 is a measured value of a
quantity, you know it is between 1.229995 and 1.230005.
A value of a physical quantity actually consists of three parts, viz., the numerical value (a number),
the precision (the number of significant decimals or the margins of error), and the unit that is used
to measure the quantity. This makes quantity arithmetic more difficult to learn and to use than
reference-free number arithmetic. The following example, taken from (van der Kooij 1999),
illustrates this. Compare the given answers to the following problem:
Peter and John walk in a straight line in the same direction from the same starting point,
with the same speed of 2 m/s. Peter starts first at time t=0 and John 3 seconds later. Give the
formula for the distance s walked by John after t seconds, for t > 3 sec.
Answer 1: ) 3 ( 2 ~ = t s . Answer 2: 6 2 ~ = t s .
In generalized arithmetic, the two expressions are equivalent: a factored and expanded form. In
quantity arithmetic, which takes dimensions into consideration, the first answer ) 3 ( 2 ~ = t s
represents a time-approach of the problem via a time speed distance = formula and the second answer
represents a distance-approach 6 2 ~ = t s via a distance distance distance ~ = formula. So, thinking about
dimensions and units of measurement makes clear that in real life problems not only the variables
but also the numbers have contextual meanings. Especially the number 1 is tricky because it is
always left out of expression: no one writes the formula
t
N N 2
0
= of exponential growth as
) 1 / (
0
2
t
N N = to show that the doubling time is 1 time unit and that dimensions are actually correct in
64
Background Aspects
inversely proportional to
1
Q , and therefore the quantities
2
Q and
1
1 Q are proportional, it may be
wise to plot
2
Q against
1
1 Q and see if it gives a straight line through the origin. This helps a
secondary school pupil to learn that relationships between quantities do not go without saying in
physics and that people to better understand or to predict relationships have invented the physical
laws. Another purpose of a physics graph is that it allows easier discussion about the physics
problem and that it provides a good means for presenting results to other interested persons.
For science, one could certainly say that graphing is not a context-independent skill. Rather,
competencies with respect to graph interpretation are highly contextual and are a function of the
scientists familiarity with the phenomena to which a graph pertains and their understanding and
familiarity with representation practices. (Roth & Bowen, 2001) take this as a starting-point for
implications for teaching graphing in school mathematics and science settings. The authors take a
sociocultural orientation toward graphing as practice (by professionals), instead of the cognitive-
psychological perspective, in which problems and misconceptions in students reading and
interpreting graphs are identified (e.g., Leinhardt et al, 1990). Their analysis of how professionals
manipulates it as any other variable, except that one often ignores higher order terms like ( )
2
Q A to
get a simpler model description. Going from calculus of small changes to infinitesimal change and
calculus with differentials is then a natural step. The following example shows how it works. We
look at the formula
2
t a s = for a moving body with s being the distance travelled as function of time
t. Suppose that one is interested at the speed of the object during its fall. The change in distance
travelled ) (
1
t s A during a small time interval [ ] t t t A +
1 1
, is given by
( ) ( )
2
1
2
1
2
1 1
2 ) ( t a t t a t a t t a t s A + A = ~ A + = A . A physicist will say that, when t A is small, the term with
( )
2
t A can be neglected. So, for the rate of change one has
1 1
2 ) ( t a t t s - A A . In the limit case of
infinitesimal changes, one has
1 1
2 ) ( t a t dt ds = . So, the speed at time t
1
is equal to
1
2 t a . The
mathematician, on the other hand, is not happy with the sentence when t A is small, you can
neglect the term with ( )
2
t A . He or she will say that t a t a t t s A + = A A
1 1
2 ) ( and that therefore
1 1 0
2 ) ( lim t a t t s
t
= A A
- A
. The same conclusion, but a different style of working.
The above differences add a good deal to the understanding of the difficulties that pupils have in
relating the mathematical methods and techniques that are used in physics to what is learned in
mathematics lessons. In mathematics, they use variables mostly as placeholders and polyvalent
names. Emphasis is on generalised pure arithmetic, with reference-free numbers, and on the concept
of function defined as a special kind of correspondence between nonempty sets A and B which
assigns to each element in A one and only one element in B, i.e., on the Dirichlet approach to the
concept of function. In physics, the third kind of variable, viz., the variable object, comes into play.
One is involved with functional relationships between varying quantities, in which one distin-
guishes between dependent and independent variables. In working with variable objects and
relationships between them one uses mainly the theory and practice of solving equations in known
and unknown quantities and one uses the calculus of change.
7. Different contexts for graphing in mathematics and physics
Why do we ask pupils to make graphs? The answer to this question differs from discipline to
discipline, but the reasons for using graphs are commonly divided into two classes: analysis and
communication (Friel et al, 2001).
For example, a physics teacher (Barton, 1998) may say that the graph is simply a means to an end:
plotting graphs helps to interpret measured data. A diagram gives an overview of the measured data
and from its shape one may get a clue about the possible relationship between the physical
quantities in which one is interested. In order to better see or verify these relationships all kinds of
scaling of graphs are at hand, such as (semi-)logarithmic and double-logarithmic plots. Derived
quantities can be introduced to make the relationship clearer: for example, if a quantity
2
Q is
65
in case the pupils has to do it by pencil and paper. In a graph coming from a real context, the axes
represent quantities and the names of these quantities appear at the axes together with the chosen
units. An arrow represents the positive direction of the axis, because this is not fixed anymore in
applications. Frequently, physical quantities have by origin a limited range of possible values. Then
these ranges determine the plot range of a graph and accordingly the origin can be different from
(0,0). As was said before, scaling is a matter of choice and does not have to be linear: if it is more
convenient to choose another one, say a logarithmic scale, to clarify a relationship between
quantities, then one a free to do so.
The quantities represented by the axes in a physics graph are not the only quantities presented by
the diagram. Also the ratio between proportional quantities, the gradient of a function, and the area
between the graph of the function and the horizontal axis represent quantities. For example, in a
position-time graph, the gradient represents speed (or velocity if direction of motion is taken into
account) and the area gives the distance travelled during some time. The ratio between mass and
read graphs shows that competent graphing practices are related to understanding of both the real
world phenomena and the structure of signifying domain, familiarity with conventions underlying
these two domains, and familiarity with translating between the two domains. To read a graph
competently, one needs more than instruction on the mechanical aspect of producing graphs. One
must also be familiar with representation-producing mechanisms, data-collection devices, feature-
enhancing techniques, etc. In education, extensive interaction with phenomena and representational
means seems to be a prerequisite for graph sense. And this is where ICT is expected to contribute to
the learning process.
In mathematics, drawing the graph of a function has not much to do with finding a relationship
between quantities; in most cases, the function is already given by a formula or a table of function
values, and has nothing to do with a real world context. One does not have to look for the
mathematical object of study and one makes the graph mainly to present a single view on various
properties of the mathematical object. From the graph of a function one can get an idea about the
number and location of zeros, maxima, and minima, about the asymptotic behaviour of the function,
about points of interest such as discontinuities and bending points, about increase and decrease, and
so on. The shape of a curve is important issue in mathematics lessons. Calculus helps to make
graphical observations more precise: e.g., computing the derivative and making a sign diagram of it
gives precise information about change, and solving equations provides appropriate answers to
questions about zeros and extrema of the function and about specific function values. Comparison
of graphs can be done to illustrate the effect of transformations of functions. Because a diagram is
in the field of mathematics essentially a set of numeric 2-tuples, it is easy to combine graphs of
different origin in one picture. For example, one can draw without difficulty in one picture a graph
of the function
2
x y = , the graph of the inverse x y = , the upper part of the unit circle via the
parameter representation ) sin( ), cos( s y s x = = , and the straight line going through (0,0) and (1,1). In
all cases, a mathematical graph is used to show various aspects of a function in a single picture and
it is one of the means to solve mathematical problems.
The graphs in mathematics and physics also differ from technical point of view. A pupil studying a
Dutch mathematics textbook can easily recognize when (s)he is dealing with a mathematical graph
or with a graph coming from an application in a real world context. In a mathematical graph, the
coordinate system consists of two perpendicular number lines of the same kind intersecting at (0,0),
and the horizontal and vertical axes are labelled by x and y, respectively. Unless otherwise defined,
the domain and range of a function are infinite. Accordingly, a pupil is free to choose the linear
scale of the number lines such that all interesting parts of the graph of a function are visible, but
always 0 appears on the lines. The introduction of the graphing calculator, which allows non-linear
scaling of axes and a plotting area that does not contain (0,0), has not brought much change in the
mathematical graphs in the Dutch textbooks. Often textbook authors make a distinction between
plotting a graph of a function, when the calculator is used, and drawing the graph of a function,
66
Background Aspects
about a v-t diagram or an x-t diagram. This is opposite ordering of names used in mathematics. It
might help pupils to better understand graphing if physics textbooks and teachers would regularly
use the terms ) (t v diagram and ) (t x diagram, and if mathematics textbooks and teachers would
regularly use the terminology graph of y as function of x.
The word range has a different meaning in mathematics and physics. In the latter field, it refers to
the values that a physical quantity can take. So, it is legitimate to talk about the range of the
quantities at the horizontal and vertical axes of a graph. In mathematics, the words domain and
range are used in connection with the notion of function and they specify for what values the
function is in principle defined and to what set the function values belong.
In many physics textbooks, the difference between steepness of a straight line and its slope is
stressed. The reason lies in the use of dimensions: a quantity like speed is connected with the
volume of matter is a derived quantity, viz., the mass density. In a mathematical graph, the
directional coefficient of a straight line is a dimensionless number as well as the slope of a graph in
a given point, which only has a geometric interpretation as the limit of a difference quotient or the
slope of the tangent line in that point.
We summarise our findings so far in Table 2.
Mathematics Physics
Graph Represents a single object, viz.,
a function. Main purpose is to
give a single view of various
aspects of a given function.
Represents a relationship between
two quantities. Main purpose is to
explore or to present the
relationship between quantities.
Axes Dimensionless numbers are
represented. Scaling is by default
linear.
Values of quantities are expressed
in some unit. Scaling is a matter
of choice and may be non-linear.
Origin (0,0) is the fixed position. Arbitrary position.
Plot
range
In principle infinite Determined by the ranges of the
quantities.
Slope/
Gradient
Dimensionless number having a
geometric interpretation only.
Represents the change of a
quantity with respect to another
and is on its turn a quantity with a
unit.
Table 2: Different contexts of graphing in mathematics and physics.
Graphs in mathematics and physics do not only differ in their construction or purpose; also reading
of graphs is different and this is reflected in the language that is commonly used. We give some
examples. In mathematics, one speaks about the origin of a coordinate system and about the zero on
the number line, in the sense of the point that represents the integer 0 with the property of the unit
element in an additive group. In physics one does not speak about the origin of quantity values, but
instead one uses the wording zero. For example, temperature can be expressed in various units
depending on the zero that one chooses: 0 Kelvin refers to the lowest temperature that an object can
have, whereas 0 C refers to the temperature of melting ice. Another common example of the
freedom to choose the zero of a quantity in a physics problem setting is the potential of a force field,
say an electric or gravitational field.
A mathematical graph represents a single object, the graph of a given function. Accordingly one
speaks about the graph of the function y, the graph of ) (x y , or the x-y graph. A physics graph
represents a relationship between two quantities and one generally speaks about the graph of one
quantity versus the other. In this wording one uses the name of the quantity represented by the
vertical axis first, especially when the horizontal axis represents time. For example, one speaks
8. Consequences for the design of an integrated learning environment.
What can be learned from the discussion of mathematical notions in the last three sections?
Certainly, analysing differences between the use of variables, functions, and graphs in mathematics
and physics is not enough when it comes to the design of an integrated learning environment. One
thing to keep constantly in mind is that doing mathematics on a computer differs essentially from
tradition pencil-and-paper work. In (Heck, 2001), the author discusses the differences between the
concept of variable in mathematics and science and in computer algebra. He lists the following
properties of computer algebra variables that make them different from variables in mathematics:
A computer algebra variable always points to a value, which can be almost anything.
Manipulation of computer algebra variables has its own rules, in which internal storage of
expressions, automatic simplification, ordering of commands, and evaluation scheme play a role.
An expression can represent a mathematical object as well as describe a particular process to be
carried out. Both notions are frequently used.
Some variables have special meaning distinct from standard mathematics.
Although modern computer algebra systems try to mimic mathematical notation as much as
possible, their users still have to translate to and from standard notation on many occasions.
In computer algebra, there is a strong focus on solving generic problems, i.e., special cases such as
special values of parameters are not taken into account.
Being aware of such differences between traditional work and computer-based work, what kind of
suggestions and recommendations can we make to designers of educational software environments?
First of all, a lesson from the past: many successful education software environments like dynamic
geometry systems have been primarily designed on the basis of what should be done in education instead
of on the basis of what can be done technically. In other words, the activities of students and teachers have
been chosen as the basis to work from, not the knowledge that apparently must be incorporated. In short,
we would like to advocate the following primary design goals:
to provide a useful, powerful, and scalable set of facilities for students and teachers;
with an easy to use and easy to learn, appealing user interface;
ideal for teaching and learning activities;
that runs on moderate and affordable equipment;
allows easy exchange with other software products such as spreadsheets, text processors,
presentation tools;
supports easy network communications such as internet browsing and distance learning.
67
steepness of the tangent line at points in the x-t diagram. The steepness of a tangent line can be
approximated by a difference quotient, i.e., the quotient of two differences of quantities. In
mathematics, which uses dimensionless numbers, the slope of a tangent line or the coefficient of
direction, as it is also called, is mainly interpreted geometrically as the arctangent of the directional
angle of the line, but only in case equal horizontal and vertical scales are used. The slope has to do
with angle in a geometrical picture and it is not a physical quantity.
The above differences in the use of language for graphing, which is summarized in Table 3, may
contribute to the difficulties that pupils have in using graphs similarly, but yet so differently in
mathematics and physics.
Mathematics Physics
Tangent line, slope. Gradient, steepness.
Origin (of coordinate system). Zero (of a quantity).
Domain and range (of a function). Range (of quantity values).
Graph of ) (x y , x-y graph. v-t diagram, x-t diagram.
Set of 2-tuples (x,y) Plot of y vs. x
Table 3: Some different languages for graphs.
We envision a scenario of a teacher and students using a set of tools for the study of natural and
mathematical phenomena. This set of tools is integrated in one open environment designed for the
educational setting. Such environment is open in the sense that it is
a flexible and customisable multi-purpose tool;
an environment for solving open problems that need definition, set-up, exploration, etc., i.e., a
thinking tool;
free of didactic context or principles, i.e., it less considered as a pedagogical tool and more as
mathematical and scientific tool.
Some technical recommendations are:
provide many useful representations of mathematical objects;
allow flexible notation of mathematical expressions and user-defined objects;
allow more than one way of creating and manipulating objects;
make tools customisable to users.
provide an easy to learn and easy to use programming language for writing computer model and
extending the built-in library of user commands.
Let us be a little bit more specific and technical about the above guideline for the development of
an integrated learning environment that allows the user to express easily mathematical and
scientific thinking. Firstly, what kind of model for the calculus of variables and expressions do we
envision and what do we learn from our analysis of the use of variables? Whatever the answer is,
the model should support the objects and operations from mathematical and scientific contexts in
a natural way. In other words, the way that the software treats them should be consistent with the
expectations of a user. For a software system that is meant for education, this is even more
important, since the software representations will influence the formation of concepts.
In general, one can say that the more structure the model has, the more support it can give. But a
stricter structure also implies less freedom and introduces the need of more conversions of one
structure type to another.
Current mathematical software systems take different approaches towards this design choice. Matlab
supposes that everything is a matrix. Axiom uses strong typing, together with a system for type
inference based on mathematical categories. Derive, Maple and Mathematica have no strong typing of
objects, and give the user an enormous freedom. Such a freedom has a price; the interested reader is
referred for a discussion about Derive to (Artigue, 1997), (Guin & Trouche, 1998), and (Drijvers & van
Herwaarden, 2000). A price to pay is in general that although a user may enter an expression that is
mathematically unsound, it can very well be syntactically sound. In this case the user will only be
notified by a runtime error, or will not be notified at all. Moreover, more structural commands are
needed in the language to make up for the lack of structure in the model.
We are of opinion that one can follow here an intermediate route and choose for a strong typing, but
of a very simple nature. Few atomic objects like numbers, booleans and strings are required, and there
must be a way of creating indexed lists of objects. In most contexts, the types of the objects will follow
immediately from the context; one does not have to declare them beforehand. In this way, we hope and
expect to have found a proper balance between power in expressiveness and structural support.
Variables are ubiquitous in science and mathematics. In general, one thinks of a variable as
something with a symbol as name and a value. The symbol may be used in computations and
mathematical expressions as if it were a number. The value may be not determined, it may change,
and it may vary. This description is still somewhat vague, and in textbooks the concept is often ill
defined or not defined at all. We find Freudenthals classification of the various appearances of the
concept of variable very useful, even under the constraint that variables always need a finite
representation on a computer. The finite representation of the variable poses for the use of a
variable as a placeholder or polyvalent name not a particular problem. It is a symbol without a
particular value, or with a value that can be changed. The meaning of the symbol depends on the
mathematical context: expressing statements, solving equations, defining functions, and so on. But
in the third type of use, i.e., the variable as variable object, the finiteness of any representation on
a computer does impose restrictions. We see for an object with varying value two possibilities:
68
Background Aspects
a finite representation with a finite indexed listing of values;
a finite representation with an algorithm expressed in finitely many terms.
It is the first possibility of a notion of variable with indices to express the variability that leads us
to a type for variables: e.g., the type float[i,j] will mean that the variable has as values floating point
numbers that depend on the indices i and j. So, such a variable has a symbol (name) and a type
associated to it, possibly together with a value that can be a number, a list of numbers, a list of lists of
numbers, etc. To keep track of the origin of the data, variables will have a source attribute that contains
a reference to the instance (file, URL, sensor, GUI-element, etc.) that actually sets the values of the
variable. Although such a typing system allows structured support for the user and a short and
therefore powerful language, it is the purpose of the model to ensure that most users do not have to
set the types explicitly. In fact, only advanced users will have to understand the typing system.
The second possibility is about algorithms. This leads us at first to formulas: mathematical
expressions containing arithmetic operations, function calls, variables and indexed lists. Formulas
are in some way the easiest algorithms, but one will soon feel the need for other algorithms, e.g.,
with repetitions and conditionals, or operations in which also the indices are involved. This is where
the programming language comes in. Expressions can be formed in terms of variables, indexed lists
and operations on those. A prototype for internal use by software developers at the AMSTEL
institute shows that this model for calculating with variables of different types is feasible.
The second major theme of our discussion about consequences for the design of an integrated
learning environment is graphics and its role in mathematics education. First of all, there seems to
be general consensus about some starting-points of teaching and learning calculus:
equally important role of graph, table, formula, and context (certainly in the beginning).
use of multiple representations of the same mathematical object.
stress on relational understanding instead of instrumental understanding: the difference is in
understanding why and how. For example, drawing a graph of a function is of instrumental
nature, whereas curve fitting requires knowledge about properties of functions.
use of real contexts for concept building and application.
importance of dynamics for deepening mathematical insight.
Experimental research of recent years (e.g., Hennessy, 1999) supports the assumption that graphing
calculators can already stimulate
the use of realistic contexts and bring mathematical modeling and interpretation of results of
simulations within pupils reach;
the exploratory and dynamic approach of mathematics: think of pupils activities like
investigating and classifying parabola, and graphical techniques like zooming;
a more integrated view of mathematics: pupils can use multiple representations of mathematical
objects;
a more flexible problem solving behavior: new strategies like solving equations graphically are
possible.
The question is not whether technology can contribute, but more how it can contribute and what
requirements can be made for an integrated environment to support this view on calculus
education. We limit ourselves to role of graph, table, formula, and situation.
Graph and table are mathematical instruments to represent data in a clear structured way. They are
in general more than an ordered set of point and numbers: they tell a story or represent a process.
For example, in an interpretation of a velocity-time diagram qualitative issues such as change of a
graph and asymptotic behavior are often more important than the quantitative aspects. To facilitate
discussion about a diagram and to make it possible to construct diagrams in the same format as one
sees in textbooks, it is necessary that one can make diagrams more beautiful. Use of different
colors, different line styles, various characters, annotations and legends, auxiliary points and lines,
and so on, must be possible. Various zooming facilities such as automatic zooming or the use of a
(dedicated) zoom box allow the user to focus on interesting parts of a diagram. To better
understand the role of a parameter in a mathematical model or to carry out a sensibility analysis, a
lot is gained when a range of parameter values is available via graphical user interface elements
69
like a slider bar. This immediate graphical response to changing a parameter is expected to
contribute to mathematical understanding. Construction of graphs and table should be easy and
natural. It must be easy to comply with a request like give me a straight line, give me a
parabola, or more generally, give me a graph of a function of this well-known type, and provide
a graph together with handles for further adjustment. Good-quality freehand sketches of graphs
may be difficult to make, but standard techniques like the use of Bezier curves may already suffice
for making a sketch. Also, when a mathematical function f is defined in a standard way, say (f(x) =
x
2
3x + 1, dragging and dropping the symbol f into a diagram window may already produce the
graph of f for some default domain. Similarly, a definition like y: = x
2
3x + 1 can be dragged and
dropped into a diagram window to get the isolated variable y plotted against the independent
variable x. The same holds for dragging a symbol or definition into a table window. Graphs and
columns in tables do not need to come from formulas exclusively. For example, to create an
increase diagram of some functional relationship or to filter some data it is enough to select some
appropriate (menu) command. Certainly, in case you want to be able to carry out operations on
graphs of functions before the required algebraic manipulation skills have been learned and
practiced by students, this kind of graph manipulation without a formula is fruitful. A more general
recommendation to software developers is to de-emphasize algebraic input via keyboard or
palette, but to allow other ways of creating mathematical objects. One of the behaviors associated
with graph sense is the ability to understand the relationships among a table, a graph, and the
function or data being analyzed. Many research studies (e.g., Kaput, 1992) report about the possible
contribution of the use of multiple, linked representations of mathematical object to mathematical
thinking. The main rationale of linked representations is to give students the opportunity to explore
ideas from a variety of directions. Let us have a brief look at what this means for learning the
concept of function. The matrix in Table 4, developed in (Janvier, 1978), gives an overview of the
transitions between table, graph, formula, and situation.
In mathematics lessons, the most used transitions are t g, g _t, f g, f t, and f f , where
t, g, f stand for table, graph and formula. From an integrated learning environment one may expect
that it makes such transitions simple to do and that is allows student to concentrate on
mathematical and scientific issues, instead on technical details. After all, the technology must solve
problems for its user and not create additional problems. But one may expect more: transitions
involving situation are possible in video and digital image measurement. And manipulations of
graphs can be dealt with in a dynamic way.
70
Background Aspects
from _to situation table graph formula
situation restructuring,
searching
relevant data
deriving data from
the situation, e.g.,
via data collection
sketching of
graph form verbal
description
modelling,
finding a
formula from a
verbal
description
table reading and
interpreting
changing one table
into another, e.g.,
adding an increase
column
plotting ordered
pairs of numbers
in a grid
finding a
formula for
tabular data
graph interpreting
charac-teristics
of functions
reading off
coordinates
making one graph
from another
curve fitting
formula formula
recognition
computing sketching a curve
from a formula
simplifying and
re-writing a
formula
Table 4: Transitions between situation, table, graph, and formula.
We give the above long and yet incomplete list of recommended facilities for graphing because they play
a major role in the setting in which graphs are represented, used, or learned. They have much to do with
the following list of features that contribute to students success in graphing (Ainly, 2000):
The presentation of a complete image allows students to take a global view of the graph, rather
than focussing on separate components. So, zooming facilities are important.
The use of a number of similar graphs encourages students to focus on similarities and
differences between examples and sharpens their discrimination. The easier to graph, the more
examples pupils can study.
The ability to manipulate the graph and change its experience is closely related to the previous
point. Re-representing the same data in different ways helps to emphasize features of the data.
A familiar and/or meaningful context allows students to feel ownership of the data and to make
sense of it. This will obviously be true when they have collected and recorded data themselves.
A purposeful task in which the graph is used to solve a problem encourages active use of graphs,
in which it is natural to work on reading the graph and on manipulating the graph to make it
more readable, rather than seeing it as an illustration.
9. Conclusion
From an integrated learning environment for math and science one may expect that students and
teachers can
use a rich variety of tools to express mathematical and scientific ideas in a concrete form;
explore ideas from various directions
be explicit about why they are using a particular tool and method.
However, to implement these wishes is nontrivial. A complicating factor is that mathematical
concepts are not always used the same in mathematics and science.
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AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR LABWORK IN EXPERIMENTAL
SCIENCES
Matilde Vicentini, Department of Physics University La Sapienza, Roma, Italy
1. Introduction: knowing science and knowing about science
When talking about the role of labwork in the teaching of experimental sciences two possible aims
of didactic communication using laboratory activity are intertwined. The first aim concerns the
learning of science by the students: labwork activity is here viewed as a mean of guiding students
in their understanding of the relationship of natural phenomena to the theoretical models that the
scientific community today accepts as valid interpretations and explanations.
The second aim concerns students learning about science: labwork activity is here viewed as the
means of guiding the students in a metareflection on the production and evolution of the contents
of science. This means, on one side, the procedural methodology of making observations, planning
experiments, developing theories and models, and comparing theoretical analysis with empirical
data. But it also means, on another side, discussing the social aspects of science-in-the-making
72
Background Aspects
(research group organisation and interactions, publication procedures, role of conferences and sym-
posia, scientific debates) and the socio-political aspects related to the interaction of the scientific
community with the society at large (criteria and sources of financial support, popularisation
efforts, ethical problems.).
It is reasonable to recognise that the two aims require involvement at two different cognitive levels.
In both cases however the teacher (who is supposed to know science) needs an epistemological fra-
mework in which to place the planning of didactical activities involving labwork. The expertise
required to build such a framework may be found in part in the work of philosophers, epistemolo-
gists and sociologists and in part in the work of scientists. However the two parts focus on different
aspects of the problem of interest to science educators and teachers. Moreover one often has the
impression that science educators recognise the competence of philosophers, epistemologists and
sociologists on the issue while scientists are often assumed not to be reliable in talking about what
science is as they are so involved in doing science that they do not have the time nor the com-
petence to argue about what they are doing (Vicentini 1999 a, b). This is partly true; in fact a nor-
mal scientist is, generally, so involved in doing science (and publishing research papers) that
she/he does not care to reflect on the placing of his/her work in an epistemological framework.
However some outstanding scientists have written about science: Duhem and Poincar are exam-
ples from the past, De Gennes (1994), Jacob (1997), Deutsh (1997), Gellmann (1994), Cini (1994),
Levy Leblond (1996) more recent examples. In the educational literature one seldom finds refe-
rences to them. Of course epistemologists and philosophers have the competence as they have stu-
died the work of the scientists in historical records but little has been done on science in the
making. As Latour (1998) says there is a philosophy of science, but unfortunately there is no phi-
losophy of research. There are many representations and clichs for grasping science and its myths;
yet very little has been done to illuminate research.
Something is available on the theory-data-reality relationship, on the interactions among scientists
in a laboratory set up (Latour 1979, Giere 1988 are examples) and on the role of technology
(Gallison 1997). However we must note that scientists do not publish the detailed history of the
planning and definition of an experiment with their reasons for choices in the technology and the
dead ends of trial measurements.
In their articles one finds the final apparatus, with the indication of measurement instruments and,
perhaps, procedures and experimental results. Sometimes it may happen that - from the planning
of an experiment - the design of a new instrument or a calibration procedure are produced.
However these technical details are generally published in the appropriate technical journals
without reference to the experiments that prompted their development.
The research articles therefore present a tale of the experimental research not as it has actually
been developed but as it could have been developed in an ideal world where no accidental effects
interfere with the story.
In this paper I will present a possible framework for the reflection of teachers and science educa-
tors. The framework is the merging of ideas taken from the work of both kinds of experts
(Interchange 1997, J. Research in Science Teaching 1998, Science Education 1997/1999, Mattews
1994) but also from my personal history as an experimental scientist in the field of physics.
Therefore, physics will act, in this paper, as the primary referent for my metareflection: it is from
this referential position that I will try to argue about the role of laboratory work in the experi-
mental science.
Since science may be considered a complex abstract object, it may be looked at from different
points of view. Let me then use the metaphor of the observation of a concrete three-dimensional
object. When we look at an object from different points of view we obtain different images accor-
ding to the perspective of observation. From one particular point of view we see the details of one
face of the object while the aspect of other faces is hidden. The same happens when we try to talk
about science: one perspective permits us to focus some details while hiding others. Therefore I
will present in the following three sections of the article three possible perspectives on the problem.
Each perspective will focus some aspects involving laboratory work in experimental sciences. The
73
final section will then try to unify them. Conceptual maps, a communication tool suitable in the
negotiation of meanings, will be used as needed in all three perspectives.
2. First perspective: the organisation and development of scientific knowledge
From a constructivist perspective a scientists, like any other human being, is the one who organises
74
Background Aspects
World of
phenomena/
Laboratory
Social
community/
scientific
community
a scientist
Produces
artifacts
Exchanges
information with
builds
Schemes of
knowledge
Models of the
reality
that are
which have
the capacity
of
1. correlating data
2. predicting
3. searching new information
4. imagining new experiments
and eventually
modify
the
Fig. 1
75
The world of events/phenomena
observation
Definition of the de-scriptive
parameters and measurement
pro-cedures
Technology
Prediction
Empirical referents
experimentation
Empirical laws
Primary models How?
Explanation/
justification
Theories Secondary
models
Why?
Demonstration
verification/
falsification
Fig. 2
his/her personal knowledge through the informations received from the world of phenomena and
from the scientific community.
The conceptual map in fig.1 gives an illustration of the sources and procedures of this organisation of
knowledge. For a scientist the world of phenomena is made up of two different sources of information:
the natural world and the laboratory world. The scientist, in his/her work, produces artefacts that enter
the laboratory world to furnish answers to his/her questioning. The interaction with the social com-
munity privileges the debate with the experts of the disciplinary field - the scientific community. Thus
the scientist, in his/her life, goes through schemes of knowledge which enable him to cope with the
changing spectrum of information collected from experimental work and interaction with his peers.
An analogous map may then be obtained to illustrate the development of scientific knowledge just
by changing the role of organiser of knowledge from the individual scientist to the scientific com-
munity. The discussion inside the community is such that it gives value only to the schemes of know-
ledge that acquire inter-subjective agreement through confrontation with empirical findings in the
laboratory and among scientists in a critical debate.
A closer look at the relation of the world of phenomena and the schemes of knowledge is illustra-
ted in the conceptual map of fig.2 which may be used, by reading the map step by step, for a first
delineation of the work of an experimental scientists.
After the choice, in the world of events, of particular phenomena of interest, the scientific study
begins with a qualitative observation aimed at the identification of the parameters suitable for the
description of the system and of its temporal evolution. This step also involves a decision about
what may be considered as accessory to the phenomenon under consideration and, therefore, to be
excluded from scientific analysis. A model system may then be organised for study in a laboratory
set up. This model system (which may be called the empirical referent of the phenomena) is the
system on which to perform quantitative observations through measurement procedures of the
descriptive parameters. Experimentation in the laboratory may lead to the definition of relations
among the parameters which then constitute a set of empirical laws (or primary model) that pro-
vide a phenomenological quantitative description of the phenomena (an answer to the question
how does the phenomena appear). The primary model then has a predictive capacity for new
experiments or for the development of technological applications. However a scientist is also inte-
rested in finding possible explanations for the occurrence of the phenomena. The search for an
answer to the question of why the phenomenological behaviour is as observed involves the intro-
duction of entities outside of the experimental determination which have the role of explanatory
concepts for a set of primary models.
We may call the conceptual framework which furnishes an answer to the question why a secondary
model or theory. The theories then justify the predictions emerging from the primary models while
also envisaging the possibility of new predictions and new technological applications.
Thus map in fig.2 gives us a perspective on the work of an experimental scientist which, although indi-
cating that the protagonists of scientific inquiry (the real world of phenomena, the laboratory world
producing the primary models, the ideal world of theories), does not really describe the interplay
among them. In fact the picture could be interpreted by the reader as an inductivist perspective on
scientific methodology. It is, therefore, necessary to present the problem from a different perspective.
3. Second perspective: experience and experiment
The words experimental science, with the semantic root of the adjective, point to a specific rela-
tion between the reality of facts and phenomena of the natural world and the theory and models
developed in the scientific disciplinary field.
The semantic root may be found to be in common with the verb experiencing or to have expe-
rience. However there are nuances of meaning in relation to specific characteristics of the activity:
experiencing, having experiences are words connected with all kinds of activities in which a human
being receives information from the environment not necessarily as answers to questions that s/he
is asking. One may experience something also when one is not willing to do so.
Experimenting, doing experiments are words that correspond to the activities in which a human
being is searching for answers to specific questions. This then implies the planning of some sort of
apparatus for finding answers to the questions.
Therefore the activities of experiencing and experimenting are different both in the strategies
that define the procedural aspects (the first a spontaneous activity with no special focus, the second
a planned activity with a special aim) and in the reality toward which the actions are directed.
76
Background Aspects
The reality of experiencing is a complex reality of the natural world, the reality of experimen-
ting is the reality of objects in a laboratory. Thus the laboratory, while belonging to the natural
world of the concrete objects and instruments that constitute its furniture, is also an artificial world
as the same objects have been built by mankind.
It may be useful to focus in more detail on the differences between the natural world and the labo-
ratory world.
In the natural world objects and phenomena are interrelated in a more or less complex way. Today
also many artefacts produced by applied technological research have become part of the environ-
ment of everyday life. In the laboratory world these objects are mainly technological ones built for
the inquiry of some phenomena by abstracting them from the complexity of the real world or of
phenomena which do not appear in the natural world but are, in fact, produced in the laboratory.
All these concrete objects must be known to the experimental scientist (or by the research group
who is constituted by people of specific expertise working in co-operation). Other objects must also
be known to the researchers: these are the abstract object of models and theories of the discipli-
nary field and of experimental procedures.
It thus appears that the laboratory world is the actual, direct referent of reality for the scientists while
the natural world constitutes an ideal, indirect referent: the findings from the laboratory world must
make sense also in the natural world. Of course there are differences among the various disciplinary
fields of the experimental sciences: (e.g. in physics or chemistry most findings come from the labora-
tory while in geology or biology the role of the external environment is more pregnant and often con-
stitutes the laboratory in which objects and phenomena may be studied directly).
In the past when the laboratory world was more similar to the external world one could imagine a
scientist who was mainly using induction procedures for the organization of schemes of knowled-
ge. The increased debate, in this century, about the role of induction procedures in the experimen-
tal work is also related to the role played by models and theories in the definition of the experi-
mental apparatuses and measuring instruments.
One may say that today theories and experimental tools are so interdependent that it is difficult to
separate them. To understand interdependence we may analyse the development of an experimen-
tal research project in-the-making. This corresponds to a more detailed description of the step
experimentation in the map in fig.2.
Schematically an experimental research project develops over 4 phases of work.
The first phase concerns the definition of the research problem to be solved experimentally. While
constrained by the status of knowledge at the time of the experiment, the capacity to finding mea-
ningful research problems does depend on the creativity of the scientist. In some cases it may be
meaningful to verify empirically specific theoretical hypotheses or predictions. In other cases the
experimental exploration of new phenomenological fields may be meaningful. New technologies
may focus on particular problems.
It is not easy to develop a complete overview of the various situations that have happened in the
history of science. Great scientific experiments have found their place in historical reports, but it
is not easy to find descriptions of the little scientific experiments which are published in scienti-
fic journals, which may be recognised as relevant for publication in a particular period but whose
contribution to the development of knowledge is not taken into consideration in retrospect.
Once the problem of research has been defined we have the planning phase of the experiment.
Now a careful analysis of the phenomenon is required with the definition of the variables to be con-
trolled or measured and the invention of the technical know-how appropriate to the inquiry. Trials
and errors of specific parts and of the whole apparatus will be needed to evaluate the response, the
experimental accuracy, and the appropriate measuring instruments.
Preliminary data will be collected and analysed for the tuning of the apparatus to the problem que-
stions. Again it is a phase in which the creativity of the scientists plays an important role - also for
the resolution of technical problems.
The next phase, when everything is ready for the data collection, becomes then a routine phase. No
longer creativity but care and patience are required in following the rules of the experimental game.
77
The final phase of data analysis partly overlaps to the third. It directs eventual changes in the expe-
rimental conditions and the decision about the conclusion of the experiment. Here, once again
creativity is very important.
4. Third perspective: the structure of scientific knowledge
In a way by introducing two perspectives connected with the development of scientific knowledge
and the procedures of experimental work, I have not focused on the central aspect of the structu-
re of scientific knowledge. Now we need to focus on this aspect.
Today science is organised in different fields, each one characterised by a common shared set of theories,
models, empirical laws - and methodologies of research. This common shared knowledge is, as we have
already pointed out, the knowledge obtained about that part of the world which pertains to the field of
research by inter-subjective agreement among different scientists who have the competence for compa-
ring models and theories with natural phenomena, experimental outcomes, technological products.
Each sub-field, therefore has its own specificity - and scientists of different fields may have diffi-
culties in communication. However the interrelations between theories, models, experimental
results and technological products cross over the different fields of the experimental sciences
(Bandiera, 1998).
A first aspect of the relation between the ideal world of Scientific Theories and the real world of the
laboratory where phenomena are studied experimentally is shown in fig.3. In some sense the new con-
ceptual map may be considered a reorganisation of the map in fig.2 in which the apparent inductivism
disappears. Here the focus is on the difference between the reality of the world of phenomena and the
idealness of the world of theories. The phenomena - described by empirical laws constitute the expla-
nandum for models and theories. However the empirical laws may also be considered as possible
explanations of some phenomenon, with a difference in kind with respect to theories: an empirical law
explains only in the sense of including the phenomenon in a family of phenomena (if you like, an
empirical law explains a fact by defining its sameness with other facts). A theory tries to explain it
by the use of concepts and variables which are not defined at the level of empirical laws and which are
invoked as the reason why for the relations among measured quantities.
As empirical laws unify different sets of experimental data and theories unify different sets of
empirical laws, one gains the obvious advantage of economy of representation and communication
in reaching a more and more unified scientific knowledge (the overarching framework that scien-
tists aim to construct: examples are classical and quantum mechanics in physics, the theory of evo-
lution in biology). In a given field at a given time the degree of possible unification is often known
to scientists. However, for the solution of well defined problems it is more practical to use know-
ledge at a lower level of unification.
There is another difference between theories and empirical laws. Empirical laws maintain their
validity in correlating experimental data (in the accuracy range defined by the measurements) even
if the theory invoked to explain them is changed or rejected.
The changes in the ideal world of theories - which, together with experimental results, models and
technological artefacts constitute the universe of knowledge shared by a scientific community at
any given time, are depicted in fig.4. Here the focus is on the distinction between theoretical and
experimental research which both contribute to interrelating of inductive and deductive steps and
- to the new definition of the universe of shared knowledge. It may be clear, from the picture, that
the statement data are theory laden should be changed any research project, either theoretical
or experimental, is laden by all the shared knowledge, at a given time, in the three aspects of theo-
ries/models, experimental outcomes, technological artefacts.
In other words the statement should be completed by the complementary one theories are data
laden. Therefore any kind of scientific work, either in theoretical or in experimental research,
requires the acquisition of competences in the knowledge shared by the community: theories,
models, empirical data and laws.
Theoretical research may be concerned with the development of aspects related to new or anoma-
lous data, with the logical organisation of theoretical aspects and in some case also with the defini-
tion of theories following some kind of intuition.
78
Background Aspects
Any experimental research therefore must depart from analysis of the status of knowledge availa-
ble at the time of the experiment concerning theoretical and technological aspects, in addition to
the empirical results that may be relevant for the planning of the experiment. The research may
concern technological development, experimental verification/falsification of theoretical hypothe-
sis, experimental exploration of fields opened by theoretical or technological developments, analy-
sis of experimental data in search of empirical correlation/generalisations, analysis of experimental
data in the light of new theoretical hypothesis, collection of observational information and corre-
lation. Problems that may be resolved by scientific research are contextually defined at any given
79

There is a
"Real" world
characterized
by the
existence/occurrence of
Theories
construct
Explanans
an ideal
world
event/fact
s
phenomena
described
by
Empirical
laws
obtained by
correlatin
g
measured
quantities
Explanandum
that may be
used us a "model"
for finding ways of
describing or explaining
"which may "explain"
a fact/event or
phenomenby its
inclusion in a class
of event/facts/phenomena

observed
but
do not say anything
about facts
events/phenomena
not pertaining to the class
Scientific
concepts
objects/processes
parameters and
Fig. 3
time and change over the course of time along with the evolution of shared knowledge and with
changes in the social context.
5. The social aspect of scientific work
I have tried to present an epistemological framework for the role of laboratory practice in the expe-
rimental sciences through three different perspectives which, while sharing some common points,
focus on different aspects. In all three perspectives experiments and theories are strongly correla-
80
Background Aspects

The universe of shared knowledge
Theories/Models/Data, techology
guide the
development of
Ideas
which may focus
Problems
to be solved by
Theoretical
research research
Experimental
Experimental
outcomes
to be confronted
with
which may
stimulate
which
produces
which may open
the way to new
technology
lead to
a new definition
shared knowledge
models, data,
-theories may be rejected
or their domain of validity
may be restricted
-data may be reinterpreted
or their validity questioned
as for as their accuracy is
concerned
-technology if functioning
enters the real world of
facts/events/phenomena
Fig. 4
of the universe of
about theories
technology
Fig. 4
ted and both contribute, on more or less equal grounds, to the definition of the knowledge shared
by a scientific community.
One point remains to be discussed and it concerns the ways by which a community of scientists rea-
ches agreement.
The scientific community judges the validity of research (theoretical or experimental) with argu-
ments that can be both theoretical and experimental. Its aim is to reach an objective judgement,
devoid of personal biases or opinions; however a subjective component cannot be completely
avoided. Biases and systems of beliefs may be particularly relevant when experts have to make
decisions on the financial support of research projects.
Instruments to be used in the confrontation of ideas are scientific reviews, conferences and symposia
(where new ideas may be debated and eventually accepted or rejected), scientific societies (which may
stimulate new lines of research), workshops (for in-depth discussion among experts of a particular
field). The terms of confrontation are, on one side, the natural world of phenomena (which includes the
experimental outcomes of laboratory practice) and on the other, the different points of view of diffe-
rent scientists and the exercising of accurate criticism. Thus, the development of science requires both
an inter-subjective agreement on rules, criteria, models of explanation, background knowledge, etc.,
as well as competition between different points of view - via scientific debates and criticism.
Another comment concerns social interaction inside an experimental group. In the past, aside from
some individual scientists who contributed to the development of theories while performing experi-
ments, experimental work was organised in small groups of people who shared all the competences
required for the job. The small group organisation is still present in today science but often the collabo-
ration in the group is obtained with a separation of competences according to personal expertise. This
is particularly true in the called big science in which a group may include several hundred persons.
The social abilities of an experimental scientist are therefore needed on two sides: the ability to co-
operate in common and the ability to stand up to confrontation with peers.
One final comment on the social aspects, which I have tried to present from a somewhat idealised
point of view, concerns the ethical aspects related to any kind of social interaction. I will not treat
the problem in detail but let me conclude with the simple consideration that scientists are normal
men and women who, while committed to the rules of the scientific game, have their personal
system of beliefs and behavioural rules which sometimes may produce biases and even misconduct.
References
Bandiera M., Dupr F., Tarsitani C., Torracca E., Ser M.G., Vicentini M Teachers images of Science and Labwork
Working Paper 5 Project Labwork in Science Education (European Commission), (1998).
Cini M., Un paradiso perduto, Milano, Feltrinelli, (1994).
De Gennes O.G, Les objects fragiles, Paris, Plan., (1994).
Deutsch D, The fabric of reality, London, Penguin., (1997).
Gallison P., Image and logic, The Univ. Of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, (1997).
Gellmann M., The quark and the jaguar, New York, Freeman., (1994).
Giere R.N, Explaining Science. A cognitive approach, Chicago, London, The Univ. Of Chicago Press, (1988).
Interchange, Special Issue on History and Philosophy of Science and Science Education, vol.28, n.2-3, (1997).
Jacob F., La souris, la mouche et lhomme, Paris, Edition Odile Jacob, (1997).
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Special Issue on Epistemological and Ontological Underpinnings in Science
Education, 35, n2, (1998).
Kelly K., The third culture, Science, 279, (1998), 992-3.
Latour B., Woolgar S., Laboratory life, Beverly Hills, Calif. Sage, (1979).
Latour B., From the world of science to the world of research?, Science, 280, (1998), 208-209.
Levy-Leblond J.M., 1996a La pierre de touche, Paris, Gallimard 1996b Aux contraires, Paris, Gallimard
Matthews M.R, Science Teaching. The role of history and philosophy of Science, New York, Routledge., (1994)
Science and Education, Special issues about the nature of science and science education, 6 and.7, (1997,1998).
Vicentini M., - The nature of science: A didactical issue, Invited paper at the Conference History and Philosophy of
Science for Education, Como, Italy, (1999).
Vicentini M., What is it doing science?, Contrasting views of scientists, philosophers and science educators in:
Practical work in Science Education, (Ed. K. Nielsen and A.C. Paulsen), Royal Danish School of Education Studies,
Copenhagen, (1999), 9-17
e-mail matilde.vicentini@roma1.infn.it
81
82
Background Aspects
IS FORMAL THINKING HELPFUL IN EVERYDAY SITUATIONS?
Seta Oblak, Faculty of Education, University Ljubljana, Slovenia
Formal thinking in physics usually means mathematical language. In physics teaching, especially in
upper secondary school, this is a frame of formulas filled with a limited series of more or less
artificial examples. For most students, it has nothing to do with everyday life, it is just school
knowledge triggered by a certain sort of questions that can be put only in physics lessons.
On the other hand, the aims in science, especially in physics, go up to a very high level: students
should not only observe and describe their observations, measure, record and interpret data, they
should also draw conclusions, employ a variety of sources of information, make generalisations etc.
These abilities would be useful in all kinds of situations and desirable for any profession.
Yet even to observe and decribe the observations is not as self-evident as one would think. Last
year, one of our teachers reported [1] that she gave her students (age 17-18) a home experiment:
they should observe total reflection in a glass of water and describe their observations. A quarter
of students just memorised what they heard and saw in school without doing anything on their
own. The majority reproduced the school experiment. The descriptions were superficial and even
incorrect and in discussion only, students realised that the experiment could not be performed
following their reports. Only two out of 62 students described their observations sistematically and
with their own words.
In traditional physics teaching, expressing with words is not regarded as important. Mathematicaly
formulated laws are much simpler and much more exact. It is not even clear how certain laws
should be expressed in everyday words, since physics requires a special and very strict language.
Question like In what way is the momentum of a body affected by the resultant force acted on
it? cannot be put in real life. In 1969, Eric Rodgers in his Oersted Medal Address [2] proposed
that teachers should give students the formal wording of Newtons laws and ask them for a
colloquial explanation. He said that they would be surprised at the difference of their answers.
An analysis of external examinations in Slovenia in 1998 has shown that students (age 19) who
choose physics for matura - about 15% - are successful in solving problems with mathematical
tools, yet they are hardy able to answer simple questions. For example, they determined the period,
the gravitational force and the acceleration of an artificial satellite orbiting around the earth, yet
the answers to the last question: Why does the satellite not fall to the Earth? proved that there is
a great void between formal knowledge and understanding of phenomena.
The answers were analysed on 42% of all examination papers (500 out of 1196 who had chosen
this structured question). About a quarter of answers (27%) the examiners found more or less
satisfying. Only a few answers were similar to Newtons original explanation:
The satellite falls all the time when it revolves, yet it never reaches the Earth.
Many answers used forces as explanation:
The attraction force of the Earth acts as a centripetal force and changes the direction of velocity
of the satellite all the time, that is why it moves in a circle. It does not fall on the Earth because the
velocity is just big enough that the satellite does not escape.
The satellite does not fall to the Earth because the force with which the Earth acts on the satellite
is rectangular to its velocity which is big enough, and therefore this force changes only the
direction of the velocity.
Many other answers were expressed more loosely and did not show if students really understood
the phenomenon. Yet they were taken as correct since an open question does not strictly define
how the answer must be.
Because the satellite has just the right velocity.
Beacuse the satellite revolves with a velocity between the 1st and 2nd cosmic velocity.
If the answers were long, there was more chance to make mistakes:
The satellite must fulfill two conditions for not falling to the Earth. It has to have a big enough
orbiting velocity and it has to be high enough. It does not fall to the Earth because of attraction of
other celestial bodies and because of its velocity.
This is a dead-mouse-answer, according to Eric Rogers. The student has shown that he does not
understand, and can get no marks for his answer.
More than a quarter of answers (28%) explained the phenomenon with two equal and opposite
forces - gravitational and centrifugal (or centripetal). In these answers, students did not
distinguish between centripetal or centrifugal force. Their way of thinking can be seen clearly: from
the mathematical formulation F
c
= F
g
, they deduced that forces were opposite and equal and the
net force was zero.
Because it revolves around the Earth, and therefore a centripetal or centrifugal force appears
which pulls the satellite away.
Because the radial force on the satellite is equal but opposite to the attraction force of the Earth
on the satellite.
Because the centrifugal force which pulls it away from the Earth is equal to the centripetal force
which pulls it towards the Earth.
The velocity is big enough that the gravitational and centrifugal force are equal and therefore the
satellite continues in its state of rest or of uniform speed.
The last answer shows that the student was aware that in case of two equal and opposite forces, the
net force should be zero and the satellite should not change its velocity; yet he forgot about
changing the direction of velocity.
About 10% of students gave undefined answers:
Because the attraction force of the Earth is too small at this distance.
Because the gravitational acceleration is too small.
3% quoted Newtons 3rd. law:
Earth acts on the satellite with attractive force, yet at the same time the satellite acts on the Earth
with equal and opposite force, so it cannot fall to the Earth.
A little less then one quarter of answers (22%) were meaningless. It is perplexing to see how
expert language can be used without any understanding.
Because of the tangential acceleration which has the same direction as the velocity.
Because the sum of the vector of velocity and the gravitational force has horizontal direction and
does not point downwards.
Because the acceleration of the satellite is directed away from the Earth and gravitaion towards the
Earth. The satellite revolves with such a velocity that the accelerations cancel each other. We say
that it revolves on its orbit.
Because the sum of the attractive force and the force which pushes the satellite is exactly equal to
the force which rotates the satellite around the Earth.
Force is used for radial acceleration and not for approaching.
Because they keep it in space, and there it stays. The Earth is very far from the satellite, so it cannot
attract it with its gravitational force. Gravitational acceleration in the space is smaller than on the
Earth.
Because it has an inertial force which keeps it on the orbit.
Because of the distance it has from the Earth. If it were very close the Earth would simply attract
it and it would hit it yet because of the distance it is saved from this fate.
And 10% of students did not answer this question at all.
From these answers, it is evident that the reverse process - from formal thinking back to everyday
life has been neglected.
That physics teaching does not give the desired results has been known for at least four decades.
During that time, many attempts were made to change the didactic approach to teaching and shift
the importance from formulas to understanding (PSSC, Nuffield, problem-centered learning,
constructivist method, context-bound teaching etc). In Nuffield project [3], teams of interested
teachers and didactic experts prepared textbooks, teacher manuals, equipment, questions books
83
etc. Much equipment has been developed which is still in use today: big demonstration instruments,
ticker-timer, air track, ripple tank, electronic tubes etc. The importance of experimental work done
by students was realized and kits for practical work were developed. In England, practical work has
even been made part of external examinations on A-level.
Why the situation in these forty years has not changed? Obviously, the novelties do not reach the
broad population. After a time, when teachers who have iniciated the project stop working, the
project as a whole dies. Although new approaches and methods have proved to be successful, they
have been applied in limited cases and by enthusiastic teachers only. In Slovenia, a modern physics
course for the first year of upper secondary school was prepared by a group of university and upper
secondary school teachers, with very little mathematics, with good equipment for demonstration
and laboratory work, with teachers experimental guide, textbook, book of questions etc. Schools
were equipped for demonstrations and practical work. Yet this course was abolished partly because
of political reasons, but also because of dissatisfaction of traditional teachers and especially of
technical faculties, shortage of qualified physics teachers, experimental work as an extra burden,
unchanged curriculum in the next stages and especially unchanged examinations at the end of
upper secondary school etc.
Traditional teaching is, for the majority of teachers and students, still the easiest way to the goal
which is a certificate. There is a general agreement among the universities about the content of
physics in upper secondary school which is almost impossible to break. The number of students has
gone up, and since teachers have to go through the syllabus, there is less and less time for discussion
which is the only way to understanding. In external examinations, it is very difficult to evaluate
answers to open questions in a comparable way, and solving of mathematical problems prevails.
The importance of questions for examining students knowledge was first realized by Nuffield
project. When preparing the new course in 1966, examination questions were prepared alongside
so that they conveyed the right message: it is important to understand. Nuffield questions books
have lost nothing of their actuality.
In Slovenia, before external matura was introduced there were entrance exams on different
faculties where questions were prepared without deeper consideration. A knowledge of facts,
formulas and of solving mathematical problems was enough, and feedback of these exams on
physics teaching in gymnasium was bad. Now, examination board for matura is aware that its way
of evaluating knowledge is of crucial importance for physics teaching, and in examination papers,
a collection of formulas is included so that students do not have to memorize. Also, open questions
are put to candidates although evaluating such answers is quite a problem. But since there are in
average only about 2000 candidates, a group of about 30 teachers can do the marking in two days,
working together and discussing current problems with chief examiner and members of
examination board.
On the other hand, matura in Slovenia has also bad effects: physics as choice subject for matura
influences very much the teaching in the first three years since it is the only external evaluation of
teachers work. In gymnasium, classical physics is now overemphasized and modern physics is left
for the fourth year and the 15% only.
Apparently, a change in physics teaching is not a problem of physics didactics only, but also a
psychological and sociological problem. In Slovenia, early science was much easier to implement
because there was no tradition to be changed. In upper secondary school, mathematical and formal
approach has great tradition and changing it means changing teachers attitude.
To promote understanding in physics teaching, discussion among teachers and students is needed.
Qualitative and semiquantitative reasoning is important on upper stage also. Demonstration
experiments and practical work have now a long tradition, yet for practical work too, discussion is
necessary if the students should profit from it. Otherwise, they just measure some points and plot
them on the graph (http://quark.physics.uwo.ca/~harwood/humor5.html)
Today, there are enormous possibilities to make teaching more effective, interesting and up-to-
date: computer-supported laboratory, interactive simulations, interactive textbooks, multimedia etc.
84
Background Aspects
it is hardly possible to use all the new materials in the prescribed number of lessons. So selection
is very important. Yet to select, one must be an expert in all fields.
The most important condition for good physics teaching is good teacher education. In many
countries, during undergraduate study physics is promoted and didactis is not taken as important.
After some years of work, teachers start to feel the need for more didactic knowledge and it is very
good if they have the possibility to study further. It is important that teachers follow the
development of didactics throughout their professional carrier. This is not always the case, contrary
to physics where it would be impossible to work without the knowledge of what is currently going
on in the world. Yet all this is of no help if there is a shortage of physics teachers in the country.
State institutions can be of great help if advisers are stimulated to study and cooperate in
developmental work. They have an overview of what is really taught, and access to teachers and
schools all over the country. In England, HMI had an important role in Nuffield project. Trial and
implementation of new courses can best be organised by advisers who cooperate in the project. In
Netherland, Institute for development of curricula (SLO) functions as an intermediate between
universities and schools and an organiser of projects. In Slovenia, the Board of Education
cooperated with university in Tempus projects in early science for many years. Science and primary
school advisers worked at developing seminar topics and later organised seminars in schools in
different parts of the country. In this way, the novelties were implemented on big scale, and when
the curricula were officially reformed, the new curriculum of primary science has already been
brought to life in schools by interested teachers.
In in-service training, to promote understanding in physics teaching, discussion is needed and
advantage and disadvantage of using everyday language has to be analysed. All this can best be
done in workshops for shredding examination questions prepared by participants.
References
[1] Vida Kari Merhar: Total reflection in a glass of water, Fizika v oli 7, (2001).
[2] E. Rogers: Examinations powerful agents for good or ill in teaching, AJP, (1969).
[3] Wonder and Delight, Essays in Science Education, Editors Brenda Jennison & Jon Ogborn, IOP, (1994).
THE FORMAL REASONING OF QUANTUM MECHANICS: CAN WE MAKE IT
CONCRETE? SHOULD WE?
Dean Zollman, Kansas State University, USA
The teaching and learning of quantum mechanics is very frequently postponed until relatively late
in a students academic career. In U.S. universities students typically receive a quick introduction
to some aspects of one-dimensional quantum mechanics from the end of the second or beginning
of the third year of their university studies and then do not study quantum mechanics in any depth
until the fourth year. Thus, the major concepts which have driven much of the development of
physics and of modern technology during the 20
th
century are delayed until the end of a physicists
academic career and are frequently not studied by other students at any time during their careers.
One reason for this delay is the rather abstract nature of quantum mechanics itself. We can easily
argue that, for the way in which quantum mechanics is traditionally taught, students need to have
generally developed their formal reasoning skills. For example, formal operations, in the Piagetian
sense, include hypothetical and deductive reasoning, abstract thought, use of symbolic
representation, and the use of transformations. Quantum mechanics is a hypothetical system for
understanding very small objects. It relies heavily on the use of symbolic representations and
deduction to apply quantum mechanics to a variety of situations. Symmetry arguments, and
therefore transformations, are a significant part of many presentations of quantum mechanics.
Therefore overall, we can assume that the traditional mode in which quantum mechanics is taught
is very abstract and requires rather sophisticated formal operational procedures.
85
Significant research dating back to the 1970s has shown that many university students have not yet
developed formal operations (McKinnon & Renner 1971). In fact, the traditional way of teaching
classical physics is a significant mismatch for many of these concrete operational students. Thus, it
is not surprising that many physicists conclude that quantum mechanics is not understandable by
students who are not studying physics very carefully and are in their third or fourth year at a
university. Many people have concluded that learning quantum mechanics at a lower level is not
possible and thus should not even be attempted (Arons 1990). They argue that the students will
only be able to memorize isolated facts and repeat things without true understanding. Thus, the
students are better served if we spend all of our time on classical physics where concrete learning
experiences can more easily be constructed rather than attempting to teach them something that
they could learn only with great difficulty, if at all.
1. Why teach quantum mechanics to non-physicists?
The discussion about the abstract nature of the normal presentations of quantum mechanics seems
rather valid. The simplest response to these conclusions is to avoid teaching this topic at any but
the most advanced levels. However, some arguments favor attempting to find ways to teach the
topic to students who have not yet reached full formal operations. For example, quantum
mechanics was the most important development in 20
th
Century physics, and it has dominated
physics and technology for well over a half a century. Thus, at the beginning of the 21
st
Century it
is time to allow all interested people access to these ideas. Further, many experts predict that
within the next 10 years miniaturization of electronics will reach the quantum mechanics limit. It
would be nice if people who are trying to take the next step development or business
understood what that meant. Finally, many other very complex and abstract processes the election
of an American President, for example fill our lives. Perhaps an appreciation of quantum physics
can help us understand the role of measurement in these events.
2. Making quantum mechanics concrete
Our group at Kansas State University has been convinced that we should make the teaching of
quantum mechanics more concrete than it normally is. We have worked to develop both the
pedagogical style and the presentation of content so that students who are still developing their formal
operational skills can appreciate and understand some of the features of contemporary quantum
physics. For a pedagogical strategy we have adopted the basic Learning Cycle. The Learning Cycle was
developed by Robert Karplus about 30 years ago and has been successfully used in almost all levels of
teaching (Karplus 1977, Karplus et al 1975, Zollman 1990). While many people have adapted or
changed the basic Learning Cycle, we find that the one that Karplus originally introduced works quite
well for our teaching situation. Each Learning Cycle begins with an Exploration where students
complete activities prior to the introduction of a new concept. These activities prepare them for the
introduction of new concepts which can explain their observations during the Exploration. The
concept introduction provides the new principles on which the students will build and frequently
includes the development of models that can help explain the observations. Once the students have the
new concepts and models they complete an Application in which they apply the newly learned
information to situations that are similar but not identical to the ones they have already studied.
With the addition of model building in some cases our Learning Cycle comes very close to the
Modeling Cycle that has been developed by Hestenes and his co-workers (Wells et al 1995). We
also emphasize collaboration among students as they are learning. This cooperative effort is also an
important part of the Modeling Cycle.
We have created Learning Cycles for a variety of different types of students. Our basic approach is
that all students, even those who are more advanced in their reasoning skills and academic careers,
can profit from a more concrete or intuitive approach to the abstract ideas of quantum physics. We
began by developing materials for secondary school students and those university students who
would complete a physics course but not study physics beyond one year. As these materials were
developed, they were used by faculty who were teaching higher level courses to physics students.
86
Background Aspects
We then created a set of materials for that group and have recently expanded to include materials
specifically aimed at medical students and physics students in the last year of their undergraduate
university careers. Each set of materials has a somewhat different approach and a different level of
mathematical sophistication. However, all of them follow a basic Learning Cycle and focus on
concrete visualization rather than abstract mathematical deduction.
3. Device orientation
One way to make abstract ideas concrete is to connect the concept directly to something in the
students experiences. In one way such a connection is easy for quantum physics. Almost every
contemporary technological device could not exist if a designer of that device did not have an
understanding of quantum science. At the same time the connection between quantum science and
something as ubiquitous as the television remote control is not immediately obvious. Thus, we have
combined hands-on experiences, visualizations, and traditional instruction to help the students see
these connections.
Students should recognize these objects and see them in their everyday life. Light emitting diodes
(LEDs), for example, are everywhere. Although many students do not know the name, they have
seen them in their computers, remote controls, etc. By examining the properties of LEDs the
students learn that LEDs are different from other light sources. Then, with the help of computer
visualizations they understand how the light emitting properties are related to the quantization of
energy in atoms.
We occasionally use devices that students may have heard about and may have seen pictures of, but
they have probably not encountered. The scanning tunneling microscope is the best example. We
do not expect students to use a scanning tunneling microscope although it is possible for students
to build one. But most students will not be able to build such a device. So, in this case, we use a
combination of a simulation and an interactive program (Rebello et al 1997).
We also use a variety of solid light sources. Infrared detector cards are a rather interesting example.
They are a fairly recent development at least fairly recent for inexpensive versions. TV repair people
need to know if a television remote control is emitting infrared. How can they do that? It is rather
simple if they have a video camera. The camera responds to IR and shows a bright spot where the IR
is emitted. So, every TV repairperson needs a video camera, and he/she can find out whether there is
light coming out of the remote control. But that is rather expensive. Another way to detect IR is with
rattlesnakes, which are sensitive to infrared. So, every TV repairperson could have a rattlesnake. But
that is rather expensive in a different way. However, one can buy a little card that responds to IR by
emitting visible light. Thus, it absorbs low energy light and emits higher energy light.
The Star Trek Transporter is also a quantum mechanical device. If one reads the Star Trek Users
Manual, one finds that the Transporter has a component called a Heisenberg Compensator
(Sternbach 1991). When one of the writers for Star Trek was asked, How does the Heisenberg
Compensator work, he responded, Very well (Time 1994). Because Werner Heisenberg is one of
the founders of quantum science, we must assume that this Compensator is related to his
Uncertainty Principle. In one of our units we ask students to address the fantasy device in terms
of basic quantum mechanics principles. These and several other devices are introduced to students.
In each case we show how the devices are related to quantum mechanics. Further, the students
learn how the devices work at the atomic level.
4. Using visualization & model building
In the Visual Quantum Mechanics instructional materials we provide as concrete a description as
possible about how we know about atoms and how we use that knowledge to build models. One of
our learning units focuses on spectroscopy and its role as evidence for energy quantization. This
unit begin with a study of the light emitting diode (LED). We can convince students that the LED
is related to contemporary physics because they can read statements such as A genuine White Light
Super Bright LED utilizes an advanced Quantum Well technology (Electronics 2000) After
observing how different colors of LEDs respond to changes in voltage and observing the spectra
87
from both LEDs and gas spectral tubes, the students are ready to build an energy level model of
the atom. A visualization program, Spectroscopy Lab Suite, provides a set of simulated
experiments, similar to the ones that they have just done, that are coupled to building energy
models of atoms. The activities include the emission and absorption of light by gases, the emission
by solids particularly LEDs, several types of lasers, and common emission processes such as
fluorescence and phosphorescence (Rebello et al 1998).
Students generally use the Gas Emission program after observing the spectra emitted by gas discharge
tubes.The design of this component was motivated by the results from a preliminary field test.We found
that students related the spectral lines for a gas to the discrete energy levels, rather than transitions
between these energy levels. The Emission module was created to alleviate this misconception. Students
create a trial spectrum for a gas by manipulating the energy level diagram of a gas, indicating the
transitions on it. They compare their trial spectrum with the real spectrum for the gas.
The component screen for the Emission module (Figure 1) shows an array of simulated gas lamps
and a power supply on the left. To create the feel of the real experiment that the students have
already completed, they must drag one of the gas lamps into the power supply. This action causes
the lamp to emit light and its spectrum appears at the top of the screen. There are five known gases
(hydrogen, helium, neon, lithium
and mercury) available to the
student, and an unknown gas. In
the case of the unknown gas, the
student can change the spectral
lines to create any hypothetical
spectrum.
A scale which represents energy in
the atom is displayed on the lower
right side of the screen.The students
task is to manipulate energy levels
and transitions and reproduce the
spectrum of the gas. This procedure
addresses our research about
students understanding of atoms.
Students can move the energy levels
and observe the corresponding
changes in the energy of the spectral
line. To make the spectral line in the
trial spectrum coincide with one in
the real spectrum, the students must
create a transition between two
energy levels whose difference in energies is equal to the energy of the emitted light.
By using this program students learn that the energy of the emitted light is equal to the change in energy
within the atom. More importantly they see that only certain discrete energy levels are needed to
explain the observed spectrum. From knowledge of energy conservation and the data presented by
the spectrum of a gas, students can discover that energy states in atoms are quantized. This critical
discovery of 20
th
Century physics follows from empirical results and an explanation in terms of
energy no knowledge of wave functions or the Bohr Atom is needed.
The Gas Lamps Emission component does not enable students to determine the exact energy
levels of a given gas, but rather construct a model based on energy differences. When this
component is used in a classroom environment with students working in small groups, different
groups of students may arrive at different energy levels within the models to explain the spectrum
of the same gas. Rather than tell some students that they are wrong, a teacher can use this situation
to discuss the nature of scientific models and limitations based on the models by available data. In
88
Background Aspects
Figure 1. The emission program from Spectroscopy Lab Suite. Students
drag the light source on the right to the power supply. Then, they build an
energy level model of the atom to match the observed spectrum.
creating their models the students had available to them only the observed spectrum and the
conservation of energy. With no further information they could create several different sets of
energy levels which match the data. (See Figure 2.) By having students compare their results with
others in the class, they can begin to understand how more than one solution to a problem can be
right when it is based on limited information. However, while they cannot create a complete
picture of the atom, all students agree that discrete energy levels are necessary.
Figure 2. In one class students will frequently create two variations of the energy level model. Fig. 2a shows all of the
transitions beginning at the same initial state while Fig. 2b indicates that all transitions end on the same state.
Other modeling in Spectroscopy Lab Suite is similarly connected to experiments. For example,
students create energy band and gap models for the observation that LEDs which emit different
colors of light have different threshold voltages. They also interpret the behavior of electrons in
conduction, valence and impurity bands to explain why a glow-in-the-dark toothbrush stops
glowing if it is placed in liquid nitrogen. In all cases the energy model building is connected directly
to an observation that the students can make.
In building the instruction that led to these programs, we expected the students to be interacting
with each other and with the teacher. For example, the observation that different energy levels can
give the same result is effective because two groups of students obtain different but equally correct
answers. The teacher and the students peers are, thus, important to our teaching-learning process.
5. Conceptual approaches to wave functions
Students with concrete reasoning skills can move beyond spectra and energy models of the atom
to learning activities involving wave functions. Developing experiments with real equipment to
explore and apply wave functions is rather difficult. However, we can create visualizations which
help the students explore. For the students who are not science or engineering majors we avoid the
mathematics of quantum mechanics and rely heavily on visualization in which the students
manipulate variables, and the computer solves Schrdingers Equation. The students must then
interpret the results in terms of the conceptual knowledge.
For both the secondary students and beginning physics students we begin the study of the wave
nature of matter with an experimental observation electrons can behave as waves. After the
students have discussed how interference patterns indicate wave behavior and have observed the
interference of light, we turn their attention to electrons. They can observe a real experiment if
the equipment is available, use video simulations (Kirstein 1999) or see pictures in books. To
investigate the wave nature of electrons further, the students use a simulation program which
enables them to control variables in electron, two-slit experiments. Using results such as those
shown in Figure 3, the students can discover a qualitative relation between the wavelength of the
electron and its energy. They compare the changes in the pattern for changes in energy of
electrons with similar changes when one observes the interference of light at different
89

(a) (b)
wavelength. They can easily conclude that the wavelength of electrons decreases as the energy
increases.
An issue that students will sometimes raise is the relation between the particles charge and its
wave behavior. Their reasoning is, Diffraction is the spreading out of a wave. Like charges repel.
In a beam the charge must cause the electrons to spread out.We test this hypothesis by comparing
the diffraction pattern of simulated proton and neutron, two-slit experiments. The patterns are
identical, so charge must not be a factor.
After a few more experiments, including a variation in mass, we introduce the deBroglie equation.
We have not actually derived the equation experimentally but have given a feasibility argument for
it. While this approach is not historically accurate, it seems to provide students with a somewhat
more concrete introduction to an abstract concept than stating deBroglies hypothesis and then
using interference experiments to verify it.
To connect the matter waves to probability we return to the experiment illustrated in Figure 3. Setting
the particle flux to a few per second the students watch the pattern develop. After a few particles have
hit the screen, as shown on the left side of Figure 3, we have the students stop the experiment. Now,
we ask them to predict where the next electron coming from our electron gun will appear on the
screen. The students very quickly fall into discussing the location in terms of probability. They can
indicate some location where the electron will rather definitely not appear and several where it is very
likely to appear. However, they cannot give a definitive answer. Thus, we can introduce the wave
function and its probabilistic interpretation based on the students experience with indeterminacy.
With wave functions we emphasize conceptual understanding by having students manipulate
graphic images in accordance with their knowledge. For example, we ask the students at all levels
to sketch wave functions qualitatively. Following procedures that appeared in French and Taylor
(French & Taylor 1978), some sketching is done with paper and pencil. However, we find that
students can easily be very inexact with paper and pencil, and sometimes exactness is needed. So,
we have created a program that does very little except that it allows the students to vary the wave
function and match boundary conditions. Figure 4 shows a screen capture that would be created by
students as they are preparing to study quantum tunneling.
We have discovered some interesting ways in which the students use this program. First, if we tell
the students that the wave function is smooth, they will make it smooth to many derivatives. The
idea that two functions just stick together does not occur to them. Second, we use of the word
decreasing for exponential decay. When we use decay, the students immediately think of
90
Background Aspects
Figure 3. A simulated electron
interference experiment. As the
energy increases, the distance
between minima decreases. By
comparing this behavior with that
of light the students conclude that
the wavelength decreases as the
energy increases.
radioactive decay. They interpret that to mean that the electrons are radioactively decaying in the
region where the total energy is less than the potential energy. So, we use the phrase decreasing
wave function.
The third and fourth year university physics students still use a basic Learning Cycle style approach.
However, the Explorations require a little bit of formal operations. These students are still asked to
match boundary conditions graphically. However, as shown in Figure 5, the Wave Function Sketcher
program for these students includes the common mathematical language of physicists.
In addition, the students are expected to work with both the wave function and its derivative when
they are matching the boundary conditions.
Using the Wave Function Sketcher for the advanced students provides an intuitive, and somewhat
concrete, approach to understanding the process of matching boundary conditions. After the
students have completed these activities they are ready to use the mathematics involved in
boundary value problems to complete the solutions for wave functions in various one-dimensional
situations. While this type of Learning Cycle primarily focuses on formal operations, it does
provide visualizations that are more concrete than typical mathematical symbols and, we hope,
helps the students build their intuition about wave functions.
6. Does visual quantum mechanics work?
The units have been used in secondary schools and in universities throughout the U.S. and in a few
other places. Actually, we do not know all the places that it is being used because, during the field
test phase, all the material was on the web and people download it. We have given materials to
people in Southeast Asia and throughout various parts of Europe as well as the U.S. Most of the
original units have now been translated into Hebrew. (Arieli 2001) Thus, the materials, except for
the new Advanced Visual Quantum Mechanics, have been thoroughly field-tested.
Most of our reports, however, have come from the U.S. Approximately 175 different teachers in 160
different schools have used the materials in classes and reported results back to us. Students attitudes
toward these materials are very positive. They frequently make comments like, I really like this better
than our regular physics. Can we keep doing it? (We dont tell the instructors that.) Our staff has
observed teachers using the materials in a variety of different schools. The students interact with the
materials and each other; and they seem to be learning. Most of the teachers also have positive
attitudes; a few do not. We certainly have the problem that many teachers in the U.S. do not have a
very strong background in quantum mechanics. Even though we are approaching quantum mechanics
in a much different way than it is normally taught, some teachers still feel uncomfortable. Building the
teachers confidence is very important. We are working on that aspect now by building a Web-based
course for secondary science teachers. (Connect to http://kzollman1.phys.ksu.edu.)
Student learning was also rather good. During our observations of the teaching, we noticed that the
hands-on component for both the real experiments and the visualizations was important. Some
teachers decided that it was too much trouble to have the students work in a hands-on mode with
all of these programs. So, they just demonstrated the programs to the students. In these cases
91
Figure 4. A screen capture from Wave Function Sketcher. This elementary version of the program is aimed at high
school students and non-science university students.
learning went down; attitudes went down; everything went down. Hands-on activities make a
difference. Of course we should not be surprised because we built the material for the students to
use; not for the teacher to talk about.
With the second year physics students we have done some testing, but it has not been as extensive as
for the secondary students. These units are somewhat shorter and built to be in one to two-hour units
within a traditional modern physics course. We have found that the students attitudes are generally
very positive toward this type of learning and material. However, occasionally a student would feel that
he or she was not getting all of the material that he or she would need for advanced level courses. Some
of the first students with whom we tested the material are now taking a fourth-year quantum
mechanics course. We will be investigating with them how well the materials that they learned in our
course are serving them in the more advanced course. In terms of the student questions we found that
these materials motivated students to ask very high-level conceptual questions. Rather than most of
the questions about wave functions being concerned with the procedural efforts of manipulating
equations, the students were focused on what the wave function means and how it can be interpreted.
We asked the students questions on examinations which were very similar to those that they might find
in a higher level course. In general the performance on such questions was really quite good. So, overall
even though we have not tested the materials as carefully as the materials for lower level students, we
feel quite confident that the materials are teaching well and are providing conceptual understanding
through concrete hands-on and visualized activities.
We do not at this time have similar information about the materials for the fourth year students.
92
Background Aspects
Figure 5. A screen capture from the advanced version of Wave Function Sketcher. This program is for the
university physics students.
These materials are very new and have yet to have a significant amount of classroom tests
performed on them.
7. Conclusions
Concerning the questions which we posed in the title of this talk, we believe that the Visual
Quantum Mechanics project has shown that we can make quantum mechanics accessible to
students who are at the concrete operational stage. Further, we believe that we must provide ways
to allow students who are not formally operational to begin to understand some of the features of
the most important scientific advances during the 20
th
century. Based on a large number of field
tests and a rather careful evaluation of student attitudes and learning, we have concluded that the
Visual Quantum Mechanics materials have been successful in teaching some abstract concepts to
students who have limited science and mathematics background and who probably use concrete or
transitional operations. Our materials are also successful in teaching the conceptual ideas of
quantum mechanics to students who have stronger science and engineering backgrounds by
providing them with some concrete experiences. The combination of hands-on activities, pencil-
and-paper exercises, and interactive computer visualizations seem to work well in a classroom
environment where student-student and student-teacher interactions are taking place. Thus, we feel
that we have built a foundation for providing instruction in the most important aspects of 20
th
Century physics to a broad range of 21
st
Century students.
Acknowledgments
The work described here has been supported primarily by the U.S. National Science Foundation.
Additional funding has come from the U.S. Department of Education, the Eisenhower Professional
Development Program and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. The development of the original
Visual Quantum Mechanics teaching materials profited from significant work by N. Sanjay Rebello,
Lawrence Escalada, and Michael Thoresen. Kirsten Hogg and Lei Bao were instrumental in the
development of materials for second year physics students, while Waldemar Axmann is the primary
author and programmer for Advanced Visual Quantum Mechanics. Dr. Hogg has also been the
primary author of the Web-based materials while Kevin Zollman is the primary programmer for
the on-line course. Chandima Cumaranatunge programmed the visualizations described in this
paper. Rami Arieli has provided valuable feedback and suggestions for improvement while he has
been creating the Hebrew translation. We have worked with Manfred Euler, IPN Kiel, and
Hartmut Wiesner, LMU Munich, on some aspects of Visual Quantum Mechanics. We have
profited greatly from input from undergraduate students and teachers at many other universities
and high schools where the Visual Quantum Mechanics materials have been tested.
References
Arieli R., Visual Quantum Mechanics (Hebrew). Rehovot, Israel, Weizmann Institute of Science, (2001).
Arons A., A Guide to Introductory Physics Teaching, New York, John Wiley & Sons, (1990).
Dick Smith, Electronics, Flyer included with a white LED, Australia, (2000).
French A, Taylor E., An Introduction to Quantum Physics, New York, W. W. Norton & Co., (1978).
Karplus R., Science Teaching and the Development of Reasoning, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 14, (1977), 169.
Karplus R, Renner J, Fuller R, Collea F, Paldy L., Workshop on Physics Teaching and the Development of Reasoning.
Stony Brook: American Association of Physics Teachers, (1975).
Kirstein J., Interaktive Bildschirmexperimente, Ph.D. thesis, Technical University, Berlin, (1999).
McKinnon JW, Renner JW., Are colleges concerned about intellectual development?, American Journal of Physics,
39, (1971), 1047-52.
Rebello NS, Cumaranatunge C, Escalada L, Zollman D., Simulating the spectra of light sources, Computers in
Phyisics, 12, (1998), 28-33.
Rebello NS, Sushenko K, Zollman D., Learning the physics of the scanning tunnelling microscope using a computer
program, European Journal of Physics, 18, (1997), 456-61.
Sternbach R., Star Trek : The Next Generation Technical Manual, New York, Pocket Books, (1991).
Time, Reconfigure the Modulators! Time, (1994), 144.
Wells M, Hestenes D, Swackhamer G., A Modeling Method for High School Physics Instruction, American Journal
of Physics, 63, (1995), 606-619.
Zollman D., Learning Cycles in a Large Enrollment Class, The Physics Teacher, 28, (1990), 20-5.
93
94
Background Aspects
JUMPING TOYS: A TOPIC FOR INTERPLAY BETWEEN THEORY AND
EXPERIMENTS
C. Ucke, Physics Department E20, Technical University of Munich (Germany)
I am going to talk about toys, especially about jumping toys and animals.
Probably all of you know this small toy. But to be sure, I will give everybody
such a toy now. This is normally a dangerous idea during a talk
because the members of the audience can play during the talk. But my idea is to
give you information not only through hearing and seeing but also through
feeling.
The English trade name for the toy is Springy Smiley Face.
Everybody can take a sample or even two. There are about 200 toys.
Furthermore, I would like to change the subtitle from interplay between theory
and experiment to interplay between experiment and theory. The
experiment is for me the first and most important operation. Here is the content
of my talk. I hope to need not more than 35 minutes.
Probably all of you are familiar with this small animal, whether through your own experience or not.
This animated picture comes from the Russian Zoological Institute in St. Petersburg, which
explores all properties of the fleas (http://www.zin.ru/Animalia/Siphonaptera/index.htm)
A flea jumps up to a height of about h = 0.5 m. It accelerates across a distance of about d = 2 mm.
This leads to an acceleration of a = hg/d = 0,5 mg/0.002 m = 2500ms
-2
= 250g (g = 10ms
-2
= acceleration
of gravity; uniform acceleration assumed). Since the jumping height of a flea is strongly influenced by
air resistance and the acceleration is not uniform, it has, in reality, a greater initial acceleration. There
are other animals with an even greater acceleration. Biologists have investigated very accurately the
jumping mechanism of the flea. This is a topic which I cannot explain here.
The jumps of fleas and other animals are difficult to measure and not very reproducible.
This is a good reason for investigating a toy which gives better reproducible results.
A man can only achieve up to 3g with a standing high jump.
jumping animals
Zoological Institute in St. Petersburg/Russia
95
A small toy known as a jumping animal or pop-up makes some investigations easier and can
illuminate the physics of jumping. The toy itself consists of a base, a spring, a suction cup and a head.
You have to press the cup onto the base and thus load the spring. After some time the cup will loosen
itself and the toy will jump up.
Here you can see several different shapes of the toy. I started my own investigations with the toy on the
left. It was available in Germany one year ago but is out of production just now but will be available in a
few months again. At the Oktoberfest in Munich I once got this strange item. The one on the right
side is what you have in your hands.
You can build this toy easily by yourself. You need a compression spring with a length of about 6cm
and a spring constant of about 500 Nm
-1
. In shops for household goods you can obtain simple
suction cups with a hook, as used in bathrooms or kitchens. The hook must be removed.
The difference to the purchasable toy is that the base stays on the floor after the jump.
2
m
m
height of the jump h 0.5m
acceleration distance d 2mm
acceleration a = hg/d = 2500ms
-2
250g
(uniform acceleration assumed;
g = 10ms
-2
= acceleration of gravity)
Pulex irritans
(= human flea)
d hg a results
ad v and gh v From
/
2 2
=
= =
jumping animals
mans acceleration 3g
purchasable items
simple
construction
jumping toys
ball pen
The use of appropiate ball pens is even simpler and gives almost the same properties. Probably
many of you remember experiments like this with ball pens in the school..
If children have several of these toys then a lot of questions arise: Which toy will achieve the
greatest height? Which toy will start first?
Children will start soon to discover more properties: What will happen if you remove the head? And
what, if you detach the base from the spring? Which height will the toy achieve jumping upside down?
And you can ask them questions: How much force do you need to compress the spring? The head
will undergo an acceleration: When will the acceleration be at its maximum? How much time will
the starting process of the toy need? Which weight must be attached on the head of the toy so that
it will not jump at all? What will happen if you attach the base to the ground?
And more questions
I will now talk about experiments with this toy and not with the one you have because I made all
experiments with this toy. You can do these experiments on your own with your toy with other parameters.
96
Background Aspects
jumping toys
Which toy will achieve the greatest height?
Which toy will start first?
What will happen if you remove the head?
And what if you detach the spring from the base?
Which height will the toy achieve jumping upside down?
Questions:
How much force do you need to compress the spring?
Which weight must be attached on to the head of the toy so that it will not
jump at all?
How much time will the starting process of the toy need?
..
Measured height of the jump h = 1.2m (10%)
=> E
pot
= mgh = 0.0145kg10ms
-2
1.2m = 0.17J
Compressing on a kitchen - scale
F 19N (= 1.9kg; 10%); d 3.2cm (10%)
Spring stiffness c = F/d 590Nm
-1
=> E
spring
= 0.5cd
2
= 0.5590Nm
-1
0.032
2
m
2
= 0.30J
((=> h = E
springr
/mg = 2.1m))
jumping toy
Simple experiments and calculations:
The first simple experiment is to measure the jumping height and calculate the potential energy.
Another simple experiment is to compress the toy on to a kitchen - scale and to measure the
weight and the compression distance.
From that you can calculate the spring stiffness and the energy stored in the spring.
As you can see, there is a great difference, which I will explain later.
The spring stiffness of the toy you have in your hands is about 400Nm
-1
.
The spring stiffness of the ball pen springs is about 200 to 300 Nm
-1
.
These values are comparable to that one I have here.
On a very simple level it is possible to calculate with Newton's second law the initial acceleration
of the head and, as you can see, it is remarkably high.
When you let the toy jump upside-down the acceleration of the base is even incredibly high.
I add some experiments with that toy you have have in your hands.
The first simple experiment is to measure the jumping height.
97
a = F/m
1
* g 1900m/s
2
= 190g
(m
1
* = head + suction cup + 1/3 spring = 0.00984kg;
g = 10m/s
2
= acceleration of gravity)
the mass of the spring cannot be disregarded
jumping toy
Initial acceleration of the base a = F/m
3
* g 525g !!!
(m
3
* = base + 1/3 spring = 0.00369kg)
The asterisk always means that the mass of the spring has to be considered, but I am
going to omit it in future to avoid overloading the formulas
Initial acceleration of the head
Measured height of the jump h = 0.3m (20%)
Compressing on a kitchen - scale
F 7.8N (= 0.78kg; 10%); d 1.5cm (10%)
Spring stiffness c = F/d 520Nm
-1
jumping toy/Springy Smiley Face
Simple experiments and calculations:
Initial acceleration of the head
a = F/m
1
* g 1700m/s
2
= 170g
(m
1
* = head + suction cup + 1/3 spring = 0.00464kg)
Mass Head m
Head
= 4,510g
Mass Spring m
Spring
= 0,391g
Mass Base m
Base
= 1,174g
98
Background Aspects
1 1 1
1
1
30 8

j
)
|
\
[
= kmh ms
c
g m
d
m
c
v
jumping toy
energy energy energy
kinetic potential spring
v
m
c
g m
d g m
c
g m c
d
c
2
1
1 1
1
2
1 2
2 2 2
+ j
)
|
\
[
= j
)
|
\
[
Maximum velocity of the head

m
3
m
1
m
3
m
3
m
1
y
m
1
g/c
d
0
jumping toy
Calculated height of the jump
(conservation of linear momentum)
3 1 3 1 1
) ( v m m v m + =
m
c
g m
d
m m g
m c
g
v
h 4 . 1
) ( 2 2
2
1
2
1 3
1
2
3
3

|
|
|
|
|
|
= =
v
3
= mean velocity of the whole toy after leaving the floor
Another simple experiment is to compress the toy on to a kitchen - scale and to measure the
weight and the compression distance.
From that you can calculate the spring stiffness.
The spring stiffness of the ball pen springs is about 200 to 300 Nm
-1
.
These values are comparable to that one I have here.
The spring is compressed, and at the time t
0
= 0 the head starts with maximum acceleration. The
time t
1
is when the mass m
1
(head + suction cup) achieves the position where the head is in the
equilibrium situation.
Equilibrium means the situation when the spring is not compressed and the head is in equilibrium
with the spring. The time t
2
characterizes the position of the end of the spring without m1; it is the
equilibrium position of the spring without m
1
.
The head will attain its maximum velocity v
1
at the time t
1
. Conservation of energy leads to the
following equation.
If you calculate the velocity the result is v
1
= 8ms
-1
or about 30 km/h. This is not a high velocity when
you compare it with the high value of the acceleration.
The result is negative because the direction of the axis points downwards.
To calculate the height of the jump you need the principle of conservation of momentum. t
3
should
be when the bottom mass m
3
leaves the floor. The head of the toy must pull the base (and partly
the spring) when leaving the floor.
Thus you get the height. The result is realistic when compared with the
measured height. A common mistake here is to use the entire spring energy for calculating the
height. This is not allowed because there are energy losses due to friction, and some energy is stored
in the oscillation of the toy, as you will see later.
The height as a function of the head's mass m1 is a complicated, nonlinear function which has a
maximum. It is interesting to see that the design of the toy is almost optimized with regard to the
jumping height.
You can also roughly estimate the starting time.
This formula is only valid for uniform acceleration!
You need calculus to calculate the time exactly.
8 milliseconds is too fast to take a normal video of this process. The time between two (half) video
pictures is 20ms (PAL system).
With the help of colleagues I made videos of the jump with a high-speed digital video camera, with
1000 and 2000 pictures per second .
The figure above shows some pictures taken from the video.
99
jumping toy
Estimation of the time from start until achieving maximum velocity
( leaving the floor)
ms s
a
s
t 2 . 8 0082 . 0
2
= =
(s = 0.032m; a = 95g; this is half of the initial acceleration;
uniform acceleration assumed)
Video
2000 pictures/second
146 pictures = 73 ms
jumping toy
frames of a digital video with 1000 pictures per second
At 0ms the toy starts; at 7ms the head of the toy reaches its maximum velocity and the base leaves
the floor; at 9ms the spring is stretched to its maximum; at 16ms the spring is minimally stretched;
at 23ms the spring is again maximally stretched. The pictures are not sharp because the higher the
speed of the digital video camera, the worse the resolution.
The spring oscillates. This can not be observed with the naked eye because the oscillating frequency
is about 70Hz.
The high speed video camera costs about 10000 US-Dollar. This is too expensive for a normal school.
By video analysis, the position of the toys head is extracted and shown in the upper figure. This
seems to be like a badly drawn straight line. But it contains a lot of information. If you analyze this,
you get the bottom figure.
It shows the velocity as a function of time. The maximum velocity of the head is about 7ms
-1
. This
is in reasonable agreement with the previously calculated value of 8ms
-1
.
100
Background Aspects
jumping toy
Position
Experimental results using
video data analysis programs
(DIVA, Coach V, etc.)
0, 00 0, 01 0, 02 0, 03 0, 04
0, 00
0, 05
0, 10
0, 15
0, 20
Anal ysi s j ump3 (2000 pi ctures/ s)
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

h
e
a
d

[
m
]
time [s]
0, 00 0, 01 0, 02 0, 03 0, 04
0
2
4
6
8
velocity
mean
= 72Hz
0. 0139s
ori gi nal smoot hed
ti me [s]
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
m
/
s
] Velocity
as derived from the upper diagram
(using Origin)
jumping toy
0, 00 0, 01 0, 02 0, 03 0, 04
0
2
4
6
8
velocity
mean
= 72Hz
0. 0139s
time [ s]
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
m
/
s
]
0, 00 0, 01 0, 02 0, 03 0, 04
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
m
/
s
2
] Acceleration
as derived from the upper
diagram for the velocity
Velocity
Also you can see the oscillation time of the toy (0.0139s) here and calculate the frequency (72Hz).
In the upper figure the velocity of the head is shown again as a function of time. The bottom figure
is derived from that and shows the acceleration.
The data are smoothed because the double derivation leads to great fluctuations. The measured
initial acceleration of about 2000m/s
2
(= 200g) is roughly equal to the calculated value of 190g.
One has to be careful with smoothing. Especially the data near t = 0 are corrupted by this procedure.
The coils of the spring that are pressed into the top of the suction cup can only move with
considerable friction. Furthermore, there are unpredictable rotations and somersaults around
several axes which are hard to predict. These cost energy, thus reducing the height. These influences
are almost impossible to measure quantitatively.
Another level is the use of calculus. First year physics students can do this.
You can write down the differential equation for the starting process. This is the well-known
101
Mechanical energy is lost in the suction cup.
Several coils of the spring are compressed into
the suction cup;
this part of the spring can decompress only with
considerable friction.
Furthermore, there are unpredictable rotations and
somersaults which also need energy.
These losses are difficult to calculate quantitatively.
There is also a small fraction of the energy stored in
the oscillation between head and base, which can be
calculated.
jumping toy
Using calculus you can write down the differential equation for the starting
process. This is the well-known equation for an oscillating mass hanging on
a spring (harmonic oscillator), where damping is neglected:
The solution with the initial conditions and y(0) = -d is
cy g m y m =
1 1
& &
0 ) 0 ( = y&
j
j
)
|
|
\
[
j
)
|
\
[
+ = t
m
c
c
g m
d
c
g m
t y
1
1 1
cos ) (
and
jumping toy
j
j
)
|
|
\
[
j
)
|
\
[
= t
m
c
c
g m
d
m
c
t y
1
1
1
cos ) ( & &
j
j
)
|
|
\
[
j
)
|
\
[
= t
m
c
c
g m
d
m
c
t y
1
1
1
sin ) ( &
equation for an oscillating mass
hanging on a spring (harmonic
oscillator). Damping is
disregarded here but can also be
introduced.
By derivation you get the velocity
and the acceleration.
If the base is attached to the floor,
this equation means that the head
oscillates with the amplitude of (d
m
1
g/c) and with the angular
frequency of
This is not the same oscillation
frequency as previously
calculated between head and
base!
From the equation for the velocity the time for the starting process and the maximum velocity of
the toy can be deduced.
The function has ist maximum for this expression where the sinus has ist maximum.
The velocity is, of course, the same as previously calculated.
The American scientists Gerace, Dufresne & Leonard have investigated even more accurately the
problem of two masses connected by a spring. They call their design a springbok. They dont take
into account the mass of the spring.
102
Background Aspects
j
j
)
|
|
\
[
j
)
|
\
[
= t
m
c
c
g m
d
m
c
t y
1
1
1
sin ) ( &
jumping toy
you get the maximum velocity. ) 2 . 6 0062 . 0 (
2
1
ms s
c
m
t = = =

For
The time is not the same as previously calculated, when uniform
acceleration was assumed.
The velocity itself is of course - exactly the same as previously
calculated without using calculus.
18/21
Gerace/Dufresne/Leonard
Physics Teacher/Febr. 2001
This model assumes a
damping force that is
proportional to the relative
velocity of the two
springbok masses. This
model does not attempt to
take into account sliding
friction. To obtain a "simple"
expression for the time at
which the springbok leaves
the table, we assume that
the damping coefficient is
small.
1
2

c/m
1
= 39Hz.
I do not expect that you can read or understand this. You can see that there can be involved much
more mathematics.
Dufresne, R.J. et al.: Springbok: The Physics Jumping, The Physics Teacher 39 (2001), 109-115.
A completely another level is to model and simulate the toy on a computer.
There are several programs which allow the simulation of mechanical
situations as, for example, the jumping toy.
Here I have used the program Interactive
Physics. It is possible to create and vary
almost all parameters of the toy as masses of
the head and the base with the spring
constant including damping. It is interesting
to see that the results of the simulation are
quantitatively very similar to the real
experiment, as you perhaps remember from
the previously shown graphs.
The simulation is very informative because
you can easily vary all the parameters.
You can model easily your toy with
Interactive Physics (cost of the program
about 200 USD)
At the end let me express that there are not
many toys which have that many
advantages.
103
jumping toy
Modelling and Simulation with Interactive Physics
There are not many toys which have that
many advantages :
1) Cheap
2) Interesting and motivating for children
3) Simple and transparent design
4) Easy to build by yourself
5) Interdisciplinary reflections
6) Comparison experiment theory
7) Modelling and Simulation
8) Different levels
But nothing is without disadvantage:
1) Certain danger
2) Not always available
104
Background Aspects
2. Special Aspects
INTERPLAY OF THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
Anna De Ambrosis, Physics Department, University of Pavia, Italy
Giuseppina Rinaudo, Department of Experimental Physics, University of Torino, Italy
1. Outlines
The discussion was very lively, with several contributions from many members: the general trend
was to illustrate each argument with concrete examples, taken from the practice of everyday
teaching in classrooms. The guidelines were essentially along the indications given in the
presentation of the workshop, that is:
1) what is the meaning of theory, experiment and interplay in this context,
2) the principal aims to be reached,
3) types of experiments and their effectiveness in favoring the formalization process.
The discussion however did not follow orderly the above sequence, but followed a rather random
path, in which, mainly starting from the discussion of a particular experiment, the aims of the
experiment were discussed and the meaning of theory, experiment and interplay in the
particular context were clarified.
Essentially, in the discussion of each experiment, three basic questions, suggested by Matilde Vicentini,
were systematically put forward: what? how? why? Only in the last session, after having examined a
large variety of experiments, the group went back, in a systematic way, to points 1) and 2).
The experiments, which were presented and discussed, did not have, in general, a striking
originality, since most of them were well known to most of the participants. However the interest
of their presentation was due to some particular aspect, generally not fully exploited but relevant
for the formalization process, and to the methods used or to the sequence followed, in the
didactical practice, to overcome well known students difficulties. It is just this panoramic view and
detailed analysis of many different experimental situations which resulted in the richness and,
hopefully, in the usefulness of the workshop.
In the following, we will first present the examples given of different types of experiments or of
experimental situations and then report the outcomes of the general discussion.
Examples of experiments or of experimental situations
In order to guide the discussion, we agreed to analyze examples of the following types, which we
considered to group most of the experimental activities done with or by the students:
a) physics experiments in everyday life
b) discovery experiments
c) demonstrative experiments
d) experiments to test a physical law
e) computer based laboratory
f) historical experiments
As said before, in each presentation we tried to stick to the three basic questions (what, how, why),
the why being mainly focussed on the problem of the formalization. In some case it was difficult
to classify rigidly the type of experiment, because it shared features of different types, for example
it was computer based with peculiar aspects of discovery and related to a given physical law.
a) Physics experiments in everyday life
The positive aspects of experiments and phenomenology based on common objects or on events
of everyday life are well known: the student is familiar with them, thus he has generally a positive
attitude towards objects that probably he likes and is interested to use more efficiently or towards
events that he knows well and that probably he would like to understand why they happen in a
given way. Besides, he starts from his previous knowledge of how things work and what is their use,
he has a natural language to describe them, taken from everyday life and made of words, used in
the common sense, which he understands.
The negative aspects are also well known, the principal one is that a common object or a real-life-
event is generally a complex thing, since the simplification, which is usually done to build a lab
experiment, is lacking.
However in many common objects and phenomenology this complexity can result in a greater
richness, which helps rather than contrast the formalization process, at least in its first stages.
Besides, the transition from the common language to the formal description is made easier by the
association of real objects or events with the abstract concept.
Examples were given (Pedro Pompo), at the level of university college students, on discovering the
meaning of physical quantities such as power and energy consumption in domestic devices, as a
microwave oven.
At the level of primary school pupils, many examples were mentioned (Giuseppina Rinaudo, for
more details see the contribution presented to this conference, Developing formal thinking
through toys and everyday objects for the formation of future primary school teachers by Allasia
D., Montel V., Rinaudo G.) of simple toys which can help the formalization process. An example is
a sling, used to throw a paper ball, where the abstract concept to be reached is that of force: with a
sling in his hand, the pupil can have a direct perception of abstract concepts related to the concept
of force, such as the fact that
- the force is the expression of an interaction between two objects (the hand and the rubber of the sling),
- the force has a direction,
- there is a reaction force from the rubber of the sling towards his hand.
b) Discovery experiments
The role of this kind of experiments is to focus the attention on some particular aspect, generally
curious, that one is led to try to understand and explain, through the experimental observation. In
the search for an explanation, many different physics concepts are inevitably clarified, although
generally only at a qualitative level.
A nice experiment was suggested by Carlos Vargas on the oscillating salted water solution. A
high concentration solution of salted water is put in a vessel, which has a small hole in the bottom
and which is put into a larger vessel containing pure water. Initially the hole is kept closed and the
level of water is adjusted to be the same in the two vessels. Immediately after opening the hole,
water flows from the inner vessel with salted water to the outer one, making the level in the inner
vessel to lower. However the flow reduces with time, until a flow starts in the opposite direction,
i.e. from the outer to the inner vessel and the level in the inner vessel goes up. With time, the flow
reduces and then it reverses again its direction and so on, with a periodic oscillation. What is the
discovery and what the formalization in this experiment? To understand what happens and
build a reasonable model, one has to review the meaning of quite a few physical quantities and of
their relations, such as the relation between density, pressure, direction of flow, buoyancy, etc.
c) Demonstrative experiments
They are used typically by the teacher to draw the attention to a particular phenomenology before
starting the detailed discussion of an argument. Interesting examples, used in an university course
for the formation of future teachers with an interactive methodology, were given by Matilde
Vicentini:
- just put a jar containing water on a scale and put your finger in it: ask the students if they expect
that the scale indicates a change of the weight (concept of gravity force, buoyancy and force
transmission in fluids);
105
- prepare four equal cylindrical cans by leaving one completely empty and filling the other three
with some powder material (sand, coffee...) in such a way that while one is completely full the
other two are partially filled in a different way. The students are not told of the difference in the
filling. Put the cans on a curved guide where they oscillate with a damping rate which differs
among the four cans (two show a number of oscillations before stopping, two show a quick
damping). Ask the students the reasons for the difference. They usually attribute it to the weight
but assume a monotone increase of the damping rate with the weight. The discussion, after the
verification that the damping rate is maximum for the intermediate weights, brings in the
concepts of friction, internal energy, entropy production, degrees of freedom and more about
connecting mechanics with thermodynamics.
Another use of demonstrative experiments was shown by Pedro Pompo to introduce the discussion
on the meaning of light ray and of light propagation in straight direction. Put a layer of sugar on
the bottom of a transparent jar with flat sides, pour slowly water from the top trying not to disturb
the sugar and let the solution rest for at least half an hour. A concentration gradient will set in and,
consequently, also a gradient of refraction index. If you shine a narrow beam of laser light through
the solution in horizontal direction, perpendicular to the box side, just above the sugar layer, the
beam will bend towards the bottom of the jar; however the beam will continue practically in the
same direction if it passes through the higher levels of water, where the concentration is practically
constant. Besides the above concepts about light propagation in straight directions, this
demonstrative experiment calls the attention to the meaning of the separation surface between
layers of different refraction indices in Snells law and of its perpendicular direction: inside the
solution there is no separation surface, but still the beam changes direction!
d) Experiments to test a physical law
A few experiments of this type were presented. A preliminary question was put forward by
Margarida Saraiva Neves and Lucilla Santos: should the physical law be known before going to
the lab to do the experiment? The answer was it depends. Lucilla suggested that the question is
closely linked to the sort of equipment used to test the law: A black-box device with on/off
switches only, gives very different results (as far as verification is involved) from an open device,
were the students can actually see what is going on and interact with the equipment. An open
device which allows manipulation and control of variables, contributes to test if a law is
eventually wrong, because it helps students to realize if they are not getting the results expected,
or if they are dealing with the wrong procedure, or variables.
An example was presented by Grazia Zini. The experiment requires some guidance and some basic
knowledge of a magnetic field, but it does not require necessarily to know the physical law. The
students are given a solenoid connected to a variable current source and a magnetic field sensor
and they must discover, by trial and error, the spatial distribution of the field intensity, its directional
properties and its dependence on the current intensity.
A completely different example, in which the interplay between theory and experiment is much
tighter, was presented by Andrea Sconza. One might call this experiment a revised version of the
classical hot tea experiment, but the level at which it is done is quite higher: a can containing hot
water is left to cool down to room temperature and, while cooling, the temperature is measured as
a function of time and recorded automatically on a computer (the experiment might indeed be
considered a computer based experiment). To interpret in a satisfactory way all the details of the
cooling down curve, the student has to recall all the physical laws he might have seen, including the
usually neglected loss of energy by evaporation! A careful analysis shows in fact that the
contribution that one introduces in the first instance the conduction through the walls - is not
sufficient and also the introduction of the energy loss by radiation. The formalization in this case
consists essentially in the ability of reading, in the trend of the experimental data, the expected
behavior suggested by already known theoretical laws and by refining the process by going back to
theoretical laws until the explanation is satisfactory.
106
2. Special Aspects
e) Computer based laboratory
Attention was drawn by Elena Sassi on real time experiments and on their main characteristics: the
possibility of collecting many data and of giving a graphical representation of a phenomenon. For
these characteristics real time experiments can be used as cognitive tools. In particular they allow
an approach which can be labeled as from real and familiar phenomena to ideal models rather
than in the opposite direction as is almost always the case in the conventional textbook-based
approach. For the sake of brevity this rationale, entitled From Real to Ideal suggests to start from
the analysis of phenomena common in everyday life on which students already have experience
and ideas; to look for regularities and to describe them with rules; to propose a first model and to
find a formal description of it.. The paths implementing this rationale start from Real-Time
experiments which explore real, complex facts well known to students in terms of common sense
knowledge and elicit the relative naive ideas. They proceed to the identification of
phenomenological regularities which are transformed in rules, through more clean experiments,
in which some secondary effects have been minimised (e.g. friction). They proceed further to
modelling these rules with simple mathematical functions. The final step is the abstraction toward
the ideal case/model representing the appropriate physics law. Real time experiments make it
possible an interplay of theory and experiment as a process which allows to pass from the
observation of complex phenomena described with common language to a formal representation
of them. Other aspects of Real-Time approaches have been briefly discussed, referring also to the
presentation by E. Sassi in this Seminar about Real Time Approaches in the Development of
Formal Thinking in Physics
f) Historical experiments
The analysis of particular historical experiments can help students to focus their attention on the
planning of the experiment and to consider important aspects, such as the necessity to decide what
measurements to carry out and the difficulty of finding significant relations among collected data.
One of Galileis experiments on inclined plane, the bell experiment, was mentioned as an example
(Anna De Ambrosis).
Galilei did not have a mechanical clock to measure time intervals, but he could detect equal
intervals of time as part of an acoustic rhythm. Thus, if a ball falling on an inclined plane touches
mobile marks with bells, a series of sound is produced. The sounds can be produced at equal
intervals with appropriate positions of the marks. This experiment introduces the idea that
displacements along an inclined plane are proportional to the square of corresponding time
intervals and gives the students the opportunity to differentiate the concept of position, velocity
and acceleration which often are not understood to be distinct. Computer simulation of the
experiment allows students to plan individual experimentation and analysis.
Pedro Pombo suggested other examples: the exam of the historical development of reflection
holography and of Gabor holography. Gabors historical experiment can be useful for a better
understanding of the characteristics of holographic principle and image formation and to and for
an introduction of Fresnel lens concepts.
2. Final discussion
The final discussion focussed essentially on the meaning of the interplay between theory and
experiment. In all the presentations and contributions, it was clear that the words theory and
experiment were interpreted in a broad meaning:
- theory is any formal description, which brings to the definition of physics concepts, to their
representation and relations,
- experiment is an experimental situation but also, in general, a relevant phenomenology which can
be observed, described and possibly measured.
The question was then <<what do we mean with the word interplay?>>
Tracing back through the examples given in the different presentations, we found the following
107
interpretations of the interplay between theory and experiment.
Besides, there was also a general consent that it was useful to classify the different types of
interplay because each type can have a different didactical application and can be useful in
different circumstances.
1. One way interplay
It is the simplest and most common type of interplay, used in the normal practice of the laboratory:
after the presentation of the theoretical laws in the theoretical lectures, the students go to the lab
and test the validity of the laws, or, vice versa, they first go to the lab and do the experiment as a
preparation to the theoretical presentation. Is this kind of interplay useful for the formalization
process? It is useful if there is a tight link between the theoretical presentation and the experiment
and if the link is used to reinforce the inference process, that is to learn to separate clearly what is
really inferred from the experimental evidence and what is accepted because it follows from the
theoretical law.
2. Circular interplay with feedback
It is more powerful, but also more complex, than the previous type, because it requires that the time
of the theory is not separated from that of the experiment.
3. Linear progress
Is typical of discovery experiments, in which the theory is discovered along with the experimental
facts.
4. First stage of formalization
It is the formalization done at the early stages, through words, drawings, graphics, before any theory
is even established.
5. Formalization by mathematical description
Ellermeijer talk in the plenary session was very useful at this regard, because it presented both the
pros and the cons of a formalization based on the mathematical description. In particular the
experiment is very important in understanding
- which variables are independent and which are dependent (in mathematics the interest is all
focussed on the function which describes the relation between the variables, thus one can switch
108
2. Special Aspects
theory experiment
from theory to experiment
theory experiment
from experiment to theory
theory experiment
from theory to experiment and back from experiment to theory and back
theory experiment
without difficulty from the function to its inverse, and, consequently, make the independent
variable to become the dependent one),
- the limits of application of a particular law or theory (in mathematics the domain is established
on the basis of the properties of the function which describes the relation between the variables,
thus the domain to be explored can go easily from minus infinity to plus infinity or in regions
where the variable has no physica meaning),
- the importance of the scale used, of the dimensional units, etc.
3. List of contributions
Short written contributions were asked to the participants to the workshop on the ideas that were
presented and discussed, if they were not already included in some presentation to this conference,
because we considered that they could be useful to the readers. We include, below, the contributions
received up to now, we hope to receive others in the next days: if so they will be included in the
final paper.
Experiments and reflective learning, L. Bandiera and Matilde Vicentini
Galileis experiments on inclined plane, Anna De Ambrosis
Water cooling: how to build a physical model for an every day life experiment, Andrea Sconza
4. Participants
Most participants were presents to the four sessions, some took part only to one or two sessions.
They were almost equally distributed between secondary school and university teachers, the latter
being generally involved in the formation of future primary or secondary school teachers or in
training on-service teachers.
L. Austrilino (Brasil), A. De Ambrosis (Italy), E. De Masi (Italy), M. Giliberti (Italy), T. Lobato (Portugal), M. Lyberg
(Sweden), D. Moreno (Mexico), H.G.B. Olyacee (Iran), P, Pecina (Croatia), D. Pescetti (Italy), P. Pombo (Portugal), G.
Rinaudo (Italy), L. Santos (Portugal), M. Saraiva-Neves (Portugal), E. Sassi (Italy), A. Sconza (Italy), I. Ustuner (Turkey),
C. Vargas (Mexico), M. Vicentini (Italy), G. Zini (Italy).
EXPERIMENTS AND REFLECTIVE LEARNING
M. Bandiera, M. Vicentini, Department of Physics, Univ. La Sapienza, Roma, Italy
1. Introduction
Science education is currently witnessing a change from a teaching approach aimed at the learning
of facts and theories to one aimed at raising, confronting and solving problematic issues.
Accordingly a major change would be required precisely in the presentation of experimental
activities in the general context of university science courses (lectures and laboratories).
In any case, direct contact with experimentation is obviously necessary in order both to familiarise
students with the phenomenological aspects related to models and theories as well as to raise issues
concerning the nature of science.
The same prospective would require that the experiment be presented in a problematic way so that
the students are encouraged forced to think.
Discussion is an essential part of this didactic approach and, therefore, group work activities would
be planned.
In the context of University courses specifically aimed at initial science teacher training, the
laboratory activities required in the curriculum acquire increased value as an opportunity:
- for joining didactics to didactic research and for exploring from one year to the next, encounter
by encounter, the students knowledge and competence (without wasting time with constant,
periodic tests);
109
- for placing on a lower level overused technical/methodological training and simple physical
contact with objects and events in favour of the setting up of and training in productive
modalities for recalling theoretical knowledge and pulling out data from the same
objects/events;
- for taking into account not only educational objectives but also the multiplicity of intelligences,
of cognitive approaches and of basic disciplinary competences.
The present investigation considers two ways of carrying out lab activities: the demo-show when
the teacher, interacting with a large group of students, variously alternates actions related to an
experimental procedure, interventions as facilitator, and provocation in order to enliven the
discussion; the lab-party where small groups of students (from 4 to 6) sit at a set table and,
taking advantage of a pre-structured form, follow an itinerary of experimental and reasoning steps.
The demo-show proved to be profitable for the prospective secondary school science teachers,
who have degrees in a scientific discipline; the lab-party to the prospective primary school
teachers who, coming from different secondary schools, have in common a generalised
inexperience in science.
Both strategies require an appropriate choice of experiments which, in any case, must include the
possibility of asking questions, thus activating and illuminating the students knowledge and mental
representations.
The experiments we plan to present focus on ice-cubes melted over conducting and insulating
supports, containers with various quantities of fillings, rolled down a sloped plane, and human
respiratory and pulse frequency modifications as a result of muscular stress.
They have in common the characteristic of being related to some known phenomenology of every
day life. Therefore, when asked to explain or predict the experimental occurrences and outcomes,
the students tend to adopt intuitive or semi-intuitive explanations/predictions that totally or
partially conflict with the behaviour of the phenomenon when it is watched or performed. Such a
contrast stimulates the discussion and the reflection on conceptual aspects.
In sec.2 we illustrate an experiment carried out in the two methodologies. Other examples of
demo-show experiments are illustrated in sec.3 while sec.4 reports other lab-party experiments.
2. The ice cubes experiments
The demo-show starts with the request of a prediction of the difference in the time needed for
melting two ice-cubes, one placed on a conducting sheet and the other on an insulating one. The
dimensions of the sheets exceed that of one face of the ice-cube. While at secondary school level in
general a fraction of the students (nearly 1/3) predict that the cube on the insulating surface will
melt first, at a higher level nobody doubts that it is the ice-cube on the conducting sheet which will
melt first, but the time difference is always underestimated (from 5 minutes to half an hour). Some
students unfailingly try to avoid an answer by pointing out that the question is not well formulated
as some data are missing like the temperature of the cubes and of the environment, the dimensions
of the sheets. However the sheets are in front of them, and it is very easy to estimate (or measure)
the two temperatures. (Again, it may come out with secondary school students that the
temperature of ice is undoubtedly 0C.) Then the experiment starts and the students are asked to
observe carefully while the discussion on the developing process and on the variables needed to
describe it takes place. After a quarter of an hour, with the ice cube on the insulating sheet showing
no signs of melting, attention can be suitably turned to the behaviour of the ice-cube on the
conducting sheet. The discussion then brings in the possibility of reasoning in terms of conduction-
convection-radiation, the need to focus on the thermal equilibrium of the cubes both with the
sheets and with the environment, eventually the differences in the specific heats of the sheets in
addition to the conductivity coefficients, and to what will happen if the dimensions of the sheets are
changed.
In the lab-party, due to the low level of students competence in Physics, sensory contact with the
materials opens an activity which has to be completed in the nine steps listed in the form: 1) Touch
110
2. Special Aspects
the materials on the table. Write down three qualities of each one. 2) Indicate what you believe
to be each ones temperature. 3) Now imagine taking an ice-cube out of the freezer: how long do
you think it will take to melt completely? (Write down two of the reasons for making your
prediction.) 4) Now imagine placing one ice cube on a sheet of aluminium and one on a sheet of
polystyrene. How long will it take for each one to melt completely? (Write down two of the reasons
for making your prediction.) 5) Check your hypothesis, indicating which of the sheets you have
chosen from among those available. Write down the resulting melting times. 6) Now choose two
different sheets and, based on the data resulting from the above experience, formulate a prediction on
melting times. (Summarise what you have based your prediction on.) 7) Check your hypothesis,
writing down the melting times on the second pair of sheets. 8) List five terms (or brief definitions)
that you believe necessary in formulating a scientific explanation of the event that you have
observed. 9) Starting with the generating nucleus provided, expand the map so as to integrate the
terms that you have listed in step 8 and, if possible, also the qualities you wrote down in step 1.
Recordings of discussions and questionnaires completed by prospective primary school teachers have
been analysed, which bring out expectations, points of view, cognitive obstacles, (mis)inter-pretations
and, as far as the lab-party is concerned, based on concept maps, profitability of lab-work.
3. More on demo-show experiments: the rolling containers
Containers with different quantities of filling of the same material show a different behaviour of
movement: when rolling down a curved guide they may approach the equilibrium position at the
bottom with more or less damped oscillations.
The experiment starts with the presentation of the material focusing the complete external identity
of the containers. When the motion is shown, however, some containers oscillate normally with a
damped amplitude while others reach rapidly (one or two oscillations) the equilibrium position. It
is then asked to provide an explanation of the different behaviours.
In the following discussion of course friction is called in for the damping but soon it is clear to all
that the difference must be due to the different weight of the objects. Two positions then emerge:
the different weight gives rise to a different force of friction between the surfaces of the containers
and the slope (the majority) or to some effect related to internal friction (a minority which also
tries to infer on the quality of the material in the interior).
In all the demo we have made (italian student teachers, chinese student teachers and researchers
in physics education, mexican researchers in physics education) the conceptual scheme invoked for
the explanation is a force scheme. The didactical strategy may then direct the attention on one
side to the scientific methodology of getting informations on the internal structure of an object by
preforming other experiments and, on the other, to search for a conceptual scheme more useful for
the case. It is surprising that very few explicit the need of recurring to an energy scheme while all
suggest the need of having the experimental data on the weight.
While this is recognized by the teacher as an important information it is asked to explicit
predictions on the influence of the weight on the damping rate. Such predictions are unanimous on:
the damping rate is linearly related to the weight.
Hand weighting the objects by some students disconferms the prediction: the damping rate is
maximum for some intermediate weight.
The explanation in terms of the external friction force is then abandoned in favour of an internal
effect. Time is here needed for small group discussions which, usually, remain anchored at a force
scheme also if the suggestion of measuring the inside temperature may be advanced.
This is a good step for the teacher to suggest the shift to the conceptual scheme of energy
eventually focusing the difficulties of application of the force scheme to the case.
Energy, potential and kinetic energy internal energy. The introduction of this concept, apparently
relegated in the conceptual scheme Thermodynamics, for a mechanical phenomena seems to
come as a surprise for the majority who are then forced to reflect on the generality of the energy
concept while disconnecting the relation friction then heat then temperature increase to
conceptualize the relation dissipation rate in the external motion then internal energy.
111
It is not easy to report qunatitatively the happenings in the discussion of a demo-show experiment
and in fact it does not even make any sense. The important quantitative information may only be
related to the quality of the discussion itself and this is mainly related to the ability of the teacher
to collect important ideas in the interventions of the participants and focus them on issues of
reflection on their knowledge.
In our experience the discussions were always very lively while differing in their development
according to the group of students. We may then conclude by mentioning some common directions
for reflection:
- energy of course: conservation and dissipation,
- the difference between the mechanical and the thermodynamical point of view on the same
phenomenon,
- heat and temperature,
- the concept of time in mechanics and in thermodynamics,
- the atomic model of matter.
From the work by Bandiera M. and Vicentini M. published in Science and Technology Education: preparing future
citizens, Editor Nicos Valanides, Imprinta Ltd. Cipro, vol.1, pag.98-109, Proceedings of the 1st IOSTE Regional
Conference in Southern Europe, Paralimni Cyprus, 29 April - 2 May 2001.
GALILEIS EXPERIMENTS ON INCLINED PLANE
Anna De Ambrosis, Physics Department, University of Pavia, Italy
The idea is to consider with students historical experiments and to provide them the opportunity
of using also computer simulations of the original experiments. Despite the difference between a
real and a simulated experiment, some important aspects, such as the necessity to plan what
measurements to carry out and the difficulty of finding significant relations among data, are
common.
Computer simulation encourage students in individual experimentation and give them the
possibility of familiarize with and compare various historical approaches with modern ones. This
activity can promote in the students a reflection on their own conceptual schemes favouring their
improvement.
An example: historical experiments on the free fall of bodies.
On this topic we prepared a package for students in introductory physics courses which includes
computer programs, teacher guide and student guide with worksheets. The guides contain a
historical section with relevant original sources.
The following experiments were considered:
- Galileis experiments on inclined plane:
1. A qualitative study with bells
2. Quantitative study with a water clock
3. measure of velocity
- Atwoods experiment
(For the reconstruction of experiment 1 and 3 we followed Drakes interpretation of Galileis
manuscripts of 1607. For experiment 2 we referred to the original published source: Galileis
Discorsi e dimostrazioni intorno a due nuove scienze. For the Atwoods machine we referred to
the apparatus which is in the Physics Museum of our University).
As an example the bells experiment is briefly described.
Galilei did not have a mechanical clock to measure time intervals, but he could detect equal
intervals of time as part of an acoustic rhythm. Thus, if a ball falling on an inclined plane touched
shiftable marks with bells, a series of sound was produced. The sounds could be produced at equal
112
2. Special Aspects
intervals with appropriate positions of
the marks. The analysis of the spatial
distances of the marks could give the
square law.
In the simulation we tried to reproduce
the original situation in which Galilei
sang a refrain to find the position of the
ball at regular time intervals and
adjusted the positions of the bells so
that the emitted acoustic signals were
regular. This experiment introduces the
idea that displacements along the
inclined plane are proportional to the
square of corresponding time intervals
and it gives students the opportunity to
differentiate clearly the concepts of
position, velocity and acceleration,
which often, even in simple motion of
objects, are not understood to be distinct. The simulation allows to perceive the fact that the motion
is not uniform and that the velocity of the ball increases in successive time intervals. Worksheets
provided to students are focused on the quantitative aspects of the motion. For example, by
calculating the displacement of the ball in successive time intervals, the students can recognize that
the average velocity of the ball increases in a uniform way.
Atwoods experiment introduces a different approach to the sudy of motion. Behind this
experiments lies the Newtonian theory. The comparison between Galileis and Atwoods historical
apparatuses can be thus a key to understand different paradigms. Students can compare two
different historical approaches to understand the same physical concept and recognize why and
how particular methods were used to slow down the motion to be studied, allowing easier
measurements of velocity.
A reflection on historical experiments can help students to perceive the real difficulties in the
development of the theory of motion, difficulties often hidden in textbooks and underestimated by
students who see their difficulties as personal, rather than inherent in all such attempts to
conceptualize the law describing physical phenomena.
By observing students working with the simulated experiments and by analysing their filled
worksheets it is possible to identify the obstacle that seem to prevent students understanding of
kinematics concepts.
For example the bell experiments showed that it is difficult for student to evaluate a velocity if a
measure of the elapsed time has not been made with a clock. In their answers the students (fifty
studends in an introductory physics course) correctly referred to the the formal relation between
space and time writing v = _s/_t, but more than half of them could not apply the formula in the
context of simulation. An analogous difficulty was evident in the evaluation of acceleration.
We found that Galileis bell experiment is particularly effective in focussing on this problem
because it was conceived precisely in order to overcome the difficulties related to the measurement
of short time intervals.
Difficulties in understanding acceleration were shown in responses given in the worksheets
concerning the Atwoods machine. Half of the students could not reach correct conclusions on
acceleration starting from their data. Even the students who correctly eveluated velocity could not
relate changes in the velocity and time intervals, thus revealing their difficulties in understanding
the meanings of the measured quantities.
With some surprise students realized that their knowledge of kinematics was not sufficient to carry
out the apparently simple experiments presented in the simulation. In many cases students realized
113
Fig.1. The inclined plane with bells reconstructed at the Museum
of History of Science in Florence, Italy
114
2. Special Aspects
that they had not really understood concepts they thought were clear in their minds. This awareness
led them to discuss their ideas with the teacher, to ask to use simulation again and to go back to the
historical guide for a deeper analysis of the reported original sources.
Of course, the students were given the opportunity of carrying out also laboratory activity on the
motion on an inclined plane gathering experimental data and analysing them: they used an air-
cushion rail, the one available in the laboratory.
It appeared particularly useful to students comparing original experiments and modern ones: it
helped them, in particular, to recognize the technological constraints which influenced the design
of the historical set-up.
From Computer simulation and historical experiments by Bevilacqua F., Bonera G., Borghi L., De Ambrosis A. and
Massara M. published in Eur. J. Phys. 11, (1990), 15-24
WATER COOLING: HOW TO BUILD A PHYSICAL MODEL FOR AN EVERY DAY
LIFE EXPERIMENT
A. Sconza, Phys. Dept. of Padua, University of Padua, Italy
By means of a temperature probe connected to a CBL interface and portable TI-89 computer we
register for one hour the temperature of the water contained in a small metal can. Furthermore we
take note of the weight of water at the beginning and at the end of cooling. Then we try to
reproduce both the temperature time relation and the loss of mass by evaporation by successive
refinements of a physical model.
These are the registered temperatures:
The other data of the experiment were:
M
water-initial
= 380 g, M
water-final
= 365.9 g, T
ambient
= 22.0 C = 295.1 K.
Dimensions of the can: height 11 cm, base diameter = 7.4 cm, mass = 46.8 g
Total heat capacity :
C = (M
water
c
water
+ m
can
c
can
+ C
thermometer
) = 385.4 cal/degree = 1613.3 J/ degree
(neglecting thermometer capacity, c
can
= 0.115 cal/(g
o
C))
From the temperature vs. time data we compute the energy loss in unit time (lost power) vs. time
or vs. the absolute temperature: -dE/dt = - C dT/dt.
The lost power is rapidly decreasing with decreasing temperature, see next figure.
The simplest model one can try assumes (conduction loss):
Lost power (watt) = - (dE/dt)
cond
= k (T-T
ambient
),
but obviously it cannot reproduce the experimental data because in this model the power loss
should be linear with T: the fit (straight line of lowest inclination in the next figure) gives k = 0.64
with a mean square error of 44.9.
Then we add the contribution due to radiation loss (Stefan-Boltzmann law):
-(dE/dt)
rad
= S (T
4
-T
ambient
4
),
where T and T
ambient
are in K degrees, S is the lateral surface of the can in m
2
, = 5.67 10
-8
Wm
-2
is
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and is the emissivity (0< <1) of the can surface which is assumed
equal to 1 (as for a black body) because the can was painted with black spray color.
In our case S=0.11**0.074 = 2.557 10
-2
m
2
so that S = 1.45 10
-9
W.
It is important to fix, in some manner, the emissivity: if one tries to leave _ as a free parameter the
fitting program chooses for it very big unphysical values.
The quality of the fit (less inclined approximately straight line) increases a bit (mean square error
= 38.7) but is always unsatisfactory.
Finally we complete the model by adding the evaporation loss that is assumed proportional to the
vapor tension of water, as given by Clapeyron formula:
p
vap
(T) = A exp( -m c
latent
/RT) ,
115
where m=18 g/mole is the molar mass of water, R = 8.31 J/(mole degree) = 1.99 cal/(mole degree)
is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, c
latent
is the latent heat of evaporation (in cal/g)
and A is a constant. An empirical relation gives furthermore: c
latent
= (796.3 0.695 T) cal/g.
In conclusion we assume:
-(dE/dt)
ev
= exp( - (7203 6.3 T)/T),
where is the parameter to be determined experimentally.
Now finally the fit is very satisfactory (mean square error = 0.99) and the optimal values for the
three parameters are:
k = 0.15 W
= 1
= 3.2 10
7
W.
The relevance of the three energy loss mechanisms is illustrated by next graph: one discovers that
the evaporation contribution is absolutely dominant at the beginning of the cooling down.
Then we try to see if the adopted model gives the right quantity of evaporated water (380 - 365.9
= 14.1g). To compute the final mass of water one must integrate on time the mass loss given by the
energy loss due to evaporation divided by the latent heat of evaporation:
(dM/dt) = (dE/dt)
ev
/ c
latent
= - (-dE/dt)
ev
/ (4.186*(796.3-0.695*T)).
The result of the integration is in very good agreement with the final experimental value of the
mass (365.9 g).
116
2. Special Aspects
117
LEARNING PHYSICS VIA MODEL CONSTRUCTION
Rosa Maria Sperandeo-Mineo, Department of Physical and Astronomical Sciences, University
of Palermo, Italy
Presentations and discussion in W2 have been mainly connected to two themes of the Seminar:
1) Modelling the world: -Issues in developing imagined worlds and connecting them to the
phenomenal world.
2) Mathematics: - Exploring the special case of developing physics through the descriptive
language of mathematics
The starting point of W2 has been the Sperandeo-Mineos original proposal (R.M. Sperandeo
Mineo: Learning via Model Construction) whose main objective was in shearing concerns, in
defining th background of modelling in order to point out some relevant questions.
The first part of discussion has been devoted to find common aims for the workshop outcomes.
Participants agreed on two common objectives:
1. to analyse Why and How a modelling approach may be aimed:
-to make physics accessible to High School and College students
-to make students aware of the various (and different) procedural aspects of scientific reasoning.
2. to analyse Why and How Information and Communication Technology may support modelling
at different level of formalization.
1. Modelling and the process of physics knowledge construction
All participants were aware that models are a central topic in discussion in contemporary science
education; debates centred on the pros and cons of including a modelling perspective in science
curricula and on pragmatic strategies for designing classrooms that enable students to learn about
science as a modelling endeavour. This debate is, at the same time, very exciting and confusing: in
our opinion, at the core of the confusion lie the different ways in which the term model is used. In
an effort to avoid contribution to the confusion, it has been helpful for us to clearly articulate what
we mean by model and scientific model, i. e. to clearing the grounds, and in particular:
1. modelling and models in the process of Knowledge Construction
2. physics models and math models with reference to:
a)-the role of analogies and metaphors in their construction;
b)-the different kinds of models used in physics.
Cognitive scientists have identified mental models as fundamental tools of human thought used to
structure our experience and thereby to make it meaningful. In fact, any experience, or system, we are
interested in, is commonly perceived as containing certain discrete elements related with each other,
through some process we apply to them; in this way we develop the model for the experience.
(Giere 1990).A model is an abstraction and simplification of a defined referent system or process,
presumably having some noticeable fidelity to the referent system or process. This fidelity is expected
whether the model is intended to describe, predict, or explain elements of the referent system
In order to have a more clear and useful definition of the term model, we need to border the
experiential field we are interested in. In scientific research, we generally think of models as being
simplified representations of real processes or systems. We analysed some definitions of the terms
model and scientific model:
(Apostel definition (see Bartels & Nauta 1969)Any subject using a system A that is neither directly or
indirectly interacting with a system B, to obtain information about the system B is using A as a model for B.
(Bachelard 1979). The model is not an imitation of phenomena, it represents only some properties of
reality
The term model, then, implies a representation of reality, often in a simplified way that provides
structure and order. Cognitive scientists have identified metaphors and analogies as fundamental
tools of human thought used to build models of our experiences.
Discussion has been aimed to focus on some significant examples presented in the panel sessions
relevant for the modelling approach.
A paper (Smit 2001) has pointed out that the understanding of the physics model concept needs
to clarify some topics:
The classification of the different types of models in physics.
The nature of models.
The role they play in physics and their functions.
The discussion about the Harres taxonomy of models (Harre, 1970), mainly focused on the aspects
differentiating paramorph and homeomorph models, allowed the group to be aware of the need
(proven by research) that the topic of models and modelling should receive far more attention in
the teaching of physics.
The nature of analogical thinking and the relationships between methaphors and analogies have
been discussed during all the workshop. Many examples have been reported; a well focused
example has been reported by O.Levrini concerning the metaphor used in a linguistic sense or,
in other words, as a theory-constitutive metaphor meant as Boyd did. She was referring to the use
of the word analogy made by Weinberg in a wide-spread university textbooks about General
Relativity: Gravitation and Cosmology.
Weinberg retains that the interpretation of the formalism of General Relativity has to be
developed on the analogy between gravitation (primary system) and geometry (the Gauss-
Riemann theory of curved surfaces: secondary system). The two systems have already been viewed
by Einstein as the terms of the analogy constructed on the identification of spacetime and the
differentiable manifold. Such an analogy has been exploited to such an extent by the so-called
geometrodynamical interpretation (Wheeler et al.) that the two systems have finally coincided and
the metaphor was dead. The more and more precise superposition of the two systems is an example
of the process of transforming the metaphorical use of language into the literal one.
In Weinbergs opinion, the main reason to re-separate the two terms of the metaphor is that the literal
identification between geometry and spacetime for understanding gravitation introduces a difference
between this interaction and the other fundamental ones. And this difference is unacceptable for a
scientist who intends to unify natural interactions. Another important reason can be identified in the
fact that the literal identification between spacetime and geometry (the Riemann surfaces) may lead
to attach spacetime substantiality, in other words, that absolute character hold by Newtons space that
Einstein, thanks to Relativity, wanted to remove from Physics.
2. Modelling and Physics Education
Research on cognitive processes and epistemological analysis of the evolution of physics have
shown that a modelling approach can constitute a good frame of reference in order to design
teaching-learning situations both faithful to the discipline and relevant for the learner. However,
many pedagogical problems need clarifications and unambiguous choices. How a modelling
approach can be thought and/or learned?
Results of an exploratory investigation regarding the personal experiences of a group of scientists
on modelling in physics have been reported by Islas and Pesa (2001). Scientists analysed their
experiences concerning: a)-their own learning modelling, b)-the ways they handle models within
their research activities, and c)-the ways they handle models in the teaching of physics at university.
Although the ways to construct knowledge in a scientist and in a student are not exactly the same,
the results can give insights about the educational strategies we can activate in order to help
students to come closer to research in building knowledge of modelling. The obtained results
suggest that traditional lessons on modelling would not be the best strategy to develop
understanding of this issues; active engagement and discussion about problems to solve seem to
promote reflection on those topics that are sources of difficulties for students, that is: the link
between reality and its representations, the factual meaning of mathematical expressions and the
building of link between theoretical constructs and experimental activities.
Islas pointed out some relevant results of her research that evidence the caution that we have to
keep in mind in using computer simulation: she found that sometimes students have difficulties to
118
2. Special Aspects
distinguish model and reality. This sort of difficulties could be stimulated by the use of sophisticated
software, because students tend to believe that they are watching the reality in the PC screen
(maybe, they think that the images displayed in the screen are a kind of video of the target
represented there).
To avoid this misunderstanding, the results of her work suggest that teachers should make explicit
the link between:
- the portion of reality we are studying,
- the model that physicists have elaborated to this target,
- the cybernetic model (that constructed by computer experts on the base of the ph
sical model),
- the software we are running.
In order to point out some relevant characteristics of modelling strategies, some significant
examples presented in the panel sessions have been analysed from the point of view of modelling.
They involved physics teaching at high school and university levels and analysed:
i. How the modelling approach is used and how it is supposed to be used;
ii. How scientific models interfere with pupils personal views of the world.
Two examples have been reported : the first one concerning the teaching of Newtonian Mechanics
(Campos, Jimnez, and Del Valle. 2001 )and the second one concerning the teaching of
Electrodynamics (Roa-Neri and Jimnez, 2001); both have pointed out the learning effectiveness
and facilities offered by the modelling approach.
Model-based reasoning are strongly based upon different kinds of hypotheses (Cambell 1920):
empirical law hypotheses, that are summaries of perceived patterns in observations, and explanatory
model hypotheses that introduce visualizable models at a theoretical level and often contain
currently unobservable entities. Molecules, field, waves are not simply condensed summaries of
empirical observations but rather are inventions that contribute new theoretical terms and images
that are part of the scientists view of the world and that are not given in the data. Examples have
been reported in order to point out the two different kinds of models.
DAnnas report evidenced as experimental observations and laboratory experiments can be used
in order to induce mathematical models that summarise correlations among relevant variable of
the studied system. Moreover he showed as the modelling environment STELLA can be used in
order to construct the bridge between phenomenology and theory. The report induced a very
fruitful discussion concerning similarities and differences between Explanatory models and
Empirical laws, that are mathematical or verbal descriptions of patterns in observations, and how
and why they are differentiated and/or have to be differentiated in our teaching.
It has been pointed out that, according to Gilbert (1998), all explanatory models are formed by the
process of analogy, that is the seeking of similarities and differences between a source (something which
is perceived to be somewhat like the phenomenon under study) and the phenomenon itself, which is the
target. Such analogue models help scientists make the unfamiliar familiar. This suggests that analogical
reasoning may be an important no inductive source for generating such hypothetical models.
Explanatory models are physical and mathematical models and their construction, at high school
level, involve the use of appropriate environments. To date, modelling languages can be divided
into two kinds: so-called aggregate modelling engines (e.g. Stella, Model-it) and object-based
modelling languages ( Starlogo, Agentsheets , )
Aggregate modelling languages use accumulations and flows and other graphical descriptors of
changing dynamics, eliminate the need to manipulate symbols, but they are strictly connected
to the mathematics of differential equations from the conceptual point of view. They do not
require the formalism of differential equation, rather the formalism of finite difference
equations (more easy from a conceptual point of view). However, these languages are very
useful when the model output needs to be expressed algebraically and analysed using standard
mathematical methods.
The second type of tools enables the user to model systems directly at the level of the individual
elements of the system. The object-based approach has the advantage of being a natural entry
119
point for learners. In StarLogo, for example students think about actions and interactions of
individual objects or creatures (rabbits each of which has associated probabilities of
reproducing of dying, or molecules each of which has associated a position and a velocity and
other properties). StarLogo models describe how individual objects behave. Thinking in terms
of individual objects seems far more intuitive, particularly for the mathematically uninitiated.
Sperandeo-Mineo presented some ways to use StarLogo in a teaching approach focused on
modelling.
The discussion has been concluded by analysing the role of modelling within the curriculum and in
particular:
model construction versus model use
(student using already constructed models of phenomena versus students constructing their
own models).
concreteness vs. formalism
(critics to computer-based modelling about the concern that the activity of modelling on computer is
too much of a formal activity, removing pupils from the concrete world of real data).
aggregate vs. object-based modelling languages
(aggregate modelling engines (e.g. STELLA, Model-It, Modellus.) and object-based
modelling languages ( StarLogo, AgentSheets ,. ).
the introduction of Dynamic System Modelling: -to connect micro-level and macro level and
deterministic effect,-to introduce the notion of levels of descriptions, (how representations,..
-to show how stochastic models can account for stability changes of rules on one level lead to
different behaviours and patterns at another level).
In conclusion, the possibility to use tools allowing different representations and different levels of
formalization is very exciting for teachers and researchers. Nevertheless, we need research in order
to point out the effective learning coming out from modelling procedures as well as the modes of
thinking stimulated by the different modelling procedures (diagrams, words, numbers, images,
animations, algorithms.).
3. List of contributions
1) The learning of modeling: a scientists vision, S.M. Islas, M. A. Pesa (Argentina)
2) Does physics formal knowledge really help students in dealing with real - world physics
problems?., N. Grimellini Tomasini, O. Levrini (Italy)
3) Models, mental images and language in scientific thinking, J.J.A. Smit (South Africa)
4) Newtons laws revisited, I. Campos, G. Del Valle (Mexico)
5) Induced time-dependent polarization and the Vavilov-Cherenkov effect, Roa-Neri J. A.E.,
Villavicencio M., Jimnez J. L. (Mexico)
6) Modelling physical processes: the example of a magnetic glider, M. DAnna (Switzerland)
7) Modelling physical processes: a fruitful combination of mathematics and physics, M. DAnna
(Switzerland)
8) Modelling physical reality: several ways of using computer simulations to help formalisation,
R.M. Sperandeo-Mineo (Italy).
References
Bachelard G., Il nuovo spirito scientifico, trad. It., Roma-Laterza, (1978).
Bertels K. & Nauta D., Inleiding tot het modelbegrip, W.de Haan, Bussum, Netherland, (1969).
Boyd R., Metaphor and Theory Change: what is Metaphor a Methaphor for? in Ortony AR. (Ed.). Methaphor
and Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1979).
Campbell D., Physics: the elements. Cambridge University Press, (1920), republished as The foundations of science.
New York:Dover, (1957).
Gilbert J.K., Boulter C., Models in explanations, Part1:Horses for courses? International Journal of Science
Education, 20, (1998), 83-97.
Giere R. Explaining Science: A Cognitive Approach, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, (1990).
Harr R., The principles of scientific thinking., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, (1970).
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2. Special Aspects
121
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL REASONING
Ian Lawrence, School of Education, The University of Birmingham, UK
Guidoni Paolo, Department of Physical Sciences, University of Napoli, Italy
1. Understanding and reasoning
Compensation was extensively discussed as one of the basic structures of reasoning. The need to
build competence in this process upstream of formal mathematics. Several examples given of
compensation reasoning at different levels - 2, 3 And 4 variable relationships. There are a number
of these structures of logical thinking, often made apparent though words or actions, before they
are made explicit by the children. For example: diversity only perceived by difference and ratio.
Some debate over the extent to which the processes needed to be made explicit before the child
can be said to understand or said to show this kind of formal reasoning. Compensation was held
by some to be a highly formal process.
M
1
(T
f
-T
1
) = M
2
(T
f
-T
2
) as an example of compensation but it took one hundred years to arrive at
this formalisation from the starting position of T
f
=(M
1
T
1
+M
2
T
2
)/(M
1
+M
2
). So seeing the pattern
may not be all that easy if it takes adults that long education is about compressed discovery!
Hide and seek given as an example of childrens ability to compensate how far to run in the time
available. An innate concept of distance covered in the time available means some understanding
of velocity must be present. The need can then be to learn how to mobilise these abilities to
develop new skills developing the everyday into the formal: learning the specialised ways of
thinking that are formal thinking. This is not easy con futiga grande was Galilieos comment. As
an example this transition is not be helped by just defining velocity as displacement / time without
reference to the existing abilities and experiences of the child so showing the need for
sympathetic teaching.
Real proportionality is handled inside the head. So on the Piagetian scheme:
2A: doubling and halving are possible
2B: partitioning can be done
3A: functional handling of V=IR
3B: seeing 3 rearrangements of V+IR as a part of one relationship.
And until we can do proportionality in the head we should not call it proportionality so not
formal reasoning at all!
What is understanding?
Understanding is nothing like a layered explanation it is simply a recognition of commonality,
much like recognising a face, so illustrating the central role of metaphor in understanding.
An answer to the problem of what it is to understand must include aspects of mastery within one
domain and transfer to another.
The examples of temperatures coming into equilibrium show on a graph and mobiles used by
primary school children to were both used as examples to show some pathways by which
acceleration into the formal could be explored.
Formulae are a language for describing the world just like seeing the world though spectacles
if you have well polished lenses, kept clean, then you see the world through the spectacles, not the
formula themselves. It is the same with language you want, most of the time, to see through the
language, not look at the language. A picture of languages used in science:
Is there a big discontinuity between physics as a school subject and physics as a research subject
are they perhaps two quite different subjects sharing the same name?
2. A view of the use of metaphor and model
A help to move from the concrete to the abstract. Metaphor and model used quite
interchangeably. Making a model is the same ass using a metaphor we see as do not
underestimate the heightened understanding that comes from involvement in generating the
metaphors. A leap of imagination is needed. Beware of asking children seemingly innocent
questions that cover up huge problems in modelling eg about dissolving.
Models come in two types only, reflecting a basic structure in language between nouns and
adjectives with verbs as transformers.
Correlation between variables and interactions between systems.
Models as information compressors a lot of konwledge about the worlkd storedina sall place.
Some debate over the use of formulae.
One view of the formulae as a declaration: a statement of the dimensionality of space in which you
are working by declaring the number of variables that the relationship correlates. The constants
/parameters give shape to the landscape. Spatial representations of problems are particularly
valuable because of the ability to see the whole at one you can see it as so a gestalt like
apperception of the solution is possible. In this way it is possible to make meaning for learners.
This is a metacognitive statement for teachers, not for transmission to students in any explicit form.
3. The place of metacognition
The teachers phase space must exceed that of the students. In showing understanding to what
extent must we ask the students to make things explicit if they know how, must they also be able
to talk about it in order to qualify for understanding? (when we are working hardest at learning
how to do something new, only sometimes is it helpful to also reflect on that something explicitly
and even then perhaps not for all learners). Suggested that we speak about cognitive growth not
cognitive change (after all what changes?)
4. Teaching as sympathetic interaction: mediation
The need for sympathetic interaction to make teachers operate in the zone of proximal
development rather than a long way above it.
Students are rather good at everyday reasoning, so we might need to mobilise this competence to
help with the transition from the everyday to the formal and scientific. Effective techniques for
mobilising these competencies will be varied and sympathetic to the understandings and
competencies of the children.
5. To work on:
Practical outcomes from this discussion
Where to read more
Concrete illustration of how to evaluate a model
The place of imagination, motivation in assisting transfer from concrete to formal operations.
122
2. Special Aspects
123
TOYS FOR LEARNING PHYSICS
Christian Ucke, Physics Department E 20, Technical University Munich, Germany
The participants started with the question: What does formal thinking mean for learning physics
with toys? We did not discuss this for a long time but agreed that many toys can help to make a
first step to the far away goal of formal thinking. Toys are very important in the kindergarten,
primary and secondary school and less important on university level. Nevertheless there are some
toys which are appropiate for developing formal thinking on a higher level. The talk from
Professor B. Pascolo about Mechanics applied to small great games in the Panel-Session CS04
gave an example for that.
Very important for toys is their affective and social aspect. Toys are known from outside of the
classroom, this means from the real world. They have to do with normal life. Physics experiments
in classrooms support formal thinking but children often think that they are valid only in the
classrooms. The transfer to the world outside the classroom is difficult.
With many toys can be made quantitative measurements on different levels. This is a real challenge
for teachers and children. Playing with toys means exploring the world. A careful leading for
quantitative investigating toys together with the teacher can reveal more properties of the objects.
The pedagogical difficulty is the balance between fun and playing on one side and eventually
boring quantitative measurements and analysis on the other side.
Teachers needs books, publications, workouts, stimulations what toys exist, where they can be
obtained, how they can be used and on which level they can be used. This seems to be also a
language problem. In English and German there is an extensive literature about these topics,
although many books repeat very similar proposals and only very few have really new ideas (e.g.
in German: Wittman, Josef: Trickkiste 1 + 2). There are books for teachers and for children. But
even this literature is not always available (some good books are even out of stock) and is
sometimes expensive. Translations will be not made because it is not worth for presses. C. Ucke
mentioned his website (http://www.e20.physik.tu-muenchen.de/~cucke), where he maintains a
freely accessible database about literature dealing with physics toys. The database contains about
1000 references; about 500 are in English.
Even if good books for children are available, it is important to notice that children will need
support from their parents or teachers. They often will not start theirselves to make experiments.
The same is valid for proposals in the web which can be found more and more (e.g. in German:
http://www.kopfball-online.de/ and also the website from C. Ucke contains many links to other
suggestions)
Another problem is the availibility of toys. Many toys are only available for a certain time and only
in certain shops in certain countries. The teachers must look carefully and regularly through the
local shops to discover what is available. This is an additional straining.
We discussed that this could be a chance and a task for the shops in science museums. They should
offer appropiate objects with good accompanying workouts. In this way they can fulfill an
important additional task. A problem seems for the museums how to organize this (manpower
problem). Science teachers could cooperate with museums in this direction.
K. Papp mentioned her way for examinations. She presents to students about ten toys. The student
must select one toy and discuss and explain how she/he would use this toy for which purpose in a
class. This seems to be a very realistic approach how to examine students.
We discussed the idea for a special seminar/workshop only devoted to toys. This should be
prepared carefully but the need for such an event seems to be present.
C. Ucke mentioned two links:
Probably the best link in Germany for physics teachers is the Teachers Page Physics:
http://wpex40.physik.uni-wuerzburg.de/~pkrahmer/home/index.html
This site is maintained from the physics teacher P. Krahmer.
124
2. Special Aspects
http://www.grand-illusions.com/cd.htm (look for: Tims Wonderful Toys CD-ROM; many pictures
and avi-files about toys)
At the end we discussed to establish a database where you can find toys. Such a database can
stimulate the exchange of information. The database should contain the names including trade
names (there is again a certain language problem), picture, short description (level, special
applications, etc.), topic area (mechanics, optics, etc), reference/literature, source (producer), price,
, contact person, entry date.
The database must be maintained with a program which is generally available (e.g. Excel).
C. Ucke declared to work out a first proposal with some examples (see table below).
Participants
Some persons attended only one session:
M. Bertoncelj (Slovenia), A.G. Blagotinsek (Slovenia), A. Borgnolo (Italy), M. Cepic (Slovenia), D. Ferbar
(Slovenia), E. Gunacker (Austria), J. Holbech (Denmark), R. Martongelli (Italy), M. Matloob (Iran), A. Nagy
(Hungary), S. Oblak (Slovenia), K. Papp (Hungary), P. Pascolo (Italy), G. Planinsic (Slovenia), N. Razpet
(Slovenia), E. Stante (Italy), C. Woerner (Chile),
Interested:
M. Michelini (Italy), G. Rinaudo (Italy)
e-mail cucke@ph.tum.de
name picture description keywords
reference/litera
ture
source price
contact
person
entry
date
remarks
jumping toy, jumping
smiley face, Pop-Up
the toy jumps about 30cm
high; similar toys available
as jumping animal with
stronger springs, can be
used from kindergarten to
university level
mechanics,
spring,
acceleration
Carl H. Hayn,
Pedagogical
Interlude, Phys.
Teach. 28, 166
(1990), Dufresne,
R.J. et al.:
Springbok: The
Physics Jumping,
Phys. Teach. 39
(2001), 109-115
science
shops, toy
shops, Tobar
Ltd/UK
< 0.5 Euro C.
Ucke/Munich/
Germany
cucke@ph.tum
.de
set/ 01
whistler, (slovene:
ivga)
Any movements of the toy
along the geom. axis
produce whistling sounds.
No electrical parts. Can
be used as hands-on
accelration sensor.
mechanics,
acceleration,
sound
toy shops,
bookstores,
(UK)
1 Euro G.
Planinsic/Ljublj
ana/Slovenia/g
orazd@fiz.uni-
lj.si
set/ 21
popgun; (slovene:
pokalica)
wooden tube with piston
and cork stopper at the
end. When compressed
the stopper shoots out
and makes loud sound.
The pitch of the sound
depends on the length of
the air column.
mechanics,
thermodynamic
s, sound
Polish folk toy
bought in
street shop in
Zakpane,
Poland
1 Euro G.
Planinsic/Ljublj
ana/Slovenia/g
orazd@fiz.uni-
lj.si
set/ 21
bicycle pump that
utilizes creamer
charges
bicycle pump designed to
utilize compressed N2O in
creamer charges.Can be
used to demonstrate
adiabatic cooling and
change in whistle sound
due to lower c in N2O.
thermodynamic
s, sound
pump bought
in sports shop
in NM, USA.
Should be
addapted for
using
European
cream
charges
15 Euro G.
Planinsic/Ljublj
ana/Slovenia/g
orazd@fiz.uni-
lj.si
set/ 21 DO NOT
INHALE N20
GAS!! use child
rubber baloon
and whislte for
sound
demonstration
125
NEW TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTER IN PHYSICS LEARNING
Laurence Rogers, School of Education, University of Leicester, UK
The thematic questions offered initially were:
How effective is IT for learning?
How does the teacher make IT more effective?
To set the scene, Laurence Rogers presented a general survey of IT use based on common practice
in England. IT uses were classified under the following headings:
Information systems (web, CD, multimedia, tutorial applications, databases)
Publishing tools (word processing, presentational software)
Visual aids (depending on graphics, images and audio technology)
Calculating, modelling and simulation tools (including spreadsheets)
Graphing tools (for presenting and analysing data from a variety of sources)
Measurement (data-logging, MBL, RTEI)
Communication (email, discussion groups etc.)
For the purpose of identifying training needs and pedagogical issues, an analysis of software types
was proposed, described by software properties, potential learning benefits, operational skills
and application skills. The idea of transformational skills was added to these descriptors in
recognition of the need for teachers to modify their practice to acquire application skills.
In the initial discussion, workshop members declared their interests by suggesting a subdivision of
the thematic questions into the following:
1. Why is the uptake of IT (computer-based measurement) so poor in schools after so many
years of development and refinement of use by enthusiasts?
Before this question could be explored it was necessary to query the evidence for the assertion of
low uptake and try to be clear about what criterion is used for making the judgement. The premise
was apparently not true in all countries, in particular the Netherlands. This special case of
successful implementation was discussed in some detail and the principal conclusion was that
about ten years ago the Netherlands adopted a systemic approach to education reform which took
simultaneous action in four key areas:
curricular reform which not only integrated IT but also attempted to harmonise educational
philosophy across all curriculum subjects
reform of the examination system which incorporated IT targets in all subjects
development of a high quality resources for teaching IT across all subjects
providing compulsory training for all teachers in the use of IT
The absence of any one of the four components would have led to failure. The simultaneity of these
reforms was thought to be a key factor in their success. Moreover, it was significant that the
curriculum reform instituted a strong cross curricular context for IT rather than establishing a
separate IT curriculum power base which might compete with individual subject interests.
It was generally thought that it would be difficult to replicate these ideal conditions in many
countries, especially in the USA where local autonomy in the control of education was regarded
as a fundamental human right!
Consequently, methods of persuading teachers to adopt IT in their subject teaching was of great
concern in most countries represented.
2. How can teachers be motivated to adopt IT?
In the Netherlands and England, teachers are compelled to adopt IT by the national curriculum.
In Italy IT is a compulsory part of the curriculum but not in a cross-curricular context. In Mexico
and other countries represented free choice prevailed and adoption is pioneered by teacher
enthusiasts. One proposed approach to motivation was to demonstrate and convince teachers that
IT holds real benefits to their productivity and effectiveness as teachers. This prompted two
further questions:
Are teachers aware of the benefits if IT?
Do teachers value the benefits of IT declared by experts?
A suggested strategy for helping teachers cope with possible technophobia is to rely more on their
pupils for expertise in operational skill. There are implications here for the teachers preferred
teaching style and how modifying this would affect their self-esteem. This links to the next
question.
A successful motivation strategy used in Denmark and England has been the inducement of
teachers by offering them free or subsidised laptop computers. Working at home, teachers put in
many more hours training effort than is affordable in normal school hours.
3. How do teachers find time to learn and prepare to use IT?
The discussion questioned whether there was any difference between the time investment needed
for IT and any other innovation of method or tool; after all, IT is simply another educational tool.
There is possibly a strategic planning issue here in that the provision of IT hardware in schools
needs to be accompanied by a realistic allowance of resources for teacher training, preparation and
equipment maintenance. Some further suggestions linked back to the motivational issue, such that
if teachers could be convinced of the benefits of IT, they might then place a higher priority on the
claim that IT might have on the fixed time available for non-teaching activity.
A variant of the time problem was raised: How can pupils be allowed sufficient time in the
curriculum for IT use? There is perhaps a paradox here in that computers sometimes/often enable
many classroom tasks to be performed quickly. It is necessary to analyse this in more detail in
further discussion. Perhaps it has to be recognised that the demands of any curriculum always
exceed the time available, such that choices have to be continually made about priorities; IT is just
another competing element.
4. What are the pitfalls in using IT that should be avoided?
This question was proposed with some passion but discussion only just began to address the issue.
It became linked to a questioning of the effectiveness if IT with statements like the computer
should not substitute a real experiment or the use of the blackboard or some other conventional
tool and the use of computers is burdened by the risk of pupils using them in an off-task mode.
The subsequent discussion gave thought to the principle of appropriate use by which IT is not
employed for its own sake by it selected only when it is the most appropriate tool for the identified
learning objectives. The latter needs to consider not one but a variety of factors which include;
context of use (experience and ability of pupils, curriculum topic, role of task as exploration or
reinforcement etc.)
5. What is the role of the teacher when pupils use IT?
There are potentially two risks associated with this question. First, a fear amongst teachers that the
computer will displace the role of the teacher, and second that teachers might become so
preoccupied with technical problems with hardware and software that they forget, neglect or ignore
their pedagogical role. Research suggests that the role of the teacher in making IT effective for
learning is crucial. But further questions are prompted:
How does (should) the use of IT affect the style of teaching? (IT can transform the social climate
of the classroom and requires re-evaluation of what content is relevant.)
Perhaps the setting of open-ended tasks and greater pupil-autonomy are better suited to IT than
didactic teaching approaches?
Perhaps IT encourages a greater mixing if physics topics than traditional approaches?
6. How can teachers be educated to make IT more effective for learning?
Can they be encouraged to adapt their well practised teaching skills? How might pupils computers
at home be exploited? Further discussion needed.
7. How can the physics teaching community gather and share ideas for good practice?
126
2. Special Aspects
Proposals so far: Use GIREP discussion page on internet.
Compile list of time-saving uses of IT.
Note references to the work of Alfred Bork (1978), Elena Sassi (2001), Priscilla Laws and others to
be identified.
Evaluated physics websites
Guidance on how to design good activities with IT.
Identify a few brilliant examples of IT use. Present these at a workshop at Lund 2002.
List research references.
8. A further question to address: What of the future?
What is the next technology which will demand a response from the educational community? Will
we be led by and be reactive to the technology as it develops further, or should teachers be giving
a lead in influencing future developments?
TEXTBOOKS AS AN IMAGE OF PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING
Zofia Golab-Meyer, Institute of Physics Department, Jagellonian University, Poland
The turn over of Millenia is a good moment for reflection on changes in physics teaching, on a new
trends and fashions in it. Examining textbooks we can learn how a new trends, ideas are at least put
in praxis. During the last few decades we learn a lot about way of thinking of children and adolescent
students. New approaches (eg. constructivistic approach, whatever it means, inquiry methods) are
proposed. New teaching and learning methods are known, new media in our hands. Under the very
strong social pressure the basic goals and priorities changed, from understanding a fundamental laws,
to understanding environment, technical gadgets in everyday life. Relevance to everyday life is the
key word in the physics education. To see it one can look at the recommendations of Physics on Stage,
Geneva 2000. As we know, in mass (but in particular cases!) scale traditional teaching failed. New
trends and ideas became dominating. How is it reflected in textbooks? To have our discussion more
concreat we discussed one elementary textbook (presentation of Leopold Mathelisch) and one high
school textbook (presentation of Krsnik).
Among discussed topics were
Language of textbooks: everyday language is replacing scientific language. It is in hope that such a
language is understood and can transmit the correct message. Short slogans are replacing
mathematical formulae, and have to be vehicle for grasping the essence of physical laws (e.g.
Waerme can man mischen, from presented textbook). We discussed (just start of discussion)
how much of misconceptions such a slogans can introduce. More profound investigations (task
for the working group) are needed. Some expressions, formulations from Hewitts textbook
Conceptual Physics , can be subject of discussion in future (available for members for different
countries).
Targets of textbooks. Traditional textbooks are written both for students and for teachers. For
students they serve as manual for self study, they are written in narrative style, they explain laws,
they conduct students in doing experiments, they help to draw conclusions, they offer problems for
solving. They contain summaries which help to remember. Some of those textbooks became very
popular, and are often used by students. Some of them are written in the way of direct dialog
between author and reader. Such textbook have signs of individuality of its authors. Classical
textbook play a role also as teaching guide for teachers. The aversion of reading commonly shown
by students is a origin of so called pocked textbook, consisting only definitions and formulas. One
can not learn from such a textbook. New generation of textbooks, especialy for young students
take into account the different need of students and teachers. Textbooks for students are short,
without much of narrative text. It is assumed that teacher will be very active in teaching process.
Teacher is getting separate textbook, guide for teaching. Presented Austrian textbooks are example
of such solution. It seems that in future will be like that.
127
128
2. Special Aspects
Problems. We discussed trends in going out from classical academic problems with welldefined
data, and one solution. A kind of narrative problems were presented by Martha Masa. Solving with
students more difficult problems were presented by Italians. The number of questions arose during
our discussion. They are worthy of more profound discussion.
Ethical responsability of authors of textbooks.
The ro le of history in teaching, especialy its role of making physics more human was also subject
of discussion.
From our discussion we learned that new textbooks try to be friendly for students. That is new. In the
past transmission of knowledge was first priority. During discussion we realized that new trends in
physics teaching are present in textbooks.
In examing textbook we have also to look:
how much students can learn from that was intended
what kind of potential misconception students can gain
how much students can learn how to learn
what kind of image of physics is created
129
3. Topical Aspects
3.1 Laboratory and Theory
USING EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORIES TO TEACH FORMAL PHYSICS
Slavko Kocijancic, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Colm OSullivan, Department of Physics, National University of Ireland Cork, Ireland
1. Introduction
Difficulties encountered by students in the use of mathematics in introductory physics courses has
been a constant theme in physics education debates in recent years, not least at GIREP meetings.
In many cases, however, the problem turns out to be less to do with an absence of mathematical
skills per se than with a lack of familiarity with how we as physicists use certain simple
mathematical techniques. For beginner students, in particular, this often involves difficulties in
understanding how two specific analytical techniques, namely graphical and functional analysis, are
used in physics.
The problem of student difficulties in connecting graphs to physical reality is well known [1] as is
the value of laboratory experiments using real-time computerised data acquisition with graphical
display to address these problems [2,3]. The ultrasound position/motion sensor (sonic ranger) has
proved to be a particularly valuable tool in this context as described, for example, by Sassi [4] at
the GIREP/ICPE Conference in Barcelona. Figure 1 shows a simple and commonly used example
of such an application in which the motion of a cart moving with constant acceleration is studied
by observing a real time plot of distance versus
time.
Most commercially available data acquisition
software systems include a curve-fitting tool
which enables data like that in Figure 1 to be
analysed so that the value of the acceleration can
be determined. This is achieved by asking the
software to analyse the data to find the best fit to
the function x = a + bt + ct
2
using a, b and c as
fitting parameters, from which the acceleration
(= 2c) may be calculated.
Experience of curve-fitting techniques has the
added advantage of helping students to
overcome the other common difficulty
encountered by beginners, namely that of
connecting mathematical relationships (formulae) to physical reality. For more complex
relationships than those arising in simple kinematic situations like that described above, however,
the standard curve-fitting tools provided with most data acquisition systems prove insufficient.
Curve-fitting features available on standard spreadsheet software, such as Excel, are also too
limited for many applications in introductory physics courses. Fortunately many flexible user
friendly curve-fitting packages are available which can be used to advantage in undergraduate
physics laboratories to enhance students understanding of the way mathematical functional
relationships are used to describe the behaviour of physical systems. It is essential that the utility
adopted be uncomplicated and simple to use by students who may have little experience of
information technology at this level.
It is also important that, prior to invoking such curve-fitting software to analyse experimental data,
Figure 1
students should have an opportunity to familiarise themselves with the package at least to the
extent that they can convince themselves that the software does indeed execute what it purports to
do. On the other hand, students do not need to know anything about the actual mathematical
curve-fitting procedures running in the background, any more than they need to know how a
calculator, a computer or a video display unit works in order to use these devices with confidence.
Example 1: simple harmonic motion
Figure 2(a) shows data from an experiment on an oscillating helical spring, again using the
ultrasound motion sensor to record and plot the extension of the spring as a function of time. In
this case the data is then exported to a simple shareware curve-fitting package [5] which is asked
to find the best fit (figure 2(b)) of the data to the function x = a sin(bt + c), with a, b and c as the
fitting parameters. The value of b ( = 2/T) obtained may be used to calculate the period T of the
oscillations.
Example 2: damped harmonic motion
A somewhat more complicated function is involved if damping plays a significant role in the
oscillations of the spring. Figure 3(a) shows data observed using the same helical spring as above
but in this case a dash-pot has been added to provide damping. Figure 3(b) shows the data having
been fitted by a function of the form x = a sin(bt + c)exp(dt) in which case the damping coefficient
(d) may be determined as well as the period.
Example 3: magnetic field strength on the axis of a coil
The techniques described above may be used, of course, in any laboratory situation where one
physical quantity may be plotted as a function of another. In addition to the position sensor used
130
3. Topical Aspects 3.1 Laboratory and Theory
simple harmonic motion
time/s
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
/
c
m
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
-0
.1
2
-0
.0
8
-0
.0
4
0
.0
0
0
.0
4
0
.0
8
0
.1
2
Figure 2(a) Figure 2(b)
Figure 3(a) Figure 3(b)
in the previous examples, low cost computerised sensors are now available for a wide range of
physical quantities, the most commonly used being voltage, temperature, pressure, light intensity
and magnetic field.
As a final example, Figure 4(a) shows a plot of the strength of the magnetic field as a function of
position along the axis of a flat circular coil carrying a current. An ultrasound position sensor has
been used to determine the position of a magnetic field sensor, distance x being measured from the
centre of the coil. The mathematical relationship which describes the dependence of the magnetic
flux density on x, is
131
Figure 4(a) Figure 4(b) Figure 4(a) Figure 4(b)
( )
2
3
2 2
2
2
) (
a x
NIa
x B
+
=
Figure 5
where N is the number of turns in the coil, I is the current flowing and a is the radius of the coil.
Once again the curve-fitting routine has been invoked to find the best fit to this function (Figure
4(b)).
An alternative approach in this case, because the values of all the relevant parameters are known
ab initio, is to use a function-plotting routine in advance to predict the shape of the Bversus x curve
and to compare the results of this prediction with the actual measured data. Figure 5 shows the use
of a simple freeware package [6] for this purpose.
2. Conclusions
Simple user friendly curve-fitting and function-plotting software routines used in conjunction with
computerised data acquisition systems in the laboratory can be effective in helping beginner
students to overcome initial difficulties with understanding how graphical and algebraic
relationships are used in physics.
References
[1] L.C. McDermott, M.L. Rosenquist and E. H. van Zee, Student difficulties in connecting graphs and physics:
Examples from kinematics, American Journal of Physics, 55, No 6, (1987), 503-513.
[2] L. Newton, Graph talk: Some Observations and Reflections on Students Data-logging, School Science Review,
79, (1997), 49-54.
[3] L. Rogers, New Data-logging Tools - New Investigations, School Science Review, 79, (1997), 61-68.
[4] E. Sassi, Computer supported lab-work in physics education: advantages and problems, International Conference
on Physics Teacher Education beyond 2000, Barcelona, (2000) (CD-ROM).
[5] The curve-fitting package CurveExpert is available from http://www.ebicom.net/~dhyams/cvxpt.htm
[6] The freeware function-plotting package wgnuplot can be downloaded from ftp://ftp.ucc.ie/pub/gnuplot/
PHYSICS: FACING THE PRESENT TO FOSTER THE FUTURE
The Portuguese and the English Proposals for 16-19 years old students
Teresa Lobato, Margarida Saraiva-Neves, Escola Secundria de Fonseca Benevides, Lisboa,
Portugal
1. Introduction
The importance of learning Physics is recognized for scientists and science teachers in general. In
spite of its importance on developing techniques and devices to make more comfortable our daily
life, students are more and more unmotivated to follow courses on Physics, and those who dare
studying it get, generally, poor results.
In the beginning of a new millennium, it is imperative that teaching and learning Physics become
more exciting tasks so students, engaging on its study more enthusiastically, become better-
informed citizens and/or scientists able to contribute to the welfare of society.
Several countries recognized the importance of restructuring the programs of Physics on an
attempt to render its learning more appealing to students.
This agrees with the position of authors as Robitaille et al (1993) that consider curriculum as an
important variable to explain differences among national school systems and to account for
differences among students outcomes.
From a constructivistic point of view, students should play important roles in the building of their
knowledge. Computers and computers software may be used in science education as means of
promoting Meaningful Learning. However, pupils must have teachers guidance to accomplish
complex tasks.
2. Mode of Inquiry
It was done a documental analysis of the Portuguese official programme of Physics-A, 10
th
grade
and of United Kingdom curriculum Advancing Physics.
3. Outcomes
3.1 Some characteristics of the Portuguese curricular proposal
The curriculum of Physics recently projected in Portugal, regarding secondary level education,
states, as one of main objectives, the contribution for a democratic citizenship. Students motivation
for further studies on science and related carriers is also an important concern. To accomplish this,
conceptual dimension of Physics is faced not as an end, but as a powerful mean to accomplish
mentioned aims. Science education means learning concepts, laws and theories, as well as thinking
about the nature of knowledge and its importance in modern daily life.
The methodology suggested appeals to several means of communication, a strong component of
laboratorial work and team discussions. Though proposed experiments deal mainly with current
materials, the use of new technologies is highly recommended. Mathematics is regarded as a mean
to a better way of understanding Physics, instead of an obliged boring subject.
132
All curriculum organization is focused on the understanding of Science and its relation with
Technology and Society. Problem solving is the chosen way of performing STS curriculum.
Conservation and Degradation of Energy is the unifying subject of Physics-A 10
th
grade
Portuguese programme, allowing the study of concepts included in Thermodynamics, Mechanics
and Electricity. Contents are organized in four units, each one according to a theme: From energy
sources to the conscious user; From the sun to the heating; Energy towards the movement and
From electrical power plants to the consumer. Intended learning level is specified by objectives
defined for all units.
Main characteristics found are the following:
Science is knowledge in permanent construction
Negotiation of meanings through team work is highly encouraged
Impact of physical knowledge on society is recognized
Experimental activities are considered main promoters of Meaningful Learning
All curriculum has a STS orientation
3.2 Some characteristics of the English curricular proposal
Social issues and the promotion of team discussions are considered important in new curriculum
Advancing Physics. Students interests for recent technology seem to be the starting point of
learning. The criterion to choose learning subjects does not exclude traditional topics but presents
them with a different approach.
The new course is designed to reflect up-to-date aspects of Physics in action, including relevant
social issues. The need to adapt to a changing world where electronic devices, digital images and
quicker communications are forcing new life styles, is a main concern.
It is expected that students understand Mathematics as an important body of knowledge for a
better comprehension of physical laws. This matches Ogborn (2000) position that considers
Mathematics must not be seen as a necessary evil to complain about, but as fundamental to
enlarge the pleasure and power that Physics can offer.
Students are encouraged to build and execute their own projects, which will be part of their
assessment, which includes the ability to communicate, and the comprehension of science and
technology in a wider context.
Main characteristics found are the following:
Team discussions are encouraged
Up-to-date physics and social issues are relevant
Practical work is central and has new perspectives
Maths is intended to be regarded as a support to develop Physics
Computers are commonly used
Students are encouraged to develop their own projects
4. Conclusions and Implications
Both new Portuguese and English curricula have similar concerns: attract more students to the
study of Physics; relate school studies with daily life problems; minimize the fear involving the need
of knowing Mathematics; approach the subjects through recent technology and use the study of
science to build more responsible citizens and better human beings.
Essential differences are revealed with a closer look on the way the all process starts. English
approach largely appeals to latest technologies such as computer data and CD-ROM support of
information, side by side with traditional books.
In Portugal, although computer techniques are becoming more and more common, the projected
curriculum has a more classical approach.
According to Teodoro (2001), the use of exploratory software, which considers computer as a
thinking tool, agrees with the constructivist perspective of the teaching-learning process.
However being regarded as a wishful tendency in Portuguese official curriculum, the use of
computers are still very far from being a common practice in the classroom environment.
133
Something must be done about this, as it is not possible to go on ignoring technology when the
young of today are Homo-Zappiens: they Zap from channel to channel. They live a life with remote
controls, cellphones and Internet (Sjberg, 2001).
Another striking difference is that 40% of English project contemplates themes which are
dedicated to recent issue; Portugal is still very far from modern times, when classes of Physics are
considered.
English projected Physics program allows students to have a considerable degree of freedom to
choose subjects according to their own interests. In the Portuguese Physics curriculum that
possibility is not foreseen, but it must be stated that there is a curriculum area, named Project
Area, where students may choose and carry on their own projects.
Finally, a very similar concern in both projected curricula: the continuous formation of teachers.
But, unfortunately for Portugal, the two countries reveal very different ways to deal with this
problem. In UK, 300 teachers were involved in the development of the innovating course, and a
network of local teachers groups were created to attend regular meetings to discuss problems,
seeking advice, recording progress and, sometimes, complain loudly. In Portugal, so far, teachers are
essentially spectators of the changes happening in curricula that will be implemented on 2002/2003
school year. Up to this date, there is no public knowledge of any attempt to perform innovating
courses to help teachers to deal with and feel these changes as theirs.
Though not as daring as the English, the Portuguese project is an interesting one and its
implementation could represent a very important step on improving Physics teaching and learning.
As the success of the proposed changes strongly depends on the will and performance of teachers,
no significant improvement will be achieved without their collaboration. This should not be a
problem as we can count on very good professionals who are deeply committed to face the
challenge of educating todays youth, fostering a better world.
In Portugal, studies on Science Education are very recent. However pacing slowly, they are moving
with determination. A lot of researchers are carrying out investigations in several fields and
developing educational materials, such as computer software, being a good example Modellus
Interactive Modelling with Mathematics. With this software students may design and test models,
introduce alterations, predict outcomes and quickly visualize their own ideas. This will, eventually,
help them in the process of transition from concrete to abstract thought.
If you want pupils to perform complex skills, then teacher must orient the work proposals with that
objective (Mulder & Ellermeijer, 2001).
Teachers should be aware of the importance of curriculum innovations and have access to special
information/formation. Then, new technologies could become part of teachers strategies, aiming
the development of formal thinking in Physics.
Acknowledgements
For the financial support we thank the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology.
References
Hobson, A., Physics Concepts and Connections. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, (1995).
Ministrio da Educao, Reviso Curricular do Ensino Secundrio. Lisboa: DES, (2000).
Mulder C. & Ellermeijer, T., In Proceedins of the 3
rd
International Conference of ESERA on Science Education
Research in the Knowledge Based Society, Thessaloniki, (2001).
Ogborn J., Changing the Curriculum in Physics, Unpublished paper presented at the GIREP conference Physics
beyond 2000,
Projecto de Programas de Fsica e Qumica A (2000). Lisboa: Ministrio da Educao.
( http://www.des.min-edu.pt/ver_curricular/programas/fsica.pdf )
Robitaille D. F., Scmidt W. H.; Raizen S., Mcknight C., Britton E. & Nicol C., Curriculum frameworks for Mathematics
and Science, TIMSS Monograph n 1, Vacouver, Canad: Pacific Educational Press, (1993).
Silva T. T., Teorias do Currculo, Porto Porto Editora, (2000).
Sjberg S. Why dont they love us anymore? Science And Technology Education: A European high priority
political concern, In Proceedins of the 3
rd
International Conference of ESERA on Science Education Research in
the Knowledge Based Society, Thessaloniki, (2001).
Teodoro V. D., Modellus 2.01, Faculdade de Cincias e Teccnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, (2000).
Teodoro V. D., Experincias Matemticas: um exemplo com oscilaes. Unpublished paper. Faculdade de Cincias e
Teccnologia, Universidade Nova Lisboa, (2001).
134
TORSION PENDULUM: THE MECHANICAL NONLINEAR OSCILLATOR
Samo Lasi, Gorazd Planini, , Faculty of Mathematics and Physics University of Ljubljana,
Slovenija
Giacomo Torzo, Department of Physics, University of Padova, Italy
1. Introduction: applicability of the didactical apparatus
The main purpose of talking about nonlinear phenomena in school is to gain the students ability
for distinguishing the nonlinear system from the linear one by qualitative observations of the
system dynamics. The complex and qualitatively different behavior of nonlinear systems should be
pointed out as an remarkable consequence of non-linearity that happens to occur very often in
natural systems. Formal thinking plays an essential roll when basic features of a nonlinear system
and its dynamics are compared to the linear system. A qualitative approach is particularly fruitful
for developing the basic idea of the phenomena and gaining a deeper understanding of both linear
and nonlinear systems.
The simplest example of nonlinear oscillator is the physical pendulum. The torsion pendulum [1, 2,
3] instead is considered as a didactical example of a nonlinear system that performs all the basic
features of a dynamical system. According to the equation of motion the torsion pendulum is
characterized as a Duffing oscillator. The Duffing equation is often numerically solved to analyze
its dynamics [4, 5]. There are also known electric circuits that behave according to the Duffing
equation [6]. Such systems are very precise and easy to analyze but they are abstract and hard to
use for developing formal thinking.
The basic idea has been initiated and first experiments performed by prof. dr. Giacomo Torzo at
University of Padua. The theoretical analysis as well as design and construction of improved
apparatus has been done at Physics Department, University of Ljubljana as BSc thesis [7].
The apparatus can be used as a didactical tool for demonstrating:
the amplitude dependence of the period of oscillation,
the hysteresis phenomena in the response of sinusoidaly driven pendulum and
bifurcation of stable orbits and the transition to chaotic motion.
Our construction is based on theoretical predictions and numerical simulations. The goal was to
build a mechanical oscillator of large dimensions that would help the observer to recognize and
understand the phenomena. The main problem was to find the design that will optimize the
requirements mentioned above. For this reason we have chosen the construction that leaves all the
free parameters to be varied to some extend.
2. Description of the apparatus
135
Building parts:
1. Oscillatory rod
2. Mass
3. Damping disk
4. Damping magnet
5. Steel tape
6. Driver with adjustable eccentric arm
7. Windscreen wiper motor
8. Buzzer
9. Movable bench
10. Spring for fine adjustment of zero angle
11. The pendulum head
12. Inertia rod with variable moment of inertia
Fig. 1. Vertical torsion pendulum
The oscillatory part of the pendulum consists of a weighted rod (Fig. 1 part 1, part 2 ) fixed in the
pendulum head (Fig. 1 part 11 ) together with inertia rod with two symmetrically placed weights
(Fig. 1 part 12). The weights can be fixed on different positions enabling the center of mass and
the moment of inertia to be changed respectively. The pendulum rod can be fixed either in the
direction upward or downward. In this way two types of nonlinear restoring force can be achieved.
The driving mechanism consists of a windscreen wiper motor (Fig. 1 part 7) and the rotating disc
with eccentric driving arm (Fig. 1 part 6) which transforms the rotation in approximately
sinusoidal oscillation. The amplitude of driving oscillation can be varied in the range from 0 to 45
by changing the eccentric fixing of the arm.
The excitation is transferred to the oscillatory part of the pendulum through torsion distortion of
the steel tape (Fig. 1 part 5). The driving mechanism and the fixing of the tape to the driving arm
are fixed on a movable bench (Fig. 1 part 9). This allows using tapes of different length l, enabling
one to change the tape torsion coefficient which is proportional to l
-1
.
The viscose damping can be applied by bringing the magnet close to the 4 mm thick aluminum disc
(Fig. 1 part 3, part 4).
The fine adjustment of the zero equilibrium angle has been done by using two symmetrically placed
linear springs (Fig. 1 part 10). attached to the strings that are winded around the pendulum head.
Each spring is fixed on a screw in the support to allow independent tension adjustment. In addition
the springs help to reduce the torque on the motor.
The buzzer (Fig. 1 part 8) gives a sound signal once per driving cycle. This is an excellent remedy
to help the observer following the phase difference between pendulum and the driving oscillation.
The buzzer is particularly useful for observing the period doubling transition to chaos.
3. Mathematical model of the torsion pendulum
In order to design a pendulum that will satisfy the demonstration requirements one should
carefully choose the parameters. So lets take a look at the torsion pendulum model.
If the oscillation of driven torsion pendulum is confined to moderate angles (smaller then say 30)
the motion may be accurately modeled by the Duffing equation [8]
where c is the damping, coefficients and determine the linear and nonlinear part of the
restoring force and F cos(t) is the forcing term.
The sign of the coefficient depends on the direction of the restoring force and determines the
character of the pendulum behavior. In case where the pendulum rod is fixed in downward position
<0 (regular torsion pendulum), while for the rod in the upward position >0 (inverted torsion
pendulum).
The remarkable difference between the two types of torsion pendulum is seen from the form of
potential energy that determines equilibrium and stable equilibrium angles (Fig. 2). In the case of
regular torsion pendulum (Fig. 2.a) the potential energy is of the form
and in the case of inverted torsion pendulum (Fig. 2.b)
where k is the torsion coefficient, m is the mass at center of mass distance R and is the angle
between the pendulum rod and a vertical line.
136
) cos(
3
t F x x x c x c o = + + + & & & , (1)
0 0 0 cos
2
1
) (
2
mgR k U ~ = (2)
0 0 0 cos
2
1
) (
2
mgR k U + = , (3)
Fig. 2. Potential energy form in the case of regular torsion pendulum (a) and in the case of inverted torsion pendulum
(b).
In the case of regular torsion pendulum the only equilibrium is a stable equilibrium at zero angle.
In the case of inverted torsion pendulum instead we must consider two different situations. If the
ratio k/mgR>1 there is only one stable equilibrium at zero angle similarly to the regular case. But
for k/mgR<1 the zero equilibrium is a labile one. Beside this there are two symmetrically placed
stable equilibrium angles
4. Period dependence on amplitude and the response to sinusoidal excitation
When the non-linearity is small the higher harmonics can be neglected and harmonic type of
oscillation can be assumed. With this assumption we can calculate the period dependence on
amplitude (Fig. 3) and the response to the sinusoidal excitation (Fig. 5).
To the first order in the period dependence on amplitude is given by
where is the circular frequency.
137
(a) (b)
|
|
.
|
\
|
~ =
mgR
k
1 6 0 . (4)
2 2
4
3
A o c + = , (5)
2 2 2
2
3 2 2
4
3
) ( A c A A F c c o +
(
+ ~ = (6)
Fig. 3. A schematic (A) diagram for free
Duffing oscillator. The dashed line represents
the harmonic oscillator.
Fig. 4. Measured data for free oscillation of the
inverted pendulum.
The period variation is particularly evident in the case of inverted pendulum where the period
increases when the oscillation is damped (Fig. 4).
To calculate the response of the driven pendulum the Duffing iterative method is often used. The
result can be written in the implicit form:
138
with the phase shift | given by:
2
4 3
tan
A
c
c o
c
|
+ ~
=
2
. (7)
The response diagram shows the hysteresis phenomena. There is a region in the response diagram
where two physical states of the system are possible. The resulting state depends on the initial
conditions or on the value of the past driving frequency. When the driving frequency slowly
increase the amplitude and phase jump occurs from point 1 to point 2 on the diagram but when the
frequency decrease the jump occur from point 3 to point 4 (Fig. 5). To see the effect one must wait
for transient oscillations to die out. The assumptions we took for the calculus of the response
diagram seem realistic as the results (Fig. 6) confirm.
Fig. 5. The hysteresis in the response diagram for
<0. The jump occurs from point 1 to 2 when the
driving frequency increases and from point 3 to 4
when the frequency decreases. The dashed line
represents free oscillations. With the dotted line we
marked the non-physical solution.
Fig. 6. Measured data confirm the hysteresis in the
response diagram. Here is an example of inverted
torsion pendulum (>0).
5. The transition to chaos for inverted torsion pendulum
The complexity of the response increases with non-linearity. This is especially evident in the case
of double potential energy well. The labile equilibrium at zero angle brings into the system the
weak causality thus onsets the system for the chaotic motion. For some combinations of system
parameters , , c, F, there is no periodicity and no evident order in the response oscillation.
Choosing the parameters and which are determined by the pendulum dimensions one can
change the damping c, the driving amplitude F or the driving frequency to enter the chaotic
region. However, the transition to the chaotic region is gradual. Bifurcations of stable orbits follow
the Feigenbaum scenario of period doubling finally reaching the chaotic motion.
With the didactical apparatus it is possible to vary any of the system parameters in order to achieve
clear transition to chaos [4]. In our case the frequency can be easy adjusted by varying the voltage
on the driving motor. We have chosen to enter the chaotic region by slowly decreasing the driving
frequency. At relatively high frequencies the response repeats after one driving cycle (Fig. 7) what
is usually called a one-period motion. If the frequency is gradually decreased one-period motion
trajectory becomes unstable. The motion in phase diagram is now attracted to two different
intersecting stable orbits. After one driving cycle the motion reaches the point of intersection and
changes the orbit. In this case the response repeats after two driving cycles thus called a two-period
motion (Fig. 8). The similar bifurcation phenomena with period doubling from two-period to four-
period motion (Fig. 9) occurs when the frequency is further decreased. The driving frequency
intervals from one doubling to another are geometrically decreasing and finally lead to the chaotic
response (Fig. 10).
6. Conclusions
Experiments with the apparatus evidently confirm the theoretical predictions. The prototype can
be used for developing an efficient didactical tool. The large dimensions result in slow and evident
transients, easy observing the phase shift and the instability of periodic orbits in the transition to
chaotic motion, thus making possible to gain a quality insight into the physical phenomena. With
large dimensions the phenomena is fascinating, especially in the case of chaotic motion. However,
too slow demonstrations are not efficient in classical lessons. For this reason the dimensions should
be appropriately reduced.
References
[1] B. Duchesne, C. W. Fischer, C. G. Gray, K. R. Jeffrey, Chaos in the motion of an inverted pendulum: An
undergraduate laboratory experiment, Am. J. Phys., 59, (1991), 987-992.
[2] C. L. Olson, M. G. Olsson, Dynamical symmetry breaking and chaos in Duffings equation, Am. J. Phys., 59,
(1991), 907-911.
[3] R. D. Peters, Chaotic pendulum based on torsion and gravity in opposition, Am. J. Phys., 63, (1995), 1128-1136.
[4] H. J. Korsch, Chaos-a program collection for the PC, Springer-Verlag, (1994).
[5] Internet pages for non-linear systems with simulations:
www.mcasco.com/pattr1.html.
www.apmaths.uwo.ca/~bfraser/version1/index.html.
www.chaos.engr.utk.edu.html,
http://monet.physik.unibas.ch/~elmer/pendulum/bif.htm.
[6] B. K. Jones, G. Trefan, The Duffing oscillator: A precise electronic analog chaos demonstrator for the
undergraduate laboratory, Am. J. Phys., 69, (2001), 464-469.
[7] S. Lasic, The thesis work: Didactical treatment of torsion pendulum with the transition to chaos, University of
Ljubljana, Faculty for Mathematics and Physics, (2001).
[8] J. J. Stoker, Nonlinear Vibrations in Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Interscience Publishers, (1950).
139
Fig. 7. Measured data: one-period motion (driving
frequency =0,83 Hz).
Fig. 8. Measured data: two-period motion (driving
frequency =0,63 Hz).
Fig. 9. Measured data: four-period motion
(driving frequency =0,56 Hz).
Fig. 10. Measured data: chaotic motion
(driving frequency =0,47 Hz).
ELECTROSTATIC MOTOR
Nevio Miklavi, Srednja Pomorska Sola Portoroz, Slovenija
1. Construction
We used the instructions that we found on the internet page
www.eskimo.com/~billb/emotor/emotor.html .
We built a similar electromotor using 3 plastic bottles of 1,5 liter, and we glued them with
aluminium foil. The two bottles that are used like stators are entirely glued with sheets of foil,
leaving a 5 cm foil-free space at the bottom (Fig.1). They play the role of two capacitors that are
oppositely charged.
In the central bottle that plays the role of the rotor,
we made a hole in the bottom and put through it a
sharpened rod, so that the bottle could spin freely.
We glued two foil strips around the bottle so that
they do not touch each other. Each of the foils is
charged alternatively with the charge of the stator
that is nearer.
The two stators are connected to a source of high
voltage direct current (7000 V). The charges that
are accumulated on the stators are brought by two
commutators or brushes (pieces of aluminium foil)
on the rotor. This central bottle is charged positively
in that region that is nearer to the positively charged
stator and negatively on the other side. A couple of
opposite electric forces makes the rotor spin around.
It begins to spin with a constant acceleration until the friction forces that are bearing resistance are
equal to the electric ones.
2. Measurements with the electromotor
We measured the frequencies (f) at which the rotor was spinning and how they depended on the
tension (U) applied.
The spinning of the bottle was varying from day to day and some days the electromotor was
working with a frequency higher than 3 Hz, but anyhow we needed a voltage higher than 3kV or
sometimes 4kV for its spinning.
Now I will try now to explain the simple mechanism that makes the bottle spin.
Measuring the rate at which the bottle was stopping when there was no electrical force, we have
estimated the angular acceleration () and the torque (M) due to the friction forces.
From the formula =*t
2
/2 for the accelerated spinning, measuring the number of turns (N) that
the bottle made while it was stopping and the time (t) needed to stop, we calculated the angle ()
and then the angular acceleration:
=2*(N*2)/t
2
and the result was = -0,38 1/s
2
Then we estimated the torque. We measured the mass of the bottle (m=50g) and assuming that
140
Fig. 1.
first day second day
U(kV) f(Hz) f(Hz)
4 0,7 1,0
5 1,3 1,7
6 1,7 2,5
7 2,0 2,9
almost all of it is disposed at the distance of the radius of the bottle (R= 4,3cm), we calculated the
moment of inertia (J) with the formula: J=m*R
2
, and obtained the result J=9,2*10
-5
kg*m
2
.
The torque (M) was: M= J* = 3,5*10
-5
Nm.
Let us now take in consideration a simple model of 4 charges
which are disposed as in Fig.2. The two charges in the middle are
connected so that they can spin around the central axis.
The torque exerted by the two external charges (e) on the system
of the two inner charges (e) is equal:
M=2R*F,
where F=2*F
e
and F
e
is the electrostatic force between two charges:
F
e
= e*e/(4
0
*r
2
)
Using this equation we can find out that if we put for R=4,3cm
and r= R, the torque of 3,5*10
-5
N would be exerted by charges
of e=1,1*10
-8
As.
The rotor is a capacitor and if we use the formula C=
0
*S/l, although the two aluminium foils are
not parallel, we find out that its capacity is equal to C= 4,3pF (In this case we used for l the value
of 4,3 cm as the average distance between the two aluminium sheets that have a surface of
S=210cm
2
.)
If such a capacitor should accumulate a charge of 1,1*10
-8
As, the voltage U=e/C would be
necessary: U=11nAs/4,3pF; U = 2,6kV
The result is very near to the lowest voltage at which the rotor begins to spin. Experiments showed
that the rotor moves a little at the voltage of 2kV, but can not rotate. It begins to turn around at
voltages higher than 3kV or sometimes 4kV.
We can estimate the power developed by the electromotor when it is spinning at the frequency of
2,9 Hz or with the angular velocity :
P=M* = 0,6 mW.
Another way to estimate the power is using the formula P=U*I.
The current I=e/t is calculated estimating the charge that is transmitted every turn of the rotor:
I=2e*f= 2
0
*(S/l)*U*f=160nA
The electrical power is then:
P=U*I = 7kV*160nA = 1,2mW.
These results are very approximate because of the simplified formulas used and because the real
current that goes through the motor was not measured. Every spark means a loss of energy and a
real good electrostatic motor should work without sparks.
3. Electrostatic motors in the past and in the future
The first electrostatic motor (and also the first electric motor) was constructed by B. Franklin in
1748. It was a spark-type electrostatic motor and consisted of a wooden rotor carrying thirty spikes
with brass thimbles on their ends and two oppositely charged Leyden bottles as high voltage
capacitors. The first motors required about 20kV to function and consumed a current of about 1A
at full speed and their power was thus of the order of 20mW. The diameter was approximately 1 m.
The second type of electrostatic motors that are more efficient are the corona motors. In a corona
motor, the rotor carries no electrodes and acquires its charge not through a spark but through a
more convenient and efficient corona discharge. The first one was constructed by the German
physicist, J.C. Poggendorf in 1870. His motor required voltages over 2000 V. In his time the
invention of electromagnetic motors quite completely stopped the developing of electrostatic
motors. In 1958 an experimental version of a corona motor was constructed by the Russian
engineers (Yu. Karpov, V. Krasnoperov and Yu. Okunev). Operating from a 6kV power supply, the
motor turned at 6000 rpm and developed the power of 5W. Somewhat different motors were
developed in the next years.
141
Fig. 2
Although electrostatic motors are much weaker than electromagnetic motors, they have some good
properties: they are extremely light in weight and use inexpensive materials. Electrostatic motors
are a good choice for applications in space and in control systems of various automation devices,
especially in those where no magnetic materials or equipment may be present. Recently invented
microscopic motors built of silicon and constructed on the surface of integrated circuit chips are
electrostatic motors. In fact also muscles are a class of motor called a linear motor and new
electrostatic motors are developed and applied also in Nanotechnology.
References
[1] www.eskimo.com/~billb/emotor/emotor.html
[2] O. Jefimenko, D.K.Walker, Electrostatic Motors, The Physics Teacher, March (1971), 121
HOLOGRAPHY: A PROJECT-TYPE APPROACH FOR CONTEXTUALIZED
TEACHING OF OPTICS
Pedro Pombo, Joo Pinto, Department of Physics, University of Aveiro, Portugal
1. Introduction
Experimental work has been increasingly pointed, by science educational researchers, as a key
strategy in the teaching of physics [1]. New curricular proposals put emphasis on the use of
experimental work at the classroom in physics courses [2]. However, experimental work should not
be used exclusively in a merely academic and demonstrative way or as a closed activity where
students just follow the steps in a protocol [3,4]. It should be used on an open problematic
situation in a researching perspective based on problem solving and conceptual change strategies
[1,5-7]. The whole process should be contextualized, relating science, technology and society.
The fact that students get a product after performing experimental work or find some current
application of their experimental activity has been shown to be pedagogically positive.
Experimental work should help the student to learn science, to learn about science and to do
science [8].
With the technological development and the large application of laser light in nowadays society,
holography has come to show a great potential in several areas, namely in science education. Its
application to education started in the late 80s in the USA [9] and spread to other countries.
Researchers point holography as a teaching tool with a great success and highly motivating for
experimental teaching of optics [10,11].
In Portugal, we started the research on educational holography at high school level in 1997 through
a pilot study with science teachers and students [12]. The aim of this project was to promote
experimental teaching of optics and to motivate students to the study of physics. Given the
characteristics of the holographic technique, it was shown to be a teaching strategy based on
experimental work in an investigative perspective quite in tune with the current suggestions of
science educational researchers. After the first results, we spread the study to a network of schools,
working with teachers of several areas and with both science and art students [13,14].
In this paper, we present a work that aims the contextualized teaching of optics through the
application of holography for the study of mechanical, thermal and vibrational deformations. This
task implicates experimental work, problem solving and relates several physics concepts. We also
present the educational results concerning other groups of students who started to work on
experimental holography.
2. Educational strategy
A project type activity usually involves different topics in a same area and shows some
multidisciplinarity. When some activity of this kind is performed, this should be contextualized and,
if possible, generate a final product with some interest to the student. The applicability of this
142
activity or of its final product at a technological or social level promotes student motivation [4,15].
The purpose of this study is to contribute to a more effective learning of optics and to a better
understanding of its relationship with other areas of physics, through a strategy of contextualized
teaching, based on experimental work and problem solving.
The experimental technique used is interferometric holography [16] and it is intended that students
apply the technique studied in order to give importance to science and its interaction with
technology and society. As the students had made several experiments in optical holography
before, namely reflection holography, they chose to use a Denisyuk configuration [17] and have
made reflection interferometric holograms, using double exposure holography for mechanical and
thermal deformations and time average holography for vibrational deformations.
Having a well defined purpose, students worked experimentally on the starting hypothesis, having
to solve problems that appeared during the experiments, reflecting and analysing the obtained
results so that they could progress until getting to the proposed objective. In this work, students
verified the importance of holography and its utility for technological applications with potential
impact on quality of life in our society.
First of all, students must dominate reflection holography and optimise hologram processing so
that they can apply this technique in the referred context. In this specific case students had to make
previsions and to remember and/or discuss several concepts of physics. Thus, besides dealing with
optics, they are also dealing with many other topics such as shifts, compressions, tensions, elasticity,
temperature, oscillations, standing waves and vibration modes. In what concerns optics, the
approached topics are spatial frequency, interference fringes, fringe analysis and also those already
studied in experimental holography: reflection, refraction, absorption, interference, diffraction,
vision, image formation, laser light, waves and coherence.
This program runs after class time during two months and involved 16 years old science students.
The experimental work was performed at the High Schools Holography Laboratory. The working
schedule was as follows: (1) Theoretical introduction to interferometric holography, (2) Test
performing, (3) Fringe analysis with test performing and discussion, (4) Experimental work and (5)
Final report. The objects used were metal bars, soda cans and loudspeakers.
Initially, the choice of the kind of material and object to use in each kind of analysis was discussed.
During the vibrational deformation analysis, it was necessary to choose both the appropriate
diameter of the loudspeaker and the ideal frequencies to work with.
Afterwards, it was necessary to solve some technical problems, namely to develop stable fixed
supports for some of the objects, to develop a technique to manipulate objects at high temperatures
in the holographic system, to practise the interaction with an object keeping it static in the
holographic system and to paint some objects so that they would become more light diffusing.
In the shift analysis, an exposure of the object in its initial state and another exposure of the object
subject to a shift were made. For each interferogram, only the shift caused in the object, controlled
by micrometric screws, was varied. In the compression analysis, an exposure of the object in its
initial state and another exposure of the object subject to compression were made. Compression
was made putting a calibrated weight on top of the object. For each interferogram, only the
compression caused in the object was varied. In the tension analysis, an exposure of the object in
its initial state and another exposure of the object subject to the tension of a rubber band were made.
For each interferogram, only the tension caused in the object was varied. In the thermal transference
analysis, a long exposure of the object subject to high temperature was made. For each interferogram,
only the initial temperature of the object was varied (200C and 280C). In the vibration analysis, a long
exposure of a loudspeaker subject to a signal with a certain frequency was made. For each
interferogram, only the frequency of the loudspeaker vibration, controlled by a frequency generator,
was varied. Results were then analysed comparing the fringe patterns of the respective interaction
(shifts, compressions, tensions, initial temperature and vibration frequencies).
Based on the initial tests, students were encouraged to predict which kind of pattern should be
obtained in each analysis.
143
In addition, some other groups of students were starting to work in experimental holography
following a working plan and a teaching strategy similar to those discussed in previous papers
[13,14]. These groups of students performed all their experimental work at the Physics Department
of the University of Aveiro during a Summer Course.
In order to facilitate the analysis of results, the students of the deformation analysis project made
a final report and the students who started to work on experimental holography have answered two
questionnaires, one before and another after workshops and continuous assessment of all students
performance during experimental sessions was done.
3. Experimental work
The equipment used during experimental work was the following: He-Ne laser (10 mW, 632.8 nm),
optical table, shutter, spatial filter, iris, mirror, photometer, supports, frequency generator,
loudspeaker, calibrated masses and oven.
The holographic support used during all the experimental work were Slavich holographic plates (7
m, 633 nm, 100 J/cm
2
, 3000 lines/mm) and the chemicals solutions were developer SM-6 and
bleacher PBU-Amidol.
The experimental configuration used by all students was a reflection holography set-up [17], as
shown in the following figure:
144
Table 1: Developer SM-6 chemical formulae. Table 2: PBU-Amidol bleach chemical formulae.
Ascorbic acid 18.0 g Potassium persulphate 10.0 g
Sodium hydroxide 12.0 g Citric acid 50.0 g
Phenidone 6.0 g Cupric bromide 1.0 g
Sodium phosphate dibasic 28.4 g Potassium bromide 20.0 g
Water 1000.0 ml Amidol 1.0 g
Water 1000.0 ml
Slavich plates PFG-01 were processed using Geolas process [18], i.e., developed in SM-6 and
bleached in PBU-Amidol to obtain phase holograms.
The processing scheme for Slavich plates was the following:
1- Developer: SM-6 3 min. 3- Bleach: PBU-Amidol until clear
2- Rinse: deionised water 3 min. 4- Wash: running water 15 min.
Each group of students prepared their chemical solutions and proceeded with all holographic
chemical processing. Solutions chemical formulae [18] are shown in the tables 1 and 2:
Fig. 1: Diagram of the
experimental setting for
interferometric holography.
4. Results
The experimental results obtained for the deformation analysis were 18 reflection interferograms,
of which 15 were positive and 3 were negative. The exposure times range was from 3s to 25s. The
students were able to make 15 white-light reflection interferometric holograms with high quality.
Images are clear with good visible fringes. The educational results obtained show that students have
done a correct qualitative analysis of the fringes in the interferograms. They also made a correct
relationship between patterns in objects subject to the same physical interaction, but with different
values. A valid association between the kind of pattern and the kind of physical interaction was
made and a correct understanding of the fringe pattern formation in the holographic process was
achieved.
The experimental results obtained by the groups of students who started the work on experimental
holography were 30 white-light reflection holograms, of which 24 were positive and 6 were
negative. The exposure times range was from 2s to 10s. All the positive results are master holograms
with high quality holographic images. Two of them were diffraction gratings and one was a double
exposure hologram. Educational results are shown on graphs 1 and 2. In what concerns holography
concepts, students knowledge showed an increase from 42% to 92% and in optics concepts,
students knowledge showed an increase from 45% to 78%.
145
42%
92%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
C
o
r
r
e
c
t

a
n
s
w
e
r

(
%
)
Sample
Before Experimental Holograph
After Experimental Holography
45%
78%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
C
o
r
r
e
c
t

a
n
s
w
e
r

(
%
)
Sample
Before Experimental Hologra
After Experimental holograph
Graph 1: Students progress on holo-
graphy concepts.
Graph 2: Students progress on optics
concepts.
5. Conclusions
In general, students got very enthusiastic and curious about physics. Some scientific skills and
personal attitudes have been promoted such as team work, problem solving, scientific inquiry and
self-confidence. An interdisciplinary effect has been achieved linking different areas of knowledge
like physics, chemistry and visual arts.
Relating the deformation analysis project, a relationship between different physics areas has been
achieved and the interaction between science, technology and society and its importance in our life
style has been explored. Students showed a great control on reflection holography and hologram
processing and they have learned with a successful level this holographic application:
interferometric holography. Students knowledge showed an increase on optics concepts namely
spatial frequency, interference fringes formation, fringe analysis and relationship between fringe
pattern and physical interaction. An important achievement was students scientific attitude during
experimental work. When students perform their experiences a variety of variables could influence
the result, so they kept all constants and only varied one at time in a systematic way. Data analysis
and problem solving was fundamental on their work, which has promoted their scientific inquiry.
During this project students needed to understand some general physics concepts such as shifts,
compressions, tensions, elasticity, temperature, oscillations, standing waves and vibration modes.
Relating the groups that have started working on experimental holography, a significant increase
on students optics concepts has been achieved namely reflection, refraction, absorption,
interference, diffraction, vision, image formation, laser light, waves and coherence. Students
knowledge showed a significant increase on holography concepts namely on theory of holography,
differences between holography and photography and holographic applications. Some students
have joined the Physics Club of their School and have started a project-work on holography.
In conclusion, experimental holography at high school teaching may be considered an efficient tool
for contextualized teaching of optics.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of Programa Cincia Viva from
Ministrio da Cincia e Tecnologia.
References
[1] R. Lazarowitz, P. Tamir, Research on using laboratory instruction in science, In D. L. Gabel (ed.) Handbook of
Research on Science Teaching and Learning (New York: Macmillan), (1994), 94-128.
[2] Ministrio da Educao, Departamento da Educao Bsica, Programas do Ensino Bsico e Secundrio,
Cincias Fsico-Qumicas, (1995).
[3] A. Cachapuz, I. Malaquias, I. Martins, M. F. Thomaz, N. Vasconcelos, O Trabalho Experimental nas Aulas de
Fsica e Qumica: uma Perspectiva Nacional, Gazeta da Fsica, 12, (2), (1989), 65-69.
[4] R. White, The link between the laboratory and learning, International Journal of Science Education, 18, (7),
(1996), 761-773.
[5] D. Hodson, Practical work in school science: exploring some directions for change, International Journal of
Science Education, 18, (7), (1996), 755-759.
[6] Izquierdo, Merc, Sanmart, Neus y Espinet, Mariona, Fundamentacin y diseo de las prcticas escolares de
ciencias experimentales, Enseanza de las Ciencias, 17, (1), (1999), 45-59.
[7] G. Prez, P. Valds Castro, La orientacon de las prcticas de laboratorio como investigacin: un ejemplo
ilustrativo, Enseanza de las Ciencias, 14, (2), (1996), 155-163.
[8] D. Hodson, Practical work in school science: exploring some directions for change, International Journal of
Science Education, 18, (7), (1996), 755-759.
[9] U. J. Hansen, J. A. Swez, Holography in the high school laboratory, SPIE Proc. Education in Optics, 2525, (1995),
173-181.
[10] D. Olson, Real and Virtual Images Using a Classroom Hologram, The Physics Teacher, 30, (1992), 202-208.
[11] P. John, Advanced Holography in High School, Holography 2000/Proceedings of SPIE, 4149, (2000), 296-302.
[12] P. Pombo, R. M. Simes, J. L. Pinto, Ensino Experimental de Holografia, Proc. Fsica 98: 11 Conf. Nacional de
Fsica, 8 Encontro Ibrico para o Ensino da Fsica, ed. SPF, (1998), 151.
[13] P. Pombo, R. M. Oliveira, J. L. Pinto, Experimental Holography in High School Teaching, Holography
2000/Proceedings of SPIE, 4149, (2000), 232-238.
[14] P. Pombo, J. L. Pinto, Experimental Holography as a Teaching Tool, Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000,
International Conference on Physics Education, (2000), 591-594.
[15] J. W. Zwart, J. L. Vande Voort, T. Yogi, Playground physics, Science Teacher, 61, (5), (1994), 29-31.
[16] R. L. Powell, K. A. Stetson, Interferometric vibration analysis by wavefront reconstruction, Journal of the
Optical Society of America, 55, (1965), 1593-1598.
[17] Y. Denisyuk, Photographic reconstruction of the optical properties of an object in its own scattered radiation
field, Sov. Phys. Doklady, 7, (1962), 543-545.
[18] Y. Sazonov, P. Kumonko, D. Ratcliffe, M. Grichine and G. Skokov, Holographic Materials Produced By The
Micron Plant At Slavich, Geola Internal Report, (1997), 1-9.
EXPERIMENT AND THEORISATION: AN APPLICATION OF THE HYDROSTATIC
EQUATION AND ARCHIMEDES THEOREM
Santos Luclia, Talaia Mrio, Departamento de Fsica, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
1. Introduction
Todays teaching is still under the influence of the old habit of packing knowledge in different
and non-interacting fields, and, therefore, it becomes too split in different disciplines. This basic
malfunction seems to be one of the reasons to explain the separation between formal teaching and
practical everyday issues, or between the administered teaching and the students interests and
expectations.
As suggested by Hodson (1996) the reconceptualization of experimental work must be based on
three essential points, namely, to help students to learn science, to learn about science, and to learn
146
to do science. This new perspective of facing experimental work settles a contribution to research
activity and to a better teaching/learning achievement.
Barber e Valds (1996) have shown that most of practical work (laboratory and/or field work)
performed in schools can be considered only as illustrative because it leads to experiments of the
recipe kind, and because it causes some sort of apathy or, at least, very low motivation on the
students.
In this experimental activity the students establish, by themselves, from registered observations,
concepts and scientific theories that were ministered before, in formal teaching, in different
disciplines.
In this study students understand basic concepts of physics of fluids (mass, weight, pressure and
impulsion, see, for example, Massey, B.S. (1983) that affect their everyday life, and also may deal
with the interaction of theory and experience.
2. Theory
In this work it is our interest that the experimental activity may raise some unexpected questions
on the student. Namely, it is our aim to analyse the influence of the reading process in a U
manometer, when different density liquids are used (on the manometer and on the tank).
This research activity makes use of the Fundamental Law of Hydrostatics and of the Archimedes
Theorem.
The Fundamental Law of Hydrostatics, or Stevins Law, states that the pressure difference between
any two considered points inside a liquid in static equilibrium, under the influence of gravity, is
numerically equal to the weight of a column of the liquid, that has a unit area in the base and is as
high as the vertical distance between the two considered points.
Generally speaking, the pressure p on a certain point in the liquid is given by
where p
0
is the pressure exerted by the atmospheric air on the free surface of the liquid,
l
the liquid
density, g the gravity acceleration and h the depth of the point inside the liquid.
Expression (1) indicates that the pressure inside a liquid increases with increasing depth and is the
same in every point located at the same level inside the liquid.
Archimedes Principle, states that every body that is dived into a liquid in equilibrium receives, from
the liquid, a vertical upwards impulsion that is numerically equal to the weight of a volume of liquid
equal to the volume of the immersed body.
The mathematical relation that translates Archimedes Principle, for floating bodies, is given by the
expression
Here P represents the weight of the body and Sh the volume of the immersed part, S being the
straight section of the container, and h the level difference between the two surfaces, read on the
tank that contains the liquid.
On the other hand
147
gh p p
l
p + =
0
(1)
gSh P
l
p = (2)
Mg P = (3)
where, in our case, M is calculated from
_
+ =
i
i
M M M
'
0
(4)
In expression (4),
_
i
i
M
'
represents the summing up of the loads placed on the upper top of the
recipient with mass
0
M (see figure 1).
Through mathematical treatment it is possible to write
From expression (2) the pressure of the air in the recipient can be evaluated. The same value should
be measured by the differential U manometer. Again through mathematical manipulations eq.(5)
can be rewritten as
148
M
S
h
l
p
1
= (5)
'
'
h h
l
l
p
p
= (6)
where
'
l
p is the manometric liquid density and
'
h the level difference registered by the differential
U manometer.
3. Experimental set-up
In Figure 1 the experimental set-up is schematically represented. It is composed of three main
components: a water manometer (a tube of 10mm internal diameter), a recipient (10cm size and
50cm height) and a tank (22cm size and 70cm height). On the top of the recipient there is a tube
system that allows the student to use an automatic data acquisition system (ADAS) and/or a water
manometer.
On building this experimental set-up care was taken on using low cost, market accessible materials,
so that it could be an affordable device.
As can be seen on Figure 1, connection C allows simultaneous data registration by means of an
ADAS chart and a water manometer, when valves A and B are open. The researcher can choose
one of the two alternatives. Exemplifying, he can use only the ADAS chart, when valve A is open
and B is closed or only the water manometer, when valve A is closed and B is open. Financial
availability may be the criteria to decide the alternative to be used.
4. Results and discussion
In the experience different density liquids were used on the tank.
Figure 2 shows the influence that can be observed on the difference of level of the liquid, h, when the
tank contains oil (
l
= 923 kgm
-3
), ordinary water (
l
= 1000 kgm
-3
) or salty water (
l
= 1146 kgm
-3
).
The graph on Figure 2 shows that, for every liquid,
there is a good agreement between the experimental
recorded data, and the adjust straight line. It is also
observed that, for a given value of h, impulsion
increases on liquid with the higher density, as expected.
The adjustment straight lines for the experimental
data are also indicated in the Figure 2 and they are
given for
Oil: h = 0.1093M (7)
Water: h = 0.1002M (8)
Salted water: h = 0.0865M (9)
Being Mexpressed in (kg) and h in (m).
On the graphs of Figures 3 to 5 we present the
experimental data of the level difference, read on
the water manometer for every liquid on the tank,
equation (5), experimental data read for the level
Figure 1: Outline of the experimental device
difference of the liquid on the tank, and the
expected values for the level difference if the
manometric liquid was the same as the liquid
on the tank.
One must emphasise the relative positioning of
the experimental data read on the water
manometer to the theoretical straight line. This
observation indicates the influence of the
density of the liquid on the tank on the values
read on the water manometer.
Also on the figures, as expected, the
experimental data read on the tank present an
excellent agreement both with equation (5),
and when the use of a manometer with the
same liquid as the tank is proposed.
5. Conclusion
The experimental set-up allows a
comprehension of basic notions such as mass,
weight, pressure and impulsion.
The study shows that there is a difference
between the readings on the level difference of
the liquid on the tank and the level difference
for the water in the manometer when the
liquid in the tank is different from the one on
the water manometer. This fact contributes to
a better interpretation of the data, due to the
density difference of the liquids.
The analysis of the results shows the good
agreement between the observed data and the
expected ones. We think that, trough the use of
this experimental device, in a practical science
class, an opportunity is given to the teacher to
include, in is practice, activities that give his
students hypothesis of explicitly speak about
their own concepts. In this way, conditions will
be created so that students deal with
alternative conceptions they may have and
change them. In this sense teaching will have
to be adaptable, and this implies that
individual differences on the evolution of
learning are taken into consideration and that
a standard way of teaching is avoided.
References
Barber O. and Valds P., El Trabajo Prtico en la
Ensenanza de las Ciencias: una revision, Ensenanza
de las Ciencias, 14, (3), (1996), 365-375.
Hodson D., Practical work in school science: exploring
some directions for change, International Journal of
Science Education, Vol 18, (7), (1996), 755-759.
Massey B.S., Mechanics of Fluids (5 th. Edition), Van
Nostrand Reinhold (U K) Co. Ltd., Molly Millars
Lane, Wokingham, Berkshire, England, (1983).
149
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
M (kg)
h

(
m
)
Experimental data: oil
Experimental data: water
Experimental data: salted water
Equation (7): oil
Equation (8): water
Equation (9): salted water
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
M (kg)
h

(
m
)
Experimental data: difference in water manometer
Equation (5): oil
Experimental data: difference liquid (oil) in the tank
Predicted data: difference in oil manometer
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
M (kg)
h

(
m
)
Equation (5): water
Experimental data: difference liquid (water) in the tank
Figure 2: Experimental data. Theoretical equations
for every liquid on the tank
Figure 3: Experimental data. Liquid on the tank: oil
Figure 5: Experimental data. Liquid on tank: salty
water
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
M (kg)
h

(
m
)
Equation (5): salted water
Experimental data: difference liquid (salted water) in the tank
Predicted data: difference in salted water
Figure 4: Experimental data. Liquid on tank:
ordinary water
150
Background Aspects
PROBLEMS IN THE PHYSICS OLYMPIADS
Giuliana Cavaggioni, A.I.F. Committee responsible for the Physics Olympiads in Italy
1. Some guidelines in organising the participation in the IphOs in Italy
Italy has participated in the Physics Olympiads since 80s, sixteen years ago. Initially the members
of the competing teams were selected with a national exam among the students indicated by their
schools as excellent in physics. They were excellent indeed, as far as their extensive knowledge in
all areas of school physics was concerned. Nevertheless the results of the first Italian teams were
very disappointing. Knowledge alone appeared to be not enough to find the solutions to
challenging problems. Therefore the A.I.F. Group, entrusted by the Ministry of Education with this
task, decided to establish new guidelines for a selection process which was intended to help
students to measure their progress in applying their knowledge to problem solving.
A selection procedure started therefore which consists of four phases, held during one school year,
the first phase taking place in December and the last one early in June. The students are supposed
to practice problem solving mainly as personal work. As a matter of fact problem solving skills are
scarcely taken into account in the regular physics courses in the schools. The participation in the
Physics Olympiads however was an opportunity for many schools to offer the most interested
students a special programme oriented to physics problems. In this task schools often receive help
from the Physics Departments of the local Universities.
In this way some improvements were made. But it was also clear that the process of learning about
problem solving needs time: for instance the contestants who had already taken part in the first
phases of the Olympiads in the previous years were more likely than others to succeed later in
reaching the third or the fourth phase of the competition.
With an overall participation of 500 schools and 30.000 students the level of excellence in the first
phase of the Italian Physics Olympiads is the same as that of good students one could find in any
class. Of all the contestants about 2000 are usually passed to phase 2 and then 90 to the third phase.
Finally, the winners, ten in number, participate in the last competition in which the Italian team for
the IPhOs is selected.
Other initiatives were developed to help the students both in theoretical and in experimental
problem solving. In the period between the third and the fourth phase the top 15 students attend
a one week seminar on problem solving in physics organised with the collaboration of the
International School for Advanced Studies and the Physics Department of the Trieste University.
In this contest the students work as a co-operative group and it is possible to make some
observations on how these students tackle problem solving. We noticed for instance that they often
put much more confidence and care into sophisticated mathematical calculation than into the
understanding of the physics in the text of the problem. The programmes of the Italian Physics
Olympiads Summer School are also performed on the basis of co-operative groups. This is a five
day initiative of full immersion in physics problems and hands on activities. Finally a discussion
group on physics problems started this year on internet between the contestants of the third phase
of the Italian Physics Olympiads. This group is led by the Italian Physics Olympiads organisers and
some participants in the previous Italian IphOs teams are acting as tutors in what is intended as an
almost peer to peer way.
2. Problems in the Physics Olympiads
The problems that the contestants meet in the Physics Olympiads are unusual for many
participants. Instead of the exercises normally presented in the school textbooks these problems
are not directly related to the formulas just treated and often they can have different answers,
3.2 Problem Solving
some of them not needing elaborate calculations. Students use a heuristic approach to find the most
convenient and elegant solution.
While the first contest in Italian Physics Olympiads is based on a multiple choice paper the others require
the solution of problems.The problems given in these phases have a different level of complexity but they
are in any case designed so that the planning of some strategy is required to solve them.
It is not easy to measure the difficulty of the competition tasks: the most common approaches in the
Physics Olympiads are based on the scores of the participants and so a coefficient of difficulty can
be defined only after the competition. An objective approach was introduced in early International
Physics Olympiads defining a so called requirement level: to define this numerical coefficient,
parameters such as the number of areas of physics in the problem, the formulas needed to solve it
and the kind of mathematical calculations involved are all taken into account. However this
requirement level was connected to a particular solution of the problem and it doesnt fit problems
which can be solved in different ways. Moreover defining the requirement level other important
aspects are neglected, regarding the text of the problem, the way in which the data are given or the
presence of explicit assumptions and boundary conditions.
In closing this review let me add that preparing good problems is indeed one of the most
challenging tasks in the Physics Olympiads: problems have not only to fit the needs of the
competition well but they must also be interesting enough for the contestants to feel it worthwhile
and be motivated to solve them. At the addresses written below problems given in the national and
in the international contests can be found.
References
http://www.jyu.fi/tdk/kastdk/olympiads (Official IPhOs Internet Address)
http://members.nbci.com/links2ipho/regional.html (links to national and regional Ph. Ol. Contests)
http://www.cadnet.marche.it/olifis (Italian Physics Olympiads Official Internet site)
PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITIES IN TRAINING THE ITALIAN CONTESTANTS
OF THE PHYSICS OLYMPIADS IN A SUMMER SCHOOL
Dennis Luigi Censi, Italian Physics Olympiads National Group of the Associazione per
lInsegnamento della Fisica
1. The italian physics olympiads
The Italian Physics Olympiads have been organised since 1987 by a group of members of the
Association for Physics Teaching on behalf of the Ministry of Education. They include various
enterprises ranging from the competitions organised in four consecutive stages for selecting the
students forming the Italian Team at the International Physics Olympiads, to the theoretic and
experimental competitions reserved to students being at a beginner level in the study of physics, to
local and national enterprises aiming at deepening the learning of physics by the students of the
High School. Many students and teachers take part in these activities, as the Italian Physics
Olympiads are rooted in a network of schools; in each school there is a teacher who is the
responsible for the co-ordination of the activities related to the Olympiads organised in that school.
In developing the activities of the Olympiads, one of the most urging needs is to offer to the young
people taking part in the competitions learning supports aiming at deepening the knowledge of the
subject acquired at school. The enrolment in the Physics Olympiads is let to students individual
free choice, and gathers the applications of those who, even if at different levels, are bent for their
own choice to the study of physical sciences for which they have a particular interest and curiosity.
2. The physics summer school
The physics summer school is for high school students who have been admitted into the second
phase of the competitions for selecting the team for the Olympiads.
151
Acknowledging the educational importance of not wasting the potential abilities often displayed
by the interest that the students show in a subject, the summer school is organized with a playful
character whose aim is to motivate understanding with particular attention to the development of
creativity through activities of planning and of problem solving.
Since 1998 the summer school has been held at the end of august, for one week, in Sassoferrato, a
little town lying among the hills of central Italy. Teachers and learners are lodged in a boarding-
house and students are involved in the management of the house. The teaching activities take place
in the classrooms of the local scientific lyceum.
3. The participants in the physics summer school
Among the students who in past years took part in the Italian Physics Competitions, the needs to
find a reference point and a support for the individual activities in deepening the study of physics
they perform outside their school courses, were often noticed. Moreover, when competitions have
a residential character, as it occurs in the third level competition, the Physics National Competition,
students have always shown to appreciate much the possibilities of communication and to perform
activities jointly with their colleagues having the same interests. For this reason, in forming the
group of participants in the Summer School, a criterion assuring a good level of likeness in abilities
and interests has been followed.
Therefore the students who have been admitted into the second level of the competitions for
selecting the team for the Olympiads and have not yet finished the High School, are allowed to
apply for attending the Physics Summer School. About 20 participants are selected among those
who have particularly distinguished themselves in the physics competitions. The participants are
aged between 16 and 18, and are attending the third and fourth year of high school. The geographic
provenience and the school level of the applicants reflect the distribution got in the participation
in the Italian Physics Olympiads and there are students from all the parts of Italy.
According the results of a questionnaire given at the end of the Summer School the interests of the
participants lie mainly in the scientific and mathematical field, but other cultural and learning fields
are not excluded, even if in these the interests, as it is to be expected, are very different.
At the end of the activities all the students are given certificates of attending the School.
4. Working contents
The physical fields dealt with during the Summer School are those provided normally for in the
school programmes and the whole attention is centred on the deepening and the working methods
aiming at the active involvement of the students.
An important in our opinion aspect of the Summer School which we want to point up duly is
the criterion according with which the contents have been selected and the working way has been
organised in every section.
In the summer school, more emphasis is placed on the students activities rather than the teachers
instructions. The students develop a given theme, problem solution or laboratory pratical activity,
working by themselves or in groups depending on the particular circumstances and their
preferences. At least two teachers are always present to suggest and, if necessary, to co-ordinate the
work. When it is needed, the teacher intervenes in order to give information or explanations.
Formal activities are developed in 11 sections, which last three hours each, alternating between
theoretical and experimental activities, among them:
technological activities are developed, on site, jointly with firms
other activities are hands-on, performed outdoors
Each section provides for moments in which the students can explain to the others the results of
their own work and the observations they made during the activity. In the activity of problem
solution the teachers task has been to briefly introduce the theoretical references, to propose a
series of problems taken from the Italian and international competitions of the Physics Olympiads,
152
3. Topical Aspects 3.2 Problem Solving
and to co-ordinate the activity, favouring, when it was the case, the interactions among the students.
Experimental activities are based on semi-structured proposals, both to draw up hypotheses and to
choose experimental equipment. They can be realised with inexpensive or sophisticated materials.
It has been noticed that for the activities on the ground in the technological field a longer
introduction was needed aiming at pointing the more relevant characteristics of the systems and of
the installations. Usually, in fact, the students ignore almost completely technological devices and
solutions. Anyway, in this case too, the activities in which the students can see and understand the
technology in action with the support of technicians is pointed up.
As for the hands on activities, the students have free choice in formulating problems and practically
solving them with the materials available on location. Here are some of the problems proposed: If
we put an egg on the top of a water rocket, what happens to the egg when the rocket starts falling
down? Which maximum height does the rocket arrive at and which maximum height does the egg
arrive at? If we want to recuperate the egg unbroken, how can we make and mount an effective
parachute?
5. The participants opinions
At the end of every edition of the summer school the participants declare their anonymous
opinions about some aspects of the summer school. The answers could vary on five levels, from an
upmost usefulness perceived equal to 5 to a judgement of essential uselessness equal to 1.
From the analysis of the participants opinions appear that they take part at the summer school:
to practise physics outside of school
to prepare themselves for the physics olympiad
The participants average opinions about the summer school activities are (5=max; 1=min):
problem solving = 5
experimental activity = 5
technological activity = 4/5
astronomical observation = 4/5
outdoor physics = 4
lessons = 4
and about school organization (5=max; 1=min):
collaboration among students = 5
materials to study and work = 4/5
teachers assistance = 4/5
meal = 4
transportation = 4
lodgings = 2/3
In their opinions, the participants declared some positive aspects about the school. The more
significant among them is:
Its important that there is always a close relationship between teacher and student to work in a
different method from the detached and less stimulating way used at the school
And in the participants opinion the points to change or add are
more theoretical comments and/or depth
consider some improvements on the schools logistics
6. Conclusions
The Summer School of the Italian Physics Olympiads, come to its fourth edition in 2001, is the first
summer school in the physical field which has organised in Italy for students of the secondary
school. Nevertheless activities like these are little customary during the summer holidays the
School has met the interest of the participants and comes out as a consistent means with the aims
of the Italian Physics Olympiads, to spread the interest in the study of physics, to accustom to the
study through problem solving, to favour the exchange of experiences between students on themes
153
of common interest and to offer to young people opportunities of deepening the subject
knowledge acquired in school courses. In the plans of the organising committee of the Italian
Physics Olympiads there is the intention to continue to develop this will. The experience
achieved in the four years activity of the Summer School suggests to redefine the space devoted
to technology, to lengthen the time available for the experimental activity, and to reduce to the
least the formal intervention by the teacher during the activity of solution of theoretical
problems.
More information about the physics summer school of the Italian Olympiads is on:
http://www.cadnet.marche.it/olifis.
HOW TO START A PROBLEM
Francesco Minosso, Board of Olympiads, AIF
1. Teaching with problems
Some students make many mistakes when I ask them to solve a problem. If the problem is more
difficult than usual, also clever pupils make mistakes they usually dont.
In order to help them I try some techniques used with less skilled students in the very first approach
to a problem: reading and comprehension of the text. Im showing you first the schedule of the full
activity. Second, as an example of the text reading and comprehension, Ill show you a problem I
used during the training of the Italian team for the International Physics Olympiads of last year.
The problem was given in 1989 in Warsaw at the International Physics Olympiads. It speaks about
two unmisceable boiling liquids.
2. The schedule of the activity
STEP ONE: approaching the problem
Individual work: students have to read and decompose the text into sequences.
Working group and discussion: teacher asks questions, presses answers, opinions, incomplete
explanations and interpretations.
At the end of the Step One, students can define:
- the physical system
- interactions
- transformations and quantities useful to describe transformations
The teacher makes a synthesis on the blackboard
STEP TWO: sketching and modelling
Modelling may be the definition of a mathematical model or the sketch of a diagram, or a
transformation table (initial conditions, parameters variation, final conditions)
Defining the subject, for example the principles someone thinks to use getting the goal
The teacher makes a synthesis on the blackboard drawing and writing down propositions and
equations
This is the most important step to solve the problem. Discussions often start at this point. The
teacher works hard, asking questions and finding answers together with the students.
STEP THREE: its almost always a problem of calculations
Setting up calculations
Solving calculations
Finding numerical results controlling their consistency as to the data and the problem
(compulsory)
It looks like a simple technical fact, but success is not sure! Its an individual work, but the teacher
is ready to help if necessary.
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STEP FOUR: reassembling and documenting
Its an individual work. Students dislike this because they have already got the solution. They think
its not important: and it isnt, for the present problem. While they reassemble and document the
solution of the problem, they ask many questions and really learn problem solving for the next
time.
3. Text decomposition into macro and micro-sequences (Fig. 1 and 2)
Now Ill show you the example of what I did for the training of the Italian Team at the Physics
Olympiads.
Fig.1 and 2 show the text of a problem about two no misceable boiling liquids issued at the IPhO
in Warsaw in 1989. Its a very interesting problem about an unusual situation for the Italian pupils.
Square and curly brackets show the text decomposition into principal macro-sequences. They are
often the same as paragraphs. Slashes divide the text into micro-sequences.
As you can see, the decomposition is not univocal and has to be discussed with students. This
decomposition was made with their help and doing so they could answer STEP ONE.
4. Specific words (Fig. 3 and 4)
In the next two figures you can see the specific terms of the Physics. Looking at these, students can
realise what they know about the physics of the problem and what they are asked to learn to solve
the problem. Also they can remember where and when they studied these subjects and answer
STEP TWO.
5. Connective elements (Fig. 5 and 6)
Connective elements are words as like, and, if, that, beginning with, you can see that,
than, then, and so on that introduce assumptions or explanations. They mark the crucial points
of the text and if there are many, surely there is a difficult passage in a problem, as you can see in
this example. Looking at these words helps in modelling, stating equations and planning
calculation: STEP TWO and THREE.
6. Synthesis (Fig. 7 and 8)
The synthesis, on the side of the text, aims at reassembling the sense of the problem guiding the
schedule of the solution: STEP THREE and FOUR. Just not to get lost in the pure linguistic analysis
of the text, and just to remember that reading the problem is not to solve it, but only to approach it.
7. Conclusion
Sometimes the solution strategy of a problem coincides with the very same solution, as it happens
about the problems at the end of chapters of a school-book: these problems have not been
discussed in this account.
We have seen that students, used to work at the problems of the end of chapters, after a careless
reading of the text, proceed to write and solve the equations directly. This method is rather effective
in case of simple problems and sometimes works in the solution of more complex problems too, but
the degree of reliability of this system seems to be correlated with the degree of the mastery
achieved by students.
It seems that the development of the problem solving skills is not linear but it proceeds
discontinuously. The analysis of the mistakes made by the cleverest students, in a complex situation,
is a confirmation of that. During the training, a separation of the problem solution, into phases, is
effective to improve an approach to physical difficult problems.
The strategy of training can be applied in all those teaching situations critical in passing from a
level of mastery to a higher one and, so, more than a particular kind of problem, the strategy is
connected with the learning situation peculiar to students.
This way teaching problems teaching is interesting since students do not learn only in imitation, but
they are guided to reflect on the resolutive processes they put into effect becoming, in the end,
more skilful. The observation of their behaviour during these activities confirms what we said
155
156
Fig. 1
157
above. The interactions assumed by students in three times of their work are significant for
understanding the kind of learning developed by this work and making clear in which moments the
processes of formalization take place.
Applying the strategy of training above-mentioned, it has been observed that students, after a
starting indifference suggested by their habits of work, begin to ask some questions.
At first, during the reading of the text, their questions are directed to the comprehension of the
meaning of sentences and words about their content, but, afterwards, we can observe students begin
to speak more about the physical content of a problem, to consult their manuals and to refer to
teachers as to a consultant.
A second time, that in the traditional practice seems automatic and, on the contrary, is crucial, is
the one in which the solution strategy is determined and one proceeds to the writing of equations.
It is a more delicate and abstract phase of formalization. It has been observed that in this phase,
too, students put questions more accurate and technical than before. Often it happens that other
students assume interaction with their teachers who always maintain the role of consultant. We see
some students, at this point, look up in their manuals or note-books to search partial solutions to
similar problems in order to reutilize them in the new context.
The third time in which one can observe further changes, as regards the learning in imitation, is the
phase of documentation of the solution. Students ask questions of a different kind as to the
previous ones. Mostly they are questions intended to value the substantial character of reasonings,
the coherence of results with analysis, principles and phenomenology. In this case, too, students do
not necessarily assume the interaction and it is in this phase that, in substance, strategies of problem
solving are set and students become more and more skilful.
By appropriate times of discussion and synthesis, teachers who manage this work transform the
interaction with their students into an effective work of cooperative learning.
Fig. 2
Specific words (Fig. 3 and 4)
In the next two figures you can see the specific terms of the Physics. Looking at these, students can realise
what they know about the physics of the problem and what they are asked to learn to solve the problem.
Also they can remember where and when they studied these subjects and answer STEP TWO.
158
Fig. 3
159
Fig. 4
Connective elements (Fig. 5 and 6)
Connective elements are words as like, and, if, that, beginning with, you can see that,
than, then, and so on that introduce assumptions or explanations. They mark the crucial points
of the text and if there are many, surely there is a difficult passage in a problem, as you can see in
this example. Looking at these words helps in modelling, stating equations and planning
calculation: STEP TWO and THREE.
160
Fig. 5
161
Fig. 6
Synthesis (Fig N.7 and 8)
The synthesis, on the side of the text, aims at reassembling the sense of the problem guiding the
schedule of the solution: STEP THREE and FOUR. Just not to get lost in the pure linguistic
analysis of the text, and just to remember that reading the problem is not to solve it, but only to
approach it.
162
Fig. 7
163
Fig. 8
DOES PHYSICS FORMAL KNOWLEDGE REALLY HELP STUDENTS IN DEALING
WITH REAL-WORLD PHYSICS PROBLEMS?
Nella Grimellini Tomasini, Olivia Levrini, Physics Department, University of Bologna, Italy
1. The research framework
For some years now, several studies have been carried out on problem solving and, in particular,
some of them aimed at examining ways of overcoming the mechanical behaviour that still seems
to be the dominating attitude in tackling problems. In their attempts to explain why so many
students fail in their problem solving, Gil and his collaborators underline the importance of looking
specifically into the assumptions implicit in traditional problem solving activities (Gil et al., 1988).
These authors feel that, in order to improve problem solving skills, the whole methodology of the
superficiality must be called into question as main responsible for so many failures. This
methodology leaves no space for questioning, or for thinking about alternative solutions to fast,
safe, peer-popular answers, and includes a hasty analysis of different situations undertaken without
seeking overall coherence. It is consistent with coming to conclusions based on just qualitative
observation without control (Gil & Carrascosa, 1985). The researchers shift the focus of their
attention from traditional Physics exercises to open-ended problems, those situations that present
problems with no ready-made solutions. Dealing with these situations means inventing hypotheses
and working out strategies for interpreting them. The open-ended problems referred to in these
works are problems that can be adapted from traditional texts by removing the simplifying
information and conditions that exercises normally contain. It is then up to the solver to redefine
the problem critically so as to be able to solve it formally.
The Spanish researchers maintain that such problems can be helpful in bringing about significant
conceptual and methodological change regarding the learning of Physics as seen from the
constructivist point of view (Gil & Carrascosa, 1985).
In the present study sterilised real-world qualitative problems will be considered. Unlike the open-
ended problems, these ones do not require solvers to invent strategies, but unlike the usual
exercises they do not allow a mechanical recognition of the right formula on the basis of the given
quantitative data. In a sense, an intermediate category of problems will be taken into account
coherently with the following specific aims of the study:
Investigating what sort of correspondence Physics students recognise between a simple real
phenomenon and the algebraic formalism and what meaning is attached to such a
correspondence;
Investigating the implicit or explicit criteria that lead students to choose one specific strategy for
dealing with an actual phenomenon and, in case, the origin of the difficulties found by them;
Assessing the potentialities of sterilised real-world problems as teaching tools for introductory
activities aimed both at encouraging students to reflect on the role played by Maths content
knowledge in the choice of a problem solving strategy in Physics and at making students more
and more familiar with the process of formalisation peculiar of Physics knowledge construction.
2. The study
The population considered in the study is composed by 20 voluntaries students attending the
second year of the Physics graduation program of The University of Bologna (A.Y. 1995-96).
The data source are individual semi-structured interviews anchored to a sterilised real-world
problem conceived by Lawson & McDermott for an experiment aimed at assessing student
understanding of the so called work-energy and impulse-momentum theorems by students
performance on tasks requiring the application of those relationships to the analysis of an actual
motion (Lawson & McDermott, 1987). The students are asked to compare the changes in
momentum and in kinetic energy of two frictionless dry-ice pucks with different masses (the ratio
was 1:10) as they move rectilinearly under the influence of the same constant force for the same
distance. No information about the masses is given to he students: they can only see different
164
dimensions and different colours (the smaller puck is made of aluminum and the bigger of brass).
According to our aims, the interview protocol has been designed so as to give the problem the role
of starting point for developing a more general discussion with each student about the role and the
meaning of the formalisation processes in Physics. The protocol is composed by three different
parts:
in the first part, very similar to the first part of the American protocol, a researcher asks each
student to look at the motions of the two pucks (implemented by another researcher) and to
compare both their momentum and their kinetic energy. This part aimed at collecting data about
answers and arguments provided by the students before any interviewer intervention.
the second part aims at encouraging students to make their reasoning strategies explicit. Typical
questions of this part of the interview are: How did you arrive at your answer? What did you
observe? What quantities did you considered relevant? In what relationship did you put them?
the third part aims both at encouraging students to reflect about the role and the meaning of the
processes of mathematical formalisation in Physics and at collecting some information about
their image of Physics and Maths. Meaningful questions of this part are: what is for you a
mathematical formula? In the following three formulas does the sign equal have the same
meaning or not: T=mv
2
/2; F=ma; mgh=mv
2
/2? In your opinion, what role is played by
mathematics and observation in Physics knowledge construction?
The collected data (audio-recording and transcripts of the interviews) have been analysed at
different levels, aiming respectively at:
pointing out the answers and the arguments provided by the students in the first part of the
interview and comparing them with the American results (descriptive analysis);
understanding the peculiarities of the reasoning strategies laying behind the answers and the
arguments provided by students in terms of the role played by observation, the role played by
formulas, the meaning attached to momentum and kinetic energy. This analysis has been carried
out keeping into account mainly the first two parts of the interview (first level of the interpretative
analysis);
understanding what correlations can be found between the reasoning strategies used by the
students and the image of Physics and of Maths held by them. This last step of the analysis has
been carried out looking for interrelations between the third part of the interview and the first
two parts (second level of the interpretative analysis).
3. Results
Descriptive analysis
Figure 1 and 2 sum up the results obtained through the descriptive analysis, i.e. the answers and the
arguments provided by students before interviewers intervention (first part of the interview). It is
worth noticing that, unlike the American students, not all the Italian students arrived at the right
answers by applying directly the two theorems: P
b
>P
a
inasmuch as the brass puck received a larger
impulse than the aluminium puck, being the force applied longer and T
a
=T
b
, inasmuch as the
same work has been done over the two pucks, acting the same force along the same distance. For
some of them the actual situation did not remind them of the two theorems, nevertheless on the
basis of a appropriate reflection on the structure of mechanics they were able to correctly develop
the second law.
Other results confirm what the American researcher consider the most relevant evidence: several
students look at momentum and kinetic energy as mere combinations of mass and velocity.
Coherently, they answer on the basis of a compensation argument of this kind: The two
momenta are the same because the heavier puck runs more slowly or Since the heavier puck runs
more slowly and speed counts more, T
a
is larger that T
o
.
165
Very close to this argument is what we call Lack of quantitative data: I saw the heavier puck
running more slowly; so I could say, as far as momentum is concerned, that they are equal. But I
cannot conclude unless I measure. Analogously, since speed counts more than mass within kinetic
energy formula, I could say that T
a
is larger that T
o
but, again, I cannot conclude without data.
Another relevant category concerns the argument same force applied: The momenta (or kinetic
energies) are equal because the pucks received the same push, being the applied force the same.
The category Confused Discussion/Other collects arguments such as: Since I know that
momentum is conserved in isolated systems, I can say that I do not know or Since work is equal
to the change of kinetic energy, I should look at which puck does a larger work, maybe which one
heats more the table.
166
Momentum task
P
b
>P
a
Larger
impulse
received
P
b
>P
a
Other correct
strategies
P
a
=P
b
Same force
applied
P
a
=P
b
Compensation
argument
?
Lack of
quantitative
data
P
a
>P
b
P
a
<P
b
No friction
V
a
>V
b
m
a
<m
b
?
Confused
discussion
/ Other
S1 X
S2 X
S3 X
S4 X (F=ma)
S5 X
S6 X
S7 X
S8 X
S9 X
S10 X
S11 X (T
a
=T
b
)
S12 X
S13 X
S14 X
S15
S16 X (T
a
=T
b
) X
S17 X X
S18 X X
S19 X X
S20 X X
7 3 4 3 1 1 1
10 4 7 3
Kinetic energy task
T
a
=T
b
Same
work
done
T
a
=T
b
Other
correct
strategies
T
a
=T
b
Same
force
applied
T
a
=T
b
T
a
>T
b
Compensation
argument
?
Lack of
quantitative
data
T
a
>T
b
T
a
<T
b
No friction
V
a
>V
b
m
a
<m
b
T
a
<T
b
Energy
received
longer
?
Confused
discussion
/ Other
S1 X
S2 X
S3 X
S4 X
S5 X
S6 X
S7 X
S8 X
S9 X
S10 X
S11 X
S12 X
S13 X
S14 X
S15
S16 X
S17 X
S18 X X
S19 X
S20 X X
6 1 1 3 2 1 1
7 2 4 4 4
8
Figure 1: Results of the descriptive analysis concerning the momentum task
Figure 2: Results of the descriptive analysis concerning the kinetic energy task
The argument called No friction has been taken apart from Confused discussion in order to
stress some students difficulties in dealing with an actual sterilised motion. The lack of friction,
indeed, led them to answers totally counter-perceptive: Because of the lack of friction the two
speeds are the same (!) and T
a
<T
o
because m
a
>m
o,.
or Because of the lack of friction the mass is
not relevant, so P
a
>P
o
and T
a
>T
o
because v
a
>v
o,
. The collected data are not enough for pointing
out the roots of these arguments but they reveal a certain confusion among lack of friction, lack of
air and, maybe, lack of gravity (Torosantucci & Vicentini, 1991).
First level of the interpretative analysis
What is there behind each answer? What is the role played by observation and formal thinking
within each reasoning strategy?
Behind the correct answers a strongly structured formal knowledge can be observed: Maths is
seen first of all a way of organising Physics concepts and of managing the relationships among
them. The mathematical structure of mechanics organised in definitions, axioms, theorems and
corollaries allows these students to use formal thinking as guide for inquiring real-word. Their
formal attitude toward Physics and Physics learning leads also them to see observation as theory-
laden: learning Physics means also to re-educate observation in the light of content knowledge:
I. Looking at the motion, what did you observed?
S9: The time [] for having an idea about their mass. [] force and mass,[..] and of course the
covered space. [..] and as a consequence the acceleration of each body.
I: What about velocity?
S9: No, velocity is secondary with respect to the others []
I. Why?
S9: [because I have] studied classical Physics. A non-Physics student maybe would have looked at
velocity and volume, like Aristotle [] but in Newtons law there is acceleration
Behind the argument same force applied a phenomenological attitude toward Physics can be
recognised: these students are moved by the need of giving a physical form (i.e. linked to the idea
of force) to the intuitive idea of push. In this case, observation is not guided by content
knowledge but focused on the cause of the motion and formulas are used as tools for giving a
structure to an intuitive and qualitative reasoning. For these students the interview represented
a chance for improving their understanding because the discussion allowed them to reflect on the
connection between a vague idea of push and the physical concepts of momentum and kinetic
energy. They showed to master the necessary content knowledge for solving the problem but to
find it difficult to fit it in with their own cognitive demands.
Behind the strategies based on a compensation argument or on the refusal of answering
because of the lack of quantitative data there is no structured content knowledge. Kinetic
energy and momentum are seen as quantities defined in terms of mass and velocity and the
formula is mainly a tool for quantifying. They had never thought of what observing means: for
them observing is strictly linked to the idea of measurement and/or to the collection of
quantitative data.
More and more weakly structured is the content knowledge behind the other reasoning strategies.
The lack of an individual elaboration of Physics leads students to enter blind alleys and fall down
into traps created by the evocative role played by some key-words or slogans learnt by heart.
Second level of the interpretative analysis
The first level of analysis has already allowed us to recognise that different reasoning strategies can
be connected with different images of Physics and Maths.
In particular a comparison between the formal cognitive style behind the correct strategies and
the phenomenological one behind the same force applied strategy enables us to identify two
different ways of looking at Physics: on one hand, Physics is seen as a formal system of concepts
and relations among concepts elaborated by humans in coherence with a rationalistic way of
167
looking at natural world, on the other hand, as a process of knowledge construction characterised
by a continuous dialogue between humans and nature aimed at formalising a intuitive, qualitative
approach to natural phenomena.
The critical attitude showed by these two groups of students toward Physics cannot be found
among the students whose answers have been situated within the categories compensation
argument and lack of quantitative data.
The latter, indeed, showed to hold a naive image of Physics seen as a collection of mathematical
formulas according to which:
theory and experiment are naively related: experiments serve for measuring, theory for
organising quantitative data;
quantitative data are predominant over the qualitative reasoning;
formula is only a tool for quantifying:
For me a formula is a manner of putting together some quantities, that must be not only well
identifiable, but also quantifiable, because it is in such a way that a formula is successful. (S10)
4. Concluding remarks
The wide-spread use of close-ended quantitative exercises can be somehow justified within some
epistemological positions based on a strong overlapping between Physics and Maths and it cannot
be denied that such a practice can lead some brilliant students to outstanding performances.
Nevertheless, the study shows that the effectiveness of formal teaching of Physics is not
independent from the actualisation of extremely particular conditions:
the formal teaching approach being resonant with a formal attitude of students toward Physics
and Physics learning; an attitude that leads them naturally to recognise Maths also as logical
structure and as rational net of relationships among concepts;
students being able to recognise by themselves the implicit processes of formalisation, gaining
awareness of the cognitive and epistemological meaning of observing, schematising and
mathematically modelling.
The study, carried out with 20 good Physics students, shows how rarely are these conditions
satisfied. When they are not, the traditional exclusive use of exercises may lead to undesired
educational results such as:
encouraging students to look at Physics as an established collection of unquestionable formulas
that in fact prevent them from transforming content knowledge into a cognitive tool for
interpreting real-world phenomena;
hindering the development of an individual approach to Physics learning and of an individual
way of looking at Physics.
The study suggests the necessity of taking into account different problem solving typologies since
the first years of schooling. Real-world sterilised problems and real-world open-ended problems
(Levrini, 1996) can contribute to the creation of a learning environment characterised by a
multiple-approach to Physics which can:
encourage each student to find his/her own path for cultural, cognitive, emotional growth;
emphasise a strict overlapping among problem solving, epistemological reflections and lab-work,
i.e. a strict connection between the development of intellectual abilities and inquiring ones.
References
Gil Prez D. & Carrascosa J. Science learning as a conceptual and methodological change. European Journal of
Science Education, Vol. 7, No.3, (1985), 231-236.
Gil Prez D., Martinez-Torregrosa Y, Senet F. El fracaso en la resolucin de problemas de Fsica: una investigatin
orientada por nuevos supuestos. Enseanza de las Ciencias, Vol. 6, No.2, (1988), 131-144.
Lawson R.A. & McDermott L.. Student understanding of the work-energy and impulse-momentum theorems.
American Journal of Physics, 55(9), (1987), 811-817.
Levrini O., Un problema reale per capire la fisica, La Fisica nella Scuola, XXIX, 2, (1996), 59-63.
Torosantucci G. & Vicentini M., Il fenomeno della caduta, in Grimellini Tomasini N. & Segr G. (Eds.), Conoscenze
scientifiche: le rappresentazioni mentali degli studenti, La Nuova Italia, Scandicci (Firenze), (1991), 109-137.
168
INFLUENCE OF NARRATIVE STATEMENTS OF PHYSICS PROBLEMS ON THEIR
COMPREHENSION
Elena Llonch, Marta Massa, Patricia Snchez, Elisa Petrone, Facultad de Cs. Exactas, Ingeniera
y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
1. Introduction
Narrative text has a closer correspondence to everyday experience than does expository text. It
involves dynamic events that imply characters, goals and intentions; expositive ones include static
contents such as concepts, descriptions and arguments. Many knowledge-based inferences are
generated during the comprehension of narrative text, requiring the activation of knowledge
structures and their integration to conform a meaning representation of the text. This fact is typical
of those cases in which the subject ought to solve a real problem, generally ambiguous, and written
in a narrative style.
Problem solving can be seen as involving two processes: comprehension through which the subject
organizes a mental model of the situation, and searching of possibilities, evidences and goals in
order to generate a strategy for its solution (VanLehn, 1998; Johnson-Laird, 1983). We assume that
those processes are determined by the type of statements and by the way a subject constructs an
internal representation. They will orient the selection of either an algorithmic solution or a specific
heuristics as an alternative procedure to solve it (Nickerson et al., 1998).
Problem solving involves processes that Baron (1991) identified as characteristics of reasoning,
such as assumptions, inferences, predictions, arguments and the selection of examples and counter-
examples to validate or refute statements. Galotti (1989) has stated that subjects perform different
types of reasoning according to the type of problem they are asked to solve.
Formal reasoning is generally associated to well-defined situations, where all the relevant data are
given. It is based on logical inferences where the initial premises imply implicitly a conclusion.
Informal reasoning, generally associated to open situations, is not restricted by logical operations
as it may include inferential processes developed, sustained and evaluated by a system of beliefs or
by common sense.
Problem solving lies on a situational modelling (Perkins et al, 1991) whose adequacy depends on
the recognition of the demands of the task (Johnson-Laird et al., 1988). Often the situational
modelling is clearly provided to the student who ought only to understand it and apply principles
and laws.
When problems are written in a narrative style, the situational modelling is a crucial activity
through which the specific problem or sub-problem is defined. The subject has to recognize the
relevant data and to decide possible solving strategies.
Within a research project dealing with reasoning on Physics problems, we analyse the problem
space
1
that students construct when they read, interpret and solve problems written in a narrative
style. We analyse how students solve them in order to identify indicators of their comprehension,
possible bias in the interpretation of premises and the features that orient the situational
modelling.
2. Theory
The Mental Model Theory (Johnson-Laird, ibid.) assumes that discourse models are constructed on
the basis of inferences from general and specific knowledge. Particularly, the comprehension of a
problem is seen as the construction of an initial mental model by means of the syntactic and
semantic processing of language and the activation of the subjects prior knowledge and beliefs.
This process requires that the subject recognizes the text as a coherent, consistent and plausible
169
1
Problem space includes three components: the initial problem state, some operators that can change a problem state
into another and some efficient test for whether a problem state constitutes solutions.
discourse, within an appropriate temporal, spatial, causal and intentional framework. The
association to previous specific knowledge leads to generate new models. In a determined stage of
this process, the subject evaluates the plausibility or the credibility of the model according to the
supporting evidence and conclusions. If the subject recognizes invalid conclusions, then new models
may be constructed or a previous one may be re-structured. Therefore, reasoning failures may be
attributed to an insufficient search for relevant models, to omissions of counter-examples or to the
lack of evaluation of the facts implied by all the models constructed in the process. The process
finishes when refutation is absent, and the subject defines the model.
The procedures applied by a subject when he searches for information may reproduce strategies
previously used in similar or different contexts, or may be created by analogy or association. Two
basic criteria for the evaluation of situational models are the bias that determine a unique sense to
interpret arguments, and the completeness while considering all possible arguments.
Availability and representativeness are heuristic principles present in problem solving. Availability
appears when the subject considers certain information and disregards others. Representativeness
occurs when the subject focuses on irrelevant information and disregards the trustfulness and
predictive power of data. When these principles are applied to relevant information the task will be
successful, but if they are applied to superficial information mistakes will be made (Salmon, 1991).
3. Method
Subjects and Research Design: The participants were 20 college students of the first Physics course
at the National University of Rosario, Argentina, whose ages were between 18 and 22. The activity
was performed at the end of the semester, when mechanics contents had been studied. Prior to the
study, they had worked with different kinds of problem statements with increasing degrees of
difficulties.
The participants had to read and solve individually different problems, written in a narrative style,
that referred to realistic everyday situations. Type A (extracted from Nickerson et al., 1998) had
several details and included only verbal data; Type B included verbal and numeric data given as in
traditional scientific problems; Type C included verbal and numeric data and its format resembled
an encounter situation. A set of 84 problems (defined as the individuals) with complete solutions
was finally analysed
Type A: One morning, exactly at dawn (7 a.m), a monk began his way to the top of a hill. A narrow and spiral
road, half a meter wide, went to a temple at the top of the hill. The monk walked and stopped several times
along the way to rest. He reached the temple at dusk (6 p.m). After spending several days in the temple he
started his way back along the same road, leaving at dawn (7 a.m), walking with varying speed and making
a lot of stops along his way. His downward speed was, naturally, greater than his mean upward speed.
Demonstrate that there is a certain point along the road where the monk is going to be, in both travels, at the
same time of the day.
Type B: An archer applies a force to put the arrow in the launch position. After keeping it in that position for
a few seconds, she launches the arrow with a velocity v
0
. The arrow reaches its target: an apple which stands
on a pillar of height h at a distance d from the launch position. As a result of the impact, the apple breaks into
two similar pieces, with velocities v
1
and v
2
of the same modulus. These two pieces reach the ground at
distances d
1
and d
2
on each side of the pillar.
a) analyse the process, from the moment the archer puts the arrow in the arc until the arrow reaches the
ground,
b) how can you obtain the velocity of the arrow at the moment it touches the ground?,
c) determine the position where the arrow touches the ground,
d) suppose that the archer launches the arrow from the same initial position, but in such a way that the arrow
also rotates around its longitudinal axis. Will the arrow hit the apple if the latter is located at the same position
as in the previous situation?
Type B: Jane, whose mass is 50 kg, is being threatened by a lion when she is by a river full of carnivorous fish.
Tarzan, whose mass is 80 kg, is looking at the scene from the opposite bank and decides to help her. He runs
170
with a speed v
0,
grasps a rigid log of 60 kg mass, sticks it in the bottom of the river, and, as the wind blows
with a force F, he swings and falls on the other bank. Finally the scared lion runs away.
-Analyse the situation
-Find the velocity of Tarzan when he reaches Jane
In order to get back home Tarzan and Jane hang from a liana of negligible mass and length L over the river.
The wind has stopped. Which is the minimum initial speed they must have if they want to reach exactly the
other bank?
Type C: A road crosses the railway at an angle of 60. A car, whose mass is 1000 kg, moves along the road at
80 km/h. When it is at 150 m from the cross, a train leaves a nearby station which is located 85 m away from
the cross, with an acceleration of 2 m/s. The driver, whose mass is 65 kg, thinks he can pass the railway before
the train reaches the cross. Do you think he is right? Explain your answer.
Solutions were compared to the ones rendered to the following narrative problem which required only
mathematical skills.
Type B: Mary tells her friends Bob, Peter and John that she is a psychic and to prove it she puts 24 similar
chips on a table. Then she covers her eyes and asks one of the boys to take one chip, another to take two and
the last one to take three chips. Without having seen who has taken each amount of chips she promises to guess
it. But she says that in order to do so, she needs Bob to take as many chips as he has taken before, Peter to
take twice the number of chips he has and John to take four times the number of chips that he has taken. Once
they have done so, she asks her friends to put away their chips and then she uncovers her eyes. Suppose each
boy has done exactly what Mary asked. Will Mary be able to guess how many chips took each boy in the first
place? How can she do that?
Data collection and analysis: Fourteen variables were used to analyse the problem solving activities:
data identification, data type, data format, data location, modelling level, solving proposal,
graphical support, type of graphical representation, inclusion of data in graphics, adequacy of
graphs, solving stages, stages organization, temporality and solution format. The modalities for each
variable were defined during the analysis, according to the different features detected. As a result,
we obtained a data matrix of 84 files (individuals) 14 columns (variables), that enclosed a set of
66 modalities. Therefore, we selected a multivariate statystical analysis, applying multiple
correspondence analysis and mixed cluster processing (Lebart at al., 1985). The SPAD software
(C.I.S.I.A., 1988) was used. The data matrix is represented as a cloud of points (individuals) in the 14-
dimensional space of the variables. The distance between them is the statistical
2
. The software
transforms the data matrix into a variance and covariance matrix. Then, the software solves an
eigenvalue problem to obtain the principal directions, called factorial axes, of the topological
configuration. The eigenvalues measure the dispersions along each principal direction. Therefore, the
first factorial axis is related to the direction of maximal dispersion of the data, and its percentage of
inertia measures the contribution of this axis to the interpretation of the initial data matrix. The second
principal axis, orthogonal to the first one, is oriented in the next greatest dispersion direction.
Similarities among individuals were identified through the classification process, as shown in Fig. 1,
where the coordinates are the projections of the points over the factorial axis.
4. Results and conclusions
The classification analysis of the protocols allowed the identification of three classes (see Fig. 1),
whose features are as follows:
Class 1 (64.28 %): includes protocols corresponding to the solution of Type-B narrative situations.
Some relevant data are not recognized, but the students construct an adequate situational model to
sketch solutions. Solving processes are done using similar verbal, graphic and symbolic representations,
with multi-step solutions, though incomplete and without chronological organization. Graphic
representations are, generally, schematic, with partial correspondence to the situations depicted in the
statements. Although the solving processes are sometimes biased by the use of representativeness
heuristics, some stages were successfully solved, using Mechanics principles and laws.
171
Class 2 (17.86 %): includes protocols corresponding to the solution of purely narrative situations,
like Type A. Verbal data are recognized, either in the description of the situation or in the questions
attached to the statements. The solving proposals keep a chronological organization. Solving
processes are done in a narrative way, mostly without graphic representations and showing
difficulties to find the relationship between the narrative text and the heuristic of encounter, as
a conceptual physical structure to arrive to a solution. It should be stressed that only two students
explicitly used this heuristic and one student said: I cant solve it.
Class 3 (17.86 %): includes protocols related to Type-C problems. Explicit numeric data, either
relevant or accessory, are recognized. Similarities between the data activate previous knowledge
that is retrieved as an heuristic of accessibility. This fact accounts for the right and quick
performance in the recognition of the demands of the task. A further abstraction, within the same
heuristics, leads in a few cases to the substitution of the two-dimensional problem by a one-
dimensional model, with a relevant cognitive economy.
The number of constituents of the classes represents almost strictly the number of protocols that
belong to each type of problem. The features of each class show that the data were well identified
regardless the format. Nevertheless, when the text is purely narrative, students demand further
numeric or at least symbolic information in order to initiate solving processes. We may conclude
that the initial model is constructed considering the explicit information, although implicit relevant
data is not always detected (as occurs with events that take place in short time intervals or when
consideration of all possible situations is required). Relevant implicit inferences are omitted. This
fact prevents the student from developing successive models, with a progressive transformation of
richly described events and processes to simplified models related to a set of sub-problems, to
arrive to a solution. In this process, the student translates the narrative text into a scientific one.
Particularly, if the student is restricted to a chronological sequence, then the representativeness
heuristics should not operate to provide an immediate solution (e.g., to solve problem A
considering it as an encounter problem of two ideal monks moving simultaneously downward
and upward).
When narrative problems include numerical or graphic data, provided as in traditional science
problems, it is easier for the student to develop an appropriate situational model. This fact allows
them to apply of heuristics and specific principles to arrive to the solution of at least some stages,
as was recognized in class 3.
172
Fig.1: Affinity
classification of the
protocols based on the
comprehension and
solving tasks. (Class 1 / 3
includes 54 protocols,
while the classes 2 / 3
and 3 / 3 are integrated
by 15 protocols)
Therefore, pure narrative problems offer additional difficulties. They involve people performing
actions in pursuit of goals, the existence of obstacles that interfere and emotional reactions that the
reader has to understand. Many inferences, generated during the comprehension of narrative texts
and added to the specific demands of the task, require a higher cognitive effort.
We may also conclude that purely narrative statements activate informal reasoning patterns that
lead students to use systems of beliefs that bias the solution with the demand of unnecessary data
and with the addition of difficulties to the situation.
References
Baron J., In Voss, Perkins and Segal (eds.), Informal reasoning and education, chap. 8, New Jersey.LEA, Hillsdale,
(1991).
Lebart L., Morineau, A., Fenelon, J., Tratamiento Estadstico de Datos, Barcelona, Marcombo, (1985).
C.I.S.I.A, SPAD N Integr, Pars, (1998).
Salmon M., Informal reasoning and informal logic in Voss, Perkins and Segal (eds.), Informal reasoning and
education, chap. 8, New Jersey: LEA, Hillsdale, (1991).
Johnson - Laird, P. N., Mental Models, Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard University Press, (1983).
Johnson Laird, P. N., Anderson, T., Common sense inference, Cambridge: MRC Applied Psychology Unit, (1988).
Galotti K. M., Approaches to studying formal and everyday reasoning, Psychological Bulletin, 105, (1989), 331-351.
Van Lehn K., Problem Solving and Cognitive Skill Acquisition, in Michael I. Posner, ed., Foundations of Cognitive
Science, Cambridge (Mass.), The MIT Press, (1998).
Nickerson R.; Perkins, D., Smith, E., The teaching of the thinking, N.J., LEA, (1998).
Nickerson R.S., Reflections on reasoning. N.J., LEA, Hillsdale, (1986).
Perkins D. N., Faraday, M., Bushey, B., Everyday reasoning and the roots of intelligence, in Voss, Perkins and Segal
(eds.), Informal reasoning and education, chap. 5, New Jersey, LEA, (1991).
Notes
As a reference for the reader, we attach briefly orientations to solve the proposed problems.
Type A: One morning, exactly at dawn, a monk
The solution is obtained applying a graphic heuristic: drawing a graph of the monks ascent and descent.
The graph can take any shape because nothing is said about the hourly progress. As the departure and
arrival take place at the same hour but on different days, the problem is equivalent to another one where
two people traverse the same mountain path at the same time (7 a.m) on the same morning, but one in an
upward direction and the other downward. The solution is easily obtained if we move and superimpose the
graph of the monks ascent and descent.
173
7 a.m
(some
days
later)
x
t
7 a.m
(1
st
day)
6 p.m
(1
st
day)
top of the hill
Monks problem transformed problem
x
t
7 a.m
t
encounter
top of the hill
Type B: An archer applies a force
To solve the problem, the process needs to be divided into five stages and to discuss the assumptions that
support the applied model:
(1) the archer puts the arrow in the launch position: Work done = E
p arch
(2) the arrow leaves with a velocity v
0
: E
p arch
=
1
/
2
m v
0
2
(3) the arrow describes a parabolic trajectory towards the target: d = v
o
t
e
; h =
1
/
2
g t
e
2
the arrows velocity
v just before reaching the target has two components: v
x
= v
o
; v
y
= g t
e
(4) the arrow impacts the target and breaks it into two similar pieces, with velocities v
1
and v
2
perpendicular to v
0
with conservation of linear moment: m
arrow
v = m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
+ m
arrow
v
or m
arrow
(v
0
, g t
e
, 0) = m
1
(0,0,v
1
) + m
2
(0,0,v
1
) + m
arrow
(v
x
, v
y,
v
z
)
(5) the arrow and the two pieces move along new parabolic trajectories with initial velocities v
1,
v
2
and v
until they reach the ground, while the center of mass describes another parabolic trajectory with an
initial velocity v
CM
= m
arrow
(v
0
, g t
e
, 0)/(m
1
+ m
2
+ m
arrow
). Therefore, the position where each one will
reach the ground can be obtained.
If the arrow also rotates around its longitudinal axis, it has also rotational kinetic energy:
E
p arch
=
1
/
2
m v
0
2
+
1
/
2
I
2
. Therefore, it will not reach the target.
Type B: Jane, whose mass is 50 kg, is being threatened by a lion
To solve the problem, the process needs to be divided into three stages and to discuss the assumptions that
support the applied model:
(1) Tarzan runs with a speed v
0,
grasps a rigid log (a plastic collision with angular moment conservation):
m
Tarzan
v
0
h = I
(Tarzan + log)

0
(where
0
: angular velocity of the log; and h: rivers depth)
(2) Tarzan swings to the other bank while the wind blows (the moment of the winds force produces the
variation of the angular moment of the system (Tarzan + log ): r F = dL/dt
Therefore, the velocity of Tarzan (v = r) when he reaches Jane can be obtained assuming, for example, that
F is constant.
(3) Tarzan and Jane grasp a liana and cross the river: E
p
= E
k
Type B: Mary tells her friends Bob, Peter and John that she is a psychic
This is a combinatorial task. The solution requires to recognize six possibilities as follows:
174
Chips = 24
Possibilities 1 2 3 4 5 6
friends B P J B J P P B J P J B J B P J P B
1
st
extraction 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
2
nd
extraction 1 4 12 1 8 6 2 2 12 2 8 3 4 2 6 4 4 3
number of
extracted chips 23 21 22 19 18 17
number of chips
on the table 1 3 2 5 6 7
Mary can guess when she sees the number of chips that are lying on the table
Type C: A road crosses the railway at an angle of 60
The car passes the cross 6.75 seconds later (t = distance to the cross/speed of the car). During this time the
train has moved a distance x =
1
/
2
at
2
= 45.57m. Therefore, the driver is right.
DIFFICULTIES ON INFERENCIAL PROCESS. A STUDY ON THERMODINAMIC
PROBLEMS
Marta Massa, Marta Yanitelli, Susana Cabanellas, Facultad de Cs. Exactas, Ingeniera y
Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
1. Introduction
Differences on problem-solving performance between experts and novices have been studied
during more than two decades. Attention has been focussed on mental processes to organise
knowledge (Chi, et al., 1988; Chi, et al., 1982) on specific areas such as: categories that the subjects
use to organise knowledge; relationships between these categories and problem-solving abilities;
identification of similarities between problems; degree of mental processing required to produce
the categorisation tasks (Smith, 1992). The latter has received less attention and the degree of
mental processing has been analysed by measuring the time required to complete the tasks. Results
have shown that there is not a direct linkage between expert behaviour and successful solving
procedures, as experience sometimes may be associated to automatic processing rather than to
problem-solving ability (Schoenfeld and Herrmann, 1982).
In physics courses at University, students perform problem-solving activities that demand similar
conceptual knowledge with quite different success. Frequently, teachers ask themselves if the
observed differences are due to features that Chi, Feltovich and Glaser (1981) attributed to the
problems surface structure (literal physics terms, objects, described physical configurations), the
structure of the statements, the language and style, or to the cognitive process that are demanded
for the situational modelling.
Among the procedural abilities required during problem solving, the production of inferences has
not been extensively studied. Its relevance lies on the fact that it is an important activity of
information processing: internal representation of data, integration to previous knowledge,
transformation in order to construct new meanings and relationships (Riviere, 1986).
Many researches have shown that a procedural knowledge of algorithmic is a necessary condition
but not a sufficient one for the comprehension of physics concepts (Solaz et al., 1995; Chi et al.,
1981; Kempa, 1991). So, an effective and successful problem-solving activity would lie on the way
of representing connectives between concepts involved in mental models.
Specifically, a remarkable different performance was observed when students solved problems
related to the model of an ideal gas if: (a) it is applied in the analysis of a process or (b) it is required
to determine its validity in a real situation. Although both activities imply the same concepts, the
former is related to an algorithmic procedure, while the latter involves inferences and concepts
processing. In fact, it was significant that 37% of the students that were successful when solving task
like (a), failed on solving (b).
The purpose was to analyse patterns of reasoning when students make inferences to solve problems
expressed in conditional statements. The research sought data to answer the following questions:
1. Which is the reasoning structure employed by a student to solve the reference for a conditional
statement?
2. How does a conceptual model, such as the ideal gas one, relate to mental models representing
a real or possible situation involving a specific gas?
2. Method
Subjects. The subjects of the study were 64 students that attend an engineering basic physics course
dealing with Thermodynamics. Classes were developed according to the conceptual structure
presented in Statistics Physics and Thermodynamic (Jancovici, 1976). They were asked to solve a
set of classical problems dealing with the framework of the kinetic theory of gases and the first law
of thermodynamics, as a partial evaluation of the learning process. The problems were similar to
those presented in the class and the textbooks that the students used as a complement reference
for their studies. We specifically analysed one of these problems stated in a conditional form,
extracted from Fishbane (1994):
1 mol of helium gas is contained in a cubic recipient of 50 cm each side. In this condition its internal
energy is 3600 J. If it were possible to apply the model of ideal gas to the air in normal conditions, would
it be possible to do the same with the described helium system?
Data collection. We used as protocols only 26 pencil-and-paper tasks (41 %) belonging to the
subjects that intended, successful or unsuccessfully, to solve the problem. During the first stage, we
analysed the protocols considering: i) selected data and their initial transformation; ii) principles
and laws applied to calculate the relevant variables; iii) conclusion statement; iv) justification.
In a second stage, we attempted to identify similar features in order to establish possible categories
of resolution style. Finally, we made an interpretative analysis of possible inferential processes
involved in the detected categories.
3. Results
The protocols were examined in order to find similarities in (a) the identification of data, (b)
175
variables that were calculated to arrive to a conclusion and (c) the justification stated to make the
conclusion consistent. As a preliminary result, 14 students concluded that the model of ideal gases is
applicable, showing the three mentioned stages while reasoning; 7 students considered that the
model was not applicable, after the three stages, and 5 did not arrive to any conclusion, with scarce
calculus of variables. Table I shows the resultant categories for the students that arrived to a conclusion.
4. Discussion
The analysed protocols suggest the existence of different stages to arrive to a conclusion. Only few
subjects, belonging to p-V-T (Yes) category, proceeded as Fishbane (1994) did. Consequently, their
reasoning may be assumed as an expert one. As a first approximation, the stages involved in
arriving to a conclusion may be interpreted as following:
176
Category
Category Analysis
Model
validation
Justification characterisation Frequency
p-V-T
Yes
He Air comparison using the functional
relationship between volume, pressure and
temperature (V-T or p-T). In some cases the
comparison is made only between pressure
values. The criterion is based in the proximity of
the stated numerical values.
5
No
He Air comparison using the p-T variables but
looking for coincidence with the normal
conditions values. One case takes into account
the different molecular composition. One case
presents no justification.
4
Density
Yes
It is stated that the density is low without
establishing a comparison parameter. In one case
the comparison is made between molecular
density of He and Air.
4
Internal energy
Yes
Comparison of Internal energies only. The
functional relationship between p-V-T is ignored.
The criterion is based in the proximity of the
stated values.
2
No
Comparison of Internal energies looking for
coincidence between numeric values. The
functional relationship between p-V-T is ignored.
Misconceptions are detected.
2
p-p-T Yes
In one case the comparison is made between the
three variables. The other one resorts to the
qualitative definition of ideal gas stating if air is
an ideal gas at normal T and p, then it is a low
density gas.
2
U-T No
He Air comparison using the U-T variables but
looking for coincidence with the normal
conditions values. Misconceptions are detected.
1
p-U Yes
He Air comparison based on p y U .
Confusions over the molecular composition of
the air are detected.
1
Table I: Description of the identified categories.
1) Representation of the problem statement initial models. A representation of the content is
constructed by integrating the text components and refining specific information of previous
knowledge related to the molecular structure of gases. It may be supposed that bridging
inferences are made. They do not strictly derive from the linguistic properties of the text but
contribute to solve the reference, i. e.: molAvogadros number; helium monatomic.
2) Interpretation of the question stated as a conditional clause. This premise comprises three
elements: air at normal conditions, ideal gas and a conditional statement. The disposable
information does not allow to establish in which direction the process is made, but the subject is
supposed to organise progressive models and to make new bridging inferences: air mixture;
normal conditions pressure = 1 atm; temperature = 0 C = 273 K; ideal gas low density, diluted; U
= E
k av.
and other related concepts. A more complex task would be, perhaps, the analysis of the syntax
to discover the conditional clause and to transform the premise to a logic format if p then q.
3) Substitution of transformed premises. Substitution of (a) an entity by the class
1
it belongs to and
(b) the normal condition by values proximal to it. In this way the premise extends its meaning as
shown in the figure presented below.
177
1 mol of helium gas is
contained in a cubic recipient
of 50 cm each side. In this
condition its internal energy is
3600 J
model
of the
premise
Previous knowledge
about gases
He
1 mol of helium gas
is contained in a
cubic recipient of
50 cm each side. In
this condition its
internal energy is
3600 J...
Previous
knowledge
model
of p air
model
of q
Ideal
gas
If air is in normal
conditions then it is
an ideal gas
g p
If it were
possible to apply
the model of
ideal gas to the
air in normal
conditions,
would it be
possible to do
the same with the
described helium
system?
Previous
knowledge
Ideal
gas
model
of p
air
If air is in
normal
conditions then it
is an ideal gas
if a gas state is
near to normal
conditions then it
is an ideal gas.
model
of p*
model
of q
1
The class p}is an abstract entity that represents a group of elements p* having a common property. In this case, the two
entities (helium and air) are interpreted in the general sense of a gas.
4) New model construction which implies renewing the interpretation of the first premise to
integrate it to the model of the second one and a re-ordering. In addition, a complex selection
process of the necessary and sufficient conditions related to the proximal to normal conditions of
the gas is performed to define a bridge to compare the class entities. Then, the helium state is
evaluated in order to configure the following modus ponens figure, from which the required
conclusion arises:
If a gas state is near to normal conditions then it is an ideal gas.
Helium state is near to normal conditions.
Helium may be considered an ideal gas.
5. Conclusion and implications
A significant proportion of the students (see Table I) consider Density as a relevant variable. This
fact shows an availability bias when, probably, the qualitative definition of an ideal gas is
recuperated: It is said that an ideal gas is the state to which all gases tend when their density is very
low (Jancovici, 1976). The subjects would be moving through the mentioned stages to elaborate an
helium model making use of their previous knowledge of ideal gas as a diluted one.
Likewise, it may be interpreted that subjects included in the Internal energy category select this
variable because of the influence of its presence as a datum in the first premise of the problem.
Then, this fact shows a bias of representativeness that takes them to set up the following
configuration:
If a gas has U equal or proximal to that of air in normal conditions then it is an ideal gas.
Helium has U=3600 J.
Helium may be considered an ideal gas.
Students belonging to -p-T category would seem to reason as those included in the p-V-T
category, but considering density as relevant variable. This may be attributed to the influence of the
textbook definition. Finally, the two latter categories, with a scarce number of individuals, share the
characteristic features of Density and Internal energy ones.
In summary, the different types of reasoning identified seem to be related to the processes required
by the third and fourth stages to transform a premise in spite of a proximity criterion and to
determine the necessary and sufficient conditions to validate the model application. The study has
allowed the identification of some organisational patterns for the information and elaboration of a
conditional statement, which deserve further analysis.
Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that students are more apt to look beyond the logical form of
a proposition and consider alternate hypotheses in contexts that they are able to restructure
concretely. Teaching should be geared toward assisting students to achieve this concrete
restructuring. Likewise, considering the interplay among a variety of variables in a given context is
crucial for the generation of viable hypotheses and reasoning about the situation. Students should
be taught to carefully consider the relevant variables in a given situation and the necessary and
sufficient conditions for the applicability of a given conceptual model.
References
Chi M. T., Feltovich P. J., Glaser R., Categorisation and representation of physics problems by experts and novices,
Cognitive Science, 5, (1981), 121-151.
Chi M. T., Glaser R., Farr M.J., The nature of expertise, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, (1988).
Chi M. T., Glaser R. Rees E., Expertise in problem solving, In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of
human intelligence,.1, Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, (1982).
Fishbane P., Gasiorowicz S., Thornton S., Fsica para Ciencias e Ingenier, 1, Prentice-Hall, (1994).
Jancovici B., Physique Statistique y Thermodynamique, Premier Cycle, Mc Graw Hill, (1976).
Kempa R. F., Students learning difficulties in Science. Causes and possible remedies, Enseanza de las Ciencias, 9,
(1991), 119 128.
Riviere A., Razonamiento y representacin, Madrid: Siglo XXI, (1986).
178
If p then q
p*
q
Schoenfeld A. H. and Herrmann D. J., Problem perception and knowledge structure in expert and novice
mathematical problem solvers, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 8, (1982),
484 - 494.
Smith M.U., Expertise and the Organisation of Knowledge: Unexpected Differences among Genetic Counsellors,
Faculty, and students on problem Categorisations Tasks, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(2), (1992), 179-
205.
Solaz J., Sanjos V., Vidal-Abarca E., Influencia del conocimiento previo y de la estructura conceptual de los
estudiantes de BUP en la en la resolucin de problemas, Revista de Enseanza de la Fsica, 8, N 2, (1995), 22-28.
MATHEMATICS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND PROBLEM SOLVING IN
PHYSICS
Decio Pescetti, Dipartimento di Fisica, Universit di Genova, Italy
1. Introduction
As is well known, the qualitative methods, based on the application of the principles of dimensional
homogeneity, continuity and symmetry, offer the opportunity for a truly fertile analysis of the
physical systems prior to their complete mathematical or experimental study [1-3]. In problem
solving, the qualitative methods enable us to deduce useful information about the dependence of a
physical quantity (the unknown) on other relevant quantities (the data) [4-8].
The complete description of a real physical system would require a great number of parameters. We
must select and take into account the important quantities and ignore those which have relatively
small effects. A given physical quantity is expressed by a number followed by the corresponding
unit of measurement. The radius of the Hearth is 6.4 10
6
m, but it is also 2.1 10
-10
; from this point
of view it has no meaning to speak of big or small numbers. The order of magnitude of the relative
effect, on the value of a specified unknown X, of a neglected quantity can be expressed by proper
dimensionless products (pure numbers) of the systems characteristics. For instance, consider a
damped simple harmonic oscillator. A body of mass m is acted on by an elastic restoring force
F=-kx, where x is the deplacement from the equilibrium position and k is the force constant. What
is the effect, on the period , of a viscous damping force, where r is a constant.
179
dt rdx F /
viscous
~ =
What is the effect, on the period t, of a viscous damping force, dt rdx F /
viscous
~ = , where r is a
constant. As already remarked, to speak of small or big value of r has no meaning; a given
damping constant of value, for instance, s kg / 10
3 ~
, has also the value amu/s
23
10 024 . 6 . As is well
known, such an effect is expressed by the dimensionless product
2 / 1
) /(mk r P = , whose physical
meaning is: the ratio between the maximum value of the damping force and the maximum value of
the elastic restoring force.
We show that the origin of the information, on the problems solution, obtained by the qualitative
methods, is made more transparent by making a clear distinction between the mathematical
dimensional analysis results and the phenomenological assumptions and laws of nature relating
such results to the physical world. Obviously, wrong phenomenological assumptions plus correct
mathematical dimensional analysis will lead to erroneous results, as discussed in the comment to
example 4 of section 4.
Let us remark that the examples of dimensional analysis given in introductory physics textbooks
are likely to be misleading. The reader may be left with the impression that dimensional analysis
is a routine procedure. The practice of dimensional analysis requires a great deal of insight and
experience. For instance, such insight enters in a crucial way into the initial selection of variables
to be included in the analysis. Often considerable penetration is required to recognize when a
particular dimensional constant, such as the acceleration due to gravity, may be required. Failure
to include a relevant variable or dimensional constant will lead to an incorrect result.
Unfortunately, there is nothing in the nature of the mathematics of dimensional analysis to tell the
practitioner that a crucial variable has been omitted.
In section 2 we discuss the mathematical bases of dimensional analysis. In section 3 we present a
set of exercises in linear algebra, which are proposed as an help to understand the rational of the
paper: the necessity of a clear distinction between purely mathematical results and physical
assumptions. In fact, the answers of such exercises are involved in the qualitative solution of the
physical problems discussed in section 4. Section 5 is devoted to concluding remarks.
2. Dimensional analysis and continuity principle
The dimensions of physical quantities are represented by vectors in an abstract finite-dimensional
linear vector space, referred to as the dimension space. In Mechanics the dimension space has a
basis of three elements: length L, mass M, time T. The extension to electromagnetism requires a
basis of four elements (L, M, T, electrical current I). Finally, the extension to thermal phenomena
demands a five element basis: (L, M, T, I, absolute temperature ). For instance, in the linear vector
space of mechanics, the quantities length, mass, time, density, velocity, acceleration, force, viscosity
and elastic force constant are represented by the vectors (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1), (-3,1,0), (1,0,-1),
(1,0,-2), (1,1,-2), (1,0,-1), and (0,1,-2) respectively.
The principle of dimensional homogeneity (PDH) states that in any legitimate physical equation the
dimensions of all terms which are added or subtracted must be the same.
180
The problem description indicates that a physical quantity X (the unknown) is a function of other
quantities
n
A A A ..., , ,
2 1
(the data):
) ..., , , (
2 1 n
A A A f X = . (2.1)
The PDH allows us to study a function of fewer arguments:
) ..., , , (
2 1 m x
P P P P = , (2.2)
Substantially, the Buckingham theorem is the following theorem of linear algebra: if the rank of the
matrix q j n i a
ij
..., , 2 , 1 and ..., , 2 , 1 , ) ( = = , associated with the n vectors ) ..., , , (
2 1 iq i i
x x x is r<q, there are
exactly r vectors which are linearly independent while each of the remaining m=n-r vectors can be
expressed as a linear combination of these r vectors. In other words, it can be formed a complete set
of m independent linear combinations between the n vectors ) ..., , , (
2 1 iq i i
x x x , such as
0 ) ( ... ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
= + + +
n n
x h x h x h For every set
n
h h h ,..., ,
2 1
, there corresponds an unique
dimensionless product between the data
n
A A A ..., , ,
2 1
:
n
h
n
h h
A A A P =
2 1
2 1
A complete set of independent P
x
is formed by m+1 elements.
The principle of continuity states that small causes produce small effects. In teaching physics, this
principle is tacitly taken for granted. Usually, its statement is not explicitly given. Perhaps because
there are exceptions [1,9], especially for complex systems (butterfly effect). In fact, arbitrarily small
causes might produce finite effects, but this cannot be the rule. The idealizations of physics such as
frictionless planes, inextensible string, massless pulleys etc. find their justification and validity in
the continuity principle. Such idealizations imply that we may have experimental conditions in
which the friction of the plane, the extensivity of the string, the mass of the pulley etc., have
negligible effects, with respect to those of other causes and, of course, with respect to the finding of
a well defined unknown.
Let us consider, for the sake of simplicity, the particular case m=1 in eq. (2.2),
) (P P
x
= .
where P
x
is a dimensionless product between X (elevated at the first power) and some of the data,
and P
1
, P
2
, ..., P
m
are a complete set of independent dimensionless products between the data
themselves. One has (Buckinghams theorem): m=n-r, where r is the rank of the matrix formed by
the dimensional exponents of the data.
181
Let us suppose, without loss of generality, P<<1. We say that
x
P has an essential type dependence
on P if
=
-
0
) ( lim
0
P
P
.
On the contrary, the dependence is non-essential if
c P
P
=
-
) ( lim
0
,
where c is a dimensionless positive constant.
Example1. (Harmonic oscillator) A body of mass m is acted on by an elastic force kx F ~ = , where
x is the deplacement from the equilibrium position and k is the force constant.. The body is relaxed
from the rest at an initial position x
0
. The body executes an oscillatory motion. Find the period t .
Solution: The relevant parameters are m, k, x
0
; so
) , , (
0
x k m f = t .
Exercise 1. Find the coordinates of the vector (0,0,1) relative to the basis (0,1,0), (0,1,-2), (1,0,1).
Answer: (1/2, -1/2, 0).
Exercise2. Find the coefficients h
i
of a linear combination of the vectors (0,1,0), (0,1,-2), (1,0,0),
(0,1,-1) such as: 0 ) 1 , 1 , 0 ( ) 0 , 0 , 1 ( ) 2 , 1 , 0 ( ) 0 , 1 , 0 (
4 3 2 1
= ~ + + ~ + h h h h .
Answer: h h h h h h h 2 , 0 , ,
4 3 2 1
= = ~ = ~ = .
Exercise 3. Express the vector (0,0,1) as a linear combination of any set of no more than three of the
following vectors: (0,1,0), (0,1,-2), (1,0,0), (0,1,-1).
Answer; i) (0,0,1)=1/2(0,1,0)-1/2(0,1,-2); ii) (0,0,1)=(0,1,0)-(0,1,-1); iii) (0,0,1)=-(0,1,-2)+(0,1,-1).
Let us remark that answer iii) is not independent of answers i) and ii).
Exercise 4. Find the coefficients h
i
of a linear combination of the vectors (0,1,0), (0,1,-2), (1,0,0),
(0,1,0) such as: 0 ) 0 , 1 , 0 ( ) 0 , 0 , 1 ( ) 2 , 1 , 0 ( ) 0 , 1 , 0 (
4 3 2 1
= + + ~ + h h h h .
Answer: h h h h h h ~ = = = =
4 3 2 1
, 0 , 0 , .
following vectors: (0,1,0), (0,1,-2), (1,0,0), (0,1,0).
Answer: (0,0,1)=1/2(1,0,0)-1/2(1,0,-2).
Exercise 6. Find the coefficients h
i
of a linear combination of the vectors (1,0,0), (1,0,0), (0,1,0),
(1,0,-2) such as: 0 ) 2 , 0 , 1 ( ) 0 , 1 , 0 ( ) 0 , 0 , 1 ( ) 0 , 1 , 0 (
4 3 2 1
= ~ + + + h h h h .
Answer: 0 , 0 , ,
4 3 2 1
= = ~ = = h h h h h h .
following vectors: (1,0,0), (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (1,0,-2).
Answer: (0,0,1)=1/2(1,0,0)-1/2(1,0,-2).
Examples
The criteria for the evaluation of the orders of magnitude [7,8] are: a) The dimensionless constants
c are of the order of unity. b) A dimensionless product P very different from unity is irrelevant to
the solution of the problem. The criterion b) is satisfied under the following conditions: i)
continuity of function ; ii) a non-essential dependence of on P; iii) a correct choice of the
dimensionless product
x
P , that is in
x
P should appear the dominant data. By dominant data, with
respect to the prediction of the unknown X, we mean a subset of s _ (dimension of the linear space)
relevant parameters for which the phenomenology under study is preserved, even if all the other
parameters are absent (in the sense that they are not influential).
3. Linear algebra exercises
182
By PDH and answer of algebra exercise 1, one finds,
k m c / = t ,
where c is a dimensionless constant. The period t is independent of motion amplitude x
0
. By
criterion a) for the evaluation of the orders of magnitude, the constant c is of the order of the unity.
As is well known, the exact value of c is 2.
Example2. (Damped harmonic oscillator) Find the effect, on period t , of a viscous damping
force dt rdx F / ~ = .
0
, r. So,
) , , , (
0
r x k m f = t .
By PDH and answer of algebra exercise 2, one has
h
mk r P )] /( [
2
= . A proper choice of the constant
h is h=1/2. In fact
2 / 1 2 / 1 ~ ~
= k m r P is the ratio between the maximum value of the damping force
and the maximum value of the elastic restoring force. [cause: friction) ] 0 [ 0 - - P .
By PDH and answers i), ii) and iii) of algebra exercise 3, one has:
k r iii r m ii k m i / ) , / ) , / ) t t t .
Representation i) is correct. In fact, the problem of finding the period makes sense also in absence
of the friction force. Representations ii) and iii) are senseless from the physical point of view. Let us
remark that a complet set of independent dimensionless products P
x
is formed by two elements. For
instance: ) / /( ), / /( k r r m t t . Obviously, there are infinite other possibilities; for instance:
)] /( ), / /( [ )] / /( , / / [
5 / 1 5 / 3 5 / 4 ~ ~
k r m k r or r m k m t t t t . The correct choice of P
x
is a matter of physics;
it does not follow from the mathematics of dimensional analysis.
In conclusion
) (P
k
m
t = .
The dependence of P P on ) ( is non-essential .
As is well known, the complete exact mathematical solution of the problem leads to:
2 / 1 2
] ) 2 / ( 1 [
2
) (
p
P
~
=

.
Example3. (Harmonic oscillator with m
spring
) A body of mass m is placed on an horizontal air track.
The body is attached to an horizontal spring of force constant k and massa m
s
. The body is released
from the rest at a position in which the spring is stretched by x
0
. The body executes an oscillatory
motion. Find the period t.
0
, m
s
. So,
) , , , (
0 s
m x k m f = t .
By PDH and answer of exercise 4, one finds that there is the following dimensionless product
between the data:
h
s
m m ) / ( , where h is a constant. A proper choice of h is h=-1. Then: P=m/m
s
.
0) ( 0] mass) spring : [(cause - - P .
By PDH and answer of algebra exercise 5, one finds: k m i / ) t and ii) k m i
s
/ ) t .
The dominant parameters are m, k, x
0
. Reprensentation i) is correct. In conclusion, one has
) ( / P k m t = ,
where is a dimensionless undetermined function of P. There is a non-essential dependence of
) (P on P: constant positive ) ( lim
0
=
-
P
P
.
A complete exact mathematical analysis yields to:
2 / 1
) 3 / 1 ( 2 ) ( P P + = .
Example 4. (Flexible chain) A flexible chain of total length l and mass m rests on a frictionless
4. Conclusions
The application of the qualitative methods in problem solving is put into execution according to the
scheme: [(1) Phenomenological behaviour of the system] [(2) Identification of the unknown X
and of the relevent parameters A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
] [(3) linear algebra (Buckinghams theorem)]
[(4) Complete set of independent dimensionless products P
1
, ..., P
m
; complete set of P
x
independent dimensionless products] [(5) Proper choice of P
1
, ..., P
m
; correct choice of P
x
]
[(6) Physical exploitation of the qualitative solution].
The mathematics of dimensional analysis is involved in steps (3) and (4) only. The preliminary step
(1) requires sound information about the systems phenomenological behaviour. Step (2) demands
the knowledge of the physical relations that must be invoked to work out a complete quantitative
study of the system. In step (5) the mathematical dimensional analysis results are coupled with the
physics of the problem, and finally in step (6) an explicit interpretation of the qualitative solution
is given.
183
table with length x
0
overhanging the edge. At time t=0 the system is released. Find timet after
which the entire chain leaves the table.
Solution: The relevant parameters are: g m l x gravity and , ,
0
. So,
) , , , (
0
g m l x f = t .
By PDH and answer of algebra exercise 6, one finds:
h
l x P ) / (
0
= . A proper choice of h is h=1.
Then l x P /
0
= .
By PDH and answer of algebra exercise 7, one finds: g x /
0
t or g l / t .
In conclusion, the correct representation is
) ( / P g l t = .
The sliding time t does not depend on the mass m of the chain.
It appears quite natural, from the physical point of view, to predict the following special cases: a)
] ) ( [ ) 0 ( - - P P , b) ] 0 ) ( [ ) 1 ( - - P P . Therefore there is an essential dependence of
) (P on P.
The solution can also be written
) ) / (
1
4 / 1 2
0
P g lx t = ,
where ) ( ) (
4 / 1
1
P P P
~
= . The essential dependence on P is preserved. The parameters x
0
, m and
g are a set of dominant parameters, but condition ii) for the validity of criterion b) for the
evaluation of the orders of magnitude is not satsfied.
The function ) (P is an universal function. The function ) (P cannot be obtained by the
qualitative methods. The function (P) can be found:
i) by the analytical solution of the equation of motion F=ma;
ii) by numerical solution of the equation of motion F=ma;
iii) experimentally.
One finds: 0 ) 1 ( ; 467 . 0 ) 9 . 0 ( ; 32 . 1 ) 5 . 0 ( ; 99 . 2 ) 1 . 0 ( ; ) 0 ( = = = = = .
Remark: [(wrong phenomenological assumptions)+(correct mathematical dimensionl ansalysis)]
[erroneous (senseless) information on the problem solution].
Wrong assumption: the motion of the chain is periodic; wrong question: find period t. By PDH
etc. : l x P P g l / ; ) ( /
0
= = t .
Erroneous conjecture: c P
P
= =
-
constant positive ) ( lim
0
. In conclusion: senseless result: period
g l c / = t .
Let us remark that, when studying a physical system, the information obtained by the qualitative
analysis might be increased by breaking the problem into subproblems, even if additional
quantities must be introduced [5].
The notion of similarity is closely related to dimensional analysis and model building. One of the
reasons that dimensional analysis is a useful method in physics is that many variables are combined
into one or few dimensionless numbers (products). It is significant that these dimensionless
products serve often as a quantitative measure of similarity.
It is surprising that no introductory university algebra textbook mentions the dimension space of
the physical quantities, as an example of linear vector space. We hope that this paper will contribute
in filling the gap between mathematics and physics in the teaching/learning of this important topic.
The sistematic resort to qualitative methods along the lines presented in this paper should be the
source of a fertile reflection on the mathematical modeling of physical systems and on the model-
reality relationship.
References
[1] G. Birkkoff, Hydrodynamics (Princeton: Princeton Un. Press), (1960).
[2] A. B. Migdal, and V. Krainov, Approximation Methods in Quantum Mechanics (New York, Benjamin), (1969).
[3] L. I. Sedov, Similarity and Dimensional methods in Mechanics, (Moscow: MIR), (1982).
[4] M. Hulin, Eur. J Phys., 1, (1980), 55.
[5] J. M. Supplee, Am. J. Phys., 53, (1985), 549.
[6] E. A. Deslodge, Am. J. Phys., 62, (1994), 216.
[7] D. Pescetti, Qualitative Methods in Problem Solving, in Bernardini C et al (eds), Thinking Physics for Teaching,
(New York, Plenum Press), (1995), 387-399.
[8] D. Pescetti, Small Numbers and Mathematical Modeling of Physical Systems, in Pinto R and Suriqach S (eds),
Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000, (Paris: Elsevier Editions), (2001).
[9] J. Gleigk, Chaos (Viking Penguin), (1987).
DEVELOPING THINKING IN PHYSICS THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING
Sabina, Sawicka - Wilgusiak, Faculty of Pedagogy, Warsaw University, Poland
Problem solving dates from J. Dewey, from the moment he has published his book entitled How
we think?. In this book J. Dewey has defined the entire act of thinking through the following
stages logically connected with themselves and namely:
- perception of the difficulty;
- identification of the difficulty and its definition;
- possible solution;
- drawing conclusions from the proposed solution;
- further observations and experiments leading to accepting or to refusing the conclusions [1].
A man begins to think when he meets a difficulty. The idea of a problem is defined by the general
didactics as:
- a structure of incomplete data; [2].
- tasks that require overcoming some difficulty of theoretical and practical character with the aid
of the subject research activity;
- problem, that is task, which pupils cannot solve by means of their own knowledge
Productive thinking, that enriches this knowledge, is required [3].
Problem tasks from the field of physics can be split up into three groups:
1) tasks for forecasting the physical phenomena;
2) tasks for designing the experiments;
3) tasks for explaining the phenomena.
184
To point 1)
The following experiment may be used as an example of the problem task for forecasting the
physical phenomena [4].
Experiment 1
The exits of the glass tube are closed with metal plates, e.g. metal elements from two electrophones
(Fig. 1).
Plates located in this way form some kind of a flat capacitor. We put inside the tube a table-tennis
ball with its surface metallized. We connect the metal plates with the poles of an electrostatic
machine and we put it into operation. What kind of effect do we expect to find? Will the ball remain
in its state of rest or will it begin to run alongside the tube?
185
E = S
d
U
r
8
2
Solution:
The ball will move between the covers of the capacitor An oscillating movement of the ball will
take place until the capacitor is discharged. With the distance between the capacitor plates
remaining unchanged, the number of runs made in a given time depends on the voltage applied to
the plates, so it characterizes the field energy.
The electrostatic field energy in the space between the flat capacitor plates amounts to:
A Glass tube
B Table-tennis ball with conducting surface
C, D Metal plates.
E, F Insulating holders
G, F School stands
Fig. 1.
where:
U = voltage between the capacitor plates;
d = distance between the capacitor plates;
S = area of the capacitor plates;
= dielectric constant of the substance between the plates.
This energy can be converted into mechanical energy that can be observed in the experiment
presented.
A theoretical example for forecasting phenomena might be the following one: What would
happen on Earth if the Sun would stop to shine?
To point 2)
The following experiment may be used as an example of a problem task for designing research
Experiment 2
The rotor of the shape shown in Fig. 2 has been put onto an horizontal axle. In which way, using
electrostatic phenomena, can such a rotor be put in rotary motion?
The rotor can be made of eight table tennis balls painted with a conducting paint, six rods made of organic
glass should be used with a length of 13 cm and a cross section of 4x3 mm. Glass pipes can be also used.
186
A Insulating stand
B Table tennis balls covered with conducting paint
C Rod of organic glass
Fig. 2.
A, B Table tennis balls covered with conducting
paint
C Horizontal axle with conical bearings
E, D Insulating rods
G, F Insulating posts
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
The balls are pushed onto the ends of the rods . The rods are attached to the horizontal axle with
conical bearings (Fig. 3) between two parallel posts. In case of glass pipes they can be fixed with
the aid of cork and two gramophone needles as the horizontal axle. The rotor has to be balanced
in order to obtain a uniform rotary motion; it can be put into rotation by placing it between two
metallic bodies supported on insulating stands. Those bodies are electrified by connecting them
with an electrostatic machine (Fig. 4).
A Rotor
B Conductor
C Insulating stand
To point 3)
Many problem tasks can be given to explain physical phenomena:
- Why is the sky blue?
- How long should day and night last on Earth so that a body would weigh nothing at the equator?
- Why do the ships not sink?
- What part of a wooden cube of specific weight D=0.6 G/cm
3
will be under the water surface,
when it floats?
- Two resistors of value 20 and 50 have been connected in series and in parallel (Fig. 5). In
which circuit will the largest amount of heat be issued and why?
187
20 O
50 O
20 O
50 O
220 V
220 V
Fig. 5.
Summing up it can be stated that putting to pupils problem tasks for forecasting physical
experiments, designing researches and explaining such phenomena will educate both logical and
intuitive thinking. It has an influence on the motivation to learn. The pupils start to like physics and
to learn it with more interest and the knowledge thus gained is lasting and operative.
References
[1] J. Dewey, How we think. A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. New York,
(1910).
[2] W. Okon, Wprowadzenie do dydaktyki oglnej. Warszawa, PWN, (1987), 227.
[3] K. Kruszewski, Sztuka nauczania. Czynnosci nauczyciela. Warszawa, PWN, (1998), 112.
[4] J. Eisner, B. Jackowski, P. Labuz, D. Tokar, Wybrane cwiczenia z fizyki. Opole (1969), 31.
188
Background Aspects
3.3 Modelling
MATHEMATICAL FORMAL MODELS FOR THE LEARNING OF PHYSICS: THE
ROLE OF AN HISTORICAL EXAMPLE
Giorgio T. Bagni, Department of Mathematics, University of Roma, La Sapienza, Italy
The History of Sciences is an important tool for Didactics: in fact in this paper we study the
introduction of the concepts of work and of kinetic energy according to an historical example. Of
course, first of all it is worth noting that frequently historical development of a concept is not
suitable in order to plan curricula, although sometimes we can point out analogies between stages
of the historical development and corresponding educational stages: educational work can be
based upon the results achieved in the full historical development, and we particularly underline
that the History of Sciences makes it possible to point out mathematical formal models that can
be used in Didactics of Physics by analogy.
The 17
th
century is characterised by a great cultural vivacity. The question about which the debate
regarding the vis viva took place was the following: what is the physical magnitude that causes
the motion? According to Ren Descartes (1596-1650) (Michieli, 1949), such magnitude would be
the quantitas motus, i.e. the product of the mass of the considered body and its speed. On the
contrary, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) published the paper entitled Brevis demonstratio
erroris memorabilis Cartesii, et aliorum circa legem naturalem, secundum quam volunt a Deo
eamdem semper quantitatem motus conservari; qua et in re mechanica abutuntur
1
. He described a
simple experiment and concluded that quantitas motus cannot be considered the cause of the
motion: so it is necessary to define a new vis motrix.
Such vis motrix was introduced by Leibniz himself in the work Specimen dynamicum pro
admirandis naturae legibus circa corporum vires et mutuas actiones detergendis et ad suas causas
revocandis (1695); but Leibnitian vis motrix, or vis viva, was not clearly defined: it is not
proportional to the speed of the considered body (as quantitas motus is), but it is proportional
to the square of such speed
2
.
Of course, Leibnitian ideas too cannot be considered totally correct, from a modern point of view:
Leibniz considered implicitly his vis motrix as a real force: the modern concept of work was still
ignored.
In the development of the question about the vis motrix we must consider Gian Maria Ciassi
(1654-1679), who wrote Tractatus physicomathematicus, published in Venice in 1677 (Ciassi, 1677;
Nicolai, 1754; Pellizzari, 1830; Rambaldi, 1863; Michieli, 1949; Bagni, 1991, 1992 and 1993); in this
work we can find some interesting notes.
Ciassi was born in Treviso, Italy, on march 20, 1654, and studied in Padua (Favaro, 1917); he died,
1
Let us quote Leibniz himself: ... suppono, primo corpus cadens ex certa altitudine acquirere vim eousque rursus
assurgendi, si directio eius ita ferat, nec quicquam externorum impediat... Suppono item secundo, tanta vi opus esse ad
elevandum corpus A unius librae usque ad altitudinem CD quatuor ulnarum, quanta opus est ad elevandum corpus B
quatuor librarum, usque ad altitudinem EF unius ulnae... Hinc sequitur corpus A delapsum ex altitudine CD praecise
tantum acquisivisse virium, quantum corpus B lapsum ex altitudine EF. Nam corpus A postquam lapsu ex C pervenit ad
D, ibi habet vim reassurgendi usque ad C, per suppos. 1, hoc est vim elevandi corpus unius librae (corpus scilicet
proprium) ad altitudinem quatuor ulnarum. Et similiter corpus B postquam lapsu ex E pervenit ad F, ibi habet vim
reassurgendi usque ad E, per suppos. 1, hoc est vim elevandi corpus quatuor librarum (corpus scilicet proprium) ad
altitudinem unius ulnae. Ergo per suppos. 2, vis corporis A existentis in D, et vis corporis B existentis in E, sunt aequales.
And Leibniz concludes: itaque magnum est discrimen inter vim motricem, et quantitatem motus, ita ut unum per
alterum aestimari non possit (Leibniz, 1768).
2
Ciassi, 1677, p. 57. By work we translate Ciassis vis.
only 25 years old, in Venice. His physical work was based upon the use of mathematical tools, e.g.
geometric proofs. In Tractatus physicomathematicus Ciassis aim is the justification of some
statements exposed in Meditationes de natura plantarum, Ciassis previous work. The Author
compares the situation of a lever to the study of the equilibrium of a fluid in communicating vessels,
and surely this is the most interesting part of Ciassis Tractatus.
Let us report some remarks, in Latin original text: Immo haec ipsa altitudinis linearum a motis
corporibus descriptarum reciprocatio cum gravitate ipsorum prior causa est, aequalis momenti,
quod Galileus non advertit. Etenim corpus cum alio in hac reciprocatione constitutum unam
tantum unciam gravitans, ut elevetur ad quatuor pollices, eandem vim requirit, ac corpus gravitans
quatuor uncias, ut elevetur ad unum pollicem tantum. Puta ut corpus G unam tantum unciam
gravitans attollatur per lineam EA, cuius altitudo sit quattuor pollicum; requiritur eadem vis, ac ut
corpus F quatuor uncias gravitans attollatur per lineam DB, cuius altitudo sit tantum unius pollicis.
Quia scilicet cum in altitudine lineae EA sint quatuor partes, quarum unaquaeque est aequalis
altitudini DB totius; licet ad elevandam corpus G ad singulas harum quatuor partium requireretur
alias tantum quarta virium pars, quae requiritur in elevatione corporis F ad equalem altitudinem
totius DB; in omnibus tamen simul quatuor partibus EA requiritur quadrupla vis; quia quater ea
quarta virium pars replicatur (Ciassi, 1677, pp. 57-59).
So Ciassi states that a body
G, in the point E, to be lifted
up to the point A requests
vis as a body F in D lifted
up to the point B if and only
if the weights G and F are
inversely proportional to GC
and FC, so to the virtually
covered segments AE and
BD.
In order to appreciate the real
importance of Ciassis con-
clusions, let us underline that the
statement that P and P are
inversely proportional to h and
h is equivalent to the statement
of a similar proportionality to
the squares of the speeds v, v
referred to respective motions
of considered points (in fact h is
proportional to the square of
the speed,being 2gh).So Ciassis
statement implies the
proportionality of the vis (of
course, today, we should refer to
kinetic energy) acquired by a
dropping body to the square of
its speed and it can be considered in the theoretic frame of the problem of the vis viva, according to
Leibnitian point of view.
It is important to underline that the publication of Ciassis Tractatus physicomathematicus took place in 1677,
so nine years before the publication in Acta Eruditorum Lipsiae (1686) of the celebrated
Leibnitian work about the vis motrix: it could be interesting to investigate if Leibniz knew, in
1686, Ciassis research and results. Let us compare, for instance, some words by the considered
Authors:
189
A
B
G H C I F
D L
K E
Figure 1 (Ciassi, 1677, p. 54)
The Author geometrically proves that: AC : CD = AE : BD
so, being: GK = HE = AE/2 and FL = ID = BD/2,it follows:
AC : CD = GK : FL
Ciassi in 1677 wrote:
A body weighing one ounce, considered with
another body in such lever, and lifted up to four
inches requests the same work requested by a body
weighing four ounces lifted up to one inch
2
.
Leibniz in 1686 wrote:
I suppose that the same work is necessary either in
order to lift up a body weighing one pound to the
height of four yards, or in order to lift up a body
weighing four pounds to the height of one yard
3
.
190
3. Topical Aspects 3.3 Modelling
Of course, in this case, the similarity can be referred just to a secondary statement; moreover,
previously mentioned Ciassis main result, too, is not accompanied with clear references to the
opposition between Descartes ideas and Leibnitian solution of the problem of the vis motrix.
So we dont want to give Gian Maria Ciassi full credit for the direct solution of the considered
problem. However, Ciassis studies can be considered surely important and historically interesting.
According to Y. Chevallards terminology, as we noticed previously, we can state that the History
of Sciences is an important tool for the transposition didactique. The well known triangle of
Chevallard visualises a really frequent situation: the academic knowledge (the so-called savoir
savant) is sometimes far from the process of teaching-learning (Chevallard, 1985). So we must
draw up the savoir savant to the classroom practice, to the process of teaching-learning by the
transposition didactique: it can be achieved by the use of some historical examples, too. Once again
we must remember that the historical development is not always suitable in order to plan curricula,
although sometimes it is possible to point out an analogy between the stages of the historical
development and educational stages.
As regards the savoir savant, the historical development of a concept can be considered as the
sequence of (at least) two stages: an early, intuitive stage and a mature stage; in the early stage the
focus is mainly operational; the structural point of view is not a primary one. From the educational
point of view, a similar situation can be pointed out (Sfard, 1991): in the early stage pupils approach
concepts by intuition, without a full comprehension of the matter; then the learning becomes
better and betters, until it is mature. Of course, processes of teaching-learning take place nowadays,
after the full development of the savoir savant. So the transposition didactique, whose goal is
initially a correct development of intuitive aspects, can be based upon the results achieved in the
mature stage, too, of the development of the savoir savant.
Moreover the process of teaching-learning and the transposition didactique must consider that
pupils reactions are sometimes similar to corresponding reactions noticed in the History; this
correspondence and, of course, the knowledge of historical examples themselves are important
tools for teachers: epistemological skill is needed, and this is a matter related to teacher training.
From the educational point of view, it is worth noting that the quoted historical example deals with
the analogy between different situations, as geometric features of a lever and energy or work. Of
course, as regards analogical reasoning, we must underline that the really different propensity for
self-correction should be considered, e.g. when we compare research scientists and young students:
frequently scientists employ analogical reasoning in formulation of a conjecture, whose soundness
must be verified; on the other hand, generally students do not perform this meta-discursive
monitoring (for instance, some mathematical examples are discussed in: Bagni, 2000)
4
.
The author thanks Prof. Marisa Michelini of the University of Udine, who kindly and continuously offered
every possible help.
3
Leibniz, 1768, III, pp. 180-181. By work we translate Leibnitian vis.
4
A clear educational problem consists in the uncertainty about the effects upon the learning of teachers choices. This
uncertainty concerns particularly the cognitive transfer (Feldman & Toulmin, 1976; DAmore & Frabboni, 1996) that
must be stimulated by the teacher; and effects upon the learning must be carefully verified (DAmore, 1999): so the use
of historical examples can be useful to introduce some important topics: however their effectiveness must be carefully
controlled in order to obtain a correct, full learning.
References
Bagni G. T., Gian Maria Ciassi fisico trevigiano, Teorema, Treviso, (1991).
Bagni G. T., (1992), Gian Maria Ciassi (1654-1679) fisico trevigiano, Atti e Memorie dellAteneo di Treviso, (1991-
1992), 141-158.
Bagni G. T., La matematica nella Marca: Vincenzo, Giordano e Francesco Riccati, Edizioni Teorema, Treviso, (1993).
Bagni G.T., Simple rules and general rules in some High School students mistakes, Journal fur Mathematik
Didaktik, 21, 2, (2000), 124-138.
Chevallard Y., La transposition didactique, du savoir savant au savoir enseign, La Pense Sauvage, Grenoble, (1985).
Ciassi G.M., Meditationes de natura plantarum et Tractatus physicomathematicus De quilibrio praesertim fluidorum,
ac de levitate ignis, Benedetto Miloco, Venezia, (1677).
DAmore B. & Frabboni F., Didattica generale e didattiche disciplinari, Angeli, Milano, (1996).
DAmore B., Elementi di Didattica della Matematica, Pitagora, Bologna, (1999).
Favaro A., I successori di Galileo nello studio di Padova fino alla caduta della Repubblica, N. Archivio Veneto, 65, 1-
3, (1917).
Feldman C.F. & Toulmin S., Logic and the theory of mind, Cole, J. K. (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation
1975, Univ. of Nebraska Pr., Lincoln, London, (1976).
Leibniz G.W., Opera Omnia, Fratres de Tournes, Genevae, (1768).
Michieli A.A., Le sventure di uno scienziato trevigiano (G. M. Ciassi), Atti dellIstituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed
Arti, CVII, II, (1949).
Nicolai G. B., Lettera da Trevigi, a data 9 novembre 1754, sulla scoperta da lui fatta del libretto del Ciassi, Memorie
per servire allIstoria Letteraria, IV, V, (1754).
Pellizzari I.A., Discorso in lode di G.M. Ciassi trivigiano, Giulio Trento, Treviso, (1830).
Rambaldi G. B., Iscrizioni patrie, Longo, Treviso, (1863).
Sfard A., On the dual nature of mathematical conceptions: reflections on processes and objects as different sides of
the same coins, Educational Studies in Mathematics, 22, (1991), 1-36.
MODELLING PHYSICAL PROCESSES:THE EXAMPLE OF A MAGNETIC GLIDER
Michele DAnna, Liceo cantonale Locarno, Switzerland
1. Introduction
The teaching of physics urgently requires renewal: that is the conclusion expressed and shared by
a growing number of those in the know. There are even those who think that the issue has become a
question of the survival of physics at school. However, it is obvious we are not talking about simply
renewing the contents or the didactic methods; instead we should aim at the reassessment of the
formative function of science in general and that of physics in particular, making use of the new
instruments at our disposal in a wider educational project. Already in 1973 Arnold Arons lucidly stated:
Wider understanding of science will be achieved only by giving students a chance to synthesize
experience and thought into knowledge and understanding. Such a chance is not available in the deluge
of unintelligible names and jargon precipitated at unmanageable pace and volume in so large a
proportion of our college courses, and it is not available in the absence of humanistic, historical, or
philosophical perspectives within these courses. Neither will salvation be found in topical courses on
currently popular matters such as the energy crisis, environmental problems or societal impact - so
long as these problems are plunged into without any genuine prior understanding of the underlying
scientific ideas. (Toward wider public understanding of science, Am.J.Phys., 41, June 1973)
The use of modern technologies has therefore to be considered in the wider context of
modernisation of the science teaching. With respect to physics, it is hoped that it will stimulate new
conceptual approaches and that is offers opportunities to promote an interdisciplinary approach,
especially with mathematics. Many colleagues during this seminar will analyze the general
formative objectives of the teaching with modern instruments.
The present contribution is about a concrete example of combined use of on-line data acquisition
and modeling with a general purpose software. The student is offered the possibility of step by step
understanding both the structure of the physical laws and the fundamental role of mathematics.
This is an essential instrument to express precise relations between ideas and not an instrument to
191
perform calculations. This approach enables the study of experimental phenomena well beyond the
traditional simplified (linear stationary physics) problems of the secondary school: a welcome
possibility of dealing with more realistic situations. Not a way of increasing the already full list of
arguments, but a new viewpoint on some of them, together with the mastering of new general
methodologies. Thus we hope to enhance the quality the learning process of the student.
Lets consider the well known experiment of the fall of a magnetic dipole into a metal tube: it is a
fascinating demonstration, but experimental measurements are not simple. The usual treatment
looks at the change in the force sustaining the tube with and without the moving magnet: because
it equals the weight of the magnet, you can reasonably argue that a constant limit velocity is rapidly
attained. However the direct experimental study of the motion poses many practical problems.
The proposed experiment deals with an almost identical physical situation, but because of the
duration of transient position and time are easily and precisely measured. Moreover we can change
a few significant parameters and investigate the relations between physical quantities. The
experimental setting is very simple: add two magnets to the sides of a glider free to move down an
air track of gentle slope.
2. Description of experiment: qualitative
When you let the glider go, a simple look is persuasive of constant velocity. The behavior differs
from standard accelerated motion and makes it easy to guess the presence of a friction force, which
compensate the force parallel to the incline. How can we proceed toward a quantitative study?
To make explicit the didactical context and the students prior knowledge in mathematics and
physics, lets suppose no calculus but some acquaintance with numerical methods for the first and
some mechanics and no electromagnetism for the second.
For our experiment this implies that we have no physical hypothesis about the force of friction:
because of this we recommend each student to move the glider by hand up and down the incline
with different speeds and get the feeling of the different forces necessary to do this.
The first step is now to find the dependence of magnetic force from velocity. Time intervals are
measured with two photogates and after some trials it appears (for fixed mass and angle of incline)
that toward the end of track the velocity is fairly independent of time and position (Fig. 1a e 1b).
192
Fig. 1 a: The photogates are placed
in the middle of the track; the
glider accelerates, as shown by
comparing transit times.
Fig. 1 b: Now the photogates are
placed near the end of the track;
the glider no longer accelerates, as
shown by comparing the almost
identical transit times.
We can now investigate the dependence of the limit velocity from mass and angle, which are the
two parameters fixing the value of the parallel force, and we find a power-like behaviour of the
magnetic friction force as function of velocity (Fig 2). A linear relation is easily established and the
value of the proportionality constant calculated.
193
sin(o) = 0.0504 Ax = 2,00 cm
transit time glider mass limit velocity
(msec) (kg) (m/sec)
78.3 0.257 0.255
72 0.277 0.278
67.5 0.297 0.296
65.1 0.307 0.307
61.2 0.327 0.327
57.4 0.347 0.348
55.8 0.357 0.358
52.7 0.377 0.380
49.9 0.397 0.401
48.9 0.407 0.409
45.7 0.437 0.438
43.6 0.457 0.459
41.7 0.477 0.480
39.8 0.507 0.503
limit velocityas function of mass
y = 1.0015x + 0.0002
R
2
= 0.9993
0.100
1.000
0.1 1
glider mass (kg)
l
i
m
i
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
m
/
s
)
The same procedure can be used to investigate the dependence of the limit velocity from the angle
of the track, with similar conclusions.
3. On-line data acquisition
Once this question has been settled, its obvious to ask about the transient, that is how the limit
velocity is reached. The on-line data acquisition plays an essential role for this part of the
experiment and is achieved using a device known as a motion sensor, which essentially is an
emitter / receiver of ultrasonic waves and measures distances. Of course automatic calculations
give also velocity and acceleration, or any other function of the data which may be useful for later
comparison.
Fig. 2: Limit velocity as function of mass.
4. Modeling the experiment: quantitative
Lets now analyze the experimental results the way physicist do it: a first possibility is to solve the
Newtons equations of motion by numerical methods and obtain acceleration, velocity and position
as functions of time. Because of not constant forces entering the problem, this is the only way for
the student to compare experimental data and theoretical predictions. Recall our reference
framework the student has some acquaintance with both iterative algorithms and numerical
methods made with pocket calculators or software like Excel. To model this problem we used
Stella.
This software uses a graphic window to build the model and another window to write down the
program lines. The student literally draws the model choosing the physical quantities and the
relations between them (see Fig. 4a).
194
Graph Display
Time (s)
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
0
.
5
1
.
0
1
.
5
2
.
0
R
u
n

#
1
P
o
s
it
io
n

(
m
)
0
0
.
2
0
0
.
4
0
0
.
6
0
R
u
n

#
1
V
e
lo
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)
v(t) = v(t - dt) + (dv\dt) * dt
INIT v = vo
INFLOWS:
dv\dt = a
y(t) = y(t - dt) + (dy\dt) * dt
INIT y = yo
INFLOWS:
dy\dt = v
a = (Fparall+Fmagn)/M
alpha = 0.06{rad}
Fmagn = -k*v
Fparall = M*g*SIN(alpha)
g = 9.81{m/sec^2}
k = 0.357*9.81*0.06/(0.496){ N.sec/m}
M = 0.357{kg}
vo = 0{m/sec}
yo = 0.531{m}
measured_position = GRAPH(TIME)
(0.00, 0.531), (0.0405, 0.532), (0.0809, 0.533),
measured_velocity = GRAPH(TIME)
(0.00, 0.001), (0.0405, 0.019), ..
a
vo
Fmagn
g
v
dv\dt
yo
y
M
dy\dt
alpha
k
Fparall
~
measured position
~
measured velocity
Fig. 3: On-line data acquisition
with Motion Sensor II CI-6742
and Interface 500 (CI-6760).
Graphs were obtained with
Science Workshop Software, all
produced by Pasco.
Fig. 4 a: The integration of motion (position and velocity as function of time) is obtained with STELLA 5.1 software,
produced by High Performance Systems Inc.
The outputs of Stella are graphics and numerical tables, which of course make very straightforward
the comparison between experimental data and the predictions of the model (see Fig. 4b e 4c):
195
Fig. 4 b: The comparison between
experimental data (graph 2) and
theoretical model (graph 1)
shows a good agreement for
position as a function of time
0.00 0.86 1.72 2.58 3.44
0.00
1.00
2.00
1: y 2: measured position
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
Fig. 4 c: Comparison between
experimental data (graph 2) and
theoretical model (graph 1) for
velocity as a function of time.
0.00 0.86 1.72 2.58 3.44
0.00
0.30
0.60
1: v 2: measured velocity
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
An important didactical point is the active choice of relations made by the student: the role of
Stella is only to perform the calculations of the instructions received. The proposed comparison
with experimental data is significantly well beyond the best fitting procedure and can be used as a
simulation tool. The physical relevance of changing the value of a parameter is rapidly visualized:
in our example we can investigate relations between magnetic force and velocity other than linear
and their effect on the motion.
But the main feature, the one that best shows the potential of this method, is the possibility to
model different conceptual approaches to the description of physical phenomena. As a first
example we propose a model based on the balance of momentum (Newtons quantitas motus),
which of course will give the same graphical-numerical results for kinematical quantities.
As a second example we propose the analysis of the process in terms of energy flows: the model
represents the transfer of energy in the unit time (that is power) performed by the parallel force
and by the magnetic force. We obtain the amount of energy exchanges, and from the knowledge of
velocity, we obtain an independent evaluation of the kinetic energy increase (see Fig. 6a).
196
p(t) = p(t - dt) + (Fparall + Fmagn) * dt
INIT p = vo
INFLOWS:
Fmagn = -k*v
y(t) = y(t - dt) + (dy\dt) * dt
INIT y = yo
INFLOWS:
dy\dt = v
alpha = 0.06{rad}
g = 9.81{m/sec^2}
k = 0.42 {N.sec/m}
M = 0.357{kg}
v = p/M
vo = 0{m/sec}
yo = 0.531{m}
vo
g
p
Fparall
yo
y
M
dy\dt
alpha
k
Fmagn
v
Fig. 5: Position and velocity as function of time: the balance of momentum (exchanges).
v(t) = v(t - dt) + (dv\dt) * dt
INIT v = vo
INFLOWS:
dv\dt = a
Wgrav(t) = Wgrav(t - dt) + (Pgrav) * dt
INIT Wgrav = 0{J}
INFLOWS:
Pgrav = Fparall*v
Wmagn(t) = Wmagn(t - dt) + (Pmagn) * dt
INIT Wmagn = 0{J}
INFLOWS:
Pmagn = Fmagn*v
a = (Fparall+Fmagn)/M
alpha = 0.06{rad}
Ecin = M*v*v/2
ENERGY_BALANCE = energy_exchanges-Ecin
energy_exchanges = Wgrav+Wmagn
Fmagn = -k*v
g = 9.81{m/sec^2}
k = 0.357*9.81*0.06/(0.496){ N.sec/m}
M = 0.357{kg}
vo = 0{m/sec}
a
vo
Fmagn
g
v
dv\dt
energy exchanges
ENERGY BALANCE
M
alpha
k
Fparall
M
Wmagn
Wgrav
Pmagn
Pgrav
Ecin
Fig. 6 a: Modeling energy flows.
Looking at the graphic (v. Fig. 6b) we conclude that:
a) in the long run, energy exchanges balance: the power entering and leaving the system glider are
equal and this relates with the constancy of velocity;
b) in the short run, its evident that more energy enters the system than leaves it, the difference
remains in the system as kinetic energy.
197
Fig. 6 b: Power flows.
0.00 0.86 1.72 2.58 3.44
Time
1:
1:
1:
2:
2:
2:
-0.16
0.00
0.16
1: Pgrav 2: Pmagn
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
Fig. 6 c: The balance of stored
energy and exchanged energy.
0.00 0.86 1.72 2.58 3.44
-0.30
0.00
0.30
1: BALANCE 2: Ecin 3: Wgrav 4: Wmagn
1 1 1 1 2
2
2 2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
Looking at the graphic (which represents the complete balance of energy, traditionally referred to
as the conservation of energy) students may wonder where this result come from, because it was
not explicitly put into the model.
5. Class implementation and conclusion
This example has been implemented in a class of 16 students during the last two years of upper
secondary school. The course was named Physics and Applied Mathematics and from the beginning
particular attention was paid to experimental work and modeling in the laboratory: both the
teacher of physics and mathematics were present most of the time.
The teaching resources dedicated to the training of students with Stella and Science Workshop are
limited. After two or three lessons dedicated to simple examples of algorithms and models they
become quite autonomous, much before they can properly handle higher mathematical
instruments: eventually the exercise of modeling can help to understand the deep meaning of the
link between physics and mathematics.
Compared with the traditional lesson teacher versus students, this approach requires an active
participation which triggered more interest in the subject and, consequently, a better school results.
Of course, exercises in modeling are commonly proposed in written tests: this years final
examination also contained a problem about the magnetic glider experiment.
To sum up, we hope to open new possibilities of contents and methods both for teaching and
learning. The combined use of on-line data acquisition and modeling may help to reduce the gap
between the real world processes and traditional teaching.
We believe this approach opens a concrete perspective of change of didactical methods.
MODELLING PHENOMENA IN VARIOUS EXPERIENTAL FIELDS: THE
FRAMEWORK OF NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
C. Fazio, A. Giangalanti, G. Tarantino, I.P.Enrico Medi, Palermo, Italy
R. M. Sperandeo-Mineo, Dep. of Phys. and Astr. Sc., University of Palermo, Italy
GRIAF, Research Group on Teaching/Learning Physics, University of Palermo, Italy
1. Introduction
It is widely accepted that the general aim of physics is to interpret and predict the physical world.
Physicists frequently rely on model-based reasoning to simplify and classify complex phenomena,
to predict trends and to explain mechanisms and processes. Many research studies (Gilbert et al.,
1998) (Andaloro et al., 1991) have pointed out that model building can be a formative pedagogical
activity, since it allows pupils to better understand many content areas, enabling them to see
similarities and differences among apparently different phenomena. Consequently, a teaching
approach focusing on modelling procedures can contribute to construct a unitary view of physics
as well as to unify the scientific approach to many problems.
Definitions of a model and of what constitutes the modelling process abound in the literature
(Berry et al. (eds), 1986). We intend as modelling of an experience, or object, or system, the process
by which:
some of their relevant discrete elements are perceived to bear relationships among each other;
these relationships are expressed through equations.
In this context, modelling represents a deeper or fuller understanding of a problem and is different
from solving equations and/or fitting experimental data. As a consequence, we intend as a model
of an experience (or a system): a representation of that experience capable to be validated and to
be used for further study of that or analogue experiences.
In this paper, we present a teaching approach where different physical phenomena are analysed
using the same point of view that involves an analysis of the interaction between a system and the
environment. The analysed systems can be studied using a framework that involves the possibility
to define systems as feedback systems, i.e. systems where a retroaction tends to reduce or improve
the output.
Feedback systems can be understood using a causal loop approach (Prior D., 1986) that describes
the relationship between two parameters chosen in order to describe the system evolution (see Fig.
1a). In it, each arrow represents the influence that the tail parameter exerts over the head one. Each
arrow carries a positive or a negative sign:
a positive sign means that any change in the tail parameter of the influence link results in a
change in the head one which is in the same direction as the change in the tail parameter; thus
a decrease (or increase) in the tail parameter results in a decrease (or increase) in the quantity
associated with the head parameter.
a negative sign means that any change in the tail parameter of the influence link results in a
198
change in the head one which is in the opposite direction to the change in the tail parameter;
hence a decrease (or increase) in the tail parameter of a negatively signed causal link results in
a increase (decrease) in the quantity associated with the head one.
The combination of the two causal links of the loop model allows us to classify the nature of the
feedback at work in the model as negative or goal seeking and positive or growth promoting.
2. The case of negative feedback systems
As an example, let us consider the cooling of a cup of hot coffee left on the table. A verbal description
of this experience points that the hot coffee interacting with the environment will cool to reach the
environment temperature. Using experimental results, the temperature decrease can be
mathematically described. However, a fitting procedure is not directly connected with the
understanding of the system behaviour: to explore the major relationships, perceived by the observers
as responsible for the behavioural characteristics of the system under analysis, is an essential step. In
our case this involves the need to perceive the cooling process of a body at temperature T
b
in an
environment at constant temperature T
a
<T
b
as a negative feedback system: in fact a decrease in the
temperature difference (T
b
-T
a
) (the parameter 1 of our loop) results a decrease in the cooling rate (the
parameter 2 of our loop) and an increase in the cooling rate results a decrease in the temperature
difference between the body and the environment. In other words, the model affirms that the rate of
cooling does not increases as the cooling proceeds; instead the process continually seeks to achieve a
state of equilibrium. The causal loop for the cooling system is reported in Fig. 1b.
Other different kinds of phenomena dealing with systems evolving to equilibrium can be analysed:
body falling in a viscous fluid, emptying of a water reservoir through a small section tube, capacity
discharging process and radioactive decay can be some examples. These phenomena can all be
interpreted in the frame of negative feedback systems, i.e. systems where a retroaction that tends
to reduce the output in the system is present. It can be shown that systems are approaching the
equilibrium condition in such a way that the rate of variation of the variable y, characterising the
single phenomenon, is related to y itself according to the equation:
where k is a real positive constant and the system time evolution is described by the solution of
equation (1).
This approach makes us able to treat many different phenomena with the same mathematical
description and to use a single model that describes feedback interactions.
3. Didactic approach to modelling physical systems
The starting point of class work is the observation of phenomena. Then, the first relevant point for
the model formulation phase is the choice of the relevant features of the observed system to take
into account. This first stage of the process of abstraction involves the construction of a mental
image of the system and the first formulation of a descriptive model by using verbal or iconic
languages.
As second step, experiments are performed in order to show that a characteristic variable of the
system exhibits a clear decreasing exponential-type time dependence. Fig. 2a is an example of the
cooling process. Exporting data to a spreadsheet and using a fitting procedure, the decreasing
exponential function, y = e
-kt
, is found to be actually the best choice. A graph of the rate of variation
of temperature as a function of the temperature can also be plotted (Fig. 2b); this graph clearly
shows that T/t is directly proportional to the temperature difference, T, with a negative slope
(that, obviously, means that we are dealing with a cooling process). As a consequence, the
mathematical model describing the cooling process can be expressed in the form
199
) (
) (
t ky
dt
t dy
~ =
(1)
kT
t
T
~ =
A
A
(2)
In order to construct a more intuitive physical model that can account for the decreasing
exponential-type time dependence of a variable y, we analyse, using a spreadsheet, the emptying of
a cylinder of section S, initially full of water up to the height h
0
. We monitor the height of the liquid
in the hypothesis that the cylinder is emptied by connecting it to another one, of smaller section s
(see Fig. 3 ). Then, the smaller cylinder is cleared out and the procedure is repeated until the big
cylinder is empty.
By thinking carefully over the conditions of emptying, pupils may understand that the quantity of
water that is every time subtracted is proportional to the quantity of the liquid contained in the first
cylinder. This example can introduce pupils to the negative feedback system concept, without using
the usual calculus techniques and convince them that the function y = e
-kt
is correlated to
phenomena where a relevant variable y is proportional to its rate of variation. Moreover, using
finite difference equations, students can try to analytically write this last result as
where y represents the height of the liquid in the cylinder. This equation is, obviously, the finite
difference equivalent of eq. (1) and is the general form of eq. (2).
Using this approach, we can formulate an equation for the phenomena already studied by finding
out appropriate physical variables replacing the generic one, y, of equation (3).
In Table 1, different phenomena dealing with systems evolving toward the equilibrium are
confronted in terms of physical variables, equations and characteristic times.
200
ky
t
y
~ =
A
A
(3)
Physical
phenomenon
Physical
variable
Equilibrium
condition
Equation Solution
Characteristic
time (1/k)
Cooling of a hot
body of mass m and
specific heat c in an
environment at
constant temperature
through an exchange
surface S
Difference of
temperature
between the
body and the
environment
T
Thermal
equilibrium
T = 0
kT
t
T
~ =
A
A
kt
e T T
~
=
0
hS
cm
(obtained by
Newtons law
of cooling)
Discharge of a
capacitor C through
a resistor R
Difference of
potential
across the
capacitor
V
Electrostatic
equilibrium
V = 0
kV
t
V
~ =
A
A
kt
e V V
~
=
0
RC
(obtained by
circuit
equation)
Body of mass m
falling in a fluid of
coefficient of
viscosity
Net force
acting on the
body
F
Dynamical
equilibrium
F = 0
kF
t
F
~ =
A
A
kt
e F F
~
=
0
m
(obtained by
motion
equation)
Emptying of a R-
radius cylindrical
reservoir, containing
a liquid with density
p and viscosity j ,
through a narrow
pipe of lenght L and
radius r
Difference of
height
between the
end of the
pipe and fluid
surface
h
Idrostatic
equilibrium
h = 0
kh
t
h
~ =
A
A
kt
e h h
~
=
0
g r
L R
p
j
4
2
8
(obtained by
Poiseuille law)
Tab. 1
4. Model extension: the case of positive feedback systems
Positive feedback systems can be classified in two different categories, involving their relevant
properties:
1) systems where one or more properties are monotonically growing with time
2) systems in equilibrium (where properties are periodically dependent from time)
In order to represent the firs kind of positive feedback interaction, a non physical example can give
useful insights: a bank account. Moreover, the same framework is applicable to the phenomenon of
the avalanche production of neutrons in a fission process. Using the causal loop schema, a possible
verbal description of this phenomenon is A rate of neutron production which always tends in a
direction so as to meet the neutron number, which always adjusts to meet the rate of neutron
production.
The causal loops for the first kind of positive feedback systems is represented in Fig 4a: an increase
of the relevant parameter y results in an increase of the speed of variation of y and an increase of
the speed of variation of y results, as well, in an increase of y. Type a) causal loops are suited to
schematise the verbal description of phenomena in which there is an exponential growth of the
relevant parameter (i.e. the number of neutrons in the fission process);
In the second kind of positive feedback systems (see Fig. 4b) an increase of the relevant parameter
y results in a decrease of the speed of variation of y and an increase of the speed of variation of y
results in a decrease of y. Type b) causal loops can be used to schematise the verbal description of
phenomena regarding energy conservation, where an increase of the displacement from the
equilibrium position of a body results in a decrease of the body speed and an increase of the body
201
Fig. 1: a) Causal loop
describing the relationship
between two parameters in a
negative feedback system.
b) Causal loop describing the
cooling process
Fig. 2: a) Cooling of warm
water in melting ice. The
experiment is performed by
cooling 10 cc of water at 30 C
in a bath of melting ice.
Measures are taken with a
commercial MBL system and a
semiconductor temperature
probe; sampling speed is 0,5
samples/sec.
b) Rate of cooling of 10 cc of
water at 30 C in a bath of
melting ice with respect the
temperature difference
between the water and the ice
bath.
speed results in a decrease of the body displacement from the equilibrium position. It is easy to
think about processes that can be schematised by type b) causal loop, as the vertical up and down
motion of a ball in a gravity field, the pendulum swing or the mass-spring oscillations, when
damping is not taken into account.
It is interesting to note that real oscillating processes involve interactions between the system and
the environment connected with negative as well as positive feedback. This is clearly due to the
contemporary action of conservative and non conservative forces; so, type b) positive feedback
loop does apply only to the description of true conservative systems.
5. Conclusions
The didactic approach, here described, has been tested in courses for pre-service teacher
preparation, in order to make prospective teachers aware of an unitary approach to the study of
interactions between a system and the environment. Several parts of the modelling approach have
also been tested in some Italian High School in the context of the I.MO.PHY. (Introduction to
Modelling in PHYsics Education) Project (Sperandeo-Mineo, 2000). Teachers, who have
experimented the approach in their classrooms, have been trained through a Net-Course (including
on-line discussion) concerning the use of new technologies as well as the various modelling
procedures. The effectiveness of their classroom activities have been analysed using qualitative as
well quantitative methods (Sperandeo-Mineo, 2000). Teachers comments and criticism allowed us
to deeply modify and improve the approach as well as the Student Guides of the proposed
activities.
The evaluation procedure has been deepened through the direct observation of pupils activities
202
Fig. 3: Modelling of phenomena where
the variation of a variable y is
proportional to y itself: a cylinder of
section S, initially full of water to
height h
0
is emptied by connecting it to
another one, of smaller sections, then
clearing out the smaller cylinder. This
procedure is repeated until the first
cylinder is empty.
Fig. 4: Causal loops describing the
relationship between two parameters
in two different types of positive
feedback systems.
(performed by ourselves in some classrooms of Palermo High Schools) and the analysis of pupils
log-books and class-works. Pupils understanding of physical concepts has been evaluated using
tests and problem solving. A preliminary analysis of the results allows us to infer that the reasoning
procedures used in order to obtain a physical model of real systems have been understood by the
majority of pupils. Moreover, the focusing on the features of interactions, between the system under
scrutiny and the environment, through the construction of the feedback model has made pupils
aware of the unitary way of physics to look to the reality. Last but not the least, mathematical
properties of exponential and logarithmic functions can effectively be introduced or thoroughly
investigated by studying physical phenomena that can be described in terms of a generic variable
whose rate of variation is proportional to the same variable.
Many relevant points of the modelling procedure have been understood also by younger students;
in particular, using analogies among different phenomena, some of them became more
understandable than in the traditional approach; models can be easily implemented and the role of
different parameters pointed out through the use of a simple spreadsheet.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by M.I.U.R., S. e C. i F. project (cofin 99).
References
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simulation., International Journal of Science Education, 13, (1991), 243-254.
Berry J. S., Burghes, D. N., Huntley, I. D., G. James D. J. and A. O. Moscardini (Eds) Mathematical Modelling.
Metodology, Models and Micros. (New York: John Wiley & Sons), (1986).
J. K. Gilbert, C. Boulter and M. Rutherford, Models In Explanations: Part 1, Horses for courses?. International
Journal of Science Education, 20, (1998), 83-97.
D. E. Prior, A New Approach To Model Formulation. In Berry, J.S., Burghes, D.N., Huntley, I.D., James, D.J.G. and
Moscardini, A.O. (eds), Mathematical Modelling. Metodology, Models and Micros. (New York: John Wiley & Sons),
(1986).
R. M Sperandeo-Mineo, I.Mo.Phy. (Introduction To Modelling In Physics- Education): a Netcourse Supporting
Teachers in Implementing Tools and Teaching Strategies, Proceeding of the GIREP Conference: Physics Theacher
Education Beyond 2000: Selected papers, (London: Elsevier Editions), (2000).
THE LEARNING OF MODELING: A SCIENTISTS VISION
Stella Maris Islas, Departamento de Formacin Docente, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas-
Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, - Campus Universitario,
Tandil, Argentina
Marta A. Pesa, Departamento de Fsica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Tecnologa, - Universidad
Nacional de Tucumn, Tucumn, Argentina
1. Why to study modeling in a population of experts
If we are to attempt a model-based teaching and learning approach (Clement, 2000), it is necessary
to clarify learning questions from different points of view. We consider that the way in which
experts in models work on the topic with their students, as well as their experiences in the learning
of modeling are data that can guide one of the possible ways of facing this problem (Nersessian,
1995).
Since scientists elaborate and use models in a very conscientious way, knowing the ways of
modeling they use can enrich the wealth of knowledge on this topic.
The cognitive demands of modeling on students (Harrison-Treagust, 2000) are not the same as on
an expert; for that reason we should be careful when extrapolating results from this population. The
purpose of this report is to offer information given by these experts in modeling, without suggesting
that their experience should be taken as an example a learning process to be followed.
203
2. What we mean for scientific model
Having in mind the multiple meanings of the word model (Bunge, 1985, p. 455; Samaja, 1993, p.
246) we begin this presentation by making explicit the vision from which our work has been
approached. More detailed epistemological explanations can be found in Islas-Pesa (2000)
A scientific model is a type of theoretical construct that -together with the other components of the
body of a theory guides the observation of reality, the posing of a problem, and other
characteristic strategies of scientific research. We can mention Bunge (1985), Laudan (1986),
Toulmin (1964), Bachelard (1991), among the thinkers that accept this notion. Other similar views
concerning this topic may be found in Halloun (1996), Van Driel - Ver Loop (1999), Nersessian
(1995), Snyder (2000), among others.
For the analysis of scientific models construction, we start from the notion of mental model: the
mental model is an internal representation of information that is similar to the information
represented (Moreira, 1998). The analogous characteristic of this correspondence explains why it
is possible to have several models for the same object, system or event, and it depends on the
modelers experiences on that part of reality, as well as on their beliefs and intentions.
As every internal representation, mental models are idiosyncratic, so they cannot be directly
explored. Their peculiarities can be inferred studying the expressions generated from them, which
can be verbal, symbolic and/or material (Halloun, 1996; Nersessian, 1992).
Experimental designs, algebraic expressions, graphics, etc. are some visible manifestations of the
mental model that a scientist elaborates in order to solve research questions. When producing such
manifestations theoretical and experimental revisions become at stake. This, together with the
consensus conditions within the scientific community show the scientist the most appropriate
expression format to share his/her model with their colleagues. In this way, he/she builds a model
(expressed model) which is useful for his work and it may become a new scientific consensual
model if his colleagues agree with him (J. Gilbert et al, 1998).
This pathway should not be interpreted as linear. As every process of knowledge construction, it
suffers modifications at different stages. There is feedback from the researcher himself (natural
evolution of any mental model; Moreira, 1999) and also from the scientific community (colleagues
opinions and referees, reports obtained in publications, congresses, etc.). The scientific models
evolve along time and there are several different acceptable models for a certain fact or
phenomenon at the same time (Grosslight et al, 1991; Snyder, 2000).
Following J. Gilbert terminology, we consider a teaching model as: a specially constructed
expressed model used by teachers to aid the understanding of a given consensus model (J. Gilbert
et al, 1998). When designing a teaching model we should consider students previous knowledge, as
well as their interests and cognitive abilities.
When students show mental models consistent with the scientific model to which they refer, there
is a certain guarantee that the use of teaching model has achieved its purpose. The teaching model
acts as mediator between the scientific model and the mental models that students generate. These
mental models can be explored analyzing the answers given by those students to the questions
posed in class.
In this report we will present results related to the way in which some scientists express themselves
when referring to the teaching models they use in class, and their experiences with modeling. In the
next section we briefly describe the characteristics of the research that frames the work here
exposed.
3. Brief review of the research carried out
The sources of data for our study were the manifestations registered during semi-structured
individual interviews, carried out at the Hard Sciences Faculty at Universidad Nacional del Centro,
located in Tandil (Argentina). We carried out a substantive sampling (Samaja, 1993) in the
mentioned Faculty selecting: eight working scientists, six advanced students from the Physics
courses, and six teachers who graduated there and are now schoolteachers. In this report, the
204
attention will be exclusively placed on the scientists subjects.
The interviews were based on protocols with open questions that required the interviewees to talk
about their concept of model (variable 1) and about their personal experiences in modeling
(variable 2). In this way we obtained data on both variables, then we processed this information
from literal transcriptions of the interviews using a system of categories (Dey, 1993).
4. The Exploratory character of the research
We call this piece of research exploratory (Samaja, 1993) because there is no systematized
knowledge from a theory on the learning of models yet (Gobert - Buckley, 2000). In the specialized
literature there are interesting discussions about the way in which some eminent scientists such as
Maxwell have made models (see Nersessian, 1992), but reports on modeling in current scientific
populations (Grosslight et al, 1991; Islas-Pesa, 2000) are rare. It is still more difficult to find
information on the process of construction of the concept of scientific model in the current
scientific community.
Our purpose is to present data gathered in a certain population, which could be integrated in the
body of knowledge concerned with the learning of scientific models. Although in the last years this
topic is being recognized (Clement, 2000) it still lacks a theoretical systematization (Gobert-
Buckley, 2000).
We also hope the results of this exploratory investigation are able to generate new hypotheses and
new research on this matter (in this objective we coincide with Aiello-Sperandeo, 2000).
5. Results
From the data gathered from the group of scientists for the second variable, we will detail those
that are most strongly related to the process of construction of the notion of the scientific model.
Those are their own learning experiences, and the didactic strategies that they use to help their
students in such a process.
6. Personal experiences related to scientific models
With the purpose of analyzing them, we can divide these experiences in three groups:
1) The experiences of these scientists when learning modeling.
They dont remember any classroom situations in which the topic of modeling was specifically
explained when they were university students. Rather, their initiation in the use of models is
closely related to the environment of research tasks.
Although they dont say anything about finding it difficult to use models in their current work,
they remember having had problems when they were students, especially in the first years at
university. Not all of them agree on the effectiveness of explanations of models in the classroom,
especially when students have scarce conceptual preparation and rudimentary mathematical
tools. This result must be interpreted keeping in mind that they are referring to traditional
lessons; those they attended, in which the teachers role was to offer explanations, but they did
not use any other strategies.
All of them coincide in that modeling becomes comprehensible for them when they faced
research problems. They start practicing research during the last year of their degree course of
studies. This was done under the supervision of an expert. Progress in the understanding of
modeling occurs when they carry out research, till they reached a point when they were able to
design their own models.
They think highly of the experts contribution, mainly when they have just become members
of research teams. The gathered information allows us to suppose that none of them conceives
the learning of modeling without the guide of a competent scientist.
2) The handling of models within their research activities
1
.
205
1
As this report focuses on learning, we refer briefly to these results to offer the reader a framework to understand the
central topics.
The main function of models in these scientists activity is to guide all the stages in the solution
of research problems. During such stages each model is corrected by experimental control. The
models are also useful to explain and describe what is observed.
The scientist establishes the limits of validity of his model according to the variable selection
practiced and the verification of the systemic frame of the model within an accepted theory.
These limits are quantified through experimental control, by measuring and Calculating errors.
Some of them spontaneously direct the dialogue to the control of research results within the
scientific community. They give relevance to the opinions of those who evaluate their
publications and to contributions that they receive from colleagues (work teams, meetings,
congresses, conferences, etc.)
3) The handling of models in the teaching of Physics at university.
The teaching models that they use in university lessons could be described as a simplified
version of the models they use in their research work. To find a model which is simple enough
for the cognitive abilities of their students they select those variables that allow a simpler
mathematical treatment than those used in professional research. One of the interviewees points
out another difference: the teaching models are less flexible and creative than those used in
research: he uses only consensual models.
To facilitate the understanding of modeling, they use references to accessible models (e.g.:
ideal gas model) to introduce some topics and they take examples from the history of science.
In both cases, the basic idea is to sequence learning from the simplest thing to the most complex
one.
The handling of models is more intensive and fruitful when done with advanced students than
with younger ones because the former have better conceptual and mathematics tools. Some
novice students, who lack those tools, do not interpret the physical meaning of mathematical
language. This is the biggest concern for these scientists as regard the handling of models in class.
They try to overcome this problem asking students to: 1) explain the way in which they link
mathematical entities to the physical phenomena represented, 2) analyze the physical meaning
of the problem results they obtain, and 3) discuss the error intervals implied in the mathematical
development and/or in the experimental task.
Students usually change the direction of the model-reality relationship, considering that reality
should obey the rules settled by the model. From this vision the model regulates nature. The
researchers point out that tasks done using computer simulation can reinforce this idea. If they
are not cautious enough in this respect students may think that simulation is the should-be of
reality (we agree on this with Harrison-Treagust, 2000).
7. Final comments
Revising the way in which these scientists evoke their learning of modeling, the role of research
practice appears to be the most important factor. Having in mind that the ways to knowledge
construction in a scientist and in a student are not exactly the same, we should not expect students
to do the same kind of research scientists do. But anyway, we should help students to come closer
to research to build knowledge of modeling.
The results we obtained suggest that traditional lessons on modeling would not be the best strategy
to develop understanding of this issue. None of these scientists remember having had that sort of
lessons, and neither of them admit doing so as a university professor. Discussions on each of the
problems they solve promote reflection on those topics that are sources of difficulties for their
students. These are: the link between reality and its representations, the factual meaning of
mathematical expressions and the building of links between the theoretical construct and the
experimental activity.
References
Aiello-Nicosia M. L., Sperandeo-Mineo R. M., Educational reconstruction of physics content to be taught of pre-
service teacher training: a case study. International Journal of Science Education, 22, (10), (2000) 1085-1097.
206
Bachelard, G., La formacin del espritu cientfico. Siglo XXI, Editores Mxico, (1991).
Bunge M., La investigacin cientfica, Ed. Ariel Espaa, (1985).
Clement J., Model based learning as a key research area for science education International Journal of Science
Education, 22, (9), (2000), 1041-1053.
Dey I., Qualitative Data Analysis, Ed. Rotledge, USA, (1993).
Gilbert J., Boulter C., Rutherford M., Models in explanations, Part 1: Horses for courses?. International Journal of
Science Education, 20 (1), (1998), 83-97.
Gobert J., Buckley B., Introduction to model-based teaching and learning in science education., International Journal
of Science Education, 22, (9), (2000), 891-894.
Grosslight L., Unger C., Jay E., Understanding Models and their Use in Science: Conceptions of Middle and High
School Students and Experts, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28, (9), (1991), 799-822.
Halloun I., Schematic Modeling for Meaninful Learning of Physics, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, (9),
(1996), 1019-1041.
Harrison A., Treagust D., A typology of school science models. International Journal of Science Education, 22, (9),
(2000), 1011-1026.
Islas S., Pesa M., El manejo de modelos cientficos en las clases universitarias, Memorias del V Simposio de
Investigadores en Educacin en Fsica, Santa Fe, Argentina, (2000).
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Cognitive models of Science, Vol. XV, (Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science), University of Minnesota
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Nersessian N., Should Physicists Preach What They Practice?, Science & Education, 4, (1995), 203-226.
Moreira M., Modelos Mentais. Investigaciones en Enseanza de las Ciencias, 1, (3), (1998), 193-232.
Samaja J., Epistemologa y metodologa, Eudeba, Buenos Aires, (1993).
Snyder J., An investigation of the knowledge structures of experts, intermediates and novices in physics, International
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Toulmin S., La Filosofa de la Ciencia, Ed. Compaa General Fabril Editora, Buenos Aires, (1964).
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Education, 21, (11), (1999), 1141-1153.
MODELLING WITHOUT NUMBERS
Ian Lawrence, School of Education, University of Birmingham, UK
Within information and communication technology (ICT) use in the UK there has been an
evolution that has seen many choose to take up ICT, seeing it as a tool to allow more time to be
devoted to higher order thinking during science lessons. Whilst this is not universal, it has been a
distinctive trend over the last few years. As ICT becomes less special, and more pervasive, so use
within science classes approaches the pattern for other pieces of laboratory apparatus, being
selected on merit when it is the appropriate tool for the job. One exemplification of this trend,
special to science laboratories, is in the use of ICT to display and capture experimental data. In the
early days it was enough to get the graph on the screen. Now this is just the beginning; the screen
becomes a playground for shared ideas, trying to encourage learners to shape the data to explore
shared conceptions of the world. This plasticity extends to capturing several sets of data under
slightly different conditions and looking for patterns in the data, always seeking to actively make
sense of the world rather than just inspecting what is there. Although, since Galileo, and perhaps
even before, the power of numbers has been explicit within the sciences; these activities can now
take place without the explicit mediation of numbers. We allow the computer to mask these from
us, dealing only with the strategic decisions, looking for patterns in the numbers. Elsewhere
Laurence Rogers has written of the magic of graphs, seeking to emphasise the patterns that arise
from measurement, without necessarily looking at the numbers produced by the measurements
themselves. The computer can relieve the pressure on the tactical decisions, so allowing
concentration on the higher order skills of seeking and then exploring the patterns.
Now I think the time is ripe for another step. Without concentrating on the numbers that underlie
207
so much of science we can allow access to more of the creative aspects of science, emphasising
synthetic skills. I mean that we should be able to use the computer as a medium to think with in
reasoning about the world. A combination of a supportive didactic approach with the necessary
software and hardware resources can allow children to explore, modify, and even construct their
own functioning models of the world and then to compare these models with the world. This
comparison is vital, yet constrained and constraining. At the frontiers of science much comparison
is done by comparing the numerical predictions of a theory with the best measurements that we
have. For students in the early years of secondary education, say 11-14 years old, this is not a
possibility. These students are not yet in a position to make authentic measurements, even in a
pedagogically contrived context, nor are their skills with numbers sufficiently well developed that
they can develop fully quantitative models. Both of these point to a solution that mixes
appreciation of the correct qualitative behaviour of a model with the quantitative features coming
out about right. This domain of thought might be labelled the semi-quantitative, having parallels
with back of the envelope calculations and with everyday reasoning about the rough and ready
magnitudes of things. This latter is very well developed, evolutionary and cultural pressures having
developed this model of thought to such an extent that this everyday reasoning is extremely
effective in allowing us to survive and even prosper. In fact we might see the computer as an
prosthetic, allowing the mobilisation and extension of these leaned behaviours in the service of
getting started on the processes of reasoning in the sciences.
In post 16 education there has already been a significant amount of work done in modelling, both
a school and university. In the context of school based innovations in physics significant steps might
include elements such as the use of Modellus in Advancing Physics [Lawrence, I and Whitehouse,
M (eds) (2000), Lawrence, I and Whitehouse, M (eds) (2001)] and the use of the Dynamic
Modelling System in the revised Nuffield Physics[Harris,J (ed) (1995)]. Both of these allow modes
of thinking in classrooms that are qualitatively different from what went before, by providing this
intellectual prosthetic. Yet in these cases effective use of the aid requires competence with
arithmetic and algebra. A lack of competence and confidence in these areas reduces the impact of
the modelling process, impeding the thinking and often reducing the modelling experience to an
experience of observing a simulation, perhaps preceded by some heavily guided typing. This
experience of the simulation may be valuable in itself, in that a functional understanding of the
system might be reached, but the mechanisms will remain out of reach as the learners will not be
manipulating or effectively interacting with the rules of the system, only looking at inputs and
outputs.
So to modelling and the prospects that it offers for the engagement of younger students with the
mechanisms that might underlie the world in which they live. What prospects are there for
environments in which they might create functioning worlds, expressing their own ideas about
how these worlds interact? Inspection of the computer packages on work that has been done so
far [ Starlogo, Agentsheets, Stagecast Creator, WorldMaker, LinkIt and Stella], looking carefully
at the structures of physical theories [Barbour, J (1999)], and taking advice from those who have
thought about learning in the sciences [Ogborn, J. (2000)] makes it likely that all modelling can
be usefully described in terms of one of two ontological categories. All modelling environments
in which the worlds can be constructed at least within the target domain, fall into one of two
categories.
Some environments have as their building blocks objects and their associated properties, Others
present variables and their relationships as the fundamental building blocks. Drawing attention to
either of these pairs of fundamental building blocks may help students to see the structures of the
sciences, laying bare the elements put together in order to construct understandings of the world.
Seeing these fundamentals in action can allow intuitions to develop about the nature of the whole
without too much abstract theorising.
In addition it is possible to see how sensitive routes from everyday thinking displayed by children
of the target age group can be mobilised and developed to build up competences in theorising in
208
the sciences. This is not to say that such developments will be easy, but that such a route is worthy
of exploration.
There is some evidence that children do in fact think of rough and ready quantities and the
relationships between them, as a part of their everyday experience. [Ogborn, J (undated)]. Analysis
of everyday discourse of adults supports the notion that this mode of reasoning continues into later
life. From this line of thought comes the scientific development that becomes reasoning about
principles. This is a specialised sub-domain of the whole region in which people reason about
ordered quantities, with its own carefully constructed rules and premises, carefully mapped onto,
and perhaps helping to create, the worlds that they describe.
A second mode of thinking grows from the importance of narrative in learning, met in stories
creating explanatory worlds and heard in many different cultures. Engaging with meaningful
learning in the sciences is much like sitting listening to one of these fireside stories, engaging the
imagination to see how the actors within the story develop and interact to account for the
explanandum of the story. In modelling the parallel process is refining objects (getting to know
characters better and better) as you add more and more properties to the basic actor, so both
developing and constraining possible actions. In the sciences the specialised sub-domain of this
mode of reasoning is the appeal to causal mechanisms, a chain of sufficient causes resulting in
actions that mirror events in the real world. The scientific and everyday modes of thinking point
towards the possibility of constructive learning when the thinking process is based on objects and
properties.
So modelling in the sciences seems to require two complementary approaches; one based on
objects and rules by which they interact, perhaps captured by their properties, and another, built on
a fundamentally different basis, that allows reasoning with quantities that need not be fully
quantified, linked by relationships that affect the values of those quantities.
As a sample of these two approaches consider models that might be made with two separate
computing packages, both under development and both realised in Java.
First WorldMaker, modelling the world of buses and anti-buses. producing jets where these collide.
Buses move left to right, antibuses right to left. Collisions result in excited states which can then
result in jets, that move off at right angles to the incident particles. Altering the luminosity of the
beams and the collision cross-sections allows the frequency of jet production to be modelled.
Objects are subjected to rules in order to characterise their interactions. The model outcomes can
then be compared with real world outcomes in order to see how well the rules embedded in the
model might mirror the regularities in our world.
Next VnR, modelling the actions of a pair of antagonistic muscles:
209
The biceps and triceps are in opposition, respecting the leverage each provides. The net pull, which
can be positive or negative, drives the rate of change of position of the forearm.
In a more complex example, VnR models simple harmonic motion. A series of pictures shows how
the model evolves over time:
210
Please note that this is an early version of the software, so that the feedback loop does not lie as
one might like it to, in order to make the diagram as readable as possible.
In both of these we see the essential features that make the computer such a valuable tool in
implementing these environments.
A shared public space for thinking. What one learner writes, another can read back, and then
comment on, and modify. The process of constructing the model is both interactive and iterative.
An environment which can present partially or fully completed models, so allowing the
modelling environment to be connected to the domain in which the models are to be built. A
part of the domain can be [Rader, C et Al (undated)] expressed. Content free tools may be
necessary for flexibility, but teacher controlled scaffolding is essential to help connect students
to the domain in which their skills and aptitudes are to be engaged in the service of learning. It
is also true that both of these programs developed on the basis of a good deal of classroom
experience, so allowing space for the atmosphere of the classroom to invade the design of the
software [Hinostroza, J.E. & Mellar, H (2001)]. In both cases the approach to the modelling
process can be mediated by the teacher by providing appropriate routes into the modelling
activity and by some preparatory work within the modelling environment itself.
Ease of reading of the model - The chains of thought that went into constructing the model be
easily read back so that fruitful interactions, including discussion, can take place between the
learners working around and on the screen. Furthermore the learning required to make progress
in reading back these models is not so large - the modelling environments are accessible without
making large investments of time in learning to read the language necessary to be an effective
agent in the environment.
Most of the progress in making modelling tools for the target age range has been focused on
modelling tools developed using objects and properties, so in am attempt to compare the two kinds
I have spent some time developing an alternative based on variables and relationships. Here is a
short description of some thoughts and some indications of progress so far.
Variables are represented by bars, showing values from as large as can be imagined (positive only,
or both positive and negative) to zero.
These variables can be altered, by dragging the top of the bar, or linked via a selection of
relationships, to other variables:
The strength and combinations of these relationships can then be altered, to make different
models.
211
Build and Run toolbars control the process, allowing interaction with the model whilst the
inferred difference equations are calculated, allowing the model to show what has been
programmed.
In effect this is a development based on the work of Sampaio [Sampaio (1996)].
The next step will be to compare the differences in the learners thinking when using the two
systems, seeing if the differences in the ontology produce different strands of reasoning in the
learning process. In the same way that expert thinkers in their fields can switch modes so as to
match the task at hand, so learners might also need this flexible facility.
References
Ogborn J., (2000) Round table. Girep Phyteb (2002). Comments from the table.
Hinostroza J.E. & Mellar H., (2001), Pedagogy embedded in educational software design:report of a case study
Computers &Education, 37, (2001), 27 40.
Hitchins D.K., (2000), System Thinking.
www.hitchings .co.uk./systhink.html [11/06/2001]
Rader C. et al (undated) Rader C., Cherry G., Brand C., Repenning A. and Lewis C.: Designing Mixed textual and
Iconic Programming Languages for Novice Users
http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~crader/VL98/VL98.html [ 20/03/2001].
Ogborn J., (undated) Cognitive Modelling and Qualitative Development. Personal communication 06/1998.
Lawrence I. and Whitehouse M. (eds) (2000) Advancing Physics AS CD. Bristol. Institute of Physics Publishing. ISBN
0-7503-0735-8
Lawrence I. and Whitehouse, M. (eds) (2001) Advancing Physics A2 CD. Bristol. Institute of Physics Publishing.
ISBN 0-7503-0737-4
Harris J., (ed) Revised Nuffield Advanced Physics. Harlow. Longman, (1985).
Barbour J., The End of Time, London, Weidenfield and Nicholson, (1999).
Sampaio FF, LinkIt: Design, development and testing of a semi-quantitative computer modelling tool, Unpublished
PhD Thesis. Department of Science and Technology, Institute of Education, University of London, (1996).
LEARNING DATA ANALYSIS
Dario Moreno, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico, D.F.
Gabriela del Valle, Division de Ciencias Basicas e Ingenieria, Universidad Autonoma
Metropolitana, Azcapotzalco, Mexico, D.F.
1. Introduction
In physics we use probabilistic tools to interpret experimental data, but as is well known,
probabilistic reasoning requires the higest level of formal thinking. This presents a difficult problem
to university physics teachers, since most of their beginning students have not reached this stage of
cognitive development.
To promote the passage of students to this higher level of understanding, we have devised a
sequence of lab and computational activities to offer the students the opportunity to acquire some
stochastic experience and we want to share with you this teaching strategy that we have been using
for several years.
We make our students start by playing real games of chance (dice, cards, roulette) and then, in the
spirit of the pioneering work of Janez Ferbar [1] and George Marx [2], they simulate part of
the game that nature plays in the labs.
Our first aim is to show students that in physics any measurement produces not a single number,
but a distribution. It is easy to see that this variability may be hidden by using the wrong
instrument; for example by using a calendar to measure the time needed to run 100 meters; but we
may also disguise variability when we use digital instrumentation.
Usually the distributions students find belong to a family with a hump in the middle and our
first task is to learn how to describe them by using just a few parameters. As an indicator of
location we introduce the usual mean value, X. Although we could start by using variances as a
212
measure of dispersion, for didactical reasons we prefer to use the range, the difference between the
largest and the smallest observation [3].
Using the computer to generate observations, students see that out of chance and chaos, some
regularities emerge. These regularities refer mainly to the stability of the relative frequencies with
which certain results occur. These relative frequencies (or proportions) lead in a natural way to the
introduction of the concept of probability.
Chance is a peculiar mixture of two apparently contradictory ingredients: stability and variability;
and extrapolating from our own experience, we believe that we must allow students the time
necessary to get familiar with randomness. Before the advent of computers, this was impossible
to do in a short time, but now computers are so fast that we have enough time to play with
random-walks, Markov processes, chaotic dynamics and other games that contribute to our fun
and stochastic education.
Once the students recognize that the outcome of an experiment is a distribution, computers allow
them to generate their own data.
For this, we use the function RND that is available in most computer languages. The uniform
distribution in (0,1) that RND provides is the mother distribution for many others and
constitutes the starting point to introduce averages and dispersion parameters. We do not want to
use new technology just to teach the same old formulas! Our aim is not numbers, but insight.
To be realists, we must recognize some hard facts: 1) in the elementary labs, one rarely takes
more than 6-8 measurements of the same magnitude, 2) nobody knows the exact shape of the
distribution of students measurements (we only know for sure that these distributions are not
strictly gaussian); 3) there are quick and easy ways, using the range and other order statistics, to get
confidence intervals for most statistical parameters.
Last but not least, students can get a feeling of the confidence they can have on their results, by
using the betting interpretation of probabilities; i.e. we say that we are reasonable sure of some
outcome if we can bet on it 20 against 1 without going broke.
We want not to just describe variability, but we want to make predictions in spite of it. Then the
final task emerges: to find an interval where we can be pretty sure the experimental results will
land if some one repeats our experiment using the same methods and equipment. The end result is
a procedure that gives confidence intervals to be used to predict what will happen if our experiment
is repeated many times somewhere else.
Former GIREP Proceedings are very useful even for people that did not attend the events, and we
are trying to reach that level of usefulness, even if that means starting at a too elementary level and
repeating things that most of you may know. Sorry about this.
2. Using the function RND
The function RND produces list of numbers in the open interval (0,1). In QuickBasic, the order
For j=l to 12
PRINT RND
Next j
produces a dozen of numbers of the type 0.44588, 0.84512, etc.
If we start with the order RANDOMIZE TIMER, every time we run the program we will get a
different dozen.
The most important property of the numbers produced by RND is that although they are produced
in no special sequence, they end up by being uniformly distributed in the interval (0,1).
The students discover all the properties of RND by writing their own programs. As a sub product,
they come in contact with the limitations of the arithmetic that computers use. This is an
important cultural byproduct, helping them to put in perspective the phrase the computer says,
so common among illiterate people.
213
3. Generation of pseudo-results
Starting from RND, we can simulate a student making measurements of a physical magnitude.
The main problem is to decide wich distribution to use. In fact nobody knows actually which
distribution students measurements follow. Many teachers think that it is a perfect gaussian, but
that is not true. If this were true, then when you measure the diameter of a pencil, then there
would be a probability different from zero that your pencil has a negative diameter. The main
reason to use the gaussian has being historial simplicity, but nowadays computers are allowing us
to be more realistic.
4. Generating data
Some people have studied which distribution fits the measurements made by students and they
have found that it is more like a beta distribution, with a and b larger than zero. Even with
computers this is a complication, so the suggestion has been made that the distribution to use
should be a superposition of two gaussians with different variances. Conforted by the existence of
the central limit theorem, we have used the distribution arising from the sum of twelve RND (so
that the variance is unit) and shifting it in such a way that its mean is zero.
If you are a believer in normality, you may start from a flat distribution in (0,1) and use a
transformation like Box-Muller or an algorithm like Marsaglias, but most students will not
understand you.
5. Analizing data
Even in Mexico, you can buy software that either fits straight-lines to your data or does other
statistical duties, like calculating averages and variances. The trouble is that most of this software
produce worthless results. For example, experimental points are assumed to have uncertainties only
along one axis and in the case of a well known commercial package, ... some variances turn up being
negative! What is worse, some students may report this nonsense, showing that their understanding
is nil.
This is one of the reasons we have decided to use the range as a measurement of dispersion and the
twenty against 1 confidence interval as a final assessment of reliability.
As we have said, we do not want that the students just use a magical recipe derived by
someone else to asses their data. In a certain sense, every student writes his own program to find
a 95% confidence interval. They have experimentally found that the raw range grows as the sample
size grows but since they are not trying to be absolutely sure but only reasonably sure, clipping the
range is fair enough.
This is a sample of the program used by students to get the boundaries of their intervals of
confidence. We have suggested a program that everybody can understand. Besides, it is fast enough
for our teaching purposes.
Randomize timer
GOSUB CONSTANTES
GOSUB LABELS
FOR LL = 1 TO 10
FOR J = 1 TO NT
GOSUB GENERATE
IF Al < 0 AND Bl > 0 THEN Q = Q + 1
NEXTj
IF Q > 9500 THEN HIGH = HIGH + 1
IF Q < 9500 THEN LOW = LOW + 1
LOCATE , 20: PRINT Q; HITS
Q = 0
NEXT LL
PRINT HIGH; HIGS ; LOW; LOWS
END
214
CONSTANTES:
CLS : CONST DOCE = 12
Cn = 0.51
NS = 5
NT = 10000
RETURN
GENERATE:
R = 0
FOR BB = 1 TO DOCE
R = R + RND
NEXT BB
X= R-6
RETURN
LABELS:
PRINT NUMBER OF HITS IN INTERVAL (X - Cn*RANGE,X + Cn* RANGE)
PRINT TOTAL OF TRIALS NT = ; NT; SERIES OF NS =; NS; MEASUREMENTS EACH
PRINT TESTING C(;NS;) =; Cn: PRINT
RETURN
The final product of using this program, is a table giving us the value of C
n
to be used to find the
borders of the confidence interval that allows us to bet 20 against 1:
(X - C
n
Range, X + C
n
Range)
This is part of the table (the most important part):
n 2 3 5 10 20
C
n
6.4 1.3 .51 .23 . 12
6. Final comments
Please notice that we are not preaching a new testament to replace the old one. Usually
experimental uncertainties are so badly handled in the introductory labs, that their main purpose
seems to please the lab instructor. We are not proposing a new recipe to please a new
instructor but we are trying to offer some experience with stochastic processes. What we want is
to provide students with the opportunity to play with chance as a first step to begin thinking
probabilistically.
After using this approach many times with our students, we feel reasonably sure that most of them,
at the end of the semester, handle numbers that they do understand... in 19 cases out of 20.
References
[1] G. Marx, Games Nature Play, Physics Education
[2] B.J.T. Morgan, Elements of simulation,Chapman and Hill, (1984), Chapter 4.
[3] F. Mosteller, R.E.K. Bourke, Sturdy Statistics, Addison-Wesley (1973), Chapter 14.
MODELS - THE BASICS OF PHYSICAL THINKING. CONCLUSIONS FOR
MULTIMEDIA
Romanovskis Tomass, Institut fr Experimentalphysik, Universitt Hamburg, Germany, on leave
from Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, Latvia University, Riga, Latvia
1. Models in physics
A look in the high school and university textbooks of physics shows that models are very important
in teaching physics. Mass point, elastic and inelastic collision, rigid body, blackbody, ideal gas, ideal
engine, incompressible liquid, laminar flow, crystal lattice, the raisin cookie model of the atom, the
215
planetary model of the atom, Bohr model of the atom, Solar system, uniform motion, free fall
model, harmonic motion, wave, electric charge, electric field, photon are a few to mention.
Regretfully, models and the role they play in understanding the physical world are not much
explained in the textbooks. Models are rather neglected even in didactics of physics.
The Russian physicist N. Umov was the first to make serious comments concerning the role of
models in physical thinking and knowledge. In 1909 he wrote that our perception of the world, from
the very simplest everyday experience to its most sophisticated contents, is a collection of models
presenting a more or less successful reflection of reality [1].
2. Galileos four stages of physical reflection
Galileo was the first to propose a model of advancement of rational thinking. He formulated four
stages of physical reflection: acquisition of facts, modelling, drawing conclusions, and verifying the
latter by experiment [2]. These stages can be recognised in writings of many physicists. The Russian
scientist Razumovsky has put them in a simple cyclic model of rational thinking [3] .
A striking manifestation of the
evolution of physical thinking the
author found in Descartes paper
about the rainbow [4]. Descartes
announces that he has found a method
of obtaining new knowledge
concerning the rainbow. Essentially
the method is modelling a rainbow by
a single drop of water presented as a
glass sphere filled with water.
Descartes made a numerical
simulation (likely the first one in the
history of physics) calculating the
angle between light rays going in
and coming out of the drop after refraction, internal reflection and second refraction at the surface
for tens of rays. Assuming a refraction index of n=4/3 the conclusion was made that the angle
between the rays going in and coming out cannot exceed 41.5 degrees in the main rainbow and is
at least 51.5 degrees in the additional rainbow. Experiments with a natural rainbow and a ball of
water confirmed the validity of Descartes rainbow model.
Newton has also appreciated Galileos model of evolution of rational thinking (I.Newton. Opticks.
Dover Publications, Inc, 1952, Preface, p. XXIV):
For the best and safest method of philosophising seems to be, first diligently to investigate the
properties of things (1. Facts) and establish them by experiment, and then to seek hypotheses (2.
Model) to explain the properties of things (3. Conclusions) and not to attempt to predetermine
them, except in so far as they can be aid to experiments (4. Experiment)
3. Two levels of physical reflection. Feynmans four stages of physical reflection
A rapid advancement of theoretical physics started after Galileo. The Huygens-Fresnel principle
was discovered, Fermats principle of shortest time, conservation of momentum and energy,
dAlemberts, Legendres, and Hamilton principles. Feynmans reflections on the subject discussed
on the example of geometrical optics [5] may help to understand this period in the history of
physics.
Although geometrical optics is just an approximation, it is of very great importance technically
and of great interest historically. We shall present this subject more historically than some of the
others in order to give some idea of the development of a physical theory or physical idea.
Feynman noticed that everyday experience in a natural way favours the ray model. Then he
considers reflection and refraction experiments and turned to the advancement of physical
thinking providing evidence for Galileos 4-stage model of rational thinking.
216
3. CONCLUSIONS 2. MODELS
1. FACTS 4. EXPERIMENT
Fig. 1: Galileos four stages of physical reflection
1. First we observe an effect, then we measure it and list it in a table;
2. Then we try to find the rule by which one thing can be connected with another. The rule,
found by Willebrord Snell, a Dutch mathematician, is as follows sin
I
= n sin
r
. For water
the number n is approximately 1.33.
3. Equation (26.2) is called Snells law; it permits us to predict how the light is going to bend
when it goes from air into water.
4. Table (26.2) shows the angles in air and in water according to Snells law. Note the
remarkable agreement with Ptolemys list.
However, Feynman considered a further advancement of physical reflection at a higher level
unpredictable at the time of Galileo. Actually we encounter a new cycle of advancement of physical
reflection where facts are not separate observations and numbers any more but physical models
and laws, as confirmed by Feynmans words:
1. Now in the further development of science, we want more than just a formula. First we
have observation, then we have numbers that we measure, then we have a law, which
summarises all the numbers. But the real glory of sciences is that we can find a way of
thinking, such that the law is evident.
2. The first way of thinking that made the law about the behaviour of light evident was
discovered by Fermat in about 1650 and it is called the principle of least time or Fermats
principle.
3. Now let us demonstrate that the principle of least time will give Snells law of
refraction However, the importance of a powerful principle is that it predicts new
things. It is easy to show that there are a number of new things predicted by Fermats
principle. ... Another prediction is that if we measure the speed of light in water, it will be
lower than in air. It is a brilliant prediction.
4. Later measurements of the speed of light in water experimentally confirmed that
conclusion.
217
3. NEW PREDICTIONS
4. EXPERIMENT
2. PRINCIPLE / THEORY
1. MODELS / LAWS
Fig. 2: Feynmans four stages of physical reflection on the highest level
4. Models and computer simulations
The main computer experience physicists have acquired in numerical modelling and it has its effect
on the software offered for physics education. The major number of software packages is related
to simulation [6]: Software teaching packages are increasingly being seen as a way for students to
obtain more knowledge quicker and in a more exciting way. Computers eliminate the tedium of
solving equations in favour of a more interactive and user-friendly approach. With the computer
doing the hard, time-consuming and boring work, the learner is more likely to have a wish to
investigate the physics of a system.
Setting the model in the front of physics education the authors of simulation software do not
realise that the infrastructure teachers, textbooks, programs, listings of required knowledge and
skills is not prepared to use simulation software in teaching.
5. Interactive exploration in multimedia and four stages of physical reflection
Since evolutionary stages of physical thinking are clearly manifested in the works of Galileo,
Newton, Descartes, Feynman and other prominent physicists, Razumovsky has suggested to follow
them in the practice of teaching and has developed methodics for teaching a series of topics in
accordance with the model of physical thinking [3]. However, planning lessons based on the
principle exclusively would restrict creativity of the teacher and his guidance in the teaching
process, which is different from following the principles in revelation of physical models, especially
in multimedia.
The 4 stages of physical thinking are associated with certain mental activities: observing and
measuring, comparing, concluding, experimenting and testing. The modern computer techniques
offer interactive multimedia tools to each of them: observing videoclips/animation and measuring
on the screen, calculation and presentation in graphs, controling screen experiments (video,
simulation).
Simulation software enables to change a parameter (elasticity of the spring, oscillation amplitude,
etc.) making the student a passive observer. The lack of a exploration feedback is one of major
disadvantages of simulation. It is very important that interaction does not end with the change of
the parameter and is supplemented with mental activities of 4-stage model of rational thinking:
observing and measuring, comparing, concluding, experimenting and testing.
For example, the Cabri-Gometr II software allows preparing of simulated reflection and
refraction phenomena as a CabriJava applet for exploration on computer screen (see Fig. 3).
Demonstration mode: The teacher may seize the incident beam with the mouse (marked with a
circle) to change the angle of incidence. The student has to observe the changing angles of
incidence and refraction and the ratio of sinus functions to test Snellss law (observing, comparing,
concluding, and testing activities).
Student mode (without automated calculation of ratio of sines): student may seize the incident
beam with the mouse, write the angles down and calculate the ratio of sines to test Snells law
(observing and measuring, data processing, concluding, and testing activities).
The novel means of multimedia allow to include in physics education a number of interesting
phenomena too complicated for a traditional physics course. First, these are simulations and video
sequences of real phenomena providing
measurement data directly on the computer
screen. Interactive exploration allows
cultivating all stages of physical reflection:
observing, measuring, and data processing for
conclusions and tests. For example, in the
Multimedia Motion [7] movies one can
explore the motion of sportsmen and objects,
collisions of cars, launching of a missile, a
falling chimney and a rotating hammer. The
measurements are obtained to an accuracy by
far exceeding the accuracy available in the
high school or college laboratory.
The Coach5 [8] software for video clips
offers efficient measuring and mathematical
tools (data processing for conclusions and
tests) for the exploration of motion in video
sequences of real phenomenas.
The teaching scenario of R.Carlson in his
World-in-Motion software [9] is of
particular didactic interest since it is
completely consistent with 4-stage model of
218
Fig. 3: Simulated reflection and refraction phenomena for
interactive exploration prepared with Cabri-Geomtr II
as CabriJava applet.
rational thinking: Discussion, The Model, Marking the Video, Graphical Analysis.
Most of the authors of multimedia products do not offer any didactic solutions to use the product
for teaching. At the same time the authors of popular classical textbooks realise the trend toward
multimedia. Cutnell and Johnson (Physics 5/e), Halliday, Resnick and Walker (Fundamentals of
Physics 6/e) offer annotated web bibliographies [10] to their textbooks. The user can select a
chapter for links to web sites featuring supplemental tutorials, illustrative examples, applications
and working JAVA Applets. This is an appreciable approach since the authors provide instructions
where and how to match the multimedia to the textbook.
In the traditional teaching environment (blackboard, textbook, paper) the role of models is
undervalued because of the lack of efficient modelling tools while modelling in multimedia is
exaggerated (simulation without feedback) and mainly used at the first level of physical reflection
(Galileos model). More attention should be paid to interactive exploration of simulated and real
experiments promoting all stages of physical reflection within both Galileos and Feynmans
interpretations.
Acknowledgements
The present study has been made partly within the project Physik multimedial. This project is
supported by BMBF (ZukunftsInvestitionsProgramm). The author thanks M.Tilgner/Hamburg for
consultations on the culture of Ancient Egypt.
References
[1] U. Grinfelds, T.Romanovskis, E.Silters. Models in teaching math and physics. Riga, Zvaigzne, (1983) (in Latvian
language).
[2] M. Gliozzi. Storia della fisica. Storia delle scienze, volume secondo, Torino, (1965).
[3] V.G. Razumovsky. Developing students creativity. Prosveshchenie, Moscow, (1975) (in Russian language).
[4] Oeuvres de Descartes. Publ. par C.Adam, P.Tannery. t.1-12, Paris, 1897-1913.
[5] R. Feynman, R. Leighton, M.Sands. The Feynmans lectures on physics. Addison Wesley.
[6] A. Gillies, B.Sinclair. Simulations for students. Physics World, July, (1997), 47-51.
[7] Cambridge Science Media: http://www.csmedia.demon.co.uk
[8] Software Coach 5: http://www.cma.beta.uva.nl
[9] R. Carlson. World-in-Motion Physics Software. http://members.aol.com/raacc/wim.html
[10] Cutnell and Johnson, Halliday, Resnick and Walker. http://purcell.phy.nau.edu/Wiley/
MODELS, MENTAL IMAGES AND LANGUAGE IN SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Jan J.A. Smit, Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir CHO, Potchefstroom, South Africa
1. Introduction
Models play a fundamental role in the development of physics. A literature review reveals the
complexity of models in physics. A logical first question when dealing with models is: What is a
model? or How does one define a physics model? Literature reveals that any attempt to give a
comprehensive definition of a model ends up with a definition that is so inclusive and general that
it says virtually nothing. An example of such an inclusive definition is the one by Apostel (Bertels
& Nauta 1969).
Any subject using a system A that is neither directly or indirectly interacting with a system B, to obtain
information about the system B is using A as a model for B.
This definition is so inclusive that even a telephone directory can be regarded as a model for the
telephone system of a region. The authors experience is that the best way to develop
understanding of the model concept in physics is to investigate
The classifications of the different types of models in physics.
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The nature of these models
The role they play in physics and their functions.
We will in this presentation first attend to the three topics stated above.
2. Classifications of the different types of physics models
Different classifications of models are reported in literature for example Harr (1970, 1991),
Santema (1978) and Leatherdale (1974). It is appropriate to start a discussion of physics models
with the classification of all models by Santema and Klaus (Santema, 1978).
They classified all models in two categories (Figure 1): models of existence or being and subjective
models. Models of being are according Plato (Santema, 1978) models the Godlike demiurge used
to create the world. Subjective models on the other hand are human creations. Santema
distinguishes between two types of subjective models: knowledge models and make models. The
models of physics belong to the type of knowledge models. Make models are the models used by
engineers for example to construct artifacts. According to Santema (1978) knowledge models are
models that help the scientist to know the world. They can be seen as interfaces between man and
reality. Knowledge models in physics can again be classified into different types (Harr, 1970).
Figure 2 displays the famous taxonomy of Harr.
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Models
Models of
Existence/Being/
Plato
Subjective models
(human creations)
Make models
(engineer)
Knowledge models
(scientist)
Figure 1: Classification of models by Santema and Klaus (Santema, 1978)
Figure 2: Harrs taxonomy of models.
Knowledge
models
Homeomorphs
Paramorphs
Micro- and
megamorphs
Teleomorphs
Metriomorphs
Idealisations Abstractions
In this taxonomy models are classified according to their relation to the source of the model. If the
source is the object under modelling the model belongs to the class of homeomorphs. If the source
is not the object under modelling the model falls in the class of paramorphs. Homeomorphs can
again be subdivided into different classes (Figure 2). Examples of homeomorphs are models of the
sun, moon, earth, twin stars and Halleys comet. Examples of paramorphs are the planetary model
of the atom, the sunwind and the model of the earths magnetic field (analogous to that of a bar
magnet). Homeomorphs are divided into three classes: micro- and megamorphs, teleomorphs and
metriomorphs. Micro- and megamorphs have to do with scaling. Micromorphs are models where
downscaling of the entities are done for example a model of the Universe. Megamorphs has to do
with upscaling of very small entities. A teleomorph as the name implies is to a certain extend an
improvement of the object under modelling. Harr (1970) subdivides teleomorphs into
idealisations and abstractions. Idealisations can be described as follows. Suppose a scientist wants
to model an object or system with properties
P1, P2, P3,.. Pn
relevant to his investigation.
An idealisation is then a model with properties
P1, P2, P3, Pn.
Each of the n properties of the model is on some or other scale of values more perfect than the
corresponding property of the object under modelling.
An example of an idealisation is an ideal gas. In a real gas the molecules have volume (P1), the
collisions are not perfectly elastic (P2) and the intermolecular forces are not zero (P3). In an ideal
gas the molecules are assumed to have no volume (P1), the collisions to be perfectly elastic (P2)
and the intermolecular forces to be zero (P3).
Abstractions are teleomorphs where the model has fewer properties than the source object. If the
source object has n properties, P1, P2, P3,Pn, then the abstract model has less than n properties.
The model of a body in linear mechanics serve as an example of an abstraction. A real body for
example has mass, dimensions, colour and a temperature. The only property of concern in linear
dynamics is its mass.
At the heart of any metriomorph is a mathematical calculation. One often read of a city with a
metriomorphical family of say 2,63 children. An example from physics is the fission of the uranium-
235 nucleus yielding 2,47 neutrons per reaction.
Paramorphs are analogue models. The analogy relates the object or process under modelling to
something the physicist has more knowledge of, or understands better. According to Mary Hesse
(1966) every analogy has a positive, negative and neutral part. The positive part gives properties of
the model and object under modelling that relates and the negative one the differences. The neutral
part constitutes the properties of the model and object that we do not have sufficient knowledge
of to classify them as positive or negative. They produce fruitful ideas for research.
It needs to be remarked that there are composite models that bear characteristics of more one type
of model in Harrs taxonomy.
Harr (1991) formulated another very simple classification of models. He classified physics models
into three types:
Type 1 : The model represents a real existing entity. Examples of models belonging to this Type are
models of atoms, gasses and the Earth. A question in this context is: When is an entity real?
Physicists believe an entity to be real when its existence can be proofed experimentally.
Type 2 : Models of this type are of hypothetical entities. The entity may or may not exist. There are
clues of its existence, but not experimental proof. An example is the Higgs boson. A few years ago
it was the top quark. If the Higgs boson is detected its status will change to Type 1. If its non-
existence is proofed it will shift into the history of physics.
Type 3 : Models that do not represent any real or hypothetical entity belongs to the third type.
Examples are models of the ether, caloric and phlogiston from history. Some type three models are
functional and serve instrumental purposes. An example is the conventional current model. A
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function of this model is to assist in the quantitative description of energy transfer in electric
circuits.
3. The nature of models in physics
It firstly needs to be noted that models are creations of the human mind and that most authors
(on models) believe that a model cannot be derived from data in a logical way. Leubner (1989)
says a model is an invention of the human mind. Ramsey (1964) states: The model arises in a
moment of insight.
An example to verify this view is the relation between the work of Tycho Brahe and Keplers
model. Brahe made many observations of the planets motion, but could not see any structure
in it. It was Kepler who, in a moment of insight saw the model.
A Model summarises and gives structure to scientific knowledge on a certain topic (Van Oers,
1988). It deals with a limited aspect of reality (Park, 1988) and is a simplification of the object
under modelling (Kollaard, 1991).
A model brings together knowledge sometimes of vastly different aspects of reality. Atomic
models for example link phenomena of heat, chemical bonding, light emission, electricity and
density.
A model can be a representation of a real entity, but is not the real thing. It is a token, a symbol
of the real thing ( Van Oers, 1988).
Models do not occur in nature, but the objects of modelling do.
Models in physics are in general not replicas, copies or real representations of the modelled
entities. Models do not look like the real thing. It is not a picture of the real thing.
Models are temporary by nature. As new knowledge emerges the model is either adapted or
rejected. An example is the series of atomic models.
If more than one model is possible for the same entity, the simplest model suitable for the task
under modelling is preferred (Park, 1988).
Physics models are either abstract mathematical models with no spatial image associated or a
model that can be visualised. Mental pictures can be formed of the latter group of models. The
models lend for mathematical examination.
Physics models are community property. They belong to the community of physicists and are
therefore known as canonic models. All scientists carry more or less the same mental picture of
a canonic model
Models must fit into the structure of science. Any model must co-exist with other models (Smit
& Finegold, 1995).
Models form part of theories. In any mature theory, Leubner (1989) and Harr (1970)
distinguish between three elements: a set of real phenomena, described by experimental
observations; a model with the associated mathematical relationships and a set of
correspondence rules to interpret results derived from the model by mathematical investigation
in terms of real phenomena.
4. Functions of models
The fundamental function of any physics model is to give scientists knowledge of reality
(Santema, 1978). We know reality through models. The model constitutes an artificial reality that
can be investigated on mental, visual or material level. (Authors translation, Van Oers, 1988).
An important function of any model is the explanation of phenomena. Each model has a
functional domain. Take as example the particle and wave models of light. The functional
domain of the particle model includes for example the photo-electric and Compton effects. The
phenomena of interference and diffraction lie within the functional domain of the wave model.
An investigation by Smit and Finegold (1995) revealed that the mixing of models gives rise to
epistemological problems by learners.
Models play a key role in the prediction of entities/phenomena. The predictions of the planet
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Neptune, the neutron, neutrino and many other elementary particles were based on existing
models. It is thus clear that models play an important and essential role in the development of
physics.
At the frontiers of physics scientists sometimes have different models of the same entity. An
example was the two different models of the atom held by the contempories Dalton and
Boscowich.
In the next paragraphs models are related to scientific thinking.
5. Scientific thinking
According to Harr (1970) there are only two carriers of scientific thinking: mental models
(images) and words. The visual physical models form an important subset of a physicists mental
models. Nouns and verbs in general serve to tag models of objects and processes the models are
involved in. For example, the tag atom (noun) associates with a mental picture that can be drawn
on paper. The verb combine tags a process in the statement: two atoms combine.
Conceptualisation in physics involves that learners form scientific acceptable mental images of
physical entities and processes associated with the corresponding verbal tags.
The author found in his research that students often have alternative conceptions with regard to
the nature and functions of physics models and that these alternative conceptions give rise to
conceptual problems.
The following examples contextualise what is stated above.
Students hold the perception that the model is a picture or replica of the object or entity under
modelling (Smit & Finegold, 1995). This leads to conceptual difficulties with regard to the
particle and wave models for radiation and sub-atomic particles.
Students view all models as belonging to Type 1 (Harr, 1991). This leads to problems with the
understanding of the conventional current in DC electricity (Smit & Nel, 1991).
6. Conclusion
A conclusive remark is that little attention is given in syllabi and textbooks to the topic of models.
Reference to what models are, is often made in introductory paragraphs, but no in-depth
discussions of the different types of models, the nature, functions or role of models in physics is
given. Research has proven that for proper understanding of physics this topic should receive far
more attention in the teaching of physics. The same applies to the relationships between words and
mental images in scientific thinking. In teachers training courses little attention is given to this
basic principles of scientific thinking. It is the authors experience that even at school level
discussion of the principles of human thinking bears fruit.
References
Bertels K. & Nauta D., Inleiding tot het modelbegrip. (W. de Haan, Bussum, Nederland), (1969), 167.
Harr R., The principles of scientific thinking. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, (1970).
Harr R., Private communication. Oxford, (1991).
Hesse M.B., Models and Analogies in Science, University of Notre Dame, Press, Notre Dame, Indiana, (1966).
Kollaard U.H., Didactisch vertalen. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, (1991).
Leatherdale W.H., The role of analogy, model and metaphor in science. North-Holland Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, (1974).
Leubner C., The Structure of Scientific Theories. Innsbruch University, Innsbruck, Austria, (1989).
Park D., The How and the Why. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, (1988), 74.
Ramsey I.T., 1964 Models and Mystery, 13, quoted in W.H. Leatherdale, (1974), The role of Analogy, Model and
Metaphor in Science (North Holland) , 62.
Santema J.H, Modellen in de Wetenschap en de Toepassing ervan. Delftse Universitaire Pers, Delft, Nederland, (1978)
186-193.
Smit J.J.A., & Finegold M., Models in physics: perceptions held by final-year prospective physical science teachers
studying at South African universities, International Journal of Science Education, 17(5), (1995), 621-634.
Smit J.J.A., & Nel S.J., Perceptions of models of electric current held by physical science teachers in South Africa.
South African Journal of Science, 93 (1997), 202-206.
Van Oers B., Modellen en het Ontwikkeling van het (Natuur-) Wetenskaplijk denken van leerlinge, Tijdskrift voor
Didaktiek der Beta-Wetenschappen, 6(2), (1988), 115-143.
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Background Aspects
3.4 Hands-on/Toys
FROM PLAYING WITH TOYS TO MEASUREMENTS
Maja Bertoncelj, Ana Gostinar Blagotinek, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana,
Slovenia
1. Talking teletubbies
The picture of Talking Teletubby is shown in Figure 1. We used Talking Teletubbies to classify
materials into conductors and insulators. Objects, made of different materials, are put between two
contacts, shown in Figure 2. If the object is a conductor, the Talking Teletubby tells us his name. If
the object is an insulator, the Talking Teletubby remains quiet. Talking Teletubbies are suitable only
for qualitative observations but they are very sensitive they talk even when more people holding
their hands touch the contacts. Results of our experiments are presented in Table 1.
object material conducting
non
conducting
coin metal
rubber gum
pencil lead graphite
toy umbrella dry dry wood
toy umbrella wet wet wood
coffee cup ceramic
bracelet gold
wire constantan
LEGO brick plastic
child skin
Table 1: Classifying materials into conductors and insulators with Talking
Teletubby.
Figure 1: Talking Teletubby.
Figure 2: Contact Points.
Figure 1: Talking Teletubby.
2. Bounceability
We investigated two of the variables that affect how high a ball bounces: the material the ball is
made of and the surface, which the ball is bounced off. We dropped the balls from 1 m and
observed the rebound heights. Results are presented in Figure 3. What determines how high the
balls bounce on different surfaces? During the bounce, both the shape of the ball and the shape of
the surface are deformed. The height of the bounce is determined by how much energy of
compression is returned as the shape of both the ball and the surface restore to normal. Each ball
type and surface type interact differently, producing a unique result. Even so, some surfaces
produce fairly consistent results with all types of balls. For example, all the balls bounce on the
exercise mat much the same, as can be seen from Figure 4. The mat deforms more than the balls,
acting much like a trampoline. In contrast, if the surface stays deformed as the Styrofoam may, than
Table 1: Classifying materials into conductors and insulators with Talking
Teletubby.
the energy that went into causing the deformation does not return to the ball. Happy/Unhappy
Balls are Butadien- Butylcaoutchouc balls which feel very much the same when squeezed, but
behave very differently when bounced. One ball bounces quite high (like a super ball) while the
other bounce just a little (like a ball of clay). The balls in this activity are suitable both for semi-
quantitative and quantitative measurements. We can just compare the rebound heights for different
balls on the same surface by dropping them at the same time and list the balls from highest bouncer
to lowest bouncer or we can measure the rebound heights and present results in a graph.
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0
20
40
60
80
100
metal ball squash ball unhappy ball happy ball tennis ball
Type of Ball
R
e
b
o
u
n
d

H
e
i
g
h
t

[
c
m
]stone
metal
exercise mat
wood
Styrofoam
Figure 3: Rebound Heights for Different Balls.
0
20
40
60
80
100
stone metal exercise
mat
wood Styrofoam
Type of Surface
R
e
b
o
u
n
d

H
e
i
h
g
t

[
c
m
]
metal ball
squash ball
unhappy ball
happy ball
tennis ball
Figure 4: Rebound Heights on Different Surfaces.
3. Plastic spring toy
We examined the properties of a Plastic Spring Toy (shown in Figure 5) by hanging weights on
spring and measuring the elongation of the spring. The weights, which we used, were Table-Cloth
Weights - Fishes (which are rather more fun than traditional metal masses). When a graph of
distance versus weight was plotted, a straight line was obtained, showing that the spring did obey
Hooks Law. A spring constant of 1,8 N/m can be determined from a graph, shown on Figure 6.
4. Ramps and cars
In this activity, we investigated relation between height of the ramp and the distance the Toy Car
(shown in Figure 7) travelled on horizontal ground after descent. The car rolls farther with a
steeper ramp because it is moving faster when it reaches the bottom of it. The faster the car is
moving, when it leaves the ramp, the more distance it can cover before friction slows and stops it.
Initial potential energy of the car (W
p
= mgh) is transformed into kinetic energy at the bottom of
the ramp (W
k
= H mv
2
). Amount of kinetic energy is slightly smaller than initial potential energy
due to resistant forces. Assuming that resistant forces are constant along the horizontal track the
car travels, distance it reaches is in the first approximation prop ortional to square root of initial
height of the car on the ramp. Experimental results are presented on Figure 8.
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3. Topical Aspects 3.4 Hands-on/Toys
0
10
20
30
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Added Mass [g]
L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

t
h
e

S
p
r
i
n
g

[
c
m
]
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Height of the Ramp [cm]
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

T
r
a
v
e
l
l
e
d

[
c
m
]
Figure 5: Plastic Spring Toy and Table-Cloth
Weights - Fishes.
Figure 7: Toy Car. Figure 8: Effect of Height of the Ramp on Distance Travelled.
Figure 6: Effecf of Added Mass on Lenght of the spring
5. Pull-back cars
By pulling back the Pull-Back Car (shown in Figure 9) we store energy in the spring. When we
release the car, the stored energy is transformed into kinetic energy of the car. We investigated how
the pull-back distance affect the distance travelled by the pull-back car before friction slows and
stops it. Various models differ significantly in reliability. Several models were tested to obtain
consistent results. Results for our model are shown on Figure 10.
6. Walking turtle
In this activity we used Wind-up Walking Turtle Toy shown in Figure 11. We collected distance data
every 3 seconds (presented in Figure 12). It can be immediately seen that the distance covered in
constant time intervals decreases with time. Obtained data enable us to calculate average velocity
and average acceleration for each time interval. Velocity is the rate of change of position, and
acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. When a graph of velocity versus time was plotted
(Figure 13), a straight line was obtained showing that the velocity of the Turtle was decreasing at
constant rate. From a graph of acceleration versus time (Figure 14) it can be seen that the Turtle
was walking with a negative acceleration (or a deceleration) of approximately 0,45 cm/s
2
.
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0
20
40
60
80
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Pull-Back Distance [cm]
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

T
r
a
v
e
l
l
e
d

[
c
m
]
Figure 9: Pull-Back Car.
Figure 10: Effect of Pull-Back Distance on Distance Travelled.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Time [s]
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
c
m
]
Figure 11: Wind-up Walking Turtle Toy. Figure 12: Position-Time Graph for a Walking Turtle
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Time [s]
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
c
m
/
s
]
-1,0
-0,8
-0,6
-0,4
-0,2
0,0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Time [s]
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

[
c
m
]
Figure 13: Velocity-Time Graph for a Walking Turtle Figure 14: Accelerationo-Time Graph for a Walking
Turtle
7. Conclusions
Physics is an exciting science and it can be made fun through the use of ordinary childrens toys.
Toys can be utilised at all grade levels from kindergarten through college by varying the
sophistication of the analysis. Toys bring part of play time joy in the classroom and are valuable
as motivation and experimental equipment. Depending on situation, simple qualitative
observations, semi-quantitative or quantitative measurements can be made using simple toys. And
because children are familiar with toys, we can also use them to build the links between everyday
knowledge and scientific knowledge.
References
Taylor B.A.P., Porh J., Portman D.J., Teaching Physics with TOYS: activities for grades K-9, Terrific Science Press,
Miami University Middletown, (1995).
Turner R.C., Taylor B.A.P., Physics and toys Physics fun for everyone, in Proceedings of an ICPE - GIREP
International Conference Hands on Experiments in Physics Education, Didaktik der Physik, University of
Duisburg, pp.138-147, (1998).
Radford D., Science from toys: Stages 1 and 2 and Background, A Unit for Teachers, Macdonald Educational, (1982).
HOW SCIENCE CENTERS AND MUSEUMS CAN SERVE THE FORMAL LEARNING
IN THE SCHOOLS
Pietro Cerreta, ScienzaViva, Associazione per la divulgazione scientifica e tecnologica, Calitri
(Av); Gruppo di Storia della Fisica dellUniversit di Napoli; Sezione AIF di Calitri (Av), Italy
1. Multiplicity of formal thinking
Physics is not a science like the other ones: it is a mathematicized or formalized knowledge which
describes, interprets and foretells the phenomena of nature.
We know that there are many types of theories in physics. But often we forget that they do not use
the same mathematics. Likewise, we often ignore that they dont have the same conceptual
organization [1]. The classical mechanics uses the mathematics of infinitesimal analysis and it is
structured on principles, but the classical thermodynamics makes use of a much simpler
mathematics and it is organized on only one central problem: the impossibility of perpetual
motion. The geometrical optics is organized on principles, but it does not use mathematical analysis:
it only needs Euclidean geometry.
Notwithstanding this variety of forms in which the physical theories present themselves, when we
talk about the formal thinking of physics, we often make a drastic reduction of them, we refer only
to the model of classical mechanics: that is, to the infinitesimal analysis ( in act infinity ) and to
the hypothetical-deductive structure. It is not a mystery that physics has been dominated by the
Newtonian paradigm.
A deeper historical knowledge could aid us to consider the multiplicity - developed during the time
- of the physics-mathematics relationship and to recognize the plurality of formal thinking in
physics.
Therefore it is useful to know that Galilei used a mathematics with only rational numbers and he
faced the arguments in a discursive, not axiomatic way: it is sufficient to think of the Dialogo. His
follower Cavalieri had already introduced into physics irrational numbers, with the Theory of
indivisibles, that is also the first example of infinitesimal analysis [2]. This theory was not shared by
Galilei probably because, placing among the rational numbers also the irrational ones, it implied
mental operations that clashed against his constructive and experimental vision of the concepts.
After a few decades, Newton founded infinitesimal analysis and he put it at the basis of his
Principia with an organization of the physical concepts structured in a hypothetical-deductive way,
precisely on principles. The formal thinking of this new physics was decidedly different from
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Galileis one. So Galilei was not Newtons forerunner, as the positivistic and linear vision of history
wants, the same vision which inspires many text-books [3]. Afterwards, in spite of the great success
of the choices made by Newton, not everyone accepted their validity. During the period of the
French Revolution, for example, Lazare Carnot propounded a mechanics with completely
antagonist choices. Sadi Carnot, with identical choices, founded the classical thermodynamics
which, as we have referred to before, doesnt make an essential use of the mathematical analysis
and it doesnt let itself be dominated by the differential equations. I could mention other, also more
recent, examples, but here I would like to refer to Faraday, whose work in electromagnetism was
realized with such an elementary mathematics that it almost appears without a formal thinking [4].
At the end of this historical reflection, someone could object that - for example - in the school
courses we find no trace of the formal thinking of the mechanics of Lazare Carnot, although it is
alternative to the Newtonian one. And he could conclude that in physics there has been a sort of
Darwinian selection of the formal thinking that has given us the strongest. This is what Kuhn, a very
famous science historiographer and philosopher, asserts. According to him, the formal structure of
the mechanics is the historical product of the cognitive evolution [5], passed through successive
linguistic stratifications, also contrasting, and that we have to take it as it is, because it is the best
possible result given by the history of science.
2. Does the formal thinking of the mechanics represent all the physics?
But, lets ask ourselves, does the formal thinking of mechanics represent really all the physics? Yes,
apparently. In fact it externally appears with a compactness and with a simplicity of enunciation
which doesnt leave doubts. The only criticisms are the relativistic ones, which, however, dont
discuss its validity inside the limit of the low speed. And yet, if we stop to consider the firmness of
its internal logic, we discover that its concepts and its laws leave much to be desired [6]. The inertial
principle is not demonstrable. The concept of force is circular with the second principle, which is
exactly the principle which should give the predicting basis to the whole theory. In other terms: this
important concept results to be a metaphysical one. The concept of mass, moreover, can be defined
correctly by using only the experimental basis contained in the third principle. If it is not in the
internal logic, therefore, where is the force of this theory?
The surprising fact is that all these problems, have been known for some time [7]. Mach and Hertzs
criticisms of the nineteenth century are well-known, to mention only the most famous [8]. Still more
surprising is that physicists implicitly entrust to this mechanics the task of representing the formal
thinking of the whole discipline. In fact we know that the students, from the secondary school to
the University, pass through its conceptual structure when being initiated to physics. This strident
contradiction is almost always put at the margin of pedagogic discussions. Specialists in education
prefer to observe the mote of the misconceptions in the students eyes, who - poor fellows! - bring
with them the misunderstanding of the common language, rather than observe the beam in the
physicists eyes! It is astonishing to hear what Kuhn says on this problem. He maintains that the
language which expresses the concepts of the mechanics and the laws of nature they would like to
explain are related by a indivisible mixture [9] and that is a natural fact. Instead, according to me,
this fact is not natural. It is here that we find the origin of the drama of thousands of students who
are forced to pass through the narrow door of an unpleasant physical thinking. This drama, which
induces a large part of the young people to give up the scientific studies, compels us to stop and
reflect [10].
3. Formal and informal
But, in order to do this, we need to move out of the narrow circle of the physics specialists, who -
as we have seen - havent produced, in the course of the time, appreciable improvements to the
quality of their thinking. Modern sensitivity asks us to widen our horizon and to consider this
problem not only as scientific but also as pedagogical and, so, as civil [11]. Lets see, therefore, what
formal thinking means in this larger cultural ambit. First of all lets start by asking ourselves what
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the adjective formal [12] means. It is a synonym of tidy, logical, sequential, but also of
mathematical, expressed by symbols, and sometimes it is identified with scholastic. Its opposite,
informal, instead denotes the episodic, the casual, the extemporary, the partial, the intuitive and
the out-of-school. The adjective formal also assumes derogatory meanings like the ones of rigid,
abstract and abstruse, and so the formal thinking is also the one difficult to understand, that is the
educationally problematic one. Consequently, informal stands for easy, simple to grasp,
educationally elementary, and sometimes even banal.
In the press and in the debates of cultural politics the binomial formal-informal is just what supplies
the most frequent categories for the discussion about the learning of the sciences in general and of
the physics in particular [13]. People even assert that the children who normally frequent
planetariums and interactive museums are also the ones who better understand the importance of
mathematics for the study of physics and of the other sciences in general, and so of the formal
aspects of the scholastic subjects. People assert, moreover, that a common person gets half of his
scientific culture through informal procedures. Even the new expression informal science has
been coined to denote a science which is offered by out-of-school institutions, for example by the
science centers and the scientific museums, structures which compete in a strong way with the
school itself on the level of the educational efficiency [14]. This fact lead us to think that, actually,
there exists an informal thinking which we must recognize. This kind of thinking could be imagined
as a thinking which, being contrasting to the dominant one, has passed through history, out of the
paradigms of the scientific community and which is still living in the wider human community. A
thinking which evolved at the margin of the niche and of the slang of the specialists.
4. Does an informal thinking really exist?
This idea is much more than an hypothesis of work. Its consistence emerges very distinctly if we
consider a pedagogic and scientific problem the United States are now facing. The National Science
Foundation (NSF) has learnt that the American students attainments in mathematics at the end of
the high school studies result unsatisfactory. The data come from an international research on the
mathematical skills of young people, divided according to their age, published by the National
Center for Education Statistics [15]. Well then, it results that American young people, though they
start with good results in mathematics at the primary school, in the course of the studies - starting
from the teens - progressively they remain behind in the classification of excellence, in comparison
with the ones of their same age in other countries. The NSF has charged with this problem all the
educational agencies of the United States. Even Dimensions [16], the bimonthly of the ASTC
(Association of Science-Technology Centers), which is primarily interested in informal teaching of
sciences, has opened the debate on the argument, dedicating one issue to the mathematics which
must be discovered in the science centers. The same attitude has been expressed by The
Exploratorium Magazine [17], the quarterly of the famous science museum of San Francisco,
entitling its last issue Math Explorer and underlining that this publication has been supported
by a fund from the NSF.
Mathematics is that part of the science which is, by nature, typically formal. Then it is really
remarkable that the task of contributing to the solution of the educational problem of the
mathematics has been assigned to the community of those professionals of the so-called informal
science. Therefore people are looking for a mathematical thinking out of the tightly scholastic
conceptions. Is this an implicit recognition that the interactivity and the hands-on are believable
vehicles of education for mathematics? Traditional teachers say that the interactive scientific
exhibits are only external hints for the essentially intellectual scientific education, does this
prejudice fall? The answer is still open.
In the meantime, however, the prompt reactions of Dimensions and of the Exploratorium
Magazine to the problem show how the experimental resources of the science centers are already
capable of presenting interesting solutions. The exhibits, having been built to stress natural
properties, educate to analyze singular problems of a physical nature in which converge, all
230
together, the logical aspects, the geometrical ones and the ones of calculation, aspects which the
progressive distribution in the school time doesnt render equally effective.
The physical variables of the phenomena produced by the exhibits and the hands-on experiences
are so numerous that they can constitute a real mine of mathematical ideas. What the two
magazines propound is to proceed to the re-examination of these phenomena to make evident
where the mathematics in the physics is. In this way we can trace the mathematical thinking
inside physics, which is nothing but the formal - really effective - thinking of physics. This way is
completely different from that indicated by the text-books, which are the teaching instruments still
now preferred by the scientific community, and which bear the physics formal thinking almost
exclusively by the algebra of the formulas.
5. The brain leads the hand, but the use of the hand shapes the brain
This looking for the mathematics in the interactive equipments also opens another path. The one
which induces us to ask ourselves if this mathematics, different from the one learnt through pen and
paper and from the abstract one, is also different in substance (it derives from different
foundations). If it were so, a mathematical quality would be on the point of being introduced; it
could be preferred because of the impact it has on those who learn.
The general problem is to establish if every physical process corresponds to a mathematical
constructive algorithm and vice versa.
If this correspondence were demonstrated, the non-constructive algorithms - the ones of the
mathematical analysis which are based on the infinity in act - would no longer be necessary. We
would have a turning point after three hundred years of classical mechanics.
A starting point for this work is certainly the scientific datum that between the brain and the hand
there is a bilateral dependence: the brain leads the hand, but the use of the hand shapes the brain.
This means that the formal thinking of those who enter physics only through the descriptions and
the formulas of the text-books is a type of thinking we must consider unbalanced and therefore
incomplete. To complete it he would have to review the procedure using the manual dexterity
(the effective realizability of the algorithm). Therefore the interactivity contained in the exhibits
helps to build the physical thinking, also in a formal sense.
It is what my experience as a Fellow at Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation
of Smithsonian Institution of Washington has recently taught me.
But why through the exhibits and not directly through the physics laboratories? The professional
equipment of laboratories is not educationally equivalent to the exhibits. The exhibits favour the
necessary exploration of nature without creating, in those who makes the first steps in science,
strong anxieties about the functioning of events which are very far from common life.
6. How science centers can serve the schools
The variety of the exhibits offered by the science centers and by the museums has a didactic
fecundity more dense than an ad hoc experiment, supposing that this has really been proposed
in the school lessons. Only one experiment, like only one exhibit, although it concentrates the
attention of the spectator on a particular phenomenon, never exhausts the mathematical
comprehension of the physical laws there are in it. Frank Oppenheimer, the founder of The
Exploratorium, wanted collections of exhibits to represent a certain physical law, for example the
harmonic motion or the waves. He was convinced that we build our scientific knowledge only when
we catch what is shared by families of apparently different phenomena. Thirty years of success
prove he was right. Therefore the cornucopia of different phenomena is another service to formal
thinking that is offered us by science centers and by science museums. The school of the future cant
give up this lesson [19].
Moreover, a collection of exhibits can supply what hasnt been understood sufficiently yet, that is
the comparison of the theories. This exigency starts becoming more and more urgent once the
phase of the astonishment and of the surprise given by the exhibits has been passed. Lets think
231
about the concept of ray of light which is at the basis of the geometrical theory of light, and lets
think about the interpretation of the images obtained by mirrors or by lenses through geometrical
constructions. To understand this theory well what normally is done it is not sufficient: because it
only gives one answer to the various questions. In fact we normally emphasize that the concept of
ray explains the phenomena presented by the exhibits well and that the Euclidean geometry
supplies mathematics to calculate distances and enlargements of the images. It would be more
instructive, instead, to show how an alternative hypothesis to the one of the ray of light would
function. On this subject, The Exploratorium, for years proposed the Image Walk [20], that is a walk
among the exhibits having as a guiding principle another basic concept, the spot of light. This
walk forces the physicists to admit that a new fundamental idea, the one of an elementary cone of
light (just to understand each other, the cone of the pinhole) can improve the quality of the
explanation of the phenomena very well. With this new concept we can explain all the phenomena
of the traditional optics, starting from the everyday experience of the circular form of the shadows
produced by the leaves of a tree, difficult to be explained with the concept of ray of light. As this
walk has been made famous by an artist, an outsider of physics, its language appears to the visitors
like a curiosity. But not for The Exploratorium physicists [21], who have already confessed the
embarrassing situation of having to prefer the ideas of the walk to the ones of the text-books on
which they studied. If we analyse the differences between the two basic concepts, we note two
different mathematical conceptions of physics: one in which it is imagined that a beam of light can
be assimilated to a straight line (a cone thinned several times through splits); the other, to a conical
spot. The first is a very strong abstraction, the second is a less strong abstraction, more
understandable because it represents the experience of the pinhole well. In conclusion, this
example suggests how to utilize the exhibits to go into the depth of the theories. This would suggest
moreover what they are made of and say what their models consist of. And also this can be re-
proposed at school, obviously at a new school.
ScienzaViva, the no-profit Association I am here representing, is committed to demonstrating that
these efforts are really possible, realizing the Interactive Science Project, a program recently
funded by the Italian Ministry of Scientific and Technological Research.
References
[1] A. Drago, Storia delle teorie fisiche secondo le loro due scelte fondamentali: la matematica e lorganizzazione
della teoria in S. DAgostino, S. Petruccioli (eds.): Atti del V Congr. Naz. St. Fisica, Accademia dei XL, Roma
(1984), 365-373.
[2] A. Drago, La nascita del principio dinerzia in Cavalieri e Torricelli secondo la matematica elementare di Weyl
in P. Tucci (Ed), Atti del XVII Congresso Nazionale di Storia della Fisica e dellAstronomia, Como, (1997).
[3] P. Cerreta, Il confronto tra le storiografie di Kuhn e di Koyr, in AA.VV., Alexandre Koyr. Lavventura
intellettuale, a cura di Carlo Vinti, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, (1994), 653.
[4] T.K. Simpson: Faradays Mathematics.On Getting Along without Euclid, Faraday Conference: Lecture, St Johns
College, Annapolis, March 30, (2001).
[5] T.S. Kuhn: Dogma contro Critica, Raffaello Cortina Editore, (2000), 116.
[6] P. Cerreta, A. Drago: Lideologia nella didattica della fisica: i principi della dinamica, suggerimenti per il loro
insegnamento, in A. Drago (ed.), Fisica, Didattica, Societ, CLU, Napoli, (1975), 82-98; S. Sgrignoli,: Insegnare
la fisica senza partire dalla dinamica in Epsilon, Paravia, Anno I, n3, (1988), 34-38.
[7] L. Eisenbud: On the Classical laws of Motion, Am. J. Phys. 26, 144, (1958), R. Weinstock: Laws of Classical
Motion: Whats F? Whats m? Whats a?, Am. J. Phys. 698, (1961).
[8] E. Mach: La Meccanica nel suo sviluppo storico-critico, Boringhieri, 1977; H. Hertz: Principles of Mechanichs,
The Macmillan Company, New York, (1899) .
[9] T.S. Kuhn, Dogma contro Critica, op.cit, 116.
[10] S. Tobias: Math anxiety and physcis: Some toughts on learning difficult subjects, Physics Today, June (1985).
[11] G. Delacote, Putting Science in the Hands of the Public in Science, Vol 280, 26 June (1998), 2055-56.
[12] P. Cerreta: Apprendimento formale e apprendimento informale delle scienze, Quipo Web X@X, Edizioni
Project, (1999), 27-33.
[13] Inverness Research Associates: An Invisible Infrastructure. Institutions of Informal Science Education,
Association of Science Technology Centers, Washington, (1996).
[14] R. J. Semper: Science Museums as environments for learning, Physics Today, November (1990), 50-56.
[15] NCES 1999 - The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), Overview and Key Findings
232
Across Grade Levels, NCES 2001- Highlights from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study-
Reapeat (TMSS-R), Office of Educational Research and Improvement, US Dep. Of Education.
[16] Dimensions, Bimonthly News Journal of the Association of Science-Technology Centers, March/April (2001).
[17] The Exploratorium Magazine, The Exploratorium, San Francisco, Vol 25 n1, (Spring 2001).
[18] F.R. Wilson, The Hand. How its use shapes the brain, language, and human culture, Pantheon Books, Random
House Inc., New York, (1998).
[19] P. Dohetry, D. Rathjen, Exploratorium Teacher Institute, Gli Esperimenti dellExploratorium, a cura di P.
Cerreta, Zanichelli, (1997).
[20] Bob Millers Image Walk, Exploratorium Quarterly, The Exploratorium, San Francisco, Winter, Vol 11, Issue 4,
(1987).
[21] Ibidem, p. 27.
TOYS IN MOTION
Ana Gostinar Blagotinek, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Playing with various toys, pushing and dragging them around, children can experience a fact, that
an external force is necessary to start motion and to change the direction or velocity of motion. In
every-day situations, when friction and air resistance are not negligible, force is also necessary to
keep an object moving. Doing it themselves, children can actually feel the force. Both bodies, the
one that exerts the force and the other, being acted upon, are visible and obvious. So are the
consequences of the exerted force.
This is an excellent starting position to investigate moving of toys along inclined paths and to
develop the concept of gravity. Doing it this way, it is simply searching for the force that caused
motion.
Observing the motion of toys and motion of their parts is also very interesting and informative.
Simple linear motion and very complicated composed motions can be recognized while observing
a simple toy-duck and her eyes, body and legs in motion.
Toys as valuable tool in teaching physics were recognized also by late professor dr. Janez Ferbar.
He used the possibility to help children developing some very difficult concepts through every-day
experience with toys. Why not use toys to learn while playing?
1. Toys, which can be dragged or pushed around
A collection of various toys, which can be dragged around, as in Fig. 1, is examined first. They would
not move on horizontal surface unless somebody drags them around.
Children can recall their previous experiences or try the activity. They can feel the force and see the
consequent changes in speed or direction of the toys movement. The body and activity, which
caused the motion, are easily recognized.
233
Fig. 1: Toys, which can be dragged around.
Fig. 2: Toys, which can be pushed around.
Because air resistance and friction are not negligible, toys slow down and stop if the dragging force
vanishes. Dragging force is necessary to start and sustain motion, and also to change speed or
direction of movement in everyday conditions, can be deduced from this and following
experiments.
Toys, which can be pushed around, provide similar experience. Two examples are presented on Fig.
2. Pushing force and the smoothness of the surface influence performance of both toys.
The duck on the left of the Fig. 2 is interesting also because of its legs. They help us show, how small
changes in initial conditions can strongly influence outcome of the experiment. Dependant of the
initial position of the feet, it walks with both legs simultaneously or moves left and right leg in
turns, as shown on Fig. 3.
Children like to play with such toys, because
they can experiment and change them, and
this makes the toy interesting for longer
time.
With such, animal toys, we can also make
interdisciplinary connection with biology.
Discussion about which is the way that real
animals are walking encourages describing
their observations and stimulates
accurateness. With this duck it is possible to
distinguish between the motion, which is
similar to the motion of live animal (left and
right leg in turns) and the motion that only
toy-duck performs (both legs moved
simultaneously).
2. (Free) Falling toys and toys, moving down inclined paths
All sorts of balls, and also an interesting woodpecker, which is shown on Fig.
4, are handy tools to introduce gravity. Observing toys, falling towards the
ground, and recollecting previous experiences with pushing and dragging the
toys, children are ready to accept gravity as a force, pulling all objects on Earth
vertically downwards. Using previous experiences they know that an external
force is needed to initiate the motion of the toy. As there is no obvious body,
which could be identified as a source of the necessary force, planet Earth can
be identified as a body, exerting the force on falling objects. It is wise also to
take notice of the fact, that no contact between the two interacting bodies
is necessary.
Which force pulls the
duck, shown on Fig. 5,
down the slope?
This question can be
used to evaluate
pupils understanding. In my experience, even
some students at faculty level need some
reminding of their experience with other, free
falling toys, before they give the correct
answer.
3. Different types of motion
Observing toys in motion, one can notice, that
different parts of the same toy move very
234
Fig. 4: Descending
woodpecker.
Fig. 5: Duck, walking down the slope.
Fig. 3: Toy-duck can move its legs simultaneously or in
turns.
differently. Gooses eye of the on Fig. 6a moves linearly, while dots on the wheels move cycloidal.
Attaching some glow in the dark stickers and observing the goose in the dark is fun and surprises
most children of very different ages. Movements can be analysed and explained while observing the
toy move. Very few students would draw the path of the marks on the wheels correctly even after
observation.
Duck on Fig. 6b is even more
interesting to observe and play
with. While moving, its head
moves left - right, wings go up
and down and it even makes
sound like cackling. All this is
caused by motion of the wheels.
It is interesting to investigate
the connections between
different parts and the transfer
of motion. After careful
observation and appropriate
experiments children can find
out that movement of the head
and wings is caused by rotation
of the front pair of wheels,
while cackling is caused by
motion of rear pair of wheels.
4. Connection with every-day life
If the toy-duck on Fig. 6b is not working properly, some improvements can be suggested and carried
out. Connections with real life problems, such as increasing low friction between wheels and the
ground, are easily found.
First idea children come up with is to add a load on the duck to make it heavier. They can try it and
find out that it helps to improve performance of the toy. But does it help on a slippery road? It
would in some cases, but it is not very practical.
Another suggestion is also easily found and carried out: Change the properties of the surface the
duck moves on. The children suggest sandpaper, rubber and different textiles and all are better than
the smooth surface of the desk. Parallel with winter road conditions is to sand the road. But even
this is not always done in time.
It is usually only at the end that children remember that something can also be done to the wheels
to improve the grip on the road. After elastic bands are wrapped around the wheels of the duck, it
moves the head and the wings and cackles happily even on a smooth surface of the desk.
5. Problems ahead
The danger of such approach to concept of force is to stress only the dragging or pushing force,
acting on the toy. Feeling it and causing it with their bodies, children are aware of it. But resistant
forces remain unnoticed unless attention is not focused on them. Children could easily develop
conviction of uniform motion under constant external force. One way to avoid this is to focus also
on the interaction between the toy and the surface it moves upon, as it was described in previous
paragraph.
6. Conclusions
Force as abstract concept becomes concrete experience for the children, who have the opportunity
to play with suitable toys. This helps them to develop the concept of force on concrete and later
abstract level of thinking. Introducing gravity and later electric and magnetic forces can benefit
from this approach.
Other interesting features of motion can be observed while playing with toys. But it is important to
235
a) b)
Fig. 6: Goose (a) and duck (b).
choose appropriate toys and activities to support learning, get rid of some misconceptions and not
generate new ones.
Another important aspect of toys in the classroom is that the use of them increases motivation for
learning and helps to connect learning with every-day life outside the classroom. Some ideas
children get during lessons they can test in their free-time with their own toys and so develop and
use scientific approach to problems outside the classroom, too.
And, at last, but not least, playing is fun. So, playing time is never wasted time.
Comment:
Activities, described in Toys in motion were developed in cooperation with late professor Janez
Ferbar, who realized how valuable toys are in process of education and showed us many useful
examples.
PHYSICS IS MIGHTY AS IT IS EASY
Katalin Papp, Anett Nagy, Mikls Molnr, Jnos Bohus, University of Szeged, Department of
Experimental Physics, Hungary
1. Do Hungarian students really like the physics least?
The aim of our survey was to investigate the system of high-school students science related
motivations and attitudes, especially those related to physics (Papp 2000). We examined the
changes of these systems between the beginning and the end of secondary education. The results of
the study have also confirmed the unfavourable position of physics.
During the secondary school the attitude and its change towards physics characteristically different
for male and female students. To show the tendency we gave the quotient of attitude for two grades
(last column in Table 1).
The greatest number of statistically significant gender differences were found in physics, with boys
liking physical science more than girls did. Students were asked about the frequency with which
their teachers demonstrate an experiment or with which they themselves do an experiment or
236
TABLE 1. Changes of subjects preference index (PI) of boys and girls
BOYS GIRLS
SUBJECT 9.
grade
12.
grade
rate
(12./9.gr.)
SUBJECT 9.
grade
12.
grade
rate
(12./9.gr.)
computer classes 4,04 3,80 0,94 biology 4,17 3,73 0,89
history 3,94 3,75 0,95 foreign language 4,11 4,07 0,99
biology 3,82 3,35 0,88 Hung. Literature 3,92 3,84 0,98
foreign language 3,82 3,72 0,97 history 3,91 3,73 0,95
geography 3,82 3,51 0,92 computer classes 3,51 3,09 0,88
mathematics 3,66 3,70 1,01 geography 3,49 3,41 0,98
Hung. Literature 3,59 3,18 0,89 mathematics 3,44 3,28 0,95
physics 3,50 3,29 0,94 Hung. grammar 3,39 3,20 0,94
chemistry 3,31 2,95 0,89 chemistry 3,25 2,79 0,86
Hung. Grammar 3,06 2,66 0,87 physics 2,96 2,68 0,91
Remark: the arrows show the significant change: p<0,01; p<0,05
practical investigation in class. We have found, there
is a difference between the attitude toward physics.
There is a better attitude where students report high
frequencies of teacher demonstrations and students
experiments too (Fig. 1).
2. Rain-sensor I.
In TV advertisements we can see windscreen-wipers
in modern cars which automatically work if some
water beats against the screen. We can construct a
simple device modelling the rain-sensors built in
these modern cars. Using the fact that water
conducts electric current in a small degree, even
some drops of water falling to a metal conductor can
be detected with a sensitive device. The detector as
indicated in Fig.2 is a connection with a transistor
built on a printed circuit.
237
11 258 169 90 64 82 278 195 133 55 N =
very often rare never
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
grade
9.
12.
P
h
y
s
i
c
s
a
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 1. Physics attitude as a function of
frequencies of teachers experiments
Figure 2. Structure of rain-sensor I.
3. Rain-sensor II.
Another rain-sensor can be constructed using the law of the refraction of light. A laser-pointer, a
semi-cylinder shaped prism, a photodiode and an optical rail which holds the previous objects are
needed (Jodl,Eckert 1998). After fixing the semi-cylinder shaped prism in a way that the laser-
beam is totally reflected on the surface of the prism, this high-intensity laser-beam enters the
photodiode. Its effect can be detected with a voltage meter. The ray of light can be easily seen if
after the laser pointer it is horizontally spread out (for example with a glass stick placed vertically
to the ray of light).
If the upper surface of the semi-cylinder becomes wet the ray of light change its direction of
transmission as it does not suffer total reflection any more. As a consequence, the photodiode is
not lighted at all. The measured voltage remarkably decreases indicating that some water is on the
semi-cylinder.
4. Electric candle
To realise electric candle the following electronic network is needed. To the collector-emitter
circuit of a transistor place an electric battery (4,5 V), a flashlight bulb, a switch, and a photodiode
(F) between the base and A point as it is shown in Figure 3.
Closing the circuit with the switch the bulb is not illuminating. Light the photodiode (for example
with the light of a match) and the bulb is illuminating. If the intensity of the lighting is low or if the
diode is not lighted at all, the bulb finishes lighting. If we make sure that after having lighted the
+ -
Amplifier Ammeter
-
+
Electrodes
candle with a match, the bulb itself can light the photodiode (F), the circuit becomes self-
supporting: the bulb lights until its light reaches the photodiode (F).
5. Graphite messages
Using a simple DC amplifier and a message etched by a graphite pencil a set-up can be constructed
to demonstrate how resistance depends on both the length and cross-section of the conductor. If the
inscription is physics, say, we can even demonstrate how physics conducts.
The inscription, which will be part of a circuit, is traced out on an A4 sheet of paper with a graphite
pencil without any discontinuity. It requires some time to do as we need quite a thick layer of graphite
to significantly reduce the resistance. In addition to the inscription we can draw two lines, a narrow and
a wider one to show that the resistance depends not just on the length but on the diameter of the
conductors as well. The resistance between the two ends of the graphite circuit is about 2 M.
First connect the conductor with a 5 V, then measure the electric current flowing through the
amplifier with a bulb. The brightness level of the light bulb provides a measure of the change in
resistance of the graphite layer.
Doing experiments in physics lessons need not cost much. Simple, everyday items and materials can
be used for demonstrating physical phenomena. Hungarian physics teachers like nyos Jedlik,
Jzsef veges, Mikls Vermes, rpd Csek, Kroly Jeges in the past showed this, along with other
Hungarian scientists who followed in their footsteps. They were clever at devising experiments
practically from nothing. Do we still need these types of experiments in this day and age? Are these
experiments able to divert the attention of pupils who are daily bombarded with information from
the media? Experience gained over the years and the results of several detailed surveys seem to
bear out our view that a physics education containing experiments made from simple, cheap,
everyday objects and a little zeal can indeed motivate young minds. The next two experiments are
offered as examples.
6. Heki and his house
This is a house made of paper with a simple idea behind it (Papp, Nagy, Bohus 2000). When
connected up, a circuit with a battery and an electromagnet attracts a laminated spring. Close to the
latter sits a dog called Heki. The circuit is closed by a little triangle-shaped contact attached to one
of the paper walls of the house. This metal strip connects two small metal-plates on side, these
plates being joined together by a capacitor to avoid sparking (Figure 4).
When we shout something near the house the metal strip swings out for a moment as the sound
waves cause the circuit to break. Then the electromagnet ceases to be a magnet and does not attract
the laminated spring. As a consequence the spring moves away from the electromagnet and pushes
the dog out from the house. To make it work as before just push the spring onto the electromagnet
238
F
C
B
E
- + K A
Figure 3. The circuit of electric
candle
(the metal strip on the wall closes the circuit) and shout the name of the dog or Cats, say. This will
make Heki, who is ever alert, come out from his house.
In another version of the house a small contact attached to the ceiling (rather than a metal strip on
the wall) closes the circuit. Sound waves make the contact move slightly, causing the circuit to break,
and once again the spring makes the faithful Heki peek out from his house (Siddons 1988, p. 22).
6. Unburnable paper-money
If we set fire to dry paper money we can be sure it will burn. At least everybody expects it to
happen, like those with money to do so. But as we shall see this is not always the case. Special
conditions can change things somewhat.
For this surprising experiment you need some alcohol (approximately 40% - rum, brandy,
schnapps). Fill a glass with some warmed brandy, strike a match and sprinkle a little salt over it so
as to give the flames a colour (orange) because it contains sodium. Afterwards soak a banknote in
the alcohol with the help of a pair of tweezers or tongs, then leave it in the glass for a couple of
seconds till the whole paper money is wet from the alcohol. After dousing the flames and taking
the money out of the glass smooth it out and hold it above a clean tray. Then try setting it alight
with a match or lighter. For a few seconds the money will be on fire. Then it will go out and you get
back your wet but otherwise unharmed banknote, so you will not be poorer for the experience.
The reason for this unexpected result is simple enough if you remember that drinkable alcohol
contains water as well, which wets the paper. The ethanol burns merrily away but the wet banknote
does not. Once the ethanol is used up, the fire goes out. (Note: the whole note should be soaked in
the brandy glass of alcohol, otherwise I cannot be responsible for the outcome!)
To make the experiment a little livelier you can demonstrate your true magical power to protect
paper money from burning. Just add some magic powder (salt to you and me) for effective
results. The odd magic word like Shazam or Abracadbra can work wonders not only with the
paper money but young pupils as well. Budding magicians out there might think of adding this one
to their repertoire of magic tricks.
Modern technology everyday subjects and toys are all suitable for making students curious and
interested in physics. Perhaps after these experiments even students will accept that physics is
mighty as it is easy.
References
1. H. Jodl, B. Eckert Low-cost, high-tech experiments for educational physics Physics Education 33, (1998), 226-235.
2. C. Siddons, Experiments in Physics (Basil Blackwell Ltd.), (1988).
3. K. Papp, A., Nagy Bohus J, Kt elfelejtett ksrlet (OKSZI Mdszertani lapok, Fizika) .4, (2000).
4. K. Papp 2000 Do Hungarian students really like the Physics least? Proceedings of International Conference
Physics Teacher Education beyond 2000, Barcelona Aug. 27-Sept.1, (2000).
239
Figure 4. Inside and outside of the house
a = 20 cm
b = 13,5 cm
c = 7 cm
m = 15 cm
h= 9,5 cm
TEACHING MECHANICS AND BIO-MECHANICS
Paolo B. Pascolo* Applied Mechanics professor, University of Udine and director of
Bioengineering Department of CISM, Italy
I apologize for my short and probably ingenuos intervention. Some ideas about use of toys are
showed in the previous poster. Every toy can contain topics.
When Prof. M. Michelini told me about this important conference I start with a short story.
Once upon a time in Rome, at of one of my friends house, a special friends son.
To understand the kind of child I like to remember that this boy, at only nine years old, wrote to
Margherita Hack and me, about materials to build a missile.
-At eleven years old he asked me, whats mechanics ?
Looking around I saw a toy. I took it and I started to expain kinematics.
A few days later, when I was in Udine, I received a present: a collection of toys (Fig. 1) and a short
letter.
Caro Paolo, per i tuoi studenti. (for your students), Ciao, Lorenzo.
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Fig. 1
Fig. 2
With monkeys it is possible to introduce several topics (see poster Teaching Mechanics with
toys).
With chicken (Fig. 2) you can descrive a drop hammer, a mallet (i.e. the impact forces),
with chupa- chupa (Fig. 3) two kinds of rotisms, it is able to introduce the ordinary and the epicyclic
train and the consequent Willis formula.
with a boat-man (Fig.4) , a four bar-linkage.
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Fig. 3.
Then the pendulum (Fig. 5), a shearing machine (Fig. 6), a two pistons engine (Fig.7),
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Very interesting is this kind of horse (Fig. 8).
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Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Look at the positions of the legs, rather perfect.
To study its kinematic I did X-rays (Fig. 9), because it was glued all together.
Its kinematics, in relative motion, can be easy described with a multi-body code (Fig. 10).
Fig. 9.. Fig. 10.
The motion, correct, is the result of a sistem very different to the biological one, so its possible, for
example, to design different kinds of solution for artificial fingers.
The first example is the result of actuators (Fig. 11).
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Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
The second represents the biological tendinons scheme (Fig. 12).
It is possible to go on for much longer, but Im convinced to have transmitted my opinion in this
field. We should learn to introduce a teaching method that sets as one of its aims the purpose to
educate students able to recognize the different topics of mechanics in every day life objects, even
in toys.
SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS HELP IN GAINING A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF
PHYSICS CONCEPTS
Gorazd Planini, Physics Department, Faculty for Mathematics and Physics, University of
Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Miha Kos, Ustanova Hia eksperimentov, Slovenian Hands-on science centre, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Hands-on experiments
It is generally known that the most effective experiments in teaching physics are often the simplest
experiments. In the past, teachers used only demonstration experiments that were allowed to be
operated only by them. Later, the laboratory practical work for students was introduced into
schools, but it never offered an opportunity for explorative work guided by individual curiosity.
Doing simple experiments became popular after the Second World War, but at that time these
experiments could not find the way from homes to the strict and threatening atmosphere of the
schools. In the sixties, the term hands-on experiments (HEX) became more frequently used in
connection with the arrival of hands-on science centres. Though the experiments in hands-on
science centres are typically far from being cheap, they are often based on simple and clear ideas
that came from simple and low-cost experiments. When we speak of low cost, pocket, string-and-
sticky-tape or toy-based experiments it is usually their hands-on character that makes them so
useful in schools. Today it is generally accepted that learning by the personal (hands-on) experience
has several benefits, such as
development of observational, manipulative and other transferable skills
testing personal capabilities and limitations
creating motivation for learning science and appreciation of scientific achievements
broadening general knowledge
However, the bare accomplishment of HEX will rarely lead to the following results:
understanding the principles of nature
learning logical reasoning
identifying analogies, similarities, symmetries...
The listed cognitions can only be achieved if the experiments are wrapped in something else -
something that provokes, demands and guides rational actions in parallel with experimental
experience. This wrapping can be promoted by specific design, but it is eventually created by the
verbal or written communication. For this reason all science centres pay a lot of attention to writing
the instructions for every experiment. Composing such instructions is not an easy task; too long a
text will keep visitors away from reading it, but too short and brief information might not make the
point. The more effective alternative is verbal communication, such as discussion that can be
initiated by the explainers at the exhibits or during the interactive science shows.
How about using simple experiments in school? Obviously in schools one cannot afford to set up
the kind of experiments that are seen in science centres, nor can we use the conventional
demonstration experiments for hands-on activities. The school experiments can be used as hands-
on if they are cheap (toys for example) and/or are easy to set up by the teachers or students. There
are several resources where the ideas for such experiments can be found (see for example the list
of selected resources in [1]).
But in the same way as discussed above, the bare accomplishment of the experiments in school
activities will not explain the phenomena. Many experts in the past few years have expressed this
opinion. It is embedded in the approach of Lillian McDermott and the Physics Education Group
from Seattle, Washington. The PEGs approach is based on a lively discussions in small groups
centered on simple experiments and initiated by carefully posed inquiry questions [2,3]. The
reflections of several English authors on how the experiments can (or cannot) help understanding
science has been edited by J. Wellington [4]. Perhaps the following quote from his chapter shows
the main point: Discovery learning [by doing experiments] may work for teaching knowledge
that...but cannot be expected to teach knowledge why .... The desired knowledge can be
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245
Discussion and reflections Pictorial presentation of experiments
"If I blow in this orange corrugated tube it sings
- hear this--I will do it again, but this time very
gently--the tube does not sing now! Can you
think of a role what I have to do to make the
tube sing?"
"You have to blow in the tube strong enough and
it will sing"
"Now I will do the same with this wider
corrugated tube. It also sings when I blow in it.
It looks like this is the feature is common to all
corrugated tubes."
"I am going to do another experiment now: I
will rotate the tube like this-- and it starts to sing
again!--What about the wider tube --this one
emits even more clear and loud tone. So I'll
continue to play with this one."
"Let's see what we have observed until now: the
corrugated tube sings when I blow through it
and it also sings when I rotate it. Maybe there is
a connection between the rotation and air blow
through the tube. What do you think?"
successfully taught if the experimentation is enriched by stimulating conversation and discussion
by posing inquiry questions, working with the ideas, concepts and principles, and facing the
confrontation of different opinions and arguments. The references above are quoted more as being
works that inspired us and not as approaches that we would directly follow. However useful and
valuable these programs may be to other countries, the specifics of individual school systems,
cultural, ethical and other characteristics of different countries require the design of new programs
to be done from the beginning.
Our own experiences and those of others show that in addition to the enrichment discussed above,
the HEXs are a far more efficient teaching tool because (or if) they can be associated with fresh
ideas, names, appearances, items, inventions or problematic matters that one encounters every day
from the news, TV, internet, commercials etc. In addition, it is a great advantage if one can present
the experiment as a completed story. All these ingredients will make the experiment more relevant
to the world everybody knows, and therefore more attractive and worth spending more time to
work on. This approach has been used in the recent Advancing Physics AS course [5] and is also
the main secret of the success of Bloomfields How things work [6]. However, the design of the
HEXs in school has to be guided by the physical concept we want to show, not by the mere desire
for creating an attraction.
Some points from the reflections above are illustrated in the following two examples.
The singing corrugated tubes
Many of you have already discovered that corrugated tubes (like those used for electrical
installation) emit a loud and clear tone when one blows air in or out of the tube. The question of
how the sound is produced is intriguing but the correct explanation goes far beyond the secondary
school level [7,8]. However, the corrugated tubes offer a great tool to demonstrate scientific
reasoning to younger children (age 10 to 14). The teachers script goes like this (the typical
childrens answers are in italics):
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(In general children will agree. Older children
can be encouraged to predict the connection by
themselves.)
"Suppose that we are right - what do you think
will happen if I cork up the end of the tube and
rotate it again?"
"I think the tube should not sing now."
"Let's try.--You were right! So we have good
reason to believe that the rotation causes the air
blow through the tube. One thing we don't know
is in which direction does the air blow: from this
end where I am holding the tube up to the free
end, or maybe in the opposite direction. What do
you think?"
(Some children will say that the air is blowing
from the free end to the end where we hold the
tube. They are misled by the experience that
wind blows into the driving car when we open
the window.)
"Can you suggest the experiment which will
show us what is the direction of air blowing
through the rotated tube?"
(Several ideas may be suggested. The teacher
tries to guide ideas towards the simple
experiment.)
"If I fix tight this plastic bag at the end of the
tube, what will happen with the bag when I
rotate the tube?"
"If the air blows towards the bag, the bag will
fill up and if it blows in the opposite direction it
will squash."
"Done. --The bag has squashed and the tube
stopped singing. So we have proved now that
the air was blowing from where my arm holds
the tube to the free end. And this is the same
direction in which the small piece of paper will
travel if I put it into the tube and rotate the tube.
See this--Now we know a lot more about this
corrugated tubes."
"But--now, one day we come across with this
green corrugated tube...which does not sing
whatever I do with it. Why the green tube does
not sing? What is the important difference
between the two tubes that makes one singing?
Take the two tubes and try to find out by
yourself."
Soap bubbles: the colour of one and many
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) observed how a prism bends a beam of sunlight, and the emergent beam
comes out of the prism as a fan of spectral colours. He found that he could re-combine the colours
back into white light by passing a spectrum through a second similar prism and a lens. He also let
a single coloured light from the first prism to pass through a hole in a screen to a second prism. This
did not produce more colours. With these experiments he proved that the prism does not add any
colour to the light but it splits the beam of white light into a spectrum. The whole story is seldom
told in schools, while the experiments on re-combination of colours are even more rare. The fact
that white light is composed of colours is not proved by a single prism experiment, and the
misunderstanding of this phenomenon before Newton is good evidence for this. The following
simple experiment can help the teacher to show the splitting and re-combination of white light in
front of a large audience.
Beautiful spectral colours can be observed as white light reflects from the soap bubbles. Cut the
mask from the cardboard as shown in the figure below.
Here one can see the mask for showing the reflected colours of the
soap bubbles on the overhead projector. The arrow shows the
orientation (top view) of the mask during projection.
Cover the semicircular opening with a sheet of white paper. Put the
mask on top of the overhead projector as indicated in the figure.
Make sure that the mask is at the level of the pupils eyes. Put the
large petry dish on top of the mask and pour some soap bubble
mixture into it. Blow a soap bubble by using a wide drinking straw. In the darkened room the whole
class should be able to observe the beautiful spectral colours reflecting from the back side of the
bubble. The turbulences caused by the heat from the overhead projector will make the event even
more magical.
At this point, the teacher tells the story of how the colours are formed and asks what experiment
247
(The inner surface of the green tube is smooth
while the rest of the tubes have wrinkles inside
as well as outside. Typically children will say
that the difference in tube diameter or length
might be the reason. Teacher can bring more
tubes to show that this is not the right answer.
Most of the children will not try to touch also
the inner surface of the tube. But even the
youngest will never think that the colour of the
tube could have anything to do with the
generation of the sound.)
"So, it seems that if there are no wrinkles on the
inner surface the tube will not sing! Now, the
last question - what kind of a tube do we need to
prove that the colour of the tube in this case was
not the reason why the tube did not sing?"
"We need the green coloured corrugated tube
with the wrinkles inside"
"Here is one--and it sings. Congratulation!"
h i h fl d l
will convince everybody that white is made of spectral colours that are seen in this very experiment.
Finally we all agree that if we were able to mix the spectral colours that we see, and we could obtain
white, we would have good proof. But how can we mix the colours from the bubble? We can try by
making a lot of bubbles that reflect the spectral colours in all directions, thus mixing the light. And
here comes the experiment. Take another straw with a thin (1mm) layer of sponge wrapped around
the end of the straw. Dip this end into the bubble mixture and blow into the straw. The foam full of
small bubbles will start to grow from the end of the straw, and soon the foam will take the shape
and the size of a big bubble from the previous experiment. The foamy dome will appear perfectly
white from wherever in the class you observe it.
References
[1] G. Planini, Pocket experiments - a step towards more relevant and more attractive physics in school, GIREP
2000, Barcelona, conference proceedings on CD, August (2000).
[2] L. C. McDermott, Physics by Inquiry vol. 1 and 2, John Willey & Sons, NY, (1996).
[3] L.C. McDermott et al, Tutorials in Introductory Physics, Prentice Hall, NJ, (1998).
[4] J. Wellington (editor), Practical work in school science - Which way now?, Routledge, London, (1998).
[5] J. Ogborn and M. Whitehouse (editors), Advancing Physics AS, IOP, Bristol, (2000).
[6] L. A. Bloomfield, How things work, John Willey & Sons, NY, (2001).
[7] Y. Nakamura, N. Fukumachi, Sound generation in corrugated tubes, Fluid Dynam. Res. 7, (1991), 255-261.
[8] L. H. Cadwell, Singing corrugated pipes revisited, Am. J. Phys. 62, (1994), 224-227.
e-mail gorazd.planinsic@fiz.uni-lj.si
LEARNING BY PLAYING OR PLAYING BY LEARNING
Nada Razpet, The National Education Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
1. Classifying and ordering chips
A set of chips is distributed on a table by chance. Two values colour and shape can be assigned to
each chip.
Children can classify chips by shape and distribute them into groups. The group with a specific
value of shape is placed into a separate spatial region. This is a many to one mapping.
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squares circles triangles
Because the classification is done by a single variable only, the distribution of groups can be
represented on a line from the left to the right.
Children can divide groups of the same shape into subsets of chips with the same colour and
distribute them again. The table is filled with groups of the chips with the same colour and the same
shape. In this case, when the classification by two variables was performed, the resulting
distribution can be presented on a two-dimensional plane.
Rows define x-axis and columns define y-axis. Now, we can assign letters to each value and write
them into a table:
S for square, C for circle, T for triangle
G for green, B for blue, Y for yellow and R for red.
The first letter (representing shape) is the same within each column and the second letter
(representing colour) is the same within each row of the table. This method can be used to
introduce basic concepts of a table and a graph (every point in the plane is described by two
parameters). It is recommended to write headings in the table and the graph presentation.
The chips of the same colour and shape can be put into towers where their heights are related to
the number of chips. The children can compare towers and tell weather there are less circle yellow
chips than red square chips. The histograms (bar graph) could be introduced.
A set of chips can be divided into groups or subsets by the rejection method. If a classification
by shape and colour is to be done the chips that match chosen criteria are put into one group
while the others are rejected. We distribute chips by answering a question Is this one the same
as...? (the equivalence relation). On the other hand when we would like to order a group of
objects, it is not enough to check the equivalence, but every two objects should be compared by
a certain value. For example, chips of different intensity of the same colour can be ordered by
the colour intensity. Chips of different colours could be ordered by colours where a certain
colour sequence is agreed (or for the oldest children - comparing the wavelengths of colours. A
chip with greater value of wavelength can be placed on the right side of a chip with a lower
wavelength value.)
2. Recognition of missing chips
While children close their eyes, a group of chips is removed from the table. The next question could
be asked: Which chips are missing? Why is it possible to recognise the missing group of chips?
The rest of chips are scrambled. Is it possible to recognize missing chips now?
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YS YC YT
BS BC BT
RS RC RT
GS GC GT
3. Linear attribute games
The sequence with three different chips is put on the table. The attributes are shape and colour. The
children could find the differences between first and second chips and then with second and third
chips. Then they can try to continue the chain with appropriate chip.
One attribute difference domino game
The chips have different shapes (but same colour).
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Two attribute difference domino game (shape and colour)
Two-dimensional games (one attribute difference)
From the left to the right in the same row, the chips differ in shape (one attribute difference), if we
look the rows they differ in colour (one attribute difference). The chips cover a plane (two -
dimensional games). If the first three chips in each row form a base of a series, then children know
which chip follows (the forth chip is the same as the first one in the row).
If the difference between the chips in horizontal and vertical way is the same (for example shape),
than the plane is like the picture below:
We could help children (with asking them questions) to continue the patterns on the right end or
on the left end (it is harder, because we are used to write from the left to the right, but it is
important in future education, for example in solving mathematical equations). The questions
could be: Which chip is before triangle? (circle) Which is before rectangle? (triangle) Which is
before circle? (rectangle). Which is after circle? (triangle)
The set of the objects is simple in the above case, because there are only two values that can be
assigned. The example from the real live could be more complicated as there could be more values
and it is usually not obvious how to select the variable by which the classification is done.
Additional variables might confuse children. In each subset (each group) the objects match in a
chosen variable although they are not equal.
Example 1
I asked my students to:
find variables by which I have classified the
post stamps (see figure with stamps below)
find the variables to divide these stamps into 3
subsets.
Each subset of post stamps could be divided in
two groups by their format (portrait or landscape)
or
by the motive on the stamp. If a stamp is
compared to other stamps of the same group they
share the same motive, but they are not equal.
Example 2
A few sheets of paper for making paper planes
were given to students. They were asked to make
three planes that differ in one attribute. Most of
the students found this task to be very difficult.
Example 3
Students from four schools take a part on the regional physics championship. The leader of the
journey prepares a list of participants. The participants on the championship are divided into four
groups A, B, C and D. Prepare the tables, make the headings and fill the table. Choose the name
and the group in which participants compete.
4. Mapping
When two sets are given, to an element from the first set (the set of the original), an element from
the second set (image) can be found by following the rule. Typically, mapping games are card games
and domino. From the introducing mappings, the concept of a function can be developed.
Domino games
Each domino has two fields with different number of points (from zero to six). A continuous line
can be build by adding a domino with matching numbers of points in a field. It is not necessary to
know how to count to play the game.
Dr. Ferbar liked to play this game with special dominoes. It this case, the players have to be able to
count.
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Cvetni bimino (Flower bimino)
Each domino has two fields like the classical domino. But the
fields on dominoes differ in:
sort of flowers
number of flowers
blooming state (have flower bud or not)
background colour
background pattern (there are stars or not)
The game can be played using the different rules:
the adjacent fields must be equal in one attribute
the adjacent field must be different in one attribute
The rule could be set at the beginning of the game. One player
is chosen to be a leader. He or she
explains the rules with words
shows the rule without words by placing two (or more)
dominoes.
The leader tells to other player if they draw the right domino
in every step of the game. If the player doesnt draw the right
domino he or she has to remove it from the line. The winner is
the player, who first finds out the rule or who first gets rid of all his or her dominoes.
Card games
A matching pair to a card can be found in many different games.
a similar pattern (fish and roof, the tail of peacock and Christmas tree)
a sort of a tree, a fruit or a leaf, bark (in this case three properties should be matched)
a profession of a person in a card and what he or she is doing
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Cvetni bimino (Flower bimino
Cards with lines and curves
Triangle card games:
The rules are for example:
the lines (curves) meet at the adjacent
sides of triangles (the colour is not
important)
the lines (curves) meet at the adjacent
sides of triangles in same colours.
Rectangle cards games
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a) b)
For example: a) no rule b) the number of lines at the adjacent sides of the square should differ by
one.
Below, there is a mapping between the number of points on a dice and a piece of the rabbit jigsaw
puzzle. There are 4 rabbits in different colour. All pieces are put on the table. The player throws
the dice and chooses the piece with suitable points. The winner is the player who puts together
more of the puzzle.
?
5. Cards for learning physics
Cards with photos of physical phenomena and their simple explanations can be put as motives of
cards.
6. The importance of games
The games described above are an introduction for recognizing variables and their mutual
relations. In some games, it is expected to find a relation between objects, while in others players
should set the relation or the rule.
It is advantageous to choose those motives that children are most attached to.
Themes can differ according to the age and interests of children and according to the knowledge
that we have achieved.
Playing cards without written rules is important to encourage children to find their own rules. It is
not a trivial task. A chosen rule might seem well defined at the beginning of the game, but might
lead to a confusing situation or even a fight when the game continues. Such conflicts show why
science laws have to be verified by experiments.
References
Janez Ferbar, From diversity and variability to variables, unpublished paper, (1998).
Janez Ferbar, private communication.
Janez Ferbar, Domen Ferbar, Ana Gostinar Blagotinek: Razvranje (Classifying), Pedagoka fakulteta, Ljubljana,
(2000).
Breda Jontes, Barva k barvi (Colour to colour), Dravna zaloba Slovenije, Ljubljana.
Grega Stuek, Tristrani domino (Three side dominoes), DID delavnica d.o.o.
Janez Ferbar, Cvetni bimino (Flower bimino), Dr.Mapet, Ljubljana, (1996).
Foj A. Zorman, rni Peter, Ljubljana, (1990).
Boa Jelen, rni dimnikar (The black chimney sweeper), Dopisna delavska univerza, Ljubljana.
Nada Razpet, Z raunalnikom brez raunalnika (With a computer without a computer), Seminarsko gradivo, Zavod
republike Slovenije za olstvo, Ljubljana, (2001).
DEVELOPING FORMAL THINKING THROUGH TOYS AND EVERYDAY OBJECTS FOR
THE FORMATION OF FUTURE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
Allasia Daniela, Montel Valentina, Rinaudo Giuseppina, Department of Experimental Physics of
the University of Torino, Italy
1. Introduction
In the usual presentation of physics in Secondary Schools, the formalization process consists often
in starting from the formal mathematical law which describes the process and then understanding
how to apply it to the problem being examined and eventually to other problems. It is essentially a
contents based didactics, which is very efficient from the point of view of the results to be
obtained, but requires that the students master already the physical concepts involved in the
content being examined and have a solid mathematical background.
Both conditions are rarely fulfilled in students of the university courses for the formation of
primary school teachers (Scienze della Formazione Primaria, SFP); besides, for these students, it is
essential to approach the physical concepts and their formalization in a way ready to be transferred
to the future pupils. To take into account both aspects, we based our approach on the use of toys
and every-day-life objects, the idea being to associate in a tight way a concrete object with an
abstract concept by giving to the concept a formal expression: the fact of seeing physically a
concrete object helps to give a formto the abstract concept, but, at the same time, the formalization
helps to understand the implicit physics hidden in the object. What we call formalization is indeed
very rarely a mathematical relation, more often it consists just in the use of the proper words or in
a graphical representation. The idea of using toys, games, every-day-life objects to approach
scientific concepts is not new: there is already an extensive literature on this argument and the
positive [1] as well as the negative aspects [2] have been widely discussed. Our opinion is that, with
a careful selection of the objects used, the benefits prevail over the drawbacks. Indeed not all the
objects as well as not all the concepts are suited for this approach. In the choice, one has to take
into account at least a few important features, in particular:
the toy or the object must be of common use, hopefully the pupil should make or find it, so that
each student can have his own object in his own hands, in order to manipulate it, take it home,
etc.: the appropriation is an important aspect of any durable learning;
254
if the toy or the object is made by the pupil, it must be of cheap and safe material; its use must
be easy and the results of the experiment must be certain and reproducible;
the implicit physics concept must be simple, fundamental and not completely new to the student;
it is important that the new knowledge be directly related to the previous knowledge, in order
to allow a spiral growth of the concepts.
In the following sections we will discuss in detail how we used some simple toys to introduce the
ideas of force and energy.
2. Simple toys to start formalizing the concept of force
The formalization of the concept of force is certainly one of the most discussed items in the physics
educational literature[3]. The usual way to formalize it is to refer to Newtons second law of
dynamics: this is just the type of abstract and formal approach which causes difficulty of
comprehension and does not help to clarify the concept of force. Indeed, in most textbooks, the
second law provides more a way to measure the force than to clarify what is a force, that is to clarify
that the force is the expression of the interaction which causes the variation of velocity.
In our approach we start directly with a concrete and familiar object which helps to clarify first of
all the idea that the force implies an interaction. Many toys have these features, for example, the
sling. In the following we describe a typical sequence of activities to formalize progressively the
main aspects of the concept.
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With this simple activity:
the pupil applies directly the force, thus he has a direct and physical intuition of its meaning,
it is also rather evident that there is an interaction between the finger and the rubber and
between the hand and the sticks,
the interaction is always between two objects, that is the finger needs the rubber to apply the
force and the hand needs the sticks,
each force can thus be given a name, which indicates the two objects that interact,
one can apply larger or smaller forces, and the effect will depend on the intensity of the force.
It may appear to be a trivial formalization, but it is fundamental, because, by giving a name to the
force, the student is trained to consider the force as a property of the interaction and not as a
property of his hand or of his finger.
Once he has understood this fundamental aspect of the force in this particularly clear situation, it
The sling
Ask the pupils to build their own slings to launch small balls: they can simply tie
together two pencils at one end to form a V and fix at the opposite ends a rubber
band. The balls can be made with paper. With his sling in his hand, each pupil
should :
describe the forces that he can recognize,
give to each force a name, which recalls the two
interacting objects, that is the source of the force and the
subject to which the force is applied (in the figure F
fr
is
the force of the finger on the rubber, F
hs
is the force of
the hand on the sticks),
apply larger or smaller forces and describe the effect on
the rubber and on the distance reached by the paper ball
in the launch,
draw a picture of the sling and write the name of each
force near the point where it is applied, as in the figure.
F
fr
F
hs
Figure 1
will be easier to him to discover the two actors of the force also in other cases, where they are not
evident (for example, in the case of the force of reaction), and thus understand that the force does
not depend only on the force source but also on the force subject.
The next step is to understand that the force has a direction and that one needs to specify it to
describe the force fully.
With a sling, the idea of direction is very evident, because the pupils observe very soon that the
result of the launch depends strongly on the direction.
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With his sling in his hand, each child should :
try to launch the ball in given directions, until he
understands how to orient the rubber in the application
of the force,
draw a picture of the sling and represent the direction
of the force with an arrow with its tail near the point
where the force is applied, as in the figure.
F
fr
F
hs
Figure 2
This kind of formalization is simple, but is the basis of what we call the mathematics of the
arrows. The rules of this mathematics are:
arrows must be drawn in the correct direction,
the tail of the arrow must be as close as possible to the application point of the force,
the length of the arrow must be proportional to the intensity of the force.
There will be a fourth rule, to be added later using other examples, on the composition of forces.
3. Formalizing energy
The concept of energy is certainly central in physics. There is a continuous debate on whether, for
young students, energy is a more intuitive concept than force, since generally the application of a
muscular force is intended to obtain a given useful result, which is just the characteristic of an
energy transfer.
It is well known that force and energy are not well separated in the intuition of the students, who,
in the description of a simple fact as the launch of a ball with a sling, would oscillate between a
force-based and an energy-based model: one can therefore ask whether it would be more
convenient to start from the concept of energy rather than from that of force.
Our experience, with students of SFP, is that, though energy might be more intuitive, it is more
difficult to formalize, in the sense described above, that is it is more difficult to relate the formal
description of the concept of energy to specific aspects of the object or of the action: as a
consequence, energy remains a vague concept, difficult to attach to something concrete.
In our approach, we start with concrete facts and objects that can be associated which energy, for
example the launch of a ball, since the idea of energy is naturally associated with that of
movement. Indeed, in order to set something in motion, one need to transfer energy from some
source: how does this happen?
Many toys are useful to investigate the transfer mechanism and to formalize it. We will discuss, as
an example, the toy-gun and the sling.
The toy-gun is shown in Figure 3. It is evident that, in order to launch the ball, it is necessary to
move different parts while applying the force: to load the gun, the piston must be moved to
compress the spring; when the trigger is released, the end of the piston, moved by the compressed
spring, puts the ball in motion. Both the forces and the displacements are needed.
257
The same analysis on the force and on the displacement can be done with the sling (Figure 4). The
sling is more flexible than the gun, because it is possible to apply different stretches and appreciate
their effect on the launch and it is also possible to prepare slings with rubbers of different stiffness
and compare the launches: it is immediately clear that, to optimize the distance of the launch, one
needs, besides the force, also a reasonable stretch.
The toy-gun
Ask the pupils to bring toy-guns such as the one shown
in the top figure, in which the spring is clearly visible
and it is also clear how the spring is put in tension and
how the ball is launched. Examining the toy-gun, the
child should:
observe the springs and understand how they
operate,
describe the force F
ft
- "force-finger-trigger"- used
to load the gun, shown in the bottom picture (the
bottom pictures were taken against the light to show
better the spring displacements),
imagine the force F
sp
that the spring applies to the
piston and the force F
pb
that the piston applies to the
ball when the trigger is released,
give to each force a name, which recalls the two
interacting objects, that is the source of the force and
the subject to which the force is applied,
describe all the movements and the displacements of
the force application points when the gun is loaded
and then when the trigger is released,
draw a picture of the gun, in which are clearly
indicated, as in the figure:
- the name of the forces,
- the arrows which visualize the force directions,
- the movements of the different parts and the
displacements of the force application points.
Figure 3
spring end
points
toy-gun
piston
F
ft
spring end
points
force
displacement
loaded
piston
spring end
points
piston
unloaded
F
sp
F
pb

F
fr
before after
displacement of the
force application point
With the sling in his hand, the pupil should:
observe and describe, besides the force, also
the length of the stretch of the rubber,
try to stretch more or less and describe the
effect that this has on the launch,
draw a picture of the sling, in which are
clearly indicated, as in the figure:
- the name of the force applied to the rubber
and the arrow which visualizes its direction,
- the movements of the different parts and the
displacement of the force application point.
Figure 4
At this level, the formalization of the energy concept consists essentially in the words used in the
description:
the word transfer: by compressing the spring in the gun or by stretching the rubber of the sling,
something is transferred, which serves to set the ball in motion. Let us call it energy;
the word store: the energy is not transferred directly to the ball, but it is first transferred to the
spring of the gun or to the rubber of the sling, and remains stored there temporarily, until it is
used to set the ball in motion;
the association of the words force and displacement: only the forces associated with some
displacement are of interest for the energy transfer. For example the force F
hs
between the hand
and the stick is not transferring any energy;
the duration of the energy transfer: energy is transferred while the force acts during the
displacement. Once the energy is transferred, the effort is finished, although one might continue
to apply a force;
the amount of energy transfer: the larger is the force or the displacement, the larger is the
energy transfer.
The words used to describe the energy are thus quite different from those used to describe the
force. For the latter, it was important the aspect of the interaction: the force implies an interaction
between two objects, thus it is important to understand which are the objects and how they interact.
The energy is something different: it is something that belongs to the object, but not in the sense
of the typical properties of the object, such as the weight or the volume. The energy of an object
depends on the situation, on the previous interactions that the object underwent; it can have
different values; it can change because the object can transfer it to other objects, etc. For example:
when the rubber is stretched, it gains energy; the amount of stored energy depends on the force and
on the displacement; the energy stored in the rubber is then released to the ball, etc.
By the analysis of other examples, other important properties of the energy are discovered, for
example the transformations of energy. Finally, at the end, also the mathematical expression of the
work done to transfer energy is given, to complete the formalization process.
4. Conclusions
The experience of two years of teaching physics to students of the university course of SFP has
shown that the association of a concrete object with an abstract concept by a basic formalization
helps the learning process of aspects of physics generally considered difficult and obscure. We have
by now a rather large collection of toys and common objects, which we found to be very useful for
different physics concepts. They were partly developed by us, partly by the students (each student
has to prepare, for the final exam of the course, a few objects or toys and discuss how he can use
them for the didactics of a given concept) and partly by the primary school teachers who
collaborate with us and host the SFP students during their practical training in the schools. The
descriptions of the objects and of their educational use can be found in our web site
www.iapht.unito.it/giocattoli/: the site is open to comments and collaboration of interested people!
References
[1] Giorgio Hauesermann, Toys in the classroom, Proceedings of the GIREP International Conference, Duisburg,
August (1998), 208-209.
[2] Seta Oblak, Toys as a part of a physics curriculum, Proceedings of the GIREP International Conference,
Duisburg, August (1998), 288-290.
[3] see for example Pietro Cerretta, Lo scoglio didattico del principio dinerzia e le questioni connesse, Proceedings
of the XXXVIII Congresso AIF, La Fisica Nella Scuola 34, Supplemento 1, (2001), 120-134
258
SOME PHYSICS TEACHING MYTHS
C.H.Wrner, Instituto de Fsica, Universidad Catlica de Valparaso, Chile
1. Introduction
Informal learning (sometimes called experiential learning) has been recently recognized as a useful
method widely used for learning purposes. Some people asset that the use of botanical gardens,
science fairs or exhibitions, museums, etc. may be used -and in fact they had been used- for the
enhancement of science knowledge. Other learning situations described by this term refer to the
side-by-side knowledge obtained for fellows in the same environmental situation, i.e. by high school
or undergraduate students. A third situation came today in mind: it is not really necessary to have
a physical neighborhood to access the information. The World Wide Web network is a source of an
almost infinite quantity of informal data and facts. Furthermore, they are advocates for the thesis
that, because all the information is located in the web, the main purpose of instruction is to learn
to use it and not to discuss the content of this information. Last but not least, I guess that almost
all you (and me) know about PCs arises from informal learning.
Appealing as it is, it is not the purpose of this note to discuss the utility and pertinence of these
learning resources.(People interested to be in touch with informal learning can consult [1]. I simply
stress the fact that we, Physics teachers, are submitted to this type of influence since the pre-net
times. Also, caution must be exerted as that this type of learning must be severely tested before
acceptation. In order to discuss this fact, I will present some examples of commonly believed facts,
that, although have been shown false in the literature, continue to be taught by a kind of fellow-to-
fellow heritage. I will call these cases myths, in a different sense that other well know (proper)
myths such as the Newtons apple fall or the Galileos free fall experiment in the tower of Pisa.
These later legends are taught as really unfounded or as unreal facts (although they can be
profitably used for pedagogical purposes), instead the facts we will dealing with, are false, but with
a mode that is well reflected by the Italian proverb, si non vero, bene trovato [2].
A recent nice account by Sawiki [3] on myths about gravity and tides triggered the present note.
2. Examples
a. The coincidence of Newtons birth with Galileos death
To be in tune with the last paragraph let us consider the common statement that the year Galileo
dies, Newton was born. The myth even consigns the date: 1642. It is easy to confirm this fact: Galileo
dies on January 8, 1642 and Newton was born on December 25, 1642.
The fallacy stems from the fact that both dates belong to different calendars. The Newton births
date was given in the old Julian system; instead, the Galileo death date is expressed in the (then)
new Gregorian calendar [4]. This is a net example of the fact that equal numbers do not always
represent the same physical fact.
b. The flow of cathedral window glasses
It is a well-known fact that atoms in glasses and liquids present a disordered state or short-range
order as opposite to crystalline materials that present long-range order. Therefore, solid glasses (as
the ones belonging to cathedral windows) must possess liquid properties, that is, they must flow.
Surely, solid glass viscosity must be greater than ordinary liquids, but for long exposure times, the
consequent deformation can be noted. Medieval glass windows seems to be the perfect target for
testing purposes and it is asserted that they are wider in its lower than in its upper edges.
In fact, it has been shown [5] that this effect is not measurable at room temperature- during
historical times (say, 5 OOO years), and therefore the thickness difference if it exist- can be
attributed to manufacturing defects. Furthermore, it is curious that older glass objects (ancient glass
vases) do not seem to show this effect and do not appear in this myth.
c. The different rotation sense of water into a washbasin exhaust in the North and South hemispheres
Vortex movements are well known phenomena in domestic bathroom environments. Claims had
259
been whispered that due to Coriolis non-inertial forces- liquid spins in opposite senses in different
hemispheres, in due account for the earth rotation around its North-South axis.
This argument has been labeled an old wives tale by Crane [6], showing that this effect would be
unnoticeable if the liquid is initially quiet. What the observer visually perceives is the increase in
rotation (due to angular momentum conservation) of the liquid due to the fact that its initial
angular momentum is different from zero. If fact, it is possible to whirl the liquid in either sense, by
simply selecting the initial angular moment of the system in a clockwise or anti-clockwise state.
d. The static friction force does not do work
The chapter on rotation dynamics in introductory Mechanics courses challenges Physics instructors
in various ways. One of this, is the treatment of the combined translation and rotation motion. In
treating this subject, common use of the example of a rolling body on the incline, permit the use of
energy conservation, so avoiding the more complex settings of relationships between torque and
the rate of change of angular momentum. To be concrete, let us assume that we are talking about
the rolling without slipping of a cylinder on the incline. We can state the conservation of energy
equations to calculate, in example, the final speed. The question is: why can we apply this
conservation law in presence of friction (indispensable for rolling without slipping)? , and the
answer is: because static friction does not do work. A further comment can follow: there is not
relative displacement between the two touching surfaces, and as work equals force times displacement,
then with zero displacement, zero work.
The fact is that in general- static friction does work. Let us consider the combined motions of two
blocks with masses m
1
and m
2
under the action of a force acting on the upper body, as depicted in Fig.1.
Fig. 1: The joint movement of two blocks (masses m
1
and m
2
), coupled by static friction forces on a frictionless surface.
F is the external force acting on the upper block
There is (static) friction between the bodies and no friction with the table. The lower body
accelerates to the right due to the friction force f, and this force indeed do work, changing the
kinetic energy of the body. Likewise, friction force does (negative) work on the upper body [7].
Therefore, the real answer to the question is that static friction does not do dissipative work. In the
cylinder-incline problem, the work done by the friction force equals the increase in rotational
kinetic energy and therefore, in including the energy rotation term in our equations, we are, de
facto, taking due account for the work done by the friction force.
3. Final remarks
A good pedagogical advice is do not always believe written arguments (by the only merit of being
written). A better would be do not always believe whispered arguments (although written on the
net). Informal learning is an inevitable and useful way of learning, but extreme care must be
exerted on the examination of the offering evidence. Recourse to authoritative sources (although
old fashioned) must be considered. Finally, the author does not assume to know all these myths and
therefore the reader would add his/her experiences on true/untrue explanations for
known/unknown phenomena.
260
m
1
f
f
m
2
F
No friction
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges helpful discussions with G. Iommi Amuntegui and A. Romero.
References
[1] S. Brailie, C.OHagan and G.McAleavy, http://www.mcb.co.uk/services/conferen/nov98/vuj/background_paper.htm
[2] Quotations are untranslatable, but in a free version: if it is not true, it seems to be; or in a more literal mode,
if it is not true, it is worth to be discovered.
[3] M. Sawiki, TPT, 37(7), (1999), 438 .
[4] S.E. Babb, Am.J.Phys,. 48, (1980), 421.
[5] E. Dutra Zanotto, Am.J.Phys, 66, (1998), 392 .
[6] H.R.Crane, TPT, 25(8), (1987), 516 .
[7] For the interested reader: in order to assert that there is no slipping between the blocks, the applied force must
satisfy the inequality: F m
1
g(m
1
+m
2
)/m
2
, being the coefficient of static friction.
261
262
Background Aspects
3.5 First Steps in Formalization
BUILDING FIRST EMPIRICAL CONCEPTS AND KNOWLEDGE BY ONESELF AND
OTHERS, IS THE WAY TO FORMAL THINKING FOR YOUNSGTER
Claudette Balpe, Institut universitaire de formation des matres dAquitaine (IUFM), France
1. A double question for teachers
The topic of the seminar is developing formal thinking in physics. I think that this problem
supposes two points of view because understanding physics in secondary school is a double
question for a teacher.
Firstly, it depends on
What is implied in formal thinking. Secondly, it concerns
The way of teaching science.
Ill study these two cases one by one successively. Ill illustrate my communication with some
examples of written or drawn products of children during physics activities in elementary or pre-
elementary school.
2. About formal thinking
Formal thinking is one among the highest levels of thought, so, its building implies several kinds of
knowledge and needs to be progressive.
Formal thinking means generally,
Knowing concepts in physics and their relations,
Linking data and equations, and,
To be able of coming and going between experiment and theorisation.
In case of physics in secondary school, relations are often quickly introduced in a mathematical
language, which is very difficult for young people because using mathematical language in physics
requires knowing what formalism means before using it.
3. Qualitative facts and formalism
Formalism is, first, necessarily linked to qualitative facts: the problem of physics is to understand
nature, therefore, to build abstract or mathematical models from concrete phenomena.
Consequently, formalisation needs going in stages from qualitative situations. Moreover, in physics,
mathematical expressions always imply logical relations between symbols of concepts relative to
nature. Therefore, they imply on the one hand, knowledge of what is a concept, and on the other
hand, mastery of logical relations, first in a qualitative way, and further, in mathematical equations.
Consequently, preparing children for formalisation is possible at elementary school, firstly because
learning formalisation begins with a qualitative approach, and secondly because this approach is
the only form of studying which a child can reach. (examples: activities with water, ice, air, some
liquids or solids, balances, light and shadows, calendar, nights and days, electromagnets,
thermometer, etc)
4. Tree levels of abstraction
According to cognitive psychology, we can think about three levels of abstraction.
First, empirical abstraction to build concepts (according to empirical abstraction by Piaget)
Secondly setting of qualitative relations between concepts
And finally, generalisation (of a qualitative relation) with formal expressions and mathematical
symbols.
5. Concept and conceptual field to the meaning
At elementary school, a concept is defined by an operative way. According to Gerard Vergnaud, a
French searcher (CNRS) in cognitive psychology, a concept means a triple proposition:
First, a concrete problem-situation to solve,
Secondly, mental logic operations about the situation (like classifying, comparing, ordering,
etc things or quantities, or etc). More often, the goal is to get the invariability (invariance)
of the situation ; that is sufficient at elementary school.
At last, a symbol often, a word which represents the concept and its meaning.
Usually, the convention for symbol is a word which is easily accepted by children ; since it is a
convention, the pupils will be able further, to replace this word by an other symbol like a
mathematical symbol. For example, resistance in electricity will be replaced by R, surface by S,
mass by m, distance by d and volume in geometry by V, etc so as to be parts of
mathematical equations later. After this first qualitative elaboration, the concept is related to many
different contexts which give its several meanings, and therefore which form a sort of conceptual
field including all the meanings of the concept. So, the child knows all the qualitative sides of the
concept to which he has access at his age.
This way of building concepts is very significant for the children, mostly if they do it by themselves:
thus, they will get a sound and permanent knowledge of concepts and will be able to enrich them
according to new contexts of learning. Therefore, it will be easy for them to use further a symbol of
concept, either letters in qualitative relations, or mathematical symbols as parts of equations.
6. Process and logical, qualitative relations
Some concepts such as melting of ice or evaporating cannot be represented at elementary school
by a measurable quantity but only by a linguistic symbol that is a word. This sort of concept
implies a process and logical qualitative relations between measurable quantities (for example:
weight, height or surface area of water, time or temperature). It is of course, more difficult to study,
and is tackled later in schooling (in the last years of elementary school) as said afterwards.
These sorts of concepts first symbolised by a word will enable children to go further by
solving problems in experimental situations.
7. Solving experimental situations: a first introduction to logical thinking in a qualitative way
After having built some main concepts during the first years of elementary school, students are able
to solve experimental situations for example: how to make water leaving out wet clothes ?
For this, they have to conduct a research: what are the factors of this situation, how to foresee how
it works, how to test hypotheses with experiments and end up to conclusions. (ex: evaporation goes
quicker with a high temperature, a wide surface area and changing the air above water).
In this way, logical relations are built between empirical factors: that is a first introduction to logical
thinking in a qualitative way. That way of thinking by logical relations is the most difficult part
of learning in science.
At the end of elementary school, youngsters can set up simple natural rules from calculating and
data for example, the rule for balancing a mobile hung up on a thread.. If children know how to
multiply, the rule expressed in words: heavier the object is, closer it has to be to the thread to
equilibrate something else can be translated first into a very simple equality between numbers
for each data (the product of multiplication = mass x length is egal on each side). Then, with the
mathematical symbols, this equality can form an equation. Thus, it will be easy to go through
equations, which are logical expressions with abstract symbols. At that time, it will be necessary for
youngsters to know about appropriate mathematics.
To sum up, physics at elementary school are first building concepts, and then leading to logical
relation firstly qualitative. Later, when youngsters have a good level in mathematical knowledge, in
secondary school, they can do similar reasoning introducing to mathematical equations.
In conclusion, it seems that if the symbolism of concepts and the functioning of logical thinking are
acquired even with empirical concepts it will be easy to get formal thinking. Because, since
the most important obstacle in the path to formal thinking is to give sense to equations, by building
each concept, its mathematical symbol will be easily mastered by children or youngsters. In the
263
same way, if relations between empirical concepts are firstly built, their mathematical expression will
be also mastered afterwards.
And, little by little, when more and more equations are set up, young people become able to use
them, to come and go between experiments and theory through equations, to foresee, etc
8. Some conclusions
The first conclusion of this communication is that formal thinking cannot be taught or learned with
lessons. It takes roots progressively, in the first learning, when children build their knowledge:
otherwise, it makes no sense to youngsters. At elementary school, formal thinking is only an
introduction to logical thinking and to symbolisation.
The second conclusion is that to build formal thinking requires to break with the pedagogy of speech,
and to teach methods rather than results. In this new style of pedagogy, the youngster and not the
content is central. That doesnt mean that the content is not important, but, on the opposite, that
scientific activities in the class-room aim at building the meaning of official contents.
9. The second problem is not to make physics available to youngsters but to enable youngsters
to build scientific knowledge?
The first and most important results come from Jean Piaget who has analysed and searched about
childs understanding. Actually, new considerations in cognitive psychology go further and provide
us with the conviction that young people have to build their knowledge by themselves (and of course,
with others and the teacher in the class-room): it is the only condition for them to get sound and
stable knowledge. In physics, the progressive way described before, seems to be the only way to
reach formal thinking in secondary school.
The problem is not to make physics available to youngsters but to enable youngsters to build
scientific knowledge. If they can build concepts and relations empirical, then, mathematical
young people will be able to come and go from experience to theory and thus, to develop from
elementary school, introduction to formal thinking.
10. How do teachers have to teach science at elementary school with this aim in view?
First, they have to organise activities in the classroom for the children
Observe nature and phenomena,
Research how to solve problems
Answer questions about nature.
Children are naturally curious and must satisfy this curiosity collectively and by themselves, rather
than by listening to their teacher. Physics will begin by questions, interrogations, paradoxes, etc
raised by the teacher or by the children themselves, about nature and phenomena, as ancient
people (Greek, Egyptian, Chinese) did it; so, children become little researchers in the class-
room. Thus they will learn by solving situations or answering problems in interaction with nature.
I have proposed an indicative way for young teachers to teach elementary physics.
Didactic table (5-8) [proceeding table for teachers in cycle 2]
Didactic table (9-11) [proceeding table for teachers in cycle 3.]
The teacher has to be an organiser of the activities, an organiser who knows about science but who
doesnt teach it. He just leads activities and helps pupils in their research, their communication, in
setting up conclusions and finally in writing about their activities.
Generally, there are four parts in a scientific activity in classroom. First, children start with an open
(or, half-open) situation or question, or with a challenge, to introduce the subject by observing or
trying to see what is at works. For example, if the aim of the lesson is the discovery of the rules of
equilibrium, the teacher proposes to the children to build a mobile. It is relatively easy for them and
gives them a successful activity.
11. Example of solving concrete problem: building and equilibrating a mobile, a seesaw and
knowing about their equilibrium
264
3. Topical Aspects 3.5 First Steps in Formalization
The teachers objective is to enable pupils to understand by themselves the qualitative rules of
equilibrium of an object moving only by rotation around a fixed point.
This project will allow the children to build rules of equilibrium and understand about levers, balances
and further, to introduce measuring of masses.
The pupils (6 - 8) have to equilibrate first a mobile with two different pieces of cardboard (one large
and heavy, the other small and lighter) which they have cut up. They have seen first, the mobile of their
teacher and afterwards, they can make their own mobile as they want. This need intuition and the
pupils progress by trial and error. In French this is called ttonnement experimental. Finally, they
achieve success and call their teacher to show him what they have made.
While some of the pupils are finishing, the others have to draw on a sheet of paper a representation
of their device and try to remember how they did it. When all the groups have finished, the teacher
organises a discussion and every group explains to the others how they did it.
Two solutions appear from the discussion between them and the teacher who conducts the debate:
first, moving only the hangingthread and stopping it near the heavier object; secondly, maintaining
the main thread in the middle of the rod and moving the objects by trial and error and by intuition,
until the mobile is equilibrated. In both cases, the teacher proposes to compare the lengths of the
two parts of the rod on both sides of the main thread: first by foreseeing, and secondly by
measuring. The results of all groups are similar: the heavy object (the larger) is nearer the thread
than the light one. This first result is valid for all the groups, so it is admitted as a truth.
The conclusion is a qualitative relation: heavier the object is, closer it has to be to the thread to
equilibrate something else.
The transparent films I am showing you are some examples of writings from children I worked
with.
To go further, another research can be proposed which permits to apply what they have built
before: how to equilibrate a seesaw with two children, one heavier than the other ? By groups,
children have to research how to do with an apparatus (on a pivot, they put a ruler with two little
balls of clay or something else)
Very quickly the pupils succeed in equilibrating the device and can say why they were successful
immediately. They draw a representation of their trial (in classroom, with two balls in clay) and can
propose the right conclusion for lifting a heavy thing. (to lift up something heavy)
For the second time the qualitative rule for equilibrating a rotating object is the same: heavier is
the object, closer it is to the thread. That becomes the general and scientific rule admitted
qualitatively by the children about a balance. Then, to widen the field of the concept, the children
investigate the levers.
Other researches are proposed: What happens when you use two little boxes with some little screws
inside it, (instead of balls of clay). First, the children try with the same number of screws and put
the boxes at the same distance from the main thread: the apparatus is equilibrated. The pupils have
understood that if the weight is the same, the distance is equal: that application is different than the
previous experiment. Then it is possible to go on studying balance. Then, it is proposed to add, one
by one a screw in one box. The children have to foresee what they will have to do. And then, they
draw a conclusion from their hypothesis: the heavier the container is, the closer it has to be to the
pivot. It is possible to measure and draw up a table of data from which the pupils can foresee other
cases. If pupils know how to multiply, the teacher can offer them to search the mathematical
constant term of this situation. That is a possible beginning to approach the algebraic theorem of
movements studied in secondary school.
Such a way to build this content at elementary school enable the youngsters in secondary school to
develop quickly formal thinking about equations of equilibrium: they have already learnt about
weight and distance, and their qualitative relations.
Because the Principle is first tackled in a qualitative aspect and recalled when the subject is
mathematically treated, there is no important obstacle for the youngsters to understand it, and all
the more since they gave sense to it when they were searching about it.
265
12. A fine perspective
In this example, pupils are like researchers. They have questions or phenomena to understand by
observations and experiences. They work together in little groups. The teacher plans their activities,
organises debate, prepares apparatus and material. He knows about the topic but doesnt teach it
by lessons. He foresees the way the children will build their knowledge according to cognitive
psychology and pedagogy of groups. He thinks about how to organise final knowledge and about
childrens writings: because structuring the presentation of the writing is a way of giving sense to
the contents and reminding the children of the scientific activities. This sort of scientific activity
builds qualitative relations and conceptual notions about equilibrium of an object rotating around
a fixed point.
This example is one among many others, all of which giving roots to the formal thinking.
References
Balpe C., Les sciences physiques lcole lmentaire, Paris, Colin, (1991).
Balpe C., Enseigner la physique Approche historique, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, (2001).
Vergnaud G., (Ed) Apprentissages et Didactiques. Paris, Hachette, (l994).
Vergnaud G., Les fonctions de laction et de la symbolisation dans la formation des connaissances chez lenfant, In
Piaget J., Mounoud P., Bronckart J.P., Psychologie, Encyclopdie de la Plade, Paris, Gallimard, (1987), 821-844.
Weil Barais A., Vergnaud G., Studentsconceptions in physics and mathematics: Biases and helps. In J.P. Caverni, J-
M. Fabre, M. Gonzalez (Eds), Cognitive biases. North Holland, Elsevier Science Publishers, (1990), 69-84.
Vergnaud G., La thorie des champs conceptuels, In J. Brun (Ed), Didactique des Mathmatiques. Delachaux et
Niestl, Lausanne, (1996).
Vergnaud G., La formation des concepts scientifiques. Relire Vygotski et dbattre avec lui aujourdhui. Enfance, 1-
2, (1989), 111-118.
INTRODUCING THERMAL PHENOMENA QUANTITIES
Domen Ferbar, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Big world
Temperature and heat
In the first step heat
1
and temperature are differentiated. It is important to stress the difference
between everyday experience and language connected with it and the refined meaning we are
trying to introduce.
1. Heat can be stored in warm bodies
Pour some water in a glass. Heat it up. Draw a strip. Water in the right glass is warmer then water
in the left one. It makes sense to say that the second glass contains more heat. Changes in
temperature and changes in heat go hand in hand. There is more heat in the glass of water of 70 C
than in the glass of water of 10 C. There is more heat where there is higher temperature.
2. What is the difference between temperature and heat?
1) Pour some water into a glass. Pour some more. The temperature of water in the glass stays the
same. For which picture it would make sense to say that water contains more heat?
266
1
Everyday meaning of the word heat is used. Heat in everyday language (amount of heat) differs form the meaning of
the word in science courses only by the fact, that heat (in everyday language) can be stored.
Change of heat departs from temperature changes: the amount of heat goes up but the temperature
stays the same. There is more heat in the glass with more water.
2) When pouring the water out of the glass, the temperature of water in the glass stays the same.
For which picture of glass A it would make sense to say that it contains more heat?
Heat in glass A diminishes, temperature stays the same. Change of heat again departs from
temperature changes: heat goes down, temperature stays the same. There is less heat in the glass
with less water.
3. Can heat flow without flow of water?
Hold a can of hot water with both hands. You can feel the flow of heat into your hands. Hold a can
of cold water with both hands. You can feel the flow of heat out of your hands. Put a can of hot
water into a vessel of cold water.
What is happening with temperature? Draw a strip using different shades of grey different for
different temperature. What is going on with heat?
Heat in hot water is decreasing. Heat of cold water is increasing. It makes sense to say that heat
flows from hot water to cold water. Put an arrow in the picture to indicate the direction of heat flow.
Energy and entropy
1. Warming hands with heat
It is possible to heat hand by putting them into warm water.
2. Is heat the same as energy?
It could be. It can be transferred from body to body and it can be stored in a body. Let us give some
energy to Domen and see, whether his hands warm up as in case when giving him heat.
Both Janez and Domen are holding a rope. Domen is standing on a trolley. Janez pulls the rope
while Domen holds it firmly. Clearly Domen receives energy as his speed increases and thus his
kinetic energy increases. But his hands do not warm up. So heat is not the same as energy.
3. Can one warm hands without heat?
The previous experiment is repeated with a slight change: Domen holds the rope loosely so it slips
through his hands.
Domen does not move. Domens hands warm up as when he was receiving heat from warm stove.
Touch the rope at different places. You can feel that heat is not flowing along the rope to Domen,
but the energy does. So something is added to energy on the contact surface between rope and
hands. We will call this addition entropy. Thus energy flowing through the rope and entropy added
on the contact surface together make hands hot.
267
It is safe to say that energy and entropy together make heat. Energy flows through the rope,
entropy does not. It makes sense to say that entropy is created while rubbing the rope against the
palm of Domens hand.
So one can heat hands without heat. In the slipping rope experiment only energy was supplied to
Domens hands and entropy was created.
Revise the chapter Temperature and heat and exchange the word heat by word-pair energy and
entropy. Both energy and entropy inherit the properties of heat introduced in this chapter. They
are both extensive attributes: they can be stored, they can flow and they are additive.
Entropy can be produced
1. Heating by rubbing
Rub your hands strongly against each other until it hurts. Count the number of hand-moves. Put
some drops of salad oil on your palms. Rub them again and count the number of hand-moves until
they get as warm as before. Put some washing powder on the oiled palms. Do the counting again.
The energy is already in the hands. By rubbing entropy is produced. Decreasing friction with oil
diminishes entropy production rate. More hand-moves are needed for the same temperature
change. Adding washing powder increases friction. Entropy production raises. Only a few scrubs is
enough to heat up hands as previously.
2. Heating by reaction
Break a heating pad. Hold it in one hand. What happens?
Energy released by the substance combined by the entropy produced by the chemical reaction
warm up the substance in the same way as if it were receiving heat.
3. Heating by current
Take a piece of heating wire and connect it to the battery. You can feel the wire warming up.
Energy transferred by electric current is combined by entropy produced by it. This produces the
same effect in wire as if it were warmed up by heat.
4. Heating by light
Make a patch of aluminum bronze on the back of one hand and a black soothe patch on the other.
Put both hands on near strong (IR) light source.
Light is reflected by bronze and is absorbed by soothe. Absorbed energy and entropy produced by
absorption will make skin unbearably hot.
Aluminium bronze reflects and disperses light in all directions. Entropy produced by dispersion is
taken away by reflected light.
In all these processes entropy is created and added to energy. This produced the same feeling as
heat would. In the first two examples the energy was already in the body and entropy was created
and in the third and forth energy was also supplied.
Micro world
Lets create a representation that will help us to think about selected phenomena. Lets pretend
that we are looking at what is happening through a microscope.
Temperature and energy
What we see is a simple world of atoms
2
. Every atom can either have a small amount of extra
energy or it does not have it. In the computer model we simulate the two states by either colouring
the atom (atom has some extra energy) or by colouring it white (atom has no extra energy).
Atoms randomly exchange extra energy among each other. In a computer model we make a rule
that simulates this process: a randomly picked up atom exchanges its colour with the colour of a
268
2
By atoms we mean only the basic particles of which this world is made of. Some, though very limited analogy can be
made with real-world atoms.
randomly picked up neighbour.
In the experiment a hot body is placed in a contact with a cold body. A red block of atoms is
placed beside a white region.
Redness spreads out from small red block into big white region until both are equally red. We
can say that difference in redness between two blocks disappeared and interpret the redness as
temperature.
Because redness is passing all by itself from high concentration to low concentration we say
that the difference in concentration is the cause of change.
What is entropy in microscopic world?
In the model, energy stops flowing when there is no difference in temperature. If this is the case in
big world, heat (energy and entropy) stops flowing. It is sensible to connect the two quantities
also in the micro world.
To introduce entropy, the number of ways in which atoms within a body can exchange extra energy
without the change of number of atoms with extra energy is counted.
The difference between temperature and heat
It makes sense to make a revision of the difference between temperature and heat (energy and
entropy). The same argument makes sense also in the microscopic view.
The temperature (redness) of the system does not depend on the size of the system.
Energy and entropy on the other hand are connected with the number of particles with extra
energy and thus depend on the size of the system.
Increasing entropy spreading out energy to larger number of places
Consider a hot iron block in cold environment. The iron block is denoted as a block with a thicker
line around it.
Time passes and iron block cools down and the environment warms up. Energy goes form the iron
block to the environment.
In the iron block the number of arrangements lowers and increases in the environment. The
entropy of the iron block decreases and the entropy of environment increases.
269
Obviously energy spreads out. The entropy of the region, from which the energy flows, decreases,
because there are less different arrangements. The entropy of the environment increases.
A computer model can be used to compute the number of arrangements. It can be shown that the
increase of entropy in the environment is larger than the decrease in the iron block. So entropy is
produced in the process.
Disco type entropy
By now the model of the micro word was simple. It needs to be broadened.
Entropy depended only on the number of arrangements of extra energy. We can think of it as disco
type entropy because it can be connected with movement of molecules. In the process of spreading
out energy molecules bump into nearby molecules. Fast molecules slow down and lazy nearby
molecules speed up - exactly what happens in disco, if some good dancers start with a wild dance.
They agitate the nearby neighbours but by this process the wild dancers slow down.
From experience we know that fast moving and slow moving dancers will mix up. But also dancers
that differ in some other property might mix up in a similar way.
Lego type entropy
Two groups of dancers are on two halves of the dance floor. One is wearing red shirts and the other
is wearing white shirts. They represent two different substances in two separate regions. While time
passes they mix. Red ones spread into the white group and white ones spread into the red group.
On the whole the process goes on until the red/white ratio is the same on both parts of the dance
floor.
Mixing is the process that runs by itself. The particles are moving from regions of high
concentration to regions of low concentration in a similar way as energy is transferred from hot to
cold region. Because of this similarity we expect that entropy be produced in such a mixing process.
This forms a counterpart to the disco type entropy. Lets call it lego type entropy
3
. This is the part
of entropy that depends on the number of arrangements of different types of particles.
Increasing lego type entropy - spreading out particles
In the hot iron block example a change that happens by itself was connected with a diminishing
temperature difference. Now we can say that by spreading out energy the disco type entropy
increases.
Other changes that happen all by itself exist in which other differences are disappearing. Spreading
out of matter is an obvious example.
When spreading out of matter occurs differences of concentration of matter are disappearing. The
changes in entropy are similar to changes in entropy that come about because of spreading out of
energy.
Examples:
A small amount of perfume is sprayed into the air in a large room. The molecules of the perfume
soon fill the entire room. Matter spreads out.
Lets involve both, spreading out of energy and matter.
A match is burned. Because the temperature of the match and its constituents and also a nearby
270
3
Lego type entropy is tightly connected with spatial distribution of particles
environment is increases, the energy spreads out. But also the molecules constituting of the match
molecules and nearby oxygen molecules spread out.
To ease the thinking, it is often possible to think of the lego type entropy increase as the increase
in mess. Some precaution is in needed since the meaning of the word mess can be misleading. Mess
is created, when two substances mix, like in the Cinderella story, where ashes and millet grains were
mixed. Entropy increases. But then, if the two particles bind somehow (like atoms bind in
molecules), the entropy decreases, since within a certain diameter of an ash particle a millet grain
can be found.
If water freezes, a crystal is formed out of fluid. The lego type entropy decreases, since one is quite
sure where a certain particle in the crystal is to be found.
A box of well-aligned matches is in perfectly good order until matches fall out of the box. If one
collects them in a hurry, not all the caps are on the same side. So entropy increases.
Something similar happens if NaOH is dissolved in water, dipole water molecules surround Na+
and OH- ions. The alignment of water molecules is now better, so the entropy of the water
surrounding the ions decreased.
Two facets of spreading energy
A model of solid made of Styrofoam balls connected with spring is left to fall on the floor.
During the fall all the atoms move with the same velocity in the same direction. Kinetic energy
can be ascribed to movement in one direction towards the floor.
After the solid hits the floor balls are moving more vigorously than before. They move with
different speeds in different directions. Energy has been spread from the movement of all atoms
towards the floor to movements of atoms in all directions.
Spreading of energy has two facets energy can spread in two manners:
to larger number of places (atoms) or
to larger number of movements (movements in different directions with different speeds).
In the Styrofoam example energy spread only to larger number of movements.
Connecting the micro world with the big world
Macro world
Energy before the bump of block of solid on the floor is ascribed to movement of the body. We say,
that the block of solid has kinetic energy. Energy of disordered movement of particles inside the
body is called internal energy.
Kinetic energy of the block of solid diminishes in the process of breaking or collision. We say that
kinetic energy is transformed into internal energy. Because the energy of the solid does not change,
we associate the increase of temperature with the increase of entropy.
In micro world
Orderly movement of all the particles of the body downwards is transformed into a large number
of disordered movements movements of particles in all directions with various speeds. It looks
like disorder in movement increased. Increase of disorder in movement in micro world can be
perceived as increase of entropy in the big world.
Both worlds
Dispersion of energy either to bigger space or to a larger number of different movements is a
process that is difficult to reverse. We call it irreversible process. Of course this does not mean that
the process cannot be reversed it only means that this does not happens by itself. Reverse
processes of irreversible processes must be driven from outside by some effort.
So we can conclude microscopic picture by saying that in irreversible processes (dispersion of
energy and matter) entropy is produced and this reflects in increased disorder of distribution of
energy and matter in space and among movements.
271
In the big world it seems that there are many more types of processes that run by themselves only
one way and have to be driven in reverse direction. These are irreversible processes: things slow
down, currents die out, waves are absorbed and chemical reactions proceed in one direction. Just
four irreversible processes in the micro world can explain irreversible processes in the big world:
dispersing energy and particles in space and among movements. This is summarised in the above
table.
References
Atkins P. W., The second law, New York, W. H. Freeman and Company, (1984).
Black P. J., Davies P., Ogborn J. M., A quantum shuffling game for teaching statistical mechanics American Journal
of Physics, 39, 1154 1159.
Boohan R., Energy and change Support materials (London: University of London Institute of Education), (1996).
Boohan R., Ogborn J., (Trans. Ferbar J) Energija In Spremembe (Ljubljana: Modrijan), (1996).
Ferbar D., Statistine igre in ireverzibilnost, (Ljubljana: Pedago_ka fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani), (1995).
Ferbar J., Irresistibility of irreversibility, in Oblak S. et al. (ed.), New ways of teaching physics - Proceedings of GIPEP-
ICPE International Conference, (Ljubljana: Board of Education of Slovenia), (1996).
Ferbar J., Teaching wisdom, in Physics Teacher Education beyond 2000, Proceedings (Barcelona), (2000).
Herrman F., Der Karlsruher Physikkurs, Teil 1 - Energie, Impuls, Entropie, (Karlsruhe: Abteilung fr Didaktik der
Physik, Unversitt Karlsruhe), (1995).
Herrman F., Der Karlsruher Physikkurs, Teil 3 - Reaktionen, Wellen, Atome, (Karlsruhe: Abteilung fr Didaktik der
Physik, Unversitt Karlsruhe), (1995).
Hribar M., Entropijski zakon - poskus zakljuene obravnave, (Ljubljana: Pedagoka fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani),
(1995).
Keohane K. W., (co-ordinator), Change and chance, (published for the Nuffield Foundation by Penguin Books),
(1972).
Kuer I., umer S., Toplota, (Ljubljana: Drutvo matematikov, fizikov in astronomov Slovenije, Zveza organizacija
za tehnino kulturo Slovenije), (1987).
Mandl F., Statistical physics, (New York: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.), (1988).
Marx G. (ed.), Disorder in the school, (Budapest: Educational Branch of the Roland Etvs Physical Society).
Reif F., Statistical physics, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.), (1967).
Zemansky M. W., Heat and thermodynamics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.), (1951).
WHAT FRACTION OF PUPILS REALLY REACH THE STAGE OF FORMAL THINKER
IN PHYSICS?
Rudolf Krsnik, Planinka Peina, Maja Planini, Ana Suac, PMF, Physics Department,
University of Zagreb, Croatia
Ivica Buljan, Primary school Zaprude, Zagreb, Croatia
According to Piagetian theory transition from preoperational stage of thought to the concrete
operational stage occurs between 7 and 11 years of age. Around age 11 child is concrete thinker; she
or he is capable to think causally and that is of crucial importance for physics teaching. Concrete
operational mental structures permit intuitive conservation reasoning, reversal thinking, multiple
classification, assimilation of data from concrete experience and their arrangement and
rearrangement into serial ordering etc. However, thought operations of concrete thinker are strictly
related to objects and physical processes with which he is in direct physical contact and are directly
272
Dispersion of energy of matter
by position + heat conduction + diffusion
by direction
+ conversion of kinetic energy
into internal energy
+ dispersion of light
+ dispersion of beams
+ dispersion of particle beams
tied with physical experience. Objects and environment themselves are not of crucial importance;
what is important for cognitive development is the childs activity in acting on those objects.
However, concrete thinker is not able to think on the basis of verbally stated hypothesis and
abstractions.
With further cognitive development to the stage of formal thought operations these limitations are
outgrown. Formal thinker has no need for objects and direct physical experience; she or he is able
to think in abstractions using propositional logic. While the earlier stages were described in terms
of domain specific descriptions, it was not so with the formal stage. Formal operational stage was
described in terms of operational schemes, i.e. certain patterns of reasoning, for example:
focusing on the important variables what includes isolating relevant variables and controlling
variables in a given process;
formulation and stating of hypotheses to concepts and abstract properties and the use of
propositional logic;
combinatorial reasoning,
proportional reasoning,
stating functional relationships, etc.
According to original Piagetian theory [1,2] transition from concrete operational stage of thought
to formal one is a) universal and b) occurs between 11 and 15 years of age. Numerous results of
research in the light of Piagetian ideas have showed that the first statement does not hold. It turned
out that ability of formal thinking strongly depends on context inside which development has
occurred. In the second statement Piaget was too optimistic. It was shown later that large fraction
of adults still stay at the stage of concrete thinker. As school children are concerned it turned out
that less than 20% students of English comprehensive schools are in late formal stage at age 16 [3].
There exists certain criticism of Piagetian stage theory, for instance that it is not explanatory but
descriptive. Nevertheless, Piagetian stage model is very useful and simple enough for the use in
physics teaching. One important reason for that is the fact that in majority of Piagets original
questions in tests and clinical interviews are about physical objects and processes. There is more or
less consensual agreement that dynamics of childs cognitive growth is strongly dependent on the
quality of teaching process. Stage model gives to curriculum developers and teachers important
informations of two kinds. Knowing cognitive level of students (by their age) one can: a) choose
appropriate level of teaching contents, and b) structure and organize teaching contents in a manner
which can accelerate students cognitive development. Piaget himself claimed that physics is in that
respect the most convenient of all school subjects.
Our experiences with pupils of all ages and with university students (future physics teachers)
demonstrate significant difference between those who has attended traditional teacher centered
teaching and those who attend pupil centered constructivist oriented teaching.
The great majority of interviewed students attended some of traditional teacher centered teaching
during their schooling. The achievement of middle school students is in accordance with quoted
results of Shayer et al [3]. Their data, that not more than 20% students age 16 are formal thinkers,
is particularly interesting. Namely, we have found that in teacher centered teaching process
(lecture) only about 20% of students try to follow the lecture longer than 5-10 minutes; the others
switch themselves off. Also, according to Solomon [4] percentage of English school students who
are able to think about physical problems in appropriate manner is about 20%. Coincidence of
these data cannot be accidental.
Students in higher classes up to age 19, and even university students (future physics teachers), in
certain situations do not handle some operations which are associated with formal thinking. It
seems that these inadequacies are tied with weak qualitative understanding of concepts which have
been acquired mostly via definitions and mathematical formalism. It is often difficult to
discriminate what is the reason of inadequacy in response: undeveloped formal thought operations
or undeveloped conceptual structure. We will consider in more details few typical examples
restricted to thought operations of isolating and controlling variables.
273
Definition of electrical resistance, R = U/I, student interprets in the following manner:
Electrical resistance is proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to current.
Obviously, student is not using control of variables, but he does not understand the concept of
electrical resistance either. It is indicative that such mistakes are often made by future teachers
of mathematics and physics (and not by future teachers of physics, physics and chemistry or
physics and technology); it probably reflects their way of thinking in mathematics.
Similar and even more drastic case, but fortunately less frequent, is the interpretation of second
Newton law, F = m a, by stating: Force is proportional to the mass of the body.
In answer to question how does centripetal force depend on radius r, most of students choose one
of the answers: inverse proportional (led by equation F
cp
= mv
2
/r ), or proportional
(equation F
cp
= m 4
2
/ T
2
). One could say they are just not applying control of variables,
therefore they are not formal thinkers. However, the other possibility is that they have not at
disposal sufficient conceptual understanding of given situation, and that could be the reason
they are not able to apply formal thinking.
Isolating relevant variables is particularly important operation in qualitative reasoning on
properties of harmonic oscillator.
a) In the first case system is simple harmonic oscillator, a weight suspended on elastic spring. The
task is to find functional dependence of free oscillations frequency in dependence of relevant
parameters of the system (i. e. dependence ). In spite of the fact that there evidently
exist only two relevant parameters, k and m, student have lot of troubles with their isolation
(these parameters were known to students, but were not mentioned in the formulation of the
problem). While isolating relevant parameters is a serious problem for appreciate part of
students, procedure of dimensional analysis is not a problem at all.
b) Interesting case is analogous procedure for simple pendulum, i.e. to find out functional
dependence using dimensional analysis. Here is the operation of isolating relevant
parameters more complic5ated and more challenging. Namely, beside the length l of a thread as
the obvious parameter, immediately appears the mass m of the bob (which turns out not to be
relevant parameter for frequency, and should be eliminated in the later procedure), and
gravitational field of the Earth, g, which is hidden at least at the first glance. Majority of students
succeed in isolation of g as a relevant parameter only after additional questions (why is the bob
swinging at all?).
In the course of our (constructivist oriented) variant of school curriculum in 11
th
class (age 17)
the problems are stated to find functional dependence of speed of (sound) wave on relevant
parameters in stretched wire, and in bulk specimen. Students, future physics teachers, working
on that curriculum have serious problems in autonomous isolating relevant parameters which
could influence the speed of the wave. Probable reason for these difficulties lays in the way how
they were educated. They have learned physics mostly following traditional lectures, using
definitions and mathematical approach without appropriate qualitative reasoning.
In the case of stretched wire it should be easy to isolate the length
.
l
.
and the mass
m .of wire (which enter in the relation through linear density = m /l and tension T of thread;
it is really difficult to anticipate some additional relevant parameter.
In the case of bulk specimen students have even more problems in
isolatingrelevant parameters because they are more abstract. Only a part of the students succeed
in autonomous isolating of these parameters, but only when during discussion they are reminded
274
m
k
0
v
l
g
0
v
(

T
v
)
(
p
E
v
)
that analogy should be drawn with simple harmonic oscillator and parameters which
characterize inertia and elastic properties of the system respectively. Isolating of elastic constant
E (or some other modulus) makes more difficulties than isolating of density, because it is more
abstract.
How to improve formal thinking of pupils in physics? We see the solution in interactive, student
centered and constructivist oriented approach to the physics teaching. That is necessary for
achievement of science literacy of all scholars; in the same time that is useful for the most able as
well because they have more opportunity to express their special abilities. For example, in 4
th
class
(age 10) elaborating experimental theme on water waves, we asked pupils one inappropriately
difficult question: One boat drives with speed 10 km/h, another one with speed 20 km/h. Both of
them produce water waves. Compare the speed of waves produced by these two boats. On our
surprise there were pupils (4%) who answered that speed of both waves are equal, because wave
speed should depend only on properties of water.
It seems that majority of scholars from age 11 to the end of middle and high school (age 18-19) are
mixture of concrete and formal thinker. Certainly, the portion of formal thinking part is increasing
with age, but is far from being completed. Consequences for physics teaching could be that it is
always convenient to start with gaining physical experience, and through discussion move towards
generalizations (but not strictly by inductive method). The development of formal thinking is
strongly dependent on context, so in teaching practice (and curricula development) Piagetian ideas
about cognitive stages should be combined with perception on preconceptions and conceptual
change, and complete teaching process should be subjected to the ideas of educational
constructivism. In such educational surrounding pupils are unbelievably able participants. For
example, in 8
th
class (age 14, second year of physics teaching) during experimental treatment of
light dispersion, Newtons experiment of light dispersion on prism was presented and historical
situation in Newton time was described, particularly old ideas that white light is primitive and
colored light is a mixture of white light and of something else. Pupils were told that Newton created
two crucial experiments by which he succeeded to refute that old ideas. Pupils were asked to create
these two crucial experiments themselves (by the use of two identical prisms, light source and a
screen with a small hole). With the help of some discussion (answers to pupils additional questions)
and a small assistance of teacher pupils succeed in creation of both crucial experiments. In spite of
the fact that it was paradigmatic change in historical development of physics, which had many
difficulties with acceptance, pupils took it as a quite normal thing. Pupils obviously had no strong
preconceptions about that matter and this result was hardly conceptual change to them. This result
is on the line with important constructivist thesis that knowledge is dependent on social
surrounding. By the way, such way of teaching process is not limited to very small number of
exclusively able teachers (what is occasional comment of uninformed persons, even physicists). In
our case the role of teacher was taken by two students on pre-service teaching practice.
References
[1] J. Piaget, Les stades du dveloppement intellectualle de lenfant et de ladolescent. In Symposium on Le Problme
des Stades en Psychologie de lEnfant. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, (1955).
[2] B. Inhelder, J. Piaget, The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence, Basic Book, New York,
(1958).
[3] M. Shayer, D. E. Kuchemann, and H. Wylam, The distribution of Piagetian stages of thinking in British middle and
secondary school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, (1976), 164-73.
[4] J. Solomon, Teaching about the nature of science in the British National Curriculum, Science Education 75 (1),
(1991), 95-103.
275
COGNITIVE LABS IN AN INFORMAL CONTEXT TO DEVELOP FORMAL
THINKING
M. Michelini, A. Stefanel, C. Moschetta, Research Unit in Physics Education, University of
Udine, Italy
1. Introduction
It is necessary to start scientific education early, so that it is an integral part of the culture with
which the individual grows and contributes to his education, with its ways of putting together and
using the work done by all, of recognizing as valid what can be shared, by defining and discussing
problems, by paying scrupulous attention to the heart of these problems, transcending the personal
dimension to give value to the social dimension. In Italy this is still something which has to be done,
due to the influence of Gentile on our school system [1,2].
Science teaching in the compulsory school can construct scientific interpretation on every-day and
common sense experience, joining with the experience of the senses, with which each one of us
spontaneously explores the world from the first moments of life [3,4]. The connection between
scientific knowledge and knowledge based on experience is one of the main problems of learning
in the scientific field [5]. Individual operativity (practical and conceptual) appears to be important
in all didactic activity, so that the educational itinerary can set off and direct a progressive and
explicit connection between cognitive dynamics and disciplinary structures [6-12]. This connection
involves the methodological plane, when a fundamental role in the educational process is
attributed to the peers cooperative learning [13].
Conceptual change seems to require a cognitive crisis and a re-structuring of concepts [14] by
means of dynamic mental models inextricably linked to the context [15] in order to interpret and
foresee situations and facts.
It is therefore necessary to explore the ways children learn in specific fields in order to obtain
competence in strategies which will be effective in educational path. The preparation of materials
for a coherent curriculum of scientific education from primary school to university is the main
objective of the national research project SeCif [16], where the Udine Research Unit has, among
its specific tasks, the basic knowledge on thermal phenomena. Therefore, studies have been carried
out on two lines: educational path have been experimented in class and specific moments of
interaction with the children have been monitored.
To support the first type of activity, work groups were organized with teachers from the primary
schools [17], who for one year worked with us in weekly meetings. Educational paths were
proposed to these teachers, to be done in class as a type of action-research in order to identify work
strategies and to study the organization of knowledge, with particular attention to the ways
children construct formal elements in relation to thermal phenomena. The path proposed are the
result of previous didactic studies in the same phenomenological field, documented in a hypertext
[18] and used to make a multi-media prototype as a didactic support [19], which was also made
available to the teachers involved in this study.
For the second type of activity three types of laboratory were organized, 2 hours long, in the context
of a yearly activity for the diffusion of scientific knowledge [20], where the teachers find connecting
activities between didactic research and school practice.
For three weeks every year, the University is transformed into a science center [21,22] and
performs various activities, which are included with research already under way with the
teachers [6-11]. The use of Explorative and Inquiring Cards (EIC) in the framework of the
interactive exhibit GEI [10] and the experience of constructing conceptual maps with the
children have taught us a great deal on the role of operativity in the construction of concepts
[23] and have shown us the limits of the instruments of enquiry used to analyze learning
processes. Together with laboratories for experimental exploration and for constructing
conceptual maps, redesigned in the light of our previous experiences, a cognitive laboratory was
276
proposed, centering on an operative discussion with the children: Cognitive Laboratory of
Operative Exploration (CLOE). Groups of children took part in this lab, participating in the
first type of activity and also groups not involved with this activity. In this conference we shall
report on the research associated with this type of laboratory (CLOE) which has included the
use of thermal sensors connected to the computer for activities on which to center cognitive
interviews.
2. Formulation and objectives of the research
A change of perspective, from the phenomenology of states to the thermodynamics of processes, in
the disciplinary framework of thermal phenomena, allowed us to show that learning problems in
this field are connected to a lack of recognition of the processes, the need to distinguish between
state sizes and process sizes [24,25], which only occasionally is manifested in the temperature-heat
dichotomy, initially identified as central [27].
Our long experience in this field, in class experiments [27,28], with the GEI exhibit [10,25,27,28],
and indirectly through teacher education [29], provided us with the elements to define new
methods of working and approaches which cannot be structured in a short time, but which develop
over a number of years, constructing the thermo-dynamic concepts starting from the processes,
using on-line sensors with the computer in order to collect data in exploratory activities [25,30,31].
The research which we present here is intended to explore the childrens potential while it analyzes
the effectiveness of our proposals [18]. In particular, by using on-line sensors and by means of
specific strategies of interaction with the children, we want to test, in the field of thermal
phenomena, what other research has already highlighted on childrens ability to formalize
[6,7,8,9,10,32]. Our intention is to understand how the recognition of formal features facilitates the
formation of concepts even in primary-school children and how they organize their knowledge of
the phenomenological world on the formal plane too.
The tools we used for the investigation with the students in the Cognitive Laboratory of Operative
Exploration (CLOE) consist of some Rogers-type dialogues [33] with small groups or individual
students, preceded by an interview-discussion with an integrated experimental exploration activity
to be done with groups of about ten children. For this last activity we perfected an interview
protocol, following our experiences in the classes [18], with questions on the concepts of a cognitive
itinerary in which it is desired to stimulate the construction and evaluation of interpretative
hypotheses by means of conceptual microsteps, which in previous studies [10] were found to
characterize childrens reasoning.
3. Context of the research and characteristics of the sample
The CLOE activities were carried out in laboratory/classrooms equipped with various copies of
low-cost materials, for experimental exploration, a system with temperature sensors [28] able to
display in real time the temperature values of the sensors. With an OHP and a blackboard with
sheets of paper it was possible to manage and document some collective phases, for example the
discussions.
In each laboratory there were at least two researchers: one conducted the activity, managing the
collective interaction with the children. At the end he noted down his comments on the way the
activity developed. The other carried out systematic monitoring, by means of audio recording, free
notes on the attitudes and significant comments by the children or on situations which would be
difficult to reconstruct based on the recordings alone. In some (few) cases, the whole activity was
video-recorded.
In the labs, lasting about 2 hours, phases involving the whole class were alternated with phases of
individual work or work for small groups, taking care to involve all the students.
All in all, 250 children from the primary and middle school participated in the cognitive laboratory
activities. 170 of them were involved in CLOE. In the table 1 is summarised the sample composition
(117 primary school pupils).
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Eight classes were involved, working in groups of 12-20 students, between the ages of 6 and 11. In
columns 2 and 3 of the Table the numbers in brackets refer to the classes and students who were
carrying out the research experiments in class as above.
4. The interview protocol and the organization of Lab A
The interview protocol used by the researchers in CLOE, of which some parts are reported below,
was organized as a grid of problematic points on situations of everyday life or operative proposals
on selected scenarios from familiar contexts.
PROTOCOL FOR THE RESEARCHER
Interview on situations: predictions, actions, evaluations Q: Questions A: Actions
K1 Q: How can we establish if something (an object, air, ) is hot or cold?
K2 A: Distribute the drawing of a scenario made in an experimental class (Fig. 1)
Q: What are the hot objects shown in the drawing?
A: Let the objects be ordered by groups: hot, lukewarm and cold, monitoring the criteria
of order and the way of presentation
K3 A: Identify objects which can be considered equally hot: list and analyze how it is done
(If a minimum of grouping is done, ask)
Q: The objects which are equally hot, are they all the same?
..
K5 A: Let the objects in the tank be ordered according to thermal sensation (scissors, grain
of brass and aluminum, rubber, playdo, similar cubes of aluminum-wood-plastic-
polystyrene, pencil-sharpener)
Q: The different bodies give different thermal sensations. What will their temperature be?
K6 A: Get the student to hold a sensor in his hand and discuss the development T(t). Whose
T do I measure?
Q: What is the temperature of the table?
Q: What is the temperature of the hand?
K7 A: Measure the temperature of the objects previously put in order.
Q: Does the thermometer work? (we make sure by holding it in our hand and we
measure the temperature of the objects again)
Q: Does the information obtained with the sensors coincide with the thermal sensation?
Q: In what does it differ, if at all?
We explore the ways of formalizing and constructing cognitive structures through conceptual
microsteps wherein the everyday experience of the children is compared and connected with that
of selected scenarios. We shall discuss some of them.
With the initial question K1-Q, how do we know if an object is hot or cold?, we explore the ways
in which the cognitive connection between being hot and thermal state is get explicit. We
examine the ways in which thermal sensation and measurement of the temperature are
associated/distinguished/identified in personal mutual experience. We evaluate if and how the
students recognize that those identified by the individuals as thermal conditions depend on the
situation (recognition of temperature as property of state).
278
Table 1
Classes Number of classes Number of students
1 - primary (6-7 years old) 1 20
2 - primary (7-8 years old) 2 (2*) 36 (36*)
*: number of classes and students involved in experiments conducted by us.
The K2 request aims at recognizing criteria and methods with which the objects are put into order.
The children experience the conceptual crisis necessary to overcome the identification between
thermal sensation and temperature measurement both by a sensorial exploration of objects of
different material, mass and shape (they touch different objects placed on the table), and also by a
comparison with the graphic representation of the temperature data of a sensor which is taken
from the table and held in the hand for a sufficiently long time.
The representation of the data supplied by the sensors in real time is used to study the ways in
which processes are recognized with respect to states, and those in which they are associated with
transformations or conditions of thermal balance.
We investigate the recognition of the intrinsic interaction process in measuring temperature, the
investigation being guided by proposals to examine variations in the temperature of the sensors.
The following table reports the conceptual knots on which the interview-activity is centered.
279
K1: Ways to establish the thermal state of a system.
K2: Classification of objects according to thermal sensation.
K3: Comparison of sensation and temperature in defined situations and in what they imagine
they mean
K4: From representation to interpretation. Intensive and extensive sizes. Recognition of
describers and transformation producers.
K5: Analysis of transformations through selected situations.
K6: Reading and analysis of the temporal evolution of the temperature of the human body,
short- and long-term environmental data, on small and large scale, of the transformations in
the kitchen and in everyday environments.
K7: The properties of materials in transformations: sizes of state and process.
5. Data and analysis
The data were analyzed on both a quantity and quality plane.
The qualitative analysis was carried out in an initial step of synthetic correlations between our
prior hypotheses [6bis,7,19] on mental representations concerning thermal phenomena and ways
of organizing the relative knowledge in individual situations. From the interviews we made
organizational paths of the concepts, identifying the emerging processes of formalization. Then, we
identified individual conceptual microsteps common to the different paths.
In the quantitative analysis we evaluated the use of characteristic words or expressions.
The correlation between the two types of analysis concerned the groups of children in relation to
the contexts of use of the quantitative elements.
Here we report only some of the data monitored, concentrating particularly on those relating to
the conceptual difficulties which the children explored most in CLOE.
The childrens attitudes. All the students (95%) showed a great involvement in the operative
comparison of their own ideas with reality and in remembering their everyday experiences. The
collective discussion was a highly motivating element. Right from the first phases more than 90%
became familiar with the use of the measurement system based on sensors, as shown in previous
experiments [22].
K1 Ways to establish the thermal state of a system. When asked the question How can we
establish if an object is hot or cold?, most of the children replied with our hand, by touching
it (in half the cases this was the most immediate answer), others with a thermometer, others again
said by looking at the object and relying on ones own experience. It is interesting to note that
about a quarter of the children answered by indicating how to produce the thermal state assumed
as known (I put it on the gas, I heat it up). The cognitive connection between being hot and
thermal state emerged in more than 80% of the cases, during the discussions stimulated by the first
question. In some isolated cases the identification of heat and temperature emerged. More
frequently, especially in the younger children, it was the association of fever and temperature.
K2 Classification of objects according to thermal sensation. The first division into micro-classes
(hot/lukewarm/cold) generally occurred by indicating only one of those objects subsequently
identified as hotter. Few children (less than 10%), indicating several objects simultaneously, show
a first tendency to construct isothermal classes of systems for individual elements. Any further
classification occurs: referring to the thermal sensation I felt it hot (24%), recognizing a process
that a state is produced The cup gets hot because of the coffee poured into it (40%). 36% do not
indicate any relations of order. 19% of the children employs the classes hot-lukewarm-cold to
identify the concept of thermal condition (thermal state) from the diagnostics of the sensations
produced by the various objects in different conditions. In the same way, they recognize that it is a
property which depends on the situation and the history of the object, overcoming the contingent
limit of sensorial information, which calls to mind other parameters, such as thermal conductivity,
the material, the mass. 24% of the children need to pass through an intermediate step to limit the
difficulties, which step consists of identifying equally hot objects.
The references to everyday sensorial experience show the childrens ability to distinguish thermal
states relating to a limited range (accessible to experience): beyond this, systems in different states
are considered in a single state of very hot or very cold.
K3 Comparison of sensation and temperature. The way of exploration used leads to an
understanding that thermal sensation is connected to a process, whereas temperature is connected
to a state (70%). There were few students who limited themselves to recognizing differences in
thermal states (30%), but they overcome the dimension of sensorial relationship and recognize that
the systems have their own thermal condition. However, they dont overcome the cognitive crisis
which separates states from processes. Those who succeed often also know how to
motivate/interpret the reasons for the different sensations, sometimes recognizing the role of the
different materials in the processes.
K4 From representation to interpretation. In exploring the process of interaction between a sensor
and the hand, a great majority (68%) distinguish the three phases of thermal balance of the sensor
with the table (initial), transition (intermediate), thermal balance of the sensor with the hand
(final). The other children manage to read the value of the temperature of the hand correctly, but
do not reflect on the way it occurs and think that in any case the sensor always measures the
temperature of the object it interacts with from the moment it interacts with it.
K5 - Transformation analysis for selected situations. The cursor proved to be decisive with regard to
the ability to identify quantitative aspects and in particular to associate the qualitative and
phenomenological elements with the data. Identifying critical moments in the evolution of the
temperature, done by only 15% of the children, becomes mastered by 95%. The autonomous ability
to refer to differences in temperature and time intervals to recognize behavior is much rarer.
Observing the graph, 60% of the children can predict the final thermal state of a process. It is
interesting how it is done by 20% of the children: by looking at the way the temperature varies in
time. There is, as it were, an intuitive idea of the derivative both of the first order (speed of growth
of the temperature) and also of the second order (curvature). The confirmation that 72% of the
children tend to objectualize the graph (48%) or the temperature (24%) [21] is perhaps the answer
to the apparent contradiction in their not knowing how to examine individual variations, but ways
of varying.
This is confirmed by the 78% of the children who are able to recognize the processes from the
graph and the limited number of children (22%) who make the connection between the
representation shown in the graph and the numerical displays. Also the understanding that thermal
balance must be achieved in order to make a temperature measurement is connected to this way
of looking at data. While the use of the cursor helps 66% of the children to overcome the missing
connection between numerical values and the graph.
Effectiveness of the strategies.
In order to accustom the students to seeing the numerical values associated with the individual
280
points of the graph, it is important for the researcher to make focused questions, as described in the
protocol. Imitative attitudes will help the students to acquire this familiarity.
Using the cursor makes the childrens point of view pass from a simple recognition that the
development of the data has changed, to the recognition of the individual point where the data
changes. In the interviews it is the children themselves who explain how, and confirm our
hypothesis as set out above on their privileged way of looking at data.
The conceptual difficulty remains of recognizing the temperature as an autonomous parameter and
as the property of a system with respect to the general identification of the system with the variable
considered (I measure the desk! not the temperature of the desk).
In the light of the above, we therefore developed a strategy, which revealed itself to be effective in
80% of the cases, which uses objectualization precisely to overcome objectualization. We report the
documentation here in synthesis:
F1/Q; Where was the sensor? A: on the table;
F2/Q: So whose line is that there? A: the table.
F3/Q: What were we measuring then? A: the temperature;
F4/Q: So what does that line represent then?
The whole class replies enthusiastically: A: the temperature of the table!
6. Concluding remarkes
The recognition of the childrens attitudes is wide and complex. We can already draw some
conclusions.
The practical and conceptual operativity used in the Lab acts as a motor to connect everyday
experience and scientific knowledge. Dedicated systems reduce the need for abstract thought and for
organizing hypotheses, compared with open environments. Their limit is thus overcome by the conquest
of familiarity which, thanks to real-time graphic representation, produces intuitive correlations between
the plane of action, the plane of the phenomenon and its formalized representation.
With regard to the formalization processes, we find that the concept of thermal state is structured
through the recognition that it can be modified with processes of thermal interaction. This
recognition and consequent conceptual structuring are activated in ordering and classifying the
thermal conditions of different objects. The ability to put the objects in order according to their
thermal conditions implies a recognition that they are in defined thermal states. This is the cognitive
passage from the sensorial feeling hot to overcoming the subjective reference in favor of
accepting the existence of a being hot. This conquest of an outside reality, which can be observed
and described with quantitative properties, is one of the steps of becoming an adult and of knowing
how to manage observation and interpretation of phenomena: it is a requirement for doing physics.
We have seen that it is activated very early and cannot be ignored without paying the price of an
empirical knowledge of the world, disconnected from the knowledge taught later in physics.
The conceptual restructuring through which the identification of thermal sensation and
temperature is overcome is activated by comparing the results of sensorial explorations and
measurements of temperature when it is possible to identify the process of getting hot. It passes
through the recognition that measuring the temperature of a system requires conditions of balance,
the result of an interaction between the measurer and the thing measured. The role played by the
ability to employ some formal elements, such as temperature developments or differences, in this
process of restructuring seems decisive and possible with processes of objectualization.
Knowing how to obtain information from a graph does not generally occur spontaneously, but the
recognition of what has been done (actions) and observed (graphic representation) and the size
which describes the phenomenon (temperature as a function of time) helps the students to
distinguish the different planes (operative, descriptive, interpretative) for the conceptual
construction. This is shown, for example, by the majority of the children, who knew how to make
the correlation, with certainty, between deeds-actions and graph in order to recognize states and
processes taking place.
281
The interview protocol describes an effective strategy in encouraging the students to read and use
the graphs, recognize elements, sizes of state and process and in this way has some didactic value.
The simple operative proposals which it provides involve important aspects on the level of a first
formalization. For example picking up and holding a sensor implies associating the action of
interaction of the sensor with the hand, with the curve of the temperature over time, associating the
data with the temperature; it also implies recognizing the non-linear nature of the process. The
researcher, by means of focused questions (whose temperature am I measuring?, What is the
temperature of the table? of the hand?), explores how the children recognize the various
aspects shown.
We confirm the already known advantages for learning which derive from using on-line sensors.
Moreover, a role emerges, which was not so evident before, of the cursor as a software instrument
capable of constructing a conceptual bridge between actions and deeds. It appears to make the
connection between the qualitative dimension and the quantitative dimension more powerful.
The conceptual restructuring already identified in literature as a unique step in the development of
general and dynamic mental models and of powerful cognitive networks, against the provisional
nature of contingent interpretative models, is shown to be connected to the ways in which
formalization occurs. It is associated with the individual relationships between concepts and hence
connected to the formal aspect, which characterizes such relationships. It is precisely in the
particular link between the restructuring paths and the relative methods where we think we can see
the greater complexity and the need to make deeper analyses.
The methods followed in this work seem to give the expected results and can constitute a reference
protocol for investigation.
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283
MAKING PHYSICS FASCINATING TO.. ALL !?
Grazia Zini, Lab.di Did. della Fisica, Dipartimento di Fisica, Universit di Ferrara, Italia
Angela Turricchia, Aula Didattica Planetario, Comune di Bologna, Italia
Leopoldo Benacchio, Osservatorio Astronomico, Padova, Italia
1. Introduction
Making Physics interesting to people is a real challenge but worth trying for a number of reasons:
many people judge Science and Physics on the basis of information given by media (TV, Internet),
information often incorrect, incomplete or just wrong and on these basis they are often requested
to judge on Physics aspects that have social impact such as electrosmog, nuclear plants etc.; Physics
is perceived as too difficult to be approached by a standard student so the number of Physics
students is going down steadely everywhere; ..and also because just trying is rewarding!
Our work regards LIGHT. Why light? It is one of the most fascinating physics phenomenon for
people of all ages, it is basically interdisciplinary: from arts to all the experimental sciences such
as geology, natural science, etc. where Physics of light play a basic role, moreover the visual
approach is today of paramount importance (TV, Internet, advertisements....).We have
developed a complete curriculum [1], based on students activities, which goes from elementary
level to university level.
The logic of the whole physics proposal is: light as perceived by our eyes vs light as revealed by
man-made instruments (spectroscopes, various type of sensors, etc.) in order to present the
fascinating world beyond what we see or touch, such as the stars or the electromagnetic radiations
beyond the visible range. Here only a section is of the whole work is reported.
It regards the use we are making, of a hand-held diffraction spectroscope, produced for
Gemmological analysis [2], to introduce visible spectra and to present light as information carrier.
Hand-held spectroscopes are not new in Physics education, but this instrument is so simple that it
can be effectively handled by pupils about ten years old, and accurate enough to interest University
students. Obviously goal, objective, language and Physics level should be suitable to the age of the
students. Examples of activities made in classes of ten, thirteen, eighteen year old (and over)
students respectively, are here reported. The educational validity of the reported activities were
experimented in the last two years with primary school students, with University students, and is
also applied to the pre-service and in-service teacher formation. Obviously the activities are
integrated in different curricula. We present also the use of the same nice instrument in the
interactive section of a museum of scientific instruments [3].
2. The starting activities
The starting activities are almost the same for all ages and type
of audience, a step which takes 2 lessons at least, for pupils
about ten years old and just half an hour for high school
students.
This first step is conceived to stir curiosity, in order to trigger
interest.
After announcing that the lesson will begin with the study of
everyday-life light sources, but without giving further
explanation, we put in our students hands a mysterious, nice
object :
What is it ?
Try it, look at the white light of the ceiling lamp Wait a
moment ! White?.
Only at this point we give the instrument name and, when suitable, explain how it works, otherwise
we present it only from an operational point of view. The procedure follows :
Use the little spectroscope to look at the incandescent white lamp, at the fluorescent white lamp,
284
Fig. 1: The hand spectroscope, ruler
inserted for length comparison
at a burning table salt, at street yellow lamps, at the sunlight.
Is white light really white?And colours? Look at the light transmitted by a red glass, a blue glass,
an incandescent blue-light lamp, a mineral, a gem.
Here the second step: surprise which give rise to intentional learning [4].These qualitative activities
give operational concepts: of light source, of emission, absorption of light, of continuous and lines
spectra. They give the concepts that:
our eyes are limited and might be deceiving: man-made instruments are needed to enlarge our
knowledge (they too might be deceiving!);
light carries information: of the source and of the materials it interacted with, so we have
information on substances which are e.g. too far for reaching (astronomy), too deep inside a
transparent solid to be touched (defects in crystals, material science), too scarce to be perceived
by our senses (e.g. elements traces in a mixture Chemistry)........
The teacher role is to foster intentional observation and discussions from which to attain first
qualitative report, then quantitative measurement, and to introduce theory at the level suitable to
the age and the previous knowledge of audience.
For young pupils the proposed experimental activities are intended to make them observe, report,
discuss, make assumptions and validate (or not) them by experiment; for higher students the
activities are also the basis to main parts of optics: diffraction and the photon model of light. This
is the beginning of a learning/teaching process which has been developed in various contexts that
use different level of formalisation and of mathematics. We present here examples
1 in astronomy teaching
2 in a lecture to Physics students
3 in the interactive section of a scientific instruments museum,
3. Examples
3.1 An application to the teaching of astronomy
The educational procedure for the younger pupils (8-13 ys old students) is the one presented in the
Project Cielo! Astronomia e Fisica per la scuola dellobbligo, (Heavens!, Astronomy and
Physics [1]. The title contains a little joke, in fact Cielo! is used in Italy sometimes in case of
surprise).
The spectra activities takes about 2-3 hours, and it comes after other simple experiments which
enlighten the concepts of source and light sensor, and show that the light intensity transmitted by
a number of exposed photographic slides diminishes increasing the number of slides.
Important astronomy concepts comes out directly from the discovery of the difference between
the spectra of the light from an incandescent lamp and the sun, followed by the observation of the
flame produced by a burning table salt and/or other substances.
285
Fig. 2: A report in the lab-book of a ten
year old child (Elementari school,
Bologna, Italy)
Fig. 3: Observing the flame of cooking salt
In fact each pupil (without support from teacher) is able to see, with the little spectroscope many
Fraunhofer lines superposed on the continuous spectrum and a very bright line on second case
(only one, elas!). Discussion on these effects with the whole class and the use in class of an applet
[5] which displays the emission and absorption spectra of the periodic table elements, make
students understand how astronomers are able to deduce the composition of the stars without
going to them.
The Sun emission spectrum induces also understanding of the Earth atmosphere effect on the light
which reaches the Earth. [Other experiments, not in Cielo! Project, are now available to deepen the
understanding of the effect on light by other stars atmosphere[6]].
Experimentation on this activities were made during 2000/2001, in Elementari schools (about 650
pupils, 9-10 year old) and Medie schools (about 150 students, 12-13 year old) [7]. Activities were
in part made by the class teachers working alone, in other cases researchers were active in class
during the lessons and other times the students do the activities during a visit to the Aula Didattica
Planetario of Bologna.
Spectroscopes and written material about the lesson procedure were given as support to the
teacher. In-service teacher formation was adopted in some cases, other teachers were able to
proceed by themselves with little help, by e-mail or phone, from Physics education researchers.
Evaluation of the proposal were obviously made in the usual way by written tests, open-end-
question to students and discussions with students and teachers. The results were very good. Here
we report the phrasing of one of the teacher: The results are clearly positive for my students who
took part with enthusiasm to activities and discussions. From my point of view I liked very much to
teach Physics in this way; it is perhaps the first time I liked it so much
3.2 Application in Physics lessons at High school, University and Teacher training
The activities outlined above were proposed also to students at the beginning of their University
carrier (17-20 ys old students), both Physics and non-Physics students and also to in-service and
pre-service teacher training [8].
The approach was almost the same as above, only the playful procedure takes less time (about half
an hour) and it is followed by the theory with the appropriate mathematical level.
286
Fig 4: High school student using the spectro-
scope during a visit to the Physics Dept. of
Ferrara
Fig 5: The blackboardat the end of a lesson
to Physics students (Dept. of Physics- Ferrara)
The spectroscope was first used to display the spectrum of helium-neon laser light, and to discuss
diffraction phenomena and related theory. Then the observation of line spectra made easy to
introduce (or revise) the photon theory. For non-Physics students an applet of a photon
interacting with an Hydrogen atom [9] proved to be very useful to the understanding of the
emission-absorption model.
The experimentation of the Physics educational proposal here presented, took place during the
last two years at the Department of Physics, University of Ferrara. It involved students of Diploma
di biotecnologie agro-industriali (non-Physics students), Physics students of the first year course
and students specializing in Physics teaching (a two year, post degree course which must be
followed by all future teachers). The qualitative approach revealed to be particularly important
since very few student in Italy have Physics in their pre-University studies and so lack of the
qualitative appraisal of the Physics phenomena, which in my opinion, is necessary when studying a
Physics phenomenon for the first time.
3.3 Application in an interactive section of a scientific instruments museum
Obviously here the spectroscopes and the educational strategies above explained can be
straightforward applied. The Scientific museum visitors are of all ages and scientific knowledge
level so the experiments for the younger children are proposed for a public without previous
knowledge in Physics, while the higher level approach is for a public with deeper knowledge of
science. Working sheets suited for an exhibition were prepared and, obviously, proposal for
securing the hand spectroscopes are advanced.
4. Conclusions
The educational strategy here presented links common knowledge to science and shows one
example of the role of man-made instruments in Science. Moreover the playful simple practical
activities provide motivation for theory, discussion and modelling from a very early age. We can say
that the main points of the learning process are:
Light carries information
The decoding of light carried information (and its integration in our Mind) depends on
instruments used
Our eyes gives us the first, basic idea of the visual world, that necessary for our life,
Using different instruments we see different aspects of objects or different objects
Eyes, used to observe and analyze, and man-made instruments are for intentional learning [10] (our
eyes most of the time are used for not-intentional learning). Intentional learning requires efforts,
by efforts we enlarge our knowledge of world from the basic ideas and, doing so, we develop also
our Mind. In this way instruments are seen as part of the intentional learning mind.
(Mind= brain with its neural web and knowledge acquired)
References
[1] L. Benacchio, G. Mistrello, M.G. Pancaldi, M.Sasso, M.G. Somenzi, A. Turricchia, G. Zini, Cielo! Un percorso di
Astronomia e Fisica per la Nuova Scuola dellObbligo, Giornale di Astronomia, 4, (2000), 31 (and
www.polare.it)
[2] http://www.gagtl.ac.uk/sinst.htm#spectroscopes Giornale di Astronomia, 3, (2000), 31 The Project Cielo! is
funded by M.P.I. Project S.E.T.: http://www.istruzione.it/argomenti/autonomia/progetti/set.htm
287
La Sezione interattiva:
(esperienze ed attivit pratiche di
laboratorio)
~ 12 attivit interattive con schede
per il pubblico
~ 4 esperienze per scuole
superiori con schede insegnanti
La sezione museale:
9 oggetti : prismi, reticoli, banco di
Melloni, spettroscopio,
spettrogoniometro.
Schede di presentazione per visitatori
con informazioni storiche
Fig. 6. Scheme of the museum project composed of history and interactive sections
288
Background Aspects
3.6 Strategies: Methods and Tools
SWITCHING FROM EVERYDAY FACTS TO SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Pilar Len, Universidad Simn Bolvar, Venezuela
Marina Castells, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
1. Introduction
First year physics is not the same for all freshmen. Certainly each curriculum assigns a relative
importance to this subject, and the physics content is selected because of its relevance to attain the
desired goals. In engineering courses and other technological careers physics plays a subordinate
role. Physics knowledge is directed to practical applications, often without time enough to foster a
deep understanding. Therefore, the teacher is usually under time pressure to cover a great amount
of content and to provide the students with a repertoire of skills. Besides it, lectures prevail in
universities with large enrolment; despite the fact that many other teaching strategies are
considered more effective. So, plain lectures to large groups are programmed, but there is still little
research on the communicative skills used by teachers in their lectures.
The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the processes by which the scientific knowledge is
presented to students attending lectures, and how formalisation is intended using a multi-
representational discourse. In short, our focus was on communicative processes in lectures.
2. Background
Language has been seen as a full medium to give adequate expression for everything that needs to
be expressed. Some efforts have been made to explain how written and spoken language are used
to give accurate descriptions of physical phenomena (Talmy, 2000). But written and spoken
language is not enough in the classroom. A better approach to language awareness has forced to
look at language as a multiplicity of quite distinct semiotic resources (Kress et al, 1998). Therefore,
when teachers try to communicate scientific concepts and processes to their students, they need to
use other resources as gestures, drawings, graphs and equations that contribute to give adequate
expression to their explanations (Lemke, 1998; Jewitt et al, 2000). The use of this multi-
representational discourse (van Dijk, 1985) in scientific explanations must be directed to make the
subject matter more accessible, understandable and manageable to students.
There are differences between the language used by the scientific community and the language
used in teaching physics. Thematic patterns to be taught are not original because they must be
construed with reference to accepted science knowledge. In consequence physics teaching requires
a careful analysis of the subject matter, to produce a versioned form adapted for teaching in a given
level (Ogborn et al, 1996). That is, a didactic transposition. As a result of such transformation,
linguistic and other symbolic resources used by physicists to construct entities, processes, states,
relations and outcomes (Ochs et al, 1996) are reviewed, restructured, and fashioned in a suitable
form to promote learning. When teachers teach an inverse process is used: everyday facts and
previous knowledge are invoked to re-build scientific knowledge in a coherent way from the
students point of view.
In this work we focussed on the meaning-making process supported by the teacher in a current
lecture on physics. Using the results of the analysis, we tried to identify both semantic relationships
established along the lecture and summarise the thematic patterns built by the teacher through his
multi-representational discourse.
3. Method
From the ontological point of view we were interested in teaching as it occurs in natural settings.
So we adopted a qualitative approach to carry out a case study addressed to a deep understanding
of the process under study. Three different sources provided the information gathered by the
researcher: 1) Video-recording and field notes from direct observation of the whole lecture. 2) The
physics syllabus currently used, and the textbooks as a valuable way to establish the didactic
sequence in which the lecture was inserted. 3) An informal interview with the teacher to inquire
into his teaching approach and what he considered the most important features in his lectures from
the point of view of the subject matter content.
The research was carried out within the usual lectures in the middle of a four-month term
addressed to architecture students. The topic of the lecture belonged to first year Physics Program
specially designed to reach the specific aims of the technical focus given by the institution. The
lecturer had been previously contacted and informed about the purpose of the study and he had
agreed to collaborate with us.
After a brief talking with the teacher about the arrangements needed to record the lecture, we
proceeded to the observational stage of the research. A ninety-minute lecture was video recorded
using one fixed camera, settled in front of the blackboard and among the students to appreciate the
lecture as the audience did. The researcher, as a non-participant observer, took field notes to record
drawings, graphs and equations not clearly visible in the video. A few months later the informal
interview with the lecturer was held. The purpose behind it was to inquire on how he faces his own
teaching in this particular context, while avoiding a probable bias created by the proximity of the
observational stage.
Subsequently, the lecturers speech was integrally transcribed jointly with the other communicative
resources used by the speaker. In this way the interactions between the different communicative
resources were accurately registered.
4. Results and discussion
We centred our analysis on the development of the thematic patterns of physics, that students must
master and use when reasoning about specific contents (Lemke, 1990). So, we went through the
video and its transcription searching for the main strategies used by the teacher to build patterns
of semantic relationships.
Repetition of key terms with different emphasis each time prevailed, and the main features of the
content were highlighted by a reiterative use of naturalistic drawings (Kress and van Leeuwen,
1996).
A basic drawing, a horizontal rod supporting two loads near its extremes, was used every time
either to expose a new facet of the phenomenon or to make direct linking among real facts, their
conceptual interpretation within physical knowledge, or their mathematical formalisation.
This variety in presenting the main thematic concepts in the lecture was carried over, not only from
one part to another in the lecture but from previous and forthcoming knowledge, both in physics
and in other subjects. Besides, semantic relationships were articulated around three main topics:
elasticity of materials, internal effect of loading and local deformations.
At the beginning the teacher made an introductory link to the thematic sequence and, at the same
time, he began to talk about the discourse itself (metadiscourse):
now we are going to continue with the theme we began the other day.
This linking to previous activities gave thematic continuity to the teaching going on. But metadiscourse
was also used as a mark or signal in the discourse, putting forward relevant points that would be the
elements to be taking in account for the students in their process of meaning-making:
Our working methodology is going to search for normal stresses (...) we will connect them with the
flexion moment (...) we will use the geometry (...) to construct a function that is able to describe the
curvature of the rod.
A core term, flexion model, was a constant along the speech acting as a pivot in the teachers
discourse. Rhetoric and semantic connections were made using analogies from ancient and modern
architecture provoking implicit relationships: a strategy directed to transferring semantic
relationships and thematic patterns, already known by the students, to new relationships and
patterns the teacher was trying to build up.
289
Meaning-making and formalisation
Relevant elements of the transcript were extracted to analyse the process of meaning making. We
focused mainly on how premises were stated through a narrative, and on how the argument was
developed
1
to achieve the formalisation.
The process of meaning making began when the teacher put in context the topic to be taught:
After our talking about the moment of inertia we are going to talk about flexion (...) using a model
restricted to avoiding additional stresses as shear stresses.
In this way, the teacher engaged the topic in a didactic sequence, giving to the students a sense of
continuity and a useful linking to the forthcoming argument. On the other hand he was implicitly
anticipating that `moment of inertia would be an important part in his explanation.
Further he made more drawings, pieces of the curved rod, that he used to build new explanations,
giving material support to the premises of the argument: the assumed restrictions of the model. At
this moment a closing was done by the teacher, who passed to discuss similar situations in ancient
architecture.Here gestures were the most predominant mode used to communicate the behaviour
of stones, beams and rods supporting weights.
A coming back to the main line of the argument was done, marked by a change in the intonation
and rhythm of the voice. A new and condensed version of the effect produced by loads was made,
emphasising the inner behaviour of the fibres into the rod:
...once we had applied the weights, the beam was deformed, its fibres made a rotational movement
around an axis (...), perpendicular to its length (...), in this way the plane, initially a vertical one, has
become an oblique plane.
This speech would be senseless without the gestures and drawings made at the same time. Really,
in this part of the explanation, verbal language had a subsidiary role because the argument relied
on visual resources. Figure 1 shows the original transcription matrix where the speech, drawings
and gestures used at the same time were registered.
Then the teacher began to build a set of mathematical hypotheses:
290
3. Topical Aspects 3.6 Strategies: Methods and Tools
SPEECH GESTURES DRAWINGS COMMENTS
Then, once we have applied the
load, the rafter was deformed and
it has a rotational movement.
And this rotational movement
takes place around an axe,
perpendicular to the rafter, that,
we will draw later,...which
coincides with the neutral fibre.
This plane, initially vertical, has
become an inclined one.
Points to a transversal
section in a previous
drawing that represents
the deformed rafter in 3D
and shows how the
vertical plane was rotated.
He draws an inclined
plane, points to the Z-axis
and uses one hand to
indicate the inclination of
the plane
.
Y
Z
X
Visual language prevails:
The information is
organised by the interplay of
two drawings (a previous a
and a new ones), and the
movement of his hand..
Here, verbal speech, gesture
and drawings are combined,
but verbal language is used
as a complement of the
visual language (gesture and
drawings).
Figure 1. Beginning of the formalisation process in this lecture
Record of the speech in the original transcription matrix. In the gestures column, the observed gestures are
described in the same order as they were made; the inclined plane in the drawings was the main visual resource
to which the teacher came back many times in the subsequent explanations; comments reflect field notes.
1
We are using the terms narrative and argumentation in the Aristotelian sense. That is, for us narrative refers to the
formulation of the premises for the argument, which in turn is the process by which the transference from premises to
conclusions (in this case, key concepts to be learned) occurs.
...given any curve -of any size- I can always find a circumference that approaches the curve as
closely as we wish around a given point (...) if that point is on the neutral fibre, we would assign a
radius of curvature to that fibre.
This piece of speech was the announcement of another kind of discourse, in which mathematical
language prevailed over verbal, gestual and graphical forms that dominated the communicative
process in the first part of the lecture
Then the lecture was developed almost exclusively on mathematical language. After that, he took
advantage of the relationship between length variation and the properties of materials, to speak
about the behaviour of materials subjected to tension and compression.
Then he construed a general equation describing the curvature. At this point, a new change in the
discourse was done to show how the found equation would be used to solve specific problems in
architectonic design.
5. Conclusions
In this analysis and discussion we could identify how new meanings were construed using a
dynamic interplay among multiple resources. We have grouped our conclusions under the following
headers:
General features of the lecture
The general strategies most frequently used for the development of thematic patterns were: (a)
metadiscourse to introduce and to guide the process of meaning-making; (b) drawings and gestures
as visual support to move from real facts to its scientific understanding.
The general strategies most frequently used for the development of thematic patterns were: (a)
metadiscourse to introduce and to guide the process of meaning-making; (b) drawings and
gestures as visual support to move from real facts to its scientific understanding.
The meaning-making process was carried on as a back and forward process, proving links to
complementary explanations, and coming back to the main line of the argument. At the same time,
such complementary explanations were kept, incorporating them in the conceptual framework.
The lecturer assigned various specific purposes to the new meanings, but purposes appeared
mixed because of their overlapping. For this reason, we will only say that some of them take part
of further explanations or were used to get a better understanding of the world around us.
Sometimes new meanings were grouped to support formalisation, and other times they were
used to illustrate practical problems.
Communicative resources interchanged their roles along the lecture in a complementary way.
According to their semantic power verbal, written, graphic or mathematical resources
functioned sometimes as the main expressive resource, and other times as support for the others.
Characteristics of the lecturer
Analysing the whole performance of the lecturer we could identify some aspects of didactic
interest. In this case the lecturer is a physicist with theoretical physics background, teaching for
many years in the same faculty. Despite an observed tendency to give canonical explanations to the
students, he frequently went back in his discourse linking different concepts. His efforts is centred
around the elaboration of the ideas he considers fundamental to achieve didactic objectives So he
attempted to trace a clear pathway from real life to conceptual knowledge. In the interview it was
clear that his focus was to teach a kind of physics that could be useful to the students.
The teachers whole performance was coherent with his ideas of being explicit about which would
be key ideas in his teaching, and the analysis of his lecture shows that indeed he made this essential
for the ultimate goal of his lecture.
Implications for educational practice
We feel that this kind of research may be important to show the possibilities of lectures to foster
didactic objectives consistent with current theories on effective teaching. In the observed sequence,
291
scientific and everyday facts were repetitively described by means of different communicational
modes, a strategy consistent with a constructive approach to teaching, since giving multi-
representational descriptions attends to individual differences in meaning-making. This is an
important result because for a long time it has been assumed that teaching through lectures is
opposed to a constructivist point of view, dismissing its potentiality to do good teaching despite its
massive audience.
Communicative effectiveness is an important step in teaching. Not in order to transmit knowledge
because knowledge is a personal construction of each learner, but to communicate the importance
of the subject to be learned and its main features.
It is well known that teachers approaches to teaching are influenced by contextual factors such as
class size and faculty efficiency criteria (Prosser and Trigwell, 1997). This is especially true in
universities where staff conceptions about teaching are centred more in their own academic
capabilities and the institutional frameworks requirements of their instruction (Bos & Tarnay,
1999). We believe that now its the time to promote a new approach to the teaching of large groups,
and faculties staff should be aware of the necessity to develop communicative skills as an
important facet in their qualification as academic lecturers.
Future research
The analysis of the gathered data gave us some insights about future research on communicative
processes in lectures:
Thematic analysis is a useful tool to identify relevant features of different teaching styles in
lectures. It isnt an easy challenge in high level teaching due to the complexity of the contents to
be developed in a short time. Therefore, we need to search for new tools or improve the existent
ones in order to deal with the complexity of teaching in natural settings.
It is necessary to do a broad study on lecturers individual differences in their explanations, and
the way in which students perceive such explanations. This kind of study should lead to a better
understanding of the effectiveness of the different communicative strategies currently used in
higher education.
6. Final comment
Plain lecturing is very popular but at the same time it is heavily criticised. One critical comment
says that lecturing consists in a transference from teachers notebook to students notebooks without
passing through the brain of neither of them. Others point to some well-known facts, e.g. that some of
the most learned faculty members are bad teachers. And so forth.
However, the very fact is that in a high number of cases, teaching consists of broadcasting with no
communication, which makes imperative more investigation to improve communication in teaching.
References
Bos W. & Tarnay Ch., University faculty members and students perceptions of university academic systems. Int. J. of
Educational Researc., 31, (1999), 699-715.
Jewitt C.; Kress G.; Ogborn J. & Tsatsarelis C., Multimodal teaching and learning. Lecture for the Research Seminar
at the University of Barcelona, February, 4-5, (2000).
Kress G., Ogborn J. & Martins I., A satellite view of language: some lessons from science classroom, Language
Awareness, 7, (2/3), (1998), 69-89.
Kress G. & Van Leeuwen T., Reading images. The grammar of visual design, London: Routledge, (1996).
Lemke J., Teaching all languages of science: words, symbols, images and actions, (1998).
http://academic.brooklin.cuny.edu/education/jlemke/papers/barcelona.htm
Lemke J., Talking science: language, learning and values. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, (1990).
Ochs E., Gonzalez P. & Jacoby S., When I come down Im in the domain state: Grammar and graphic
representation in the interpretive activity of physicists. In Elinor Ochs, Emanuel Schegloff & Sandra Thompson
(eds.), Interaction and grammar, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, (1996).
Ogborn J.; Kress G. Martins, I. & Mcgillicuddy K., Explaining science in the classroom, Buckingham, Open University
Press, (1996).
Prosser M. & Trigwell K., Relations between perceptions of the teaching environment and approaches to teaching,
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, (1997), 25-35.
Talmy L., Toward a cognitive semantic, Vol. I, Concept structuring system,. Cambridge, The MIT Press, (2000).
Van Dijk T., (Comp.), Handbook on discourse analysis, London, Academic Press, (1989).
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ENGLISH AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN SCIENCE-TEACHING
Claudia Haagen-Schtzenhfer, Leopold Mathelitsch, Institute for Theoretical Physics,
University of Graz, Austria
1. What is EMI?
English as a Medium of Instruction is a recently developed bilingual teaching-method. The main
idea of EMI is to combine the conventional instruction of content-area subjects with foreign
language-learning: instead of the mother-tongue, a foreign language is used as a tool for
communication in different subjects.
The concept of EMI was promoted by the Austrian Ministry of Education to improve and intensify
foreign language education at schools. During the last decades powerful communication
technologies have been developed and improved. This quick and easy way of getting in touch with
each other has led to the establishment of numerous international co-operations in different fields.
However, one prerequisite for the functioning of global communication is a common language
understood by everyone. English has become this lingua franca in science, as well as in technology
and in economics.
EMI was designed as a flexible concept which can be used in all subjects as well as in all forms and
types of school at the level of secondary education. Varieties of EMI in use range from sequential
instruction through the medium of a foreign language in one subject to continuous instruction with
EMI in a majority of subjects [1].
So far this bilingual concept has been successfully introduced in several Austrian schools. The
number of schools with EMI in their program is not even able to meet the rush for places in EMI-
classes [2].
2. Physics taught in English a means to horrify pupils even more?
Recent international developments increase the need for workers with a well-founded expert
knowledge and a profound competence in English. Pupils instructed with EMI fulfil these
requirements, since they show an enhanced flexibility in foreign-language communication. In
contrast to pupils with conventional foreign-language instruction, EMI-pupils are able to talk
about a large variety of subject-specific topics [1].
Next to its linguistic advantages EMI also influences pupils subject-specific skills and abilities
positively. First of all, the instruction of Physics through the medium of a foreign language requires
that complicated subject-specific topics are explained more slowly and on a simpler linguistic level,
which often contributes to a deeper subject understanding. As information given by teachers is
filtered through the use of a foreign language, it takes pupils longer to process information.
Therefore compact units of information need to be split up in smaller sub-units. Furthermore these
smaller chunks of information need to be encoded into simple language exponents in order not to
overtax pupils. Finally maximum input is achieved by using additional non-verbal representations
such as pictures, graphs, animations and hands-on.
Secondly, the concept of EMI favours the use of various authentic teaching materials, which often
give different access to a topic [1] and thus broaden the repertoire of adequate problem-solving
tools. Foreign language materials often show a topic from another point of view since they are
based on a different scientific and epistemological tradition due to a different historical
development.
Thirdly, the use of a foreign language frequently avoids the confusion between everyday concepts
and scientific concepts. One major problem in the instruction of Physics is, that pupils can hardly
distinguish between the meaning of a term denoting a concept acquired through everyday
experience and that denoting a scientific concept. Since pupils acquire their mother-tongue long
before they are instructed in Physics it causes big problems for them to relate a later acquired
scientific concept to an already familiar term. As a result this mixing up of meaning frequently leads
to inadequate ideas about physical phenomena. The EMI method however makes it easier for
293
pupils to acquire scientific concepts as there is usually no temporal gap between the acquisition of
a term and the matching scientific concept.
Finally the instruction of Physics through the medium of a foreign language often increases pupils
motivation. On the one hand, pupils find the subject Physics much more interesting since different
teaching-methods like team-teaching are used [3]. On the other hand especially pupils who like the
subject English better than Physics find the EMI method motivating. In EMI lessons English is
used as a medium for the exchange of subject-relevant information in contrast to the often artificial
communicative situations in the language-classroom which are dominated by pseudo-
communication.
3. Physics taught in English the ultimate cure for the Physics-crises?
EMI may be one method of making Physics more attractive to teenagers but it is surely not the sole
cure for the negative image of the subject. Since EMI is a quite new method there are still some
major problems which must be faced.
First of all the successful application of EMI depends on the ability and motivation of pupils.
Experience shows that especially pupils with bad language abilities - in the foreign-language as well
as in their mother tongue - become easily overtaxed and frustrated.
The shortage of science teachers who have a profound knowledge of English poses another
problem. EMI is frequently used in subjects like History or Geography. Subjects like Physics or
Chemistry however are seldom taught through the medium of a foreign language [2]. The main
reason for this is the frequency of a certain subject-combinations. In addition there is a lack of
continued education [4], which would prepare science teachers for the instruction with EMI.
Another reason why many teachers refuse to use the EMI-method during their lessons is that there
is a shortage of adequate teaching-materials [2]. American or British school books can usually not
be applied for teaching with EMI as either their language is too difficult and thus frustrates pupils
or, taking the appropriate language-level, their scientific content is far under pupils cognitive level
and thus bores them.
4. Physics taught in English examples of EMI-lessons
The lack of teaching-materials is a main reason why teachers hesitate to use EMI. In order to
support Physics-teachers using English as a Medium of Instruction we have developed a collection
of teaching materials suitable for Physics classes at the secondary level. These materials could be
easily adapted for mother-tongues other than German.
Each of these thematic units, whether designed for lower or upper secondary forms, is similarly
structured. A working-text dealing with a certain physical topic is the basis for every thematic unit.
As far as the working-texts are concerned we decided to choose various text-types which differ
from conventional school-book texts. Historical texts by Newton or Faraday were included in our
collection of teaching materials as well as comics, texts of childrens books and recent popular-
science publications.
The first step of every EMI-unit is the pre-reading stage. The function of pre-reading activities is
the arousal of interest and motivation as well as the introduction of the topic [5]. In the course of
these introductory exercises pupils are asked to brainstorm their ideas about a given text. The main
aims of this phase are to get an overview of pupils knowledge of topic-related vocabulary and to
make them aware of their pre-concepts acquired through everyday experience. This can be done by
brainstorming activities which use pictures or titles of working-texts as stimuli. Pre-reading is a first
step to promote students conceptual understanding of a physical content through actively
engaging them into the process of creating knowledge.
In the second step pupils are supposed to read through the text on their own. During this stage they
are asked to highlight words and passages of the text which they do not understand. Each text
contains also a few explanations of words which pupils might not know but which play a central
role in understanding the text.
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The next step is concerned with Vocabulary-Work. The aim of this stage is to broaden pupils active
knowledge of vocabulary [5] and to construct new knowledge. In different types of exercises pupils
are asked to guess the meaning of given words or phrases from the context and to use them
adequately. During this phase pupils work on their own or in pairs. Finally their results are
compared in class. In the end the meaning of all remaining passages which are highlighted is
discussed. In the course of this stage students build up a net of semantic relations in which physical
concepts are represented by terms in the foreign language. The main advantage is that these terms
are newly introduced and that they do not denote already familiar non-scientific concepts acquired
through everyday experience like terms in the mother-tongue often do.
The aim of the next stage is to check whether pupils have understood what they were reading [5].
For pupils on the upper secondary level this step is subdivided into one part focusing on linguistic
characteristics of the text and a second part which checks their understanding of the underlying
physical phenomena. At this stage pupils work again in pairs or in groups of three. Finally the
results of the exercises are discussed in class.
The last part of every thematic unit contains a German parallel-text which summarises the physical
phenomena discussed in the working-text. These parallel-texts provide additional background
information about the topic treated on an adequate linguistic level. At this stage the English
denotation of physical concepts is related to its equivalent in the mother-tongue. Finally pupils
recently acquired physical concepts are compared with their ideas stated during the pre-reading
stage. The function of this part is to make pupils aware of how their concepts have changed and
how their pre-concepts differ from scientific valid concepts.
Units for classes on the lower secondary level are completed with simple students experiments.
These practical exercises show the effects mentioned in the working-text in the context of everyday
life.
5. Empirical study - how does EMI influence practical lab-work?
This empirical study was carried out at a Grammar School in Graz where pupils were already
familiar with bilingual instruction in content-area subjects [3]. When this survey was done in the
summer-term 2000 the pupils were in the seventh form of Grammar School, this is one year before
A-level. Their Physics lessons on the topic Electricity and Magnetism were divided into two parts,
into theoretical instruction and practical lab-work. Divided in groups of three, pupils had to read
the instruction of an experiment, arrange the listed components as shown in a circuit diagram, carry
out the experiment and make lab-notes of their observations.
Although pupils were used to bilingual lessons they worked with instructions in German due to the
lack of adequate authentic material. This situation provided the opportunity to investigate how
their performance changes if they worked with experiment-instructions in English. In the course of
this empirical study the lab-teams were divided into two categories: in a group who continued
working with instructions in German, called E group, and into a group who worked with
instructions in English, called E
+
-group. In order to find out how the language of instructions
influences the practical lab-work, pupils of both groups were asked to fill in a questionnaire. The
aim of this questionnaire was to collect pupils personal opinions and experiences. In addition both
groups subject-performance was compared with the help of their individual lab-notes. Finally
pupils behaviour was observed to get an external impression of how the language of instructions
influences practical lab-work.
The first item-complex of the questionnaire asked which steps of the workshop were made more
difficult because of an instruction in English/German: the identification of components and devices
listed in the instructions, a quick and correct arrangement of the experiment or the understanding
of the theoretical background of the experiment. All E
+
-pupils agreed that none of the mentioned
steps was more difficult because of the instruction in English. Most Epupils claimed that instructions
in German did not make a big difference. A minority of Epupils however thought that it made the
identification of components and the quick, correct arrangement more or less difficult.
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In the second question-complex pupils were asked if the use of instructions in English/German
caused general language problems. The majority of the E
+
-group answered that there were no or
only small language problems which were easily solved. Epupils stated that instructions in
German did not cause serious language problems.
The comparison of individual lab-notes confirmed the results obtained by questionnaires. As far as
Physics related results are concerned, there was no significant difference between the E
+
-group and
the Egroup. However, as far as language is concerned, the E
+
group clearly outperformed the E
group.
In addition pupils were observed during their practical lab-work in order to get an external
impression of their performance. First of all their reactions to the new class-room situation was a
subject of investigation. At the beginning most E
+
-pupils reacted negatively. But soon E
+
-pupils
perceived that the use of instructions in English did not influence their work negatively. Finally
they even asked for instructions in English. Secondly their task-performance was observed. E
+
-
pupils did not have noticeable difficulties in carrying out experiments.
On the whole, the use of English instructions in practical lab-work did not lead to significant
disadvantages for the E
+
-pupils; as far as language is concerned they had an even better knowledge
of technical terms in both languages.
6. Conclusion
English as a Medium of Instruction is an innovative bilingual concept which influences foreign
language abilities and cultural awareness positively. In the future, the method of EMI will spread
even more and prepare young people for a cosmopolitan social and professional life. As EMI is a
quite new method, scientific research concerning the instruction of Physics through the medium of
English is at the very beginning. There are several questions which cannot be answered with
scientific certainty so far. Therefore it is necessary to carry out further studies to ground this
bilingual concept on a scientific solid base.
References
[1] G. Abuja, D. Heindler (eds.), Englisch als Arbeitssprache Fachbezogenes Lernen von Fremdsprachen. Graz:
Zentrum fr Schulentwicklung, BMUK, (1993).
[2] K. Oestreich, G. Grogger, Der Einsatz einer Fremdsprache als Arbeitssprache in nichtsprachlichen Gegenstnden
Ergebnisse einer bundesweiten Direktorenbefragung an Schulen der Sekundarstufe. Graz, Zentrum fr
Schulentwicklung, BMUK, (1997).
[3] E. Svenik, Zur Evaluation neuer Lernstrukturen an der Graz International Bilingual School, Graz, Zentrum fr
Schulentwicklung, bm:bwk, (2000).
[4] S. Grangl, Survival of the fittest ...? Lehrerfortbildung fr EAA, In: English als Arbeitssprache Modelle,
Erfahrungen und Lehrerfortbildung, Graz, Zentrum fr Schulentwicklung, BMUK, (1998).
[5] F. Grellet, Developing Reading Skills, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, (1981).
DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL THINKING ON KINEMATICAL ASPECTS OF
MOTION FROM CHILDREN KNOWLEDGE TO EARLY MATHEMATISATION
Gagliardi Marta, Grimellini Tomasini Nella, Pecori Barbara, Physics Department, University of
Bologna, Italy
1. Physics, knowledge and culture: the basic assumptions
Physics can be looked at as the cognitive game of building links among three elements: natural
and technological systems (what physics explains), laboratory experiments and data reduction (the
tools for physics investigation), a set of laws, models, principles and theories (the shapes physics
uses to represent reality). Like other more trivial games one cannot really understand how the
game works without playing it. Besides, the most effective way to understand the specialized
game of physics is to play it consciously as a specialisation of the more general game -peculiar to
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the human being- of constructing intellectual tools for understanding and interacting with reality.
In this contribution we shall try to exemplify how school teaching can contribute to the
development of such intellectual tools by describing an ideal path from children knowledge about
motion to early mathematisation of kinematical concepts. The path is based on the assumption that
the aim of compulsory education should be the construction of individual culture by every student.
We agree with the statement that culture is what remains for the life when school knowledge has
been forgotten and we think that knowledge becomes individual culture when it is consciously
acquired, it can be communicated and defended and it is used as a tool for looking at one self and
the world around in order to make judgements and choices and to take decisions in various
moments of ones life.
In order to analyse what this assumption implies for teaching physics at school, we must therefore
look not only at the pupils who attend school lessons but also, and mainly, at the adults they will
become, and, in particular, at those who will not make of science their professional activity. From
this perspective, rather than to accumulate a stock of scientific notions - that will be soon forgotten
- it is most important for them to understand the game of constructing inter-subjective
representations of some aspects of reality on which physics knowledge development is based, to be
able to identify similarities and differences between this game and those peculiar to other
disciplines, to understand why human beings felt the need to start and pursue this game, to be
aware of its limits and to be able to use this kind of conscious knowledge when necessary.
2. Physics knowledge as culture: the research problem
Research in cognitive psychology has pointed out the crucial role of two factors in the spontaneous
process of knowledge construction peculiar to every person: interaction with objects and
phenomena (Piaget, 1955) and social interaction (Vygotsky, 1966). Our research hypothesis is that,
in order to enhance the process of construction of ones own culture, school learning must fit in
with the spontaneous process of knowledge development, mediated by common culture, by
promoting the process of conceptual change towards scientific knowledge (Grimellini et al., 1992).
School learning has to be integrated into the system of cognitive interaction with reality that each
individual develops during his/her life (Arc et al., 1983,1984; Guidoni, 1985). Besides, this process
must be explicitly recognised by the pupil and scientific learning must appear step by step
meaningful in itself to the learner and not only to the teacher (Bonelli et al., 1999).
Someone might ask: Is all this really feasible at school? What does it imply in practice?
Several long-term research projects, based on these assumptions, investigating a range of pupils
ages from 4 to 14 years and concerning different content areas, have shown that the research
hypotheses can be put into practice.
In order to document how this process can be started from the very first years of schooling and why
we believe it can be most efficient if started so early, we have chosen to analyse the transition from
patterns of common sense knowledge (Piaget, 1946a, 1946b) to patterns of scientific knowledge
(Gagliardi et al., 1989; Gagliardi et al., 1999; Gagliardi and Giordano, 1993) concerning the
investigation of motion and in particular the description of motion.
How impressive the transition appears to be is pointed out in figure 1 where we tried to sketch a
comparison between the two alternative perspectives in looking at motion. In the following
sections we shall illustrate possible paths of development of pupils ideas based on research results
documented in the literature. The development of pupils ideas will be described following two
aspects: the patterns of motion and the rate of motion.
3. From ways of moving to elementary patterns of motion
How can children be involved in the study of motion from 4-5 to 6-7 years of age? According to
our assumptions we need to exploit the spontaneous activities of children of that age. Therefore we
can put forward all kinds of play that involve looking at/generating/reproducing different kinds of
motion (of the human body, of animals, of toys and all sorts of objects). Also the fun of building
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things can be used by encouraging the children to build objects (e.g.: with Lego materials) that can
be put in motion by hand, by loaded springs, by battery supply.
By asking the pupils to observe and discuss the different motions and to produce/re-produce
different representations of them (by words, drawings, cartoons.., see fig 2), we can encourage the
construction of an early socialised knowledge of motion. Also virtual animals like the Logo turtle
can be very useful at this stage for starting to think about the link between motions and motion
representations.
What can children gain from these activities? They can begin to identify, separate and correlate
three kinds of patterns: of the objects, of their motion, of the causes/conditions that make
them move. These are elements hard to be separated at this age level whereas their identification
is fundamental for the development of a description of motion. At the same time a process of
identifying elementary aspects of motion within a global view of the motion phenomena can also
be started by encouraging the pupils to separate and correlate different ways of moving of different
parts in a system (the wheels turn; the car moves forward).
At 7-8 years of age, unlike before, activities can start to be perceived as part of a global project of
study of motion. Balls, screws, rings and all sorts of toys can be set in motion in all the ways one
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Fig. 1: Comparing common sense knowledge and scientific knowledge.
MOTION vs. MECHANICS
Of a child, of a snake, of the sun, of a ball,
of the river, of a flag, of leaves, of the
train, of blood,
Of a point mass, of a rigid body, of a system of
points, of a fluid,
To walk, run, fly, roll, crawl, fall down,
bounce, swing, swim, jump, wave,
Translation, rotation, compounded motions,
stationary motion, oscillations
Forward/backward, to the right/to the left,
up/down, straight, bent, curved
In a Cartesian reference frame (in 1, 2 or 3
dimensions), in a polar reference, on a fixed
trajectory, point-by-point; x(t), r(t), |(t), s(t),
Slow, fast, normal, very fast, faster and
faster, at snails gallop,
V(t), V(t), V(s), V(s), a(t), a(t), a(s), a(s),
d|/dt, d
2
|/dt
2
,
On the ground, in water, on a waxed floor,
on tracks,
With/without friction (contact, rolling), in vacuum,
in a medium,
By yourself, engine powered, electrically
powered, with a push, by its weight,
uphill/downhill,
With no force acting, in a force field, with torques,
involving transformation of mechanical energy ,
with energy dissipation, with momentum
variations,
Fig. 2: Drawings by infant school pupils with their comments written by the teacher.
can think of, but now we can also just think about objects that move or can be moved in ways
similar or different from the ones observed in the classroom. Pupils can begin to identify
elementary patterns of motion (rotation, translation) and compounded ones, movements that
always keep the same pattern and movements that change while they happen.
The pupils drawings and descriptions become now very rich (see fig. 3) if compared with those of
infant school pupils.
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Fig. 3: Drawings and comments by a 4th grade pupil.
But even more can be done: one can start to distinguish between the motion of an object and that
of different points on it: a top, a screw, a ball all turn and move forward but they do not move in the
same way. In order to describe in what they differ one needs to find out the right things to look
at.
All along the path the pupils recognize the necessity of a language (e. g., like that of geometry)
suited to describe what they see. Sometimes it will be constructed on purpose, sometimes it will be
simply used. In any case, the power of specialized languages becomes evident and can be
appreciated.
4. From races to speed comparison
Races on pre-definite tracks, according to rules that may change from race to race, are the
privileged context where to realise the need for finding tools to describe the rate of motion.
At infant school level it is important to criticise the stereotype statement the faster one arrives first
and wins which is taken as true by children of this age whatever the context of the race might be.
It can be discovered that what happens depends on the type of path (its shape and length) and both
length and time must be taken into account to decide about speed. Ways of comparing the length
of different paths and the time to run along them can be found, still non quantitative methods but
adequate to judge in terms of equal/different, more/less. These methods do not provide a solution
in all situations: pupils learn to identify when we can judge whose speed is greater and when we
cannot.
A way to bounce is going
forward, rolling and
bouncing forward. The
other is to bounce on its self
without going forward. The
height of the ball gets lower
and lower, so it is as if the
speed grew, but it gets slow
instead. This happens
because the ball gets lower
in height, so it is as if it
grew but it doesnt.
Perhaps we are not allowed to call it physics learning but certainly we must recognize it is
culture that supports the comments made by a group of children after one year of work about
races (see figure 4). They clearly show to be able to use their knowledge as a personal tool for
interpreting reality.
The smallest wheel is faster because it makes more turns.
No, its smaller, it isnt faster. It is only smaller. When we made runs if I made a smaller bit I
arrived first, but I wasnt always the faster
I move my hand [he is turning the crank| and it takes the same time to make a turn, but the
wheels move in different ways: one makes more turns, another less. Then one goes faster and the
other slower.
In runs while I make a longer bit you make a shorter one two or three times, it takes the same
time, but you are faster because you made the bit two or three times.
You didnt get it at all! You must look at the difference in length between the long bit and the short
one. If three times the short is longer than the long bit and you make it in the same time then you are
faster. If I put myself on the top [the rim of the wheel| its different from putting myself near near here
[the centre of the wheel|. Because if we make a row of three, being in the middle I turn much slower.
The one who stays at the end runs faster and both of us make a single turn.
Fig. 4: Excerpt from a conversation among 5-6 year old pupils looking at a machine model by Leonardo Da Vinci.
In primary school we can go beyond mere comparison. Eight-nine year old children can make
actual measurements of length and time, in standard and not-standard units, following the need,
now made explicit, of relating the three quantities space, time and speed. The pupils know that
there are numbers also for speed and an intuitive meaning of space covered in a given time
can be given to measures of speed. So, the pupils can look for a solution also in some not trivial
cases by intuitively using proportional reasoning.
5. First steps in mathematisation
Objects in motion are the starting point also at higher age levels. If we ask to reproduce as precisely
as possible the motion of a radio controlled toy-car, pupils realise that in order to reproduce its
trajectory they need to be able to describe it. If the floor is covered with tiles we can assign a name
to each of them, like in maps... but we may find that one tile is too large... On this basis the teacher
can introduce the idea of frame of reference and of co-ordinate system providing the pupils with
two powerful and everlasting tools of investigation.
At this level races need not to be performed, they can simply be imagined. Even by the end of
primary school pupils can appreciate that a proportion between spaces and time intervals is valid
only when motion is uniform (always at the same rate, as they say). Now it is possible to
introduce the algebraic relation among s, t, and v that requires looking at the problem from an
abstract perspective, independent from the hundreds of examples one can think of. But giving a
physical meaning to the relation is not at all trivial: a ratio or a product between numbers that
correspond to different quantities is an entirely new idea that cannot be justified intuitively but
only on the ground of the fact that the numbers we get are confirmed by what happens in reality.
Pupils should be aware of that in order to understand the power of the mathematical tool (see
fig. 5).
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Eli: I had found this too [the relation v=s:t |. I shall take the simplest example, given that it has to
work for all, with all numbers.
Adult: OK, this is an important point.
Eli: If the distance is 2 km and the time 2 hours, if I ... that is I have proceeded by exclusion,
because if I make distance times time it cannot... it cannot be right, because distance 2 km, time 2
hours, the speed would be 4 km per hour, but the speed should come out... cannot come out
higher, it has to be always the same, I say...
()
Eli: given that multiplying doesnt work, it must be...
Adult: Ha, you say: first I try by categories of operations... but there are two divisions...
Eli: Indeed I tried the first that came to me, of those two, then as I found one and saw that it
worked, I thought... since these are two different ways, if this works, the other cannot work too, so
I havent even tried.
Fig.5: Excerpt from a discussion in a 5th grade class about the relation among space, time and speed
By the end of primary school the pupils are able not only to understand the meaning of average
velocity but also to get an idea of instantaneous velocity. The motion of balls of different density
falling in a liquid can be studied and the limit velocity regime discovered (see fig.6).
The speed of the ball, as soon as we leave it, becomes maximum and then doesnt grow
anymore.
The speed of the ball in the tube starts to grow little by little, then grows less and less, but always
grows.
The speed of the ball grows down to half of the tube then stays the same.
We would need to measure speed every centimetre!
Fig. 6: Comments of 5th grade pupils about the motion of a ball in a liquid.
The motion of a person can be investigated by means of a sensor of motion interfaced to a
computer: the pupils can learn to read their own motion on the graphs produced on the screen
in terms of instantaneous position, of versus of motion, of rate of change of position, etc. So far, the
learning path consists in constructing a scientific way of looking at those kinematical variables that
can be directly perceived (length, time, velocity) and that are essential in common knowledge too.
Next step is the introduction of the concept of acceleration, which is a purely disciplinary concept,
and furthermore the introduction of vectorial aspects of motion. But here we are going ahead in
the process of mathematisation
6. Final remarks
The examples of activities briefly described in this paper somehow represent an ideal path from infant
to lower secondary school. Research results collected in the last decades seem to point out that it is a
feasible and effective path of knowledge construction and that a child who could follow it from
beginning to end would probably achieve even better results than those documented in literature.
Looking at the research works of groups that in recent years have dealt with the problem of
education in science from a long term perspective one can find many other examples of paths
concerning different topics. They all appear to rely on three basic features of the activities put
forward and of the learning environment they advocate. We shall summarise them here briefly:
- dealing with facts, from everyday experiences to lab experiments, because the ultimate aim of
physics is to describe/interpret reality;
-dealing with the others, since discussion among peers and with the teacher appear to be
fundamental in starting/encouraging/supporting the process of knowledge construction;
-dealing with ones own process of knowledge construction, as metacognitive activities can be
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started very early in education and produce an increasing level of awareness in the pupils (see fig.
7), a fundamental component of the process that makes scientific knowledge become part of ones
own culture.
Al: Because beforeI couldntI mean.. describe motion very well: for example there was a car
passing by, I couldnt tell its speed, so I said: a car passed by and nothing more, it was going
more or less fast Now instead I can tell, I can tell which was its speed.
Adult: Tell me more precisely: what do you do now?
Al: That is I look more or less I say for instance, if it made 1 km I say at what speed, I can say
in how much time, at what speed and what distance.
Adult: Wheras before, what would you say before?
Al: I would look and say: this car was fast or slow.
Fig. 7: Comments of a 5th grade pupil about her own transition from common sense to disciplinary knowledge
References
Arc M., Guidoni P. and Mazzoli P., Structures of understanding at the root of Science Education (part I), European
Arc M., Guidoni P. and Mazzoli P., Structures of understanding at the root of Science Education (part II), European
Bonelli Maiorino P., Gagliardi M. and Giordano E., Mtacognition et ducation scientifique in O. Albanese et al.
(Eds.) Mtacognition et ducation, Peter Lang, (1999), 243-264.
Gagliardi M., Gallina G., Guidoni P. and Piscitelli S., Forze, deformazioni, movimento, Emme Edizioni, Petrini
Junior, Torino, cap. IV, (1989).
Gagliardi M. and Giordano E., Pupils Representations of Physical Transformations and their Evolution in
Classroom Situations, Cahiers de la fondation Archives Jean Piaget, 13, (1993), 259-277.
Gagliardi M., Grimellini Tomasini N. and Pecori B., A challenge for lifelong science understanding. The role of lab
work in primary school science in J. Leach and A.C. Paulsen (Eds.) Practical Work in Science Education,
Roskilde University Press, (1999), 210-228.
Grimellini Tomasini N., Pecori Balandi B. and Gagliardi M., Reasoning, development and deep restructuring,
Eric/Resources in Education, ED (1992), 347-183.
Guidoni P., On natural thinking, European Journal of Science Education, 7, (1985), 133-140.
Piaget J., 1946a Les notions de mouvement et de vitesse chez lenfant, P.U.F., Paris.
Piaget J., 1946b Le dveloppement de la notion de temps chez lenfant, P.U.F., Paris.
Piaget J., De la logique de lenfant la logique de ladolescen,t P.U.F., Paris, (1955).
Vygotskij L. S., Pensiero e linguaggio, Giunti-Barbera, Firenze, (1966).
WHY DO WE RUN, WHEN WE WANT TO MOVE FASTER?
Erich Reichel, Bundesgymnasium und Bundesrealgymnasium Graz, Austria
1. Introduction
In some physics textbook you can still read, that physics is the science of non- living matter. If we
assume this to be true, then the human beings are excluded from physics and we are only
independent observers or experimentors and not part of the world of physics. This might be one
reason for making some students believe, that they are not included and there is no need to deal with
physics. Therefore interdisciplinary topics combining physics with e.g. biology or sports must become
an intrinsic part of our lessons. My experience shows, that these topics interest the students much more
than calculus based examples, which only pretend to deepen the understanding of physics sometimes.
This unit should show a simple experiment with a variety of interesting consequences, although
there is a little bit of formal thinking and basic understanding necessary. But this was accepted by
the students, because they were interested. The unit deals with walking and running and the
transition between both, when we increase our speed. Background is the understanding of circular
motion or oscillations (depending on the model used). A further interesting aspect is the use of
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scaling laws, which help to reduce the number of physical
quantities, which have to be measured in the experiment.
2. Basics
The understanding of moving interests scientists since a
long time. Very interesting are the results of Eadweard
Muybridge from 1887 [1]. He took serial pictures of the
motion of humans and animals. Nowadays such studies
can be performed computer- supported and are of great
importance for robotics.
There are different models suggested for the understanding
of walking and running. [2] Simplification of the models
for this unit leads to the same results. As it deals mainly
with the transition from walking to running we can
reduce the model to circular motion of the feet. Fig. 1
shows this simplified model and indicates the basic
quantities. Walking means that one foot must have contact to the ground always, whereas in
running there is a phase with no contact of both feet to the ground.
From Fig. 1 one can see, that the important parameters are the velocity (v), the length of the leg (h)
and the stride length (). Each point of the foot moves along a circle with the hip joint as center.
The maximum radius is given by the leg length. If we move forward with the velocity v, the leg must
move backwards at the same velocity. Therefore a centripetal acceleration must act on the foot,
which amounts to
On the other hand the leg falls down with the gravitational acceleration g. It is also possible to
use forces for this description, but it is not necessary.
If we consider the real problem, we see that there will appear a lot of different leg lengths and stride
lengths due to the different sizes of persons. This all will result in many different values of the
velocity. To achieve useful results from the experiment it is necessary to measure with a large
number of different test people leading to a huge number of data. This is the reason for the use of
scaling laws and dimensionless numbers for data reduction and analysis.
The law of Buckingham tells us the number of independent dimensionless numbers for a given
problem. It says, that every problem which needs n quantities for description, consisting of m
dimensions has n - m dimensionless numbers. In our case we have four independent quantities: _,
h, displacement and time (the latter give v). For the measurement of these quantities two
dimensions are necessary: length and time [1].
Thus leading to two dimensionless numbers: the relative stride length and the dimensionless
speed , which is also known as the Froude- number (g is the free- fall acceleration). This Froude-
number has further interesting meanings independent of walking and is as important for
engineering as the Reynolds- number.
These two dimensionless numbers can be derived by a calculus suggested by the theory of
dimensionless numbers. But it is not necessary to do it on this level.
The dimensionless numbers allow to gather enough relevant data without the need of having test
persons with varying height or leg length in a wide range.
3. The experiment
After an introduction of the problem the students get a worksheet (see Appendix 1), which helps
them to go through the experiment. The worksheet is just a suggestion, which should be adapted to
the particular class and the students age.
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Figure 1: Model of walking (the red arrows
indicate the velocity v, l means length of
stride, h is the leg length)
h
v
2
(1)
h

h g
v
2
The only materials used are measuring tapes with a length of about 10 m and stopwatches. For the
evaluation a computer with a spreadsheet program can be helpful.
During the measurement the number of steps needed for walking along this distance must be
counted and then the stride length can be calculated by division of the distances length by the
number of steps.
It always appeared that the performance of the experiments and the graphical representation of
the data were reproducible for students with an age of 16 and older.
It is important to emphasize with the students that this experiment is not a competition! Some
students believe, that it is important to be the quickest walker and cheat in the walking
measurement by exceeding the limits of walking.
4. Discussion of the results and applications
I repeated this unit under different conditions with students and in-service training teachers. The
experiment showed to be very insensitive to measuring errors, because the measurements are very
simple. The only problem is the cheating (see above).
The result is a diagram like that shown in Fig. 2. The measurements were performed not only for
normal walking and running, but also for rapid walking and slow running. The diagram shows some
kind of clusters for the particular movements.
An interesting limit is shown by the Froude- number 1. No data for running lies below this limit
and no value for walking lies above. Only slow running makes an exception. This results from the
difficult distinction between running and rapid walking by the test person.
The limit at the Froude- number 1 will be found in every experiment of this kind.
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Figure 2: Froude- number vs. Relative stride length for different kinds of movement.
Also the fitting of experimental data to mathematical functions can be discussed. In this case linear
regression was applied automatically by the used spreadsheet program.
And now for more physics. Why do we find this limit at Froude 1?
A little bit of analysis of the data will help. A little bit of algebra which means multiplication by
the free- fall acceleration leads to the following result:
-0,5
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Relative stride length
F
r
o
u
d
e
-

n
u
m
b
e
r
Slow walking Rapid walking Slow running Running Linear ( )
g
h g
v
=
1
2
g
h
v
=
2
If we remember on expression (1), the left side of (3) shows the centripetal acceleration. And this
equals g. Walking means always contact with one foot to the ground, which means g is larger than
the centripetal acceleration, which lifts the leg in direction to the hip joint. Thus contact to the
ground is ensured. While running the centripetal acceleration becomes larger than gravitation and
the foot is raised from the ground. So the results show the expected picture.
What can be done with this result?
For different persons the maximum walking speed can be calculated. This is done by calculating
their relative stride lengths, go into the diagram and find out the corresponding Froude- number.
With the help of the leg length the speed can be calculated from that Froude- number. The
knowledge about this can be helpful for basic considerations in sports.
5. Extensions
The knowledge about the
Froude- number and walking or
running can be expanded to
following examples.
Similar evaluations have been
performed for the gait of horses
(see Fig. 3). The limit between
gallop and walk is also given by
Froude 1. The interpretation is
the same.
R. McNeill Alexander calculated
the speed of dinosaurs in the
same way [3]. He compared the
skeletons and traces of dinosaurs
with similar today living animals.
In that way he calculated the
maximum speed of a
Tyrannosaurus to about 40km/h.
Ships displace water by their hulls. The longer a ship is the quicker it can sail. This is also described
by the Froude- number.
References
[1] Thomas A. McMahon, On size and life, Scientific American Books, Inc., New York, (1983).
[2] Leopold Mathelitsch, Sport und Physik, Verlag Hlder- Pichler- Tempsky, Wien, (1991).
[3] R. Alexander McNeill, Dynamics of Dinosaurs & other extinct giants, Columbia University Press, New York,
(1989).
erich.reichel@utanet.at
Appendix 1: worksheet for the students
Why do we run?
Humans and other animals change their way of movings to speed up. Horses begin to gallop and men
start running. Why is it not possible to walk at any speed? (Walking means, that one foot is always
touching the ground.)
Problem
The transition from walking to running will be investigated. For that walk and run in succession along
a certain distance. While doing so measure the time and count the number of steps. For useable results
we need a certain amount of data, because people are different. For data reduction we use
dimensionless numbers.
Perform each experiment in a group of three. One is walking, the other measures the time and the third
records the data.
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Figure 3: Movement of horses (The quantities on the axes are
interchanged compared to figure 2) [1]. (Translation of the captions:
Schrittlnge = stride length, Hfthhe = leg length, Geschwindigkeit =
velocitiy, Gravitation = free- fall acceleration, Gehen = walking,
Galopp = gallop, Laufen, Traben, Pagang = trot)
Procedure
TIME TRAVEL MORE THAN A PHYSICAL CONCEPT?
Tanja Tajmel, Leopold Mathelitsch, Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Graz, Austria
People of every age are fascinated by the idea of travelling through time. The science-fiction
literature dealing with this topic is enormous and many TV-series and movies on this subject have
been produced (a comprehensive overview is given in Ref. 1.) So, the teacher can try to take up this
interest in time travel and transfer it to the class. Or it may even happen that the physics teacher is
asked whether time travel is possible either forward or backward in time.
Teaching should build on the experience, on the preconceptions of the students. But what is the
knowledge of students about time travel? Since our experience with time is based on our senses, in
the first instance, and on objective instruments like clocks later, one should not be surprised to find
out that also the concept of time travel is not always a physical one. In order to gain more
information about the ideas of people on time travel, about 80 persons of different nationalities
were questioned. This survey, the main results thereof, and possible implications for teaching
physics are presented in this contribution. We start with some examples of famous time travel.
1. Time travel in fiction
Time travel started to become a point of interest when H.G. Wells published his novel Time
Machine [2]. How did the time traveller travel through time? He used a so called time machine.
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1. A distance (L) with a length of about 10 m or longer will be marked out.
Actual length of distance L: _________________ m.
2. Measure the leg length (h) of each person (this is the distance between ground and hip joint)
My leg length h: ________________ m.
Every test person is first walking and then running along the distance. To get a uniform speed
start before the actual beginning of the distance. While walking or running count the number of
steps (N) and measure the transition time (T).
3. Calculate the speed:
s
m
T
L
v = = =
.
4. Calculate the stride length: = = =
N
L
m
5. Calculate the relative stride length: =
h
6. Calculate the dimensionless speed (= Froude- number): =

h
v
81 9
2
,
Results
Duration
T (s)
Speed v
(m/s)
Number of
steps N
Stride
length
Rel. stride
length
Dimensionless
speed
Walking
Running
The results of every person are collected and put into the computer to get a diagram with relative
stride length vs. dimensionless speed.
How did he know in which time period he was? He had some kind of a clock or counter which gave
him information about his orientation in time. This time travel is quite a technical one, which is very
significant for the beginning of the 20th century.
With the physical (e.g. theory of relativity) and technological (e.g. space flights) progress also time
travels got new impetus. The famous science fiction author Carl Sagan wrote a novel entitled
Contact[3]. In this novel a person travels to a completely other point in space and time by passing
through a tunnel which connects these two regions of space-time. Carl Sagan always wanted his
novels to be close to physical feasibility. Therefore he asked his friend Kip Thorne, whether a tunnel
through space-time could be possible from the physical point of view, that means do there exist
such solutions of the basic equations of general relativity. Kip Thorne found out that it is not
impossible, and he and his colleagueses Morris and Yurtsever published their finding in Physical
Review Letters in 1988 (Whormholes, Time Machines and the Weak Energy Condition) [4]. With
that, wormholes became the new time machines of our fantasy and they are used in many science
fiction movies or novels.
But there exist other time-travel stories which are much older and which have nothing to do with
technology or physics. For example the story of Sleeping Beauty. In this story the princess sleeps
for hundred years until a prince comes up and wakes her up with a kiss. This is also a time travel,
not by technology but by sleeping. We can say that it is a kind of psychological time travel. How
does Sleeping Beauty know that she slept for hundred years? Because of the roses: They had grown
so much that they covered the whole castle. This cannot happen within one night. It is logically
impossible.
These were three examples of time travel, a machine without physical explanation, a physical
possibility and a psychological one. What kind of time travel is usually in the mind of people?
2. The common sense of time travel
We tried to find out what the common conception of time travel is, what ideas different people have
and where these ideas came from. For this purpose we prepared a questionnaire which was filled
out by eighty persons of age between 12 and 60 years and different nationalities (Austria, Italy,
Germany, Portugal, Great Britain and Spain) [5].
The questions were:
1) Which idea do you have about time travel? Please give a short example!
2) Do you think time travel is possible?
3) Do you know novels, movies, etc. about time travels? Which ones?
4) Please describe an experience which was like a time travel for you!
Results
Question 1: The major part answered that you need a time machine for time travels, but also other
explanations were given.
Here some examples:
Time travel is ....
... when you travel by a time machine into the Middle Ages.
... to sit into a machine and travel mentally into another time, that means: with all your senses but
not physically.
... under hypnosis or in meditation, when you speak about experiences which you had in your
childhood.
we are always on a time travel because we cannot stop time.
Question 2: The main answers were:
Time travel will be possible because of technological progress (44 %).
Time travel is impossible because there does not exist any time machine (38%).
Maybe time travel is possible (18 %).
Question 3: The most frequently mentioned novels and movies were: Back to the Future I, II, III;
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Stargate, Time Cop, Terminator; Star Trek; Sliders; The Time Machine. In each of these novels or
movies time travel happens by time machines.
Question 4: More than half of the respondents indicated that he/she had experiences which were
like time travels!
... when I travelled to Pompei and imagined how the people lived.
... when I saw on TV the transmission of the first landing of human beings on the moon.
... when I dream.
... when I had an accident I saw situations of my past in the position of an observer.
... every journey where I loose the contact to the environment which I am used to.
The interesting point is that even those, who said that time travel is absolutely impossible,
mentioned experiences which they would call time travel.
Conclusion
Time travel is not seen only as a physical phenomenon. Many persons put forward some
example of a psychological time-travel experience.
Both aspects of time travel are connected to certain characteristics, which result from logical
thinking. That means, if some situation is not logically compatible with a persons consciousness
in time, the person feels a kind of dislocation in time. Such characteristics can be
1) The cultural and biological environment
Examples: a journey to India, the roses in Sleeping Beauty
2) Historical setting
Historical persons or happenings show up which are definitely connected with another time, e.g.
World War II, Einstein, ...
3) The personal background
A person meets her/his own past or future.
4) An objective clock
A clock shows a completely different time from what one would think.
The possibility of time travel is mainly associated with technology and physics. The experience of
time travel is connected with consciousness and feeling of time.
But there is a discrepancy in the answers: About forty percent of the respondents said that time
travel is not possible, more than forty percent believe that it is possible. But 65 % of the
respondents indicated that they had time travel-experiences. Actually there shouldnt be more
respondents with time travel experiences than those who said that time travel is possible.
Apparently these respondents have problems to connect their physical and psychological
representations of the same object and they are also not aware of this mismatch.
Finally, we could not find any differences depending on the nationality.
3. Implications for teaching
The persons questioned have shown notions of different aspects of time travels, but not in a very
well coordinated way, physical aspects and psychological components are separated. Therefore a
discussion of time travel in a physics class has to be based on both possibilities of time travel, not
only on the physical one. The starting point could be to ask whether one agrees on a definition like
the following:
Time travel is a transfer of someones body or consciousness in time. One becomes aware of this
dislocation because there are characteristics of the surrounding which are logically not compatible
with the background one is used to.
This definition implies that there are many possibilities of time travel, the students can certainly put
forward several of them, the teacher can add some more. It is natural to distinguish between
physical and psychological time travels, but one should also try to work out common features. The
physical view is just one side of the coin.
Psychological time travel:
To experience a time travel, it is enough in many cases not to be awake, that means not to be aware
308
of the happenings and changes around you.
Sleeping: During our sleep we loose our consciousness of time. But we are so familiar with
everydays sleep that we do not have the feeling of disorientation when we awake.
Similar to this is being in narcosis or falling unconscious. This does not happen so often, therefore
many people have problems in orientation in time afterwards.
Dreaming: In dreams one does not only lose consciousness of time but one sees and feels situations
of the past, or one dreams something which could happen in the future.
Similar to dreaming are experiences with drugs.
Circadian clock: The biorhythm of human beings does not have a period of 24 hours but of 25
hours. If a human being is at a place where he does not have any contact with his environment, after
some days his biological rhythm will have a periodicity of (in average) 25 hours. When this person
leaves the isolation there will not have passed as many days for him/her as the objective clocks say.
Journeys to other cultures or different seasons can also give the feeling of time travel.
A very new kind of time travel is virtual reality. Different surroundings can be created virtually
which give you the feeling not to be in the present any more. It depends on the technical progress
how real the simulations are.
Physical time travel:
The physical possibilities for time travel are very few, and they are very expensive and dangerous.
Twin paradox: When the brother who comes back and is younger than his twin, he may have the
feeling that he travelled into his future. But he never left his system of reference, and within this
system the twin paradox is actually a psychological time travel, not a physical one.
Wormholes: Theoretically wormholes are possible. They are connections of two distant parts of
space-time allowed by the laws of general relativity. But they are very instable. A wormhole could
be transformed into a time machine because the time evolutions of the two openings of a wormhole
are different. One opening is accelerated nearly up to the speed of light and returns later at the
original place. So, considered from outside, there is a time difference between the two openings
according to the twin paradox [6].
Beaming: Also teleportation, that is transport of information at least at the speed of light, could be
called time travel. When a person gets teleported in Enterprise, he/she is immediately at another
place [7]. Teleportation is realized already, but just with the information-content of a photon [8].
Tachyons: Tachyons are particles which travel faster than light. According to the laws of special
relativity they can therefore travel into the past The main reason is the difference of proper time
in two systems moving relatively to each other. Let us assume that a tachyon moves to a rocket
leaving the earth, which also has a source of tachyons. Immediately after a tachyon has reached the
rocket the source in the rocket should send a tachyon back to the earth at the same speed. This
tachyon would be measured before the first tachyon was emitted [9].
To develop both aspects of time travel, the physical and the psychological one, with students opens
possibilities and chances.
Interdisciplinary aspects are (too) seldom included in physics teaching, although demanded by
many curricula. The topic of time travel gives the possibility to address different school subjects.
It would be advantageous if the teachers of language/psychology/biology/physics could
cooperate.
Physics appears to the students often as a very closed field, where there is always a definite
answer right or wrong. Bringing in literature and psychology should change this opinion. A
given question does time travel exist? is discussed and answered from very different points
of view and also within different ways of thinking.
To be aware of and maybe even enjoy these two different ways of thinking can lead to a
higher level of thinking, also of formal thinking.
References:
[1] P.J. Nahine, Time Machines. Time Travel in Physics, Metaphysics and Science Fiction, AIP, New York, (1993).
309
[2] H.G. Wells, Time Machine, in The Definite Time Machine, H.M. Geduld (Ed.), Indiana University Press,
Bloomington, (1987).
[3] C. Sagan, Contact, Pocket Books, (1997).
[4] M.S. Morris, K.S. Thorne, U. Yurtsever, Whormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition, Physical
Review Letters 61 (1988), 1446.
[5] T. Tajmel, Zeitreisen, Diploma Thesis, Univ. Graz, (1999).
[6] K.S. Thorne, Black Holes and Time Warps. Einsteins Outrageous Legacy, Norton, (1995).
[7] L. M. Krauss, The Physics of Star Trek, Basic Books, New York, (1995).
[8] A. Zeilinger, Quantum Teleportation, Scientific American 282 (2000), 515.
[9] R. Ehrlich, Nine Crazy Ideas in Science, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, (2001).
THINKING ON VECTORS AND FORMAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LIGHT
POLARIZATION FOR A NEW EDUCATIONAL APPROACH
M. Cobal, M. Michelini, Physics Department, University. of Udine, Italy
F. Corni, Physics Department, University. of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
1. Introduction
Polarization is a very common and relevant phenomenon in nature and in everyday life, which has
relevant applications. It is important for what concern physics as a discipline since it represents a
fundamental property of the light. From the learning point of view, the polarization has a great
potentiality and is an important conceptual resource, since it offers the possibility to be reviewed
at several analysis levels as a property of a wave, as well as a property of a physical state. In
addition, it can give a contribution on how to built and manage the process of formalization, to
handle the physics interpretation of the phenomena using mathematics.
Looking at the methodological point of view, polarization allows to see how a given representation,
can find different meanings according to our interpretation of the polarization phenomenon under
study.
As it will be shown later, we can use the same formalism (the vector) to describe the light
polarization. According to the interpretative frame chosen, the vector will have three different
meanings. Therefore, polarization offers a useful bridge between electromagnetism and optics, as
well as between classical physics and the physics of quanta.
Some recent didactical proposals have built an approach to the quantum mechanics, which uses
simple experiments on the polarization [1,2]. Ferguson showed in his paper [3] a method to
demonstrate the interference of polarized light and the Fresnel-Arago laws. He concluded by
saying that explanations of the observed phenomena are possible in terms of classical wave optics
or in terms of superposition of quantum states, so that it is possible to discuss it in both optics and
quantum mechanics courses.
However, light polarization is normally a neglected topic, during the teaching of the secondary
school.
This is due to the assumption that it requires a deep background of mathematical and physical
knowledge. Working experience with teachers, clearly showed that polarization is always
introduced as a property of the electromagnetic wave, and correlated to the Maxwells equations.
However, as shown in many contributions [4-11], there are a large number of simple experiments
which one can use to introduce the light polarization.
Strangely enough, is not even selected an activity from the phenomenology of this phenomenon
maybe at a more elementary and experimental level as it is normally done for other topics.
For other subjects in the physics field, a more experimental approach finalized to the understanding
the physical process and to build its phenomenological characteristics is tried. This does not happen
for the polarization.
The contribution of this paper is to show that polarization requires just a vector to be described,
310
and the vector that is used to describe the same process (polarization), acquires completely
different meanings, depending on the interpretative frame that is assumed.
In literature there are already some efforts in this direction: in [12] it has been shown how the
process of light scattering and polarization can be described using matrices.
Describing a vector by means of geometry or matrices is completely equivalent. The potential of
the geometrical representation offers a bridge between the phenomenological context and its
formalisation: an imaginative reduction of the formal entity and the observable of the process
under study.
In discussing our proposal we will make a brief excursus on the main methods and kinds of
polarization. Our idea is to introduce the study of the polarization phenomena very early in the
curriculum. A phenomenological approach allows underlining that the light in several different
situations (e.g., when it is transmitted through a Polaroid or through a crystal which produces
birefringence, when it is diffused in a direction normal to the incident light), it acquires a property
called polarization which can be interpreted with a vector P.
2. Polarization: a rich learning context of everyday phenomena and applications
The missed connection between everyday experience and schoolwork in the scientific field has
been identified as the main cause of difficulties in learning [13]. Therefore, experimental
exploration and personal involvement are important components for the construction of
knowledge as an individual interpretation of the world [14]. The phenomenology of polarization is
so present in our everyday life, that we get used to not interpret it. However, it is a rich context for
the link between experience and scientific knowledge. In the site www.uniud.it/cird/secif/ we offer
a pool of proposals for school activities, with examples of everyday phenomena, applications and
experiments. The material to which we refer has been developed within the SeCiF project
1
. Many
strange optical effects, seen by watching the ski during day or night, can be identified considering
the type of light polarization present, and its orientation [15]. The polarization of an ordinary
rainbow can be shown, by comparing two photographs of it, one
taken with a polarizing filter, and one without. When the filter has
a certain orientation, the appearance of the rainbow is enhanced.
At another orientation of the filter the scene remains the same,
but the rainbow is not visible anymore. Many of us had the chance
to observe how a ray of light interacts with a long crystal that
presents birefringence, i.e. has two indexes of refraction
depending on the direction of the light polarization inside the
crystal. In Fig. 1 two crystals are put on top of a book page, and it
is possible to see two images of what is written.
Another example: we know that in a sunny day is better to use
glasses with Polaroid lenses.
By rotating of 90
o
a Polaroid, around the direction of observation,
we can see that the intensity of the transmitted light changes with
the angle of rotation, if the floor reflects the light, or if the sky
diffuses the light in a direction orthogonal to the sun. It does not
change instead in the case of light coming directly from the sun,
from a lamp, or reflected by a mirror. In the first case, the
analyzed light is polarized, in the second case is not polarized.
Lights from liquid crystal displays (LCD) of digital watches and
calculators are polarized, and provide a very convenient source of
311
1
SeCiF means: Studiare e Capire in Fisica. It is a national project, which involves nine universities, with 1999-2001
MUR financial support.
Fig. 1: Two crystals are put on top of
a book page: birefringence is visible.
polarized light in a classroom situation. By placing a small Polaroid sheet in front of the display, the
appearance of alternating dark and clear views of the background after every quarter turn of the
sheet can be observed [16].
In addition, several tools and techniques used to understand material properties are based on the
polarization phenomenon. Here only few examples are given [17].
Glasses with imperfections occurred during the cooking process, develop internal stresses that can
be spotted out by analyzing the polarization of light passing through them. Similarly, it is possible
to draw a map of the superficial stresses of opaque objects undergoing external solicitations, by
covering these last ones with a film of optically active material. Ellipsometry, is a technique based
on the variation of the polarization state of light incident on a sample. It allows measuring the
optical parameters of the material that composes the sample, as well as the thickness of possible
different layers.
The presence of organics materials in a solution can be identified and their concentration measured
using the so-called rotational dispersion technique, which is a phenomenon related to the
polarization. And many other examples could be quoted as well to show how often we meet this
property of the light.
A research on the use of simple equipment inside the school, in an organized and open way [18-22]
has confirmed that operability (manual and conceptual) determines the involvement of the learner,
the activation of cognitive resources and the separation of the descriptive and interpretative plans
[19,20].
Links have been pointed out between the sensorial information, the experimental exploration and
the building of formal thinking [23,24].
For the classroom work, it is possible to realize many simple experiments that can blow up the main
properties of polarization, as well as show when it is relevant, using very common materials.
For example, scotch tape presents a large birefringence, more than 10 times that of quartz, with
optic axis parallel to the plane of the tape itself (not necessarily along the length). Plexiglas sheets
exhibit slight birefringence, 300 times smaller than that of quartz, with the optic axis almost
perpendicular to the plane: with Plexiglas it is then possible to do low cost, macroscopically thick,
interference devices based on polarization, such as quarter or half wave plates and compensators.
Tapes and Plexiglas are suitable for overhead projection experiments. All the above described
phenomena and applications are elements which can stimulate the curiosity for an explanation and
to motivate for an interpretation. This involves the understanding of the possibilities of
interpretation, and therefore of the role of the different formal tools used.
3. Our proposal on the formal description
Several studies indicates that the cognitive development, has to be considered a didactical
objective, rather than the result of a spontaneous evolutionary process [25,26].
The construction of the formal thinking is a fundamental aspect in the process of learning physics.
It has to start gradually, and must not appear suddenly, while a certain physics topic is treated.
Two are the elements that can activate the learning processes [27]:
1) A cognitive crisis, which allows the students to abandon any misconception they had in
precedence about the topic under study (this crisis can be started by showing them some
experiences which are in contradiction with their previous believes);
2) Anchoring conceptions or bridging analogies [28], for grounding instruction on students
intuitions.
These two elements guarantee a change from a provisional and partial spontaneous
interpretational model, to the scientific one. Polarization can be studied at three different levels: a
first interpretation of the phenomenology with vectors which describe the properties of the
observable, a second one, which is a complete interpretation of the polarization supported by the
electromagnetic theory, and a third one where the polarization is a quantum state of light. The first
one includes the potential to prepare the background for the second and third descriptions, and in
312
particular for the third one where the vector that represents the state is described in a 2-
dimensional space. It is possible to use the same formal tool: a vector, in order to describe the
polarization in the three above-mentioned interpretative contexts.
Our proposal has to be seen in the frame of a more general idea that sees as a relevant point for
the formation, the formalization already at the level of the description of the phenomenology, in a
sort of generalized kinematics of the phenomenon [29].
This proposal includes a first representative level of the polarization as a property of the light,
through the use of a vector P. The P vector is just a geometrical entity that accounts for the
phenomenological observable. In addition, it prepares the way to look at the polarization in other
interpretative contexts, offering the opportunity to recognize that the same formal entity can
assume different meanings. This is important in the didactic of physics where often there is a natural
tendency to look to the physics contents, keeping well separated the conceptual and the formal
levels.
In a classical view, the vector is related with the electrical field vector E (which represents the
amplitude of the electromagnetic wave)
2
. In quantum-mechanics the polarization, which is a
property of a physical state of light, imposes exactly such a mathematical description with vectors,
and the vector, in a sort of formal conceptual continuity, becomes from the photon microscopic
point of view the vector of the quantum state (in this case we will assume the language of the
quantum-mechanics, and call this vector S) [2].
The P vector represents for us the anchoring conception on which the various interpretations of the
polarization can be built. At the same time, it is also the element which produces the cognitive crisis,
posing the question of which is its physics meaning in an organic theoretical frame. This point is the
central problem that the didactic of physics has to face, coming from a tradition in which the
understanding of physics was based on a classifying reductionism, fragmented with respect to the
interpretative models and to the whole theory.
The underlying idea is that vectors can be the best formalism to describe polarization. They also
have the advantage that they can be associated to a geometrical representation (which always helps
in the learning process). Their link with the waves representation it is once more offered by
mathematics, through the Euler equations. According to the needs (i.e., solving a new equation), it
is always possible to make an extension of a class of numbers. For example, from the natural
numbers, one passes to integers, than to the rational and to the real numbers. A further class is given
by the complex numbers which with the imaginary unity i - allows the operation: . And
what comes after the complex class? Is it conceivable an additional extension? Mathematicians are
able to demonstrate with the so-called Main Law of algebra that the class of the complex
number is the ultimate one, and no additional extension is possible. From the point of view of
physics, this means that all phenomena in nature, can be formalized by using complex numbers.
In addition, it is possible to demonstrate that there are functions that can be used to build all the
other functions. For example, with a proper sum of the sinus or co sinus functions of different
frequencies, any other function can be obtained. Therefore, we can say that as for numbers also
for the functions it exists an ultimate function, which, for example can be the sinus.
Euler demonstrated that the complex number e
i
, where i is the imaginary unity and a phase can
be written as e
i
= cos + i sen . But the complex number e
i
can be represented as a 2-d vector in
a plane (Argand diagram). As well known, we can use this result to say that the quantum mechanics
can be expressed with both the complex numbers - therefore with vectors - and with waves, which
can be written as sum of co sinus functions. Also in this view, the concept of vector allows to create
an easy link between the description of polarization in a classical and in a quantum-mechanical
frame.
i = ~1
313
2
In fact, now it is preferred to link the polarization direction with that of the magnetic field B.
The three vectors E, P and S can play a role in describing and interpreting the polarization in many
didactical paths, at different levels, without loosing the possibility to make a complete explanation
of the subject. In the following, we will illustrate and support the description of the polarization
using the vector P: this is the intended original contribution to the topic in this paper. This is done
with an excursus on the main phenomena of polarization and their properties, to show in parallel
the wave and vector description. The study of polarization can be exploited both through the
analysis of the polarization properties of light refracted, reflected, transmitted as well as through
the study of the production of polarized light.
4. Polarization of light: an excursus
By means of quantitative studies performed with ordinary filters, Polaroid filters and crystals with
birefringence, it can be recognized that all filters absorb part of the light that passes through them,
and the absorption increases with the number of crossed filters. In the case of Polaroids or crystals,
one can see that the light is transmitted differently, according to their orientation. This is a first
characterization of the polarization. We can examine a setup like the one depicted in Fig. 1, where
two filters (one called Polarizer and the second one, tilted by an angle called Analyzer) are
mounted between a source of natural (non-polarized) light and a detector. If the light transmitted
by the Polarizer is observed after having crossed the Analyzer, it will be found that the light
intensity changes by rotating the Analyzer with respect to the Polarizer. The second filter transmits
a fraction of the intensity of the incident light, which, in turn, is a fraction of the light which crossed
the first filter, in agreement with the Malus law.
314
Natural light
Polarizer
Analyzer
Polarized light
0
E
0
E
0
cos0
Figure 2: Optical setup with a Polarizer and an Analyzer. The first Polaroid selects the incident light component which
is linearly polarized along the direction of the transmission axis. The second Polaroid is used to recognize the
polarization status of the incident radiation, through the Maluslaw.
In a classical picture, light is a transversal electromagnetic wave. The wave equation is given by the
formula:
(1)
Which is solution of the Maxwells equations. This is not the most general one, but it represents
what it is called a linearly polarized wave (for the sake of simplicity, our arguments will be limited
to this case): the electrical field E oscillates always on the same plane. This plane contains the E
and k (propagation direction) vectors. Polarization can be linked to the way the electrical field is
oriented in space. By superimposing two waves with same frequency but linearly polarized in
orthogonal planes, any direction for the resulting oscillating field can be obtained. If there are two
waves in phase, or out of phase by an odd number of , of equal frequency and linearly polarized
in two orthogonal planes:
(2)
(3)
( ) t kz E i E
x x
c ~ = cos
0
r
( ) t kz E i E
x x
c ~ = cos
0
r
( ) t kz E j E
y y
c ~ = cos
0
r
The resulting wave is given by their superposition:
(4)
Which is linearly polarized, has a constant amplitude equal to E
0x
+ E
0y
and oscillates on a plane
tilted by an angle with respect to the two original normal planes (as shown in Fig. 2).
A source of natural light is composed by a great number of atomic emitters that are randomly
oriented. Each excited atom emits a wave train of different frequencies for about 10
-8
s.
The so-called natural light it is therefore composed by rapid changes of different polarization
states. Natural light can be represented in mathematical form, with the superposition of two
polarized waves in normal planes, with equal amplitude and being out of phase by a value which
change rapidly and randomly in time.
If we represent the light wave as the superposition of two
normal components, the polarizer works as a tool that allows
one of the components to pass through, and absorbs the
other one. If the electrical field E transmitted by the first
polarizer is E
0
, after the analyzer it will be reduced to E
0
cos
. Since the light intensity it is proportional to the squared
amplitude, we will have that the transmitted intensity will be
proportional to cos
2
(this relation is the so-called Malus
law: I() + I(0)cos
2
. What happens with this setup in terms
of the polarization vector P? The polarizer transforms
natural (non-polarized) light in polarized light. After
crossing the first filter, the light can be characterized by a
specific vector P: a particular polarization state (vector) has
been selected, which we can associate with the direction of
the electrical field E. We can see this vector P as the sum of
two components P
x
and P
y
, being the x-axis chosen in the
direction of the Analyzer transmission axis. Our second filter
will allow only the x component to pass, absorbing the
second one.
As an example of link with the quantum mechanics, we can give a quantum-mechanical description
of what happens with our setup, by assigning a polarization vector S (in this case a vector which
describe a physics state) to the low intensity light, property of a single photon from another point
of view.
The two polarizers have directions allowed along two orthogonal axes represented by two versors,
u and v. In particular, we will concentrate on the light that is filtered by the first polarizer. This light
is polarized. Polarized, means that after the first polarizer, the photon polarization vector S - has
now a well-defined direction, along the u versor and gives a complete description (of course in
terms of polarization) of the light which passed the first polarizer. As for every vector in the two-
dimensional space, any S vector can be written as a linear combination of two vectors normal to
each other, which can be named H and V:
(3)
where the component
1
and
2
are the so-called amplitudes. Of course, they have to obey to the
normalization condition:
(4)
Since H and V are unit vectors, they also represent two possible states for a linearly polarized
photon. One can choose Hand V exactly along the allowed direction u and v of the first and second
polarizers. The concept of orthogonality between physical states can then be introduced: two states
are orthogonal when their physical properties are mutually exclusive. The two polarization states
315
( ) ( ) ( ) t z E t z E t z E
y x
, , ,
r r r
+ =
E
x
E
y
E
Figure 3: Example of linearly polarized
light.
V H S
r r r
2 1
q q + =
1
2
2
2
1
= +q q
H and V are an example of orthogonal states, since, when light has crossed a polarizer oriented
along u, we can certainly exclude that it can cross a second polarizer with allowed direction v.
The superposition principle allows therefore describing physical systems in terms of vectors and
their scalar products. As additional examples of our proposal, we will now examine the main
methods to obtain polarized light (namely: dichroism, reflection, scattering and birefringence),
using both the descriptions given by the field E vector and the polarization P vector.
Dichroism
The word dichroism refers to the selective absorption of one of the two orthogonal states of
polarization that composes an incident non-polarized beam. The simplest setup is a grid of parallel
conducting wires. If a non-polarized radiation crosses this grid (see Fig. 3), the component polarized
with the electrical field parallel to the wires will be absorbed since it will generate electrical currents
(and therefore waste energy by the Joule effect) within the wires. Instead, the other orthogonal
component, will not be able to interact in a relevant way with the wires, and therefore it will be
completely transmitted. This phenomenon can be easily shown in the lab, using microwaves and a
macroscopic grid made by electrical wires at a distance of few centimeters. Some materials are source
of dichroism by nature, since they present an anisotropy in the crystal structure (e.g.: the tormaline).
The phenomenological observation can be interpreted as the selective absorption by the grid of
wires of one of the two
perpendicular states (P
x
or P
y
) of
linearly polarized light, which
compose the incident light.
Polarization via scattering
If we send light into a saline solution
(sufficiently concentrated) and
observe the light diffused at
different directions using a Polaroid,
we will see that this light is not
polarized in the direction of
incidence, and is only partially
polarized at intermediate angles,
with a higher degree if observed perpendicularly to the direction of incidence.
If the incident light is polarized, it will be predominantly diffused in a well-defined direction,
perpendicular to the direction of incidence.
In terms of classical optics, we say that if an electromagnetic radiation hits an atom and its
frequency is far away from those typical of the atom absorption, the electrons that belong to the atom
are not excited, but are put in vibration by the electromagnetic field. Such electrons can be considered
as dipoles, which absorb and re-emit the electromagnetic energy. Lets imagine that a wave linearly
polarized on the vertical plane is hitting a molecule of air. The electrons of the molecule will vibrate
along the polarization direction. They can be
imagined as electrical oscillating dipoles. The
light that will be diffused will not be emitted in all
directions but only in the orthogonal directions
with respect to the dipole axes, and with linear
and vertical polarization.
In terms of vectors we can imagine to have an
incident light with a certain polarization P,
which can be decomposed as usual- in two
components, as shown in Fig. 4: P
x
and P
y
.
The component with P
x
will be diffused mainly
in a direction orthogonal to the plane defined
316
Figure 4: Setup with a grid of parallel conducting wires to observe the
dichroism phenomenon.
E
Figure 5: Polarization vectors in the diffusion.
Diffused light
P
y
P
x
Incident light
Diffused light
by the incident light direction and by P
x
itself. On the contrary, the component with P
y
will be
diffused mainly in a direction orthogonal to the plane defined by the incident light direction and
by P
y
itself.
Polarization via reflection
When the light hits a surface that separates two different materials, reflection and refraction take
place. These phenomena can be analyzed from the point of view of polarization, applying the
concepts introduced above. The reflected light turns out to be non-polarized for angles of incidence
near zero (almost normal incidence), and polarized for an angle of incidence near 60
o
. In general,
it will be partly polarized.
In analogy to what happens with the polarization via diffusion, the model of the electronic
oscillator gives a classical description of what happens. Lets consider the case of a wave that travel
in vacuum and hits the surface of a dielectric material. Lets assume, in addition, that the wave is
polarized in a plane perpendicular to the dielectric surface (see Fig. 5). The wave is partly reflected
and partly transmitted and refracted inside the material. The electrical dipoles of the material will
oscillate in a direction parallel to the electrical field of the refracted radiation, and therefore will
re-emit the radiation in a direction normal to the
oscillation axis. A part of the radiation will emerge
from the surface as reflected radiation, and this
radiation will be weaker as its direction will be
parallel to the dipole oscillation axis. For different
angles of incidence, the refracted light turns out to be
always polarized in the same direction. At the
Brewsters angle, the reflected and refracted waves
are linearly polarized in orthogonal directions: the
polarization component of the incident light parallel
to the incidence plane is completely refracted. The
reflected light is therefore completely polarized in a
direction orthogonal to the incidence plane. In terms
of vectors we can imagine to have an incident light
with a certain polarization P, which can be imagined
as made by two components, one along the direction
perpendicular to the incidence plane (as defined above), P
ort
, and one parallel to this plane, P
par
Reflection at the surface will act as a projection of the initial polarization vector P on the
direction of P
ort.
Birefringence
A case of anisotropy in the propagation of light in matter is given by the birefringence
phenomenon.
If we put a crystal on a book and we look through it, we can see two images of what is written on
the book. The first image (ordinary ray) is produced following the usual Snells law. The second one
instead (straordinary ray) is based on a different process. If we send on the crystal a linearly
polarized light, two parallel beams come out, whose separation is a function of the crystal thickness.
Both the beams are characterized by mutually orthogonal polarization, as can be checked by using
Polaroid filters. The beam intensities are different according to the incident light polarization. If this
coincides with that of the ordinary (straordinary) beam, only the ordinary (straordinary) beam will
propagate in the crystal. In a classical picture, the index of refraction of a transparent material is
introduced by considering the atoms as composed by a heavy nucleus practically at rest, and by an
electronic cloud that can oscillate thanks to the force of an external electrical field. When an
electromagnetic radiation hits a material, the electrons absorb the energy, which is thereafter re-
emitted in all directions. This introduces a reduction of the propagation speed. If the atoms in a
material are arranged in such a way to present asymmetries in the direction of oscillation there will
317
Figure 6: Reflection of light
E
i
E
r
0
B
0
B
be different speeds of propagation allowed for the light, and therefore different indexes of
refraction.
Fig. 7: Birefringence.
The relevant physics observable in our case is the direction of the light polarization. Which effects
we would expect if polarized light is sent through a plate of a substance that presents birefringence?
If the polarization vector P is parallel to the optical axis, the light will go through with one velocity;
if the polarization is perpendicular to the axis, the light is transmitted with a different velocity. If
the light is polarized at a certain angle (see Fig. 6) to the optic axis (i.e.: P has a certain angle with
respect to the optic axis), since P can be decomposed as a sum of two orthogonal vectors (one
parallel and the other normal to the optic axis), the two components will travel at different
velocities. We can check the output light polarization along a certain direction v, for example
inserting two polarizers in our setup, and looking whether the two beams have crossed them or not.
5. Conclusions
The missed connection between everyday experience and schoolwork in the scientific field has
been identified as the main cause of difficulties in learning. Therefore, experimental exploration
and personal involvement are important components for the construction of knowledge as an
individual interpretation of the world.
Polarization is a very common and relevant phenomenon in nature and in everyday life, which is
important from many points of view: disciplinary, for learning of formal thinking, methodological,
etc.
It is therefore a rich learning context of everyday phenomena and applications.
However, light polarization is normally a neglected topic, during the teaching of the secondary
school, since it is believed that a solid background of mathematical and physical knowledge is
required.
Our proposal is to introduce the study of the polarization phenomena very early in the curriculum
A phenomenological approach allows underlining that the light in several different situations (e.g.,
when it is transmitted through a Polaroid or through a crystal, when it is diffused in a direction
normal to the incidence one), it acquires a property called polarization that can be formalized
with a vector.
The idea shown in this paper is that the vector that is used to describe the same process
(polarization), acquires completely different meanings, depending on the interpretative frame that
is assumed (whether it describes the electrical field direction as in the classical optics, the
direction of light polarization, or a quantum state of light, as in quantum mechanics). Therefore, it
offers a useful bridge between electromagnetism and optics, as well as between classical physics and
the physics of quanta.
The P vector represents for us the anchoring conception on which the various interpretations of the
polarization can be built. At the same time, it is also the element that produces in the students a
cognitive crisis that allows replacing their misconceptions with a proper scientific knowledge.
In this view, we illustrated and supported the description of the polarization using this vector,
presenting an excursus on the main phenomena of polarization and their properties, to show in
parallel the wave and vector description.
318
S
E
Optic axis
References
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Mechlova ed., University of Ostrava, (2000), 149; M Michelini, A Mossenta, The EPC Project Explorating
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Girep book - Selected contributions of the Phyteb 2000 International Conference, Elsevier, (2001), 457.
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Eupen Consortium, European Physical Society, (1999), 63-89.
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319
HIGHER ORDER THINKING IN PHYSICS EDUCATION (HOT-PHYSICS)
Jens D. Holbech, Poul V., Thomsen, Centre for Studies in Science Education, University of
Aarhus, Aarhus C, Denmark
1. Introduction
Denmark has 9 years of compulsory and comprehensive schooling (the folk-school, 7-16 years of
age). Integrated Science is taught in grades 1-6 for 1-3 lessons per week (each lasting 45 minutes)
and integrated Physics/Chemistry is taught for 2 lessons per week in grades 7-9.
At the age of 16 the pupils have a number of possibilities for continued schooling and about 20%
of the population choose the mathematics line of a general upper secondary schooling lasting 3
years (the gymnasium). In the mathematics line, physics is obligatory with 3 lessons per week for
two years and optional in the third year (A-level: 5 lessons per week).
For a student the change from the folk-school to the gymnasium is a very real change since not only
the physical surroundings change - the pupils also meet quite a different kind of teaching and of
teacher: in the folk-school the teacher is trained at a teacher education college and familiar with
(theoretical) pedagogy, but not so much with the subject. In the gymnasium the teacher has a
masters degree from a university and is very well versed in his subjects (e.g. mathematics and
physics) but knows little about pedagogy! Some of the problems and perspectives - especially
students interests and attitudes - connected to the transition from folk-school to gymnasium are
demonstrated in Krogh & Thomsen (2001).
In this paper we address a quite different problem: the problem of missing thinking skills and how
to treat it. In the folk-school, practical work and calculations of physical quantities are done on a
regular basis but at a rather low level of abstraction (15 years ago this was different, but
(unpublished) research showed the teaching to go far beyond students possibilities for
understanding and the curriculum was changed accordingly). From the first day in the gymnasium,
however, the students are required to do formal thinking and manipulate formulas. This evidently
can only succeed if the new students are carefully selected - but this is not the case. As a result,
physics teachers have been complaining for years about falling standards.
2. Inspiration from CASE
Our inspiration for a project aimed at remedying the above problem came from the work by Shayer
and Adey on the Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE)-project (e.g. Adey et
al. 1995, Adey & Shayer 1994, Shayer 1999). Their work is aimed at students about 12 years old and
based theoretically on a combination of Piagets ideas of developmental stages (especially the
transition from concrete to formal thinking) and Vygotskys concepts of the zone of proximal
development and socially mediated learning.
Most students at that age are concrete thinkers (level 2A-2B in Piagetian terminology) and the
hope was through carefully planned instruction to induce students to progress to early formal
thinking (3A) and beyond. For this purpose, the CASE team developed a teaching scheme
consisting of a concrete preparation ideally leading to cognitive conflict and ensuing construction of
meaning. This construction is stabilized by metacognition. The teaching scheme runs decoupled
from the science lessons (intervention lessons) as independent thinking lessons, but during the
following science lessons ample and explicit use is made of the (Piagetian) reasoning patterns
introduced, e.g. proportionality and control of variables. Shayer and Adey claim striking successes
and are especially proud of long term and far transfer effects as e.g. far better results in the
experimental classes than in control groups at the nationwide GCSE examinations at age 16, i.e. 4
years after the intervention - not only in science, but also in mathematics and English.
3. The HOT-project
As mentioned above, about 20% of a Danish cohort enters the mathematical line of the upper
secondary school and there are widespread problems with thinking skills. Our starting point was a
320
reserved acceptance of Shayer and Adeys ideas - something like: it may work, so lets try. If it
works: very good; if it doesnt: we got that wiser and well try something else.
According to Shayer and Adeys early results (Adey & Shayer 1994, see also Shayer and Adey
1981), only about 5% of students around 16 should be late formal thinkers (3B) and another 25%
early formal thinkers (3A). Even in the best case our target population would be dominated by 3A-
students. This implies that the students may handle formulas but without a deeper understanding
of what they are doing, e.g. considering U = R I, R = U / I and I = U / R as three different formulas
(or prescriptions for use) instead of one; they may work with problems with two independent
variables and control for factors explicitly named but not deal freely with multivariable problems;
and they may do simple problems with constant ratios but are not able to do proportional
reasoning - in short: they are not able to understand the concepts, the reasoning and the models
required in the physics curriculum.
In order to find out the distribution of our
students on Piagetian stages we used a
translated version of the pendulum task
from the Science Reasoning Tasks (1992)
which is a test of students abilities to deal
with control and exclusion of variables. In
the very beginning of the HOT-project
(Feb. 2000) we tested 4 classes, i.e. about
100 students, and convinced ourselves
that most students actually handled
control of variables at early formal level
only. The teaching material was therefore
designed to start at that level (or a little
below) and aimed at lifting the students
towards late formal thinking.
Before starting the actual teaching in
August 2000 we did the pendulum test on
all 22 classes participating and on 15
control classes from the same schools. As described later, the actual course of the project was rather
messy and only 7 of the classes tried more than half of the teaching material. We have only used
these classes for statistics together with the control classes from the same schools (8), and Figure 1
shows the initial distribution of these 330 students on Piagetian levels. There are rather different
distributions for each single class but no significant difference between experimental and control
groups.
We had expected to do piloting of the material (to be described later) in just a few classes in our
local area, but 10 teachers offered to try it out and the newly started Danish project World-Class
Maths and Science (www.matnatverdensklasse.dk) asked us to take a further 12 teachers from the
Copenhagen area. The pilot phase thus comprised 22 classes with about 600 students.
The teachers were brought together at Aarhus University for two half-days during which they got
an introduction to the thinking behind HOT-physics and the pendulum test. Most of the time was,
however, spent on an introduction to the preliminary teaching material and discussions on its actual
use and how to do the bridging to later physics lessons. One of us (JDH) taught a class himself using
the HOT material and used the experiences to make a first adjustment. The adjusted material was
immediately distributed via an Internet based conference where the participating teachers could
also give their suggestions for changes, ask questions and initiate discussions.
Our original idea was that the HOT-lessons should be over before Christmas, but unfortunately this
was not the case. Some of the teachers from the Copenhagen area only started in November
because of simultaneous participation in another project under World-Class Maths and Science.
It also turned out to be more difficult to get feedback from the teachers about the working of the
321
Figure 1: Initial percentages of students in Piagetian levels of
reasoning.
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
2B 2B* 3A 3A/3B 3B
Level of Reasoning
Science Reasoning Task
Copenhagen & Aarhus, Autumn 2000 N=330
project. The Internet conference was little used and we could only manage to have one or two short
meetings (1-2 hours each) with the teachers. At the end of the school year JDH was the only one
to have done all lessons and the most arduous teachers had taught about 75%, the least only about
25%.
At the end of the school year most classes - experimental as well as control - were tested again with
the pendulum test. Due to the difficulties described above we were very modest in our expectations
and we decided to look only at classes having trialled more than about 50% of the material and the
control classes from the same schools. This gave us 7 experimental classes and 8 control classes.
Also, we only used data from students having taken the test at the beginning as well as at the end
of the school year and the net number of students then turned out to be 154 in experimental classes
and 176 in control classes (these are the students behind Figure 1).
As mentioned, there were no significant differences between the two groups in the beginning of the
school year, but there did turn out to be striking differences at the end of the year: the experimental
classes had a significantly larger gain in reasoning level than had the control classes. To bring the
results into a quantitative form we used the same numerical scale as Adey and Shayer (1994), i.e.
2B = 5, 2B* = 6, 3A = 7, 3A/3B = 8, 3B = 9, and it turned out that the initial value for Piagetian level
was 7.07 _ .24 (corresponding to early formal). The control classes ended at 7.60 _ .27, i.e. an
average gain of .52 (half a level) while the experimental classes ended at a mean of 7.96 _ .38, i.e.
an average gain of .91 (nearly a whole level). The difference between the gains is .36
corresponding to the experimental classes being 1.3 (control) standard deviations above the
control classes. This is highly satisfactory (especially in view of our difficulties) but of course it is
not clear whether it is due to the HOT-material or to the HOT-teachers (who joined voluntarily).
The touchstone for this requires a much larger scope with participation of non-voluntary teachers,
but at least our initial hope is not falsified!
4. The HOT teaching sequences
In the CASE-project there are 32 intervention lessons distributed over 2 years. The lessons are
designed to last for about 70 minutes each, i.e. a total of ~ 40 hours. The total amount of time for
physics teaching in the first grade of Danish upper secondary school is 79 hours and it is quite clear
that our ambitions about time consumption had to be at a much lower level than in CASE - maybe
15-20 hours in the best case. It was also clear to us that the HOT-lessons should be closer coupled
to the physics teaching than were the CASE-lessons - partly in order for the teachers to feel
comfortable about fulfilling their duties towards the syllabus, partly to have an opportunity to
introduce the thinking skills before the students need them. Taking the speed of delivery in physics
textbooks into account, this means that the HOT-lessons should be given during the autumn.
The thinking skills needed in the physics curriculum pertain mostly to using variables and formulas.
We therefore chose much along the same lines as CASE to start with the concept of variables,
relationship between variables and control of variables. Later on this was supplemented with
compound variables (e.g. pressure, density), but in the meantime we did ratios and proportionality
and inverse proportionality (compensation) as an introduction to the use of formulas. Finally, we
made lessons on equilibriumwhere connections and control of up to 4 independent variables come
into play (a 3B-activity). We wanted also to include modelling both as an independent lesson and
as continuous input - but due to lack of time this never came into play.
A typical module follows the CASE teaching scheme with a concrete preparation where the teacher
introduces materials and terminology and makes sure the students understand what its all about.
This is followed by hands-on and mind-on activities where students work alone or in small groups
with concrete material and/or worksheets (hopefully) establishing cognitive conflicts and a need for
construction of meaning. The teacher has a central role as mediator and guide into the zone of
proximal development
6
and peers have important roles too as sparring partners in discussions and
as collaborators in trying out theoretical as well as practical suggestions for explanations and
solutions. The newly acquired thinking patterns are used in a number of thought experiments and
322
problems in order to consolidate them and further consolidation is aimed at through metacognitive
activities, e.g. students summing up and clarifying the new terminology, what they learned in the
module, and how they learned it.
The teaching material consists of worksheets for students, concrete material for demonstrations
and hands-on activities, and a teachers guide with introduction to the theory and the aims behind
the module, advice on actual teaching, and suggestions for bridging during the physics lessons to
follow.
Space does not permit description of all these modules and we have to restrict ourselves to just one
example: control of variables:
The module about control of variables followed a module on variables and relationship between
variables: what is a variable, a variable may have qualitative or quantitative values, one may
distinguish between independent and dependent variables, and finally some examples of
qualitative relationships between dependent and independent variables.
The concrete preparation was a practical work with tubes (adapted partly from CASE, Activity 3:
The fair test). The tubes are of 3 different lengths, 3 different widths and 2 different materials. The
teacher demonstrates the possibility of making sounds by tapping the end of a tube in a hand (in
the first edition we asked for blowing across the tube, but one of the teachers informed us that
tapping was much better than blowing and gave no problems with hygiene) and introduced the
highness of the tone as the dependent variable wanted. Students were asked to try the tapping and
afterwards identify the independent variables (length; width; material) and their values (long,
medium, short; wide, medium, narrow; metal, plastic. Some students wanted to measure the lengths
and widths to get quantitative variables and were allowed to do so).
The activity in the construction zone was for each student to pick pairs of tubes, compare the notes
and try to find the relationship between highness of note and the independent variables. The
students have access to all the tubes (the materials box contained 72 tubes of 18 different kinds)
and get a worksheet asking the student to write down the combinations used and the conclusions
drawn from the experiments: What is the influence of the width?, Which experiment tells you
that? etc. The teacher walks around and mediates cognitive conflict by asking for conclusions and
challenging incorrect as well as correct suggestions: How can you be sure that width does not
matter?, How can you be sure that only length matters? Is one pair of tubes enough to draw a
conclusion? etc.
Some simple problems are given and the teacher initiates metacognition by asking the students to
answer worksheet questions like What have you learned about control of variables when you have
to find relationships between variables? and How many independent variables must there be
before needing control?. Afterwards, a class discussion is organized about the topic and the
students are asked to do a number of problems/thought experiments of increasing difficulty.
Suggested bridging during the physics lessons following the module is to explicitly ask students for
control of variables in practical work, e.g. by planning experiments on Joules law (P = R I
2
)
instead of giving them cookery book recipes. Correspondingly, they may be challenged to
construct the equation of state for an ideal gas or at least to design experiments showing the effect
of each variable on the other.
5. The future
At the brief meetings with the teachers we got very positive feedback about the teaching material
and the modules they had tried out. They clearly saw HOT-physics as kind of an answer to at least
some of their problems and they reported also about most students being very engaged in the
activities which were at the right level for them to understand: considered as a teaching material
(and looking apart from our ambitious aims) the HOT-modules were successful! The teachers
strongly suggested us to continue.
In view of this we decided to run a second generation of HOT-physics - despite the messy way it
had worked and despite the fact that we did not know at that time whether there were any positive
323
effects. It was clear to us, however, that for methodological reasons we should prepare the teachers
better and have a closer monitoring of the whole process.
We therefore advertised HOT-physics as an in-service teacher training course consisting of a 2-day
introductory meeting in August 2001 (instead of 2 half-days) followed by one whole day late
September and another late November.
The response was overwhelming: about 60 teachers wanted to participate, but we had to restrict
ourselves to a doubling the course and could only accommodate 40 teachers (nevertheless
corresponding to 10% of the first grade physics teachers in Denmark). A few of them had
participated the year before, had been assigned to a new first grade class and wanted to try again
in a more serious way. This of course is encouraging, but at least as encouraging is that most of our
new teachers come from schools with teachers who participated the year before and had
recommended the course.
At the time of writing we have just finished the two 2-day courses. As we hoped, they turned out
to be much better and far more reflective than the stressful course last year and afterwards the
participants were very keen to go back to their schools and do HOT-physics.
Whether the project will fulfill its aims is of course uncertain at the moment, but we think we have
good reasons for optimism. But it is quite certain that about 60 physics teachers have been
challenged to reflect on their former teaching habits, have experienced cognitive conflicts and
made explicit decisions to change their practice. For the better, we believe, but time will show!
References
Adey P, and Shayer M, Really Raising Standards, Routledge, London, (1994).
Adey P, and Shayer M, Yates C., Thinking Science Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd UK, (1995).
Krogh L and Thomsen P V, Teaching Style and Learning Outcomes, Proceedings of GIREP-conference: Physics
Teacher Education Beyond 2000, Elsevier, (2001), 257-260. Science Reasoning Task III: The Pendulum Science
Reasoning, 16 Fen End, OVER, Cambridge CB4 5NEShayer M Cognitive acceleration through science education
II: its effects and scope Int. J. Sci. Educ. 21, (1999), 883-902.
Shayer M and Adey P, Towards a Science of Science Teaching, Heinemann Educational, (1981).
Vygotsky L S, Mind in Society, Harvard University Press, (1978).
COMPREHENSION AND TEST RESULTS AFTER INTRODUCTION OF WORKSHOP
PHYSICS
Thomas Lundstrom, Mats D. Lyberg, Alf Svensson, School of Mathematics and Systems Eng.,
Dept of Physics, Vxj University, Sweden
1. Introduction
Here we report on results of introducing Workshop Physics as a complementary education tool in
the introductory course in mechanics. The course corresponds to the first thirteen chapters of
common introductory textbooks such as Benson, Giancoli, Halliday-Resnick-Walker, Serway,
Tipler, Young and Freedman, Wolfson and Pasachoff, etc. Our traditional course comprises five
weeks of full-time study with twenty hours of lectures, twenty hours of problem solving and twenty
hours of laboratory work. Two reference groups, one physics student class of about twenty students
and one mechanical engineering class of about forty students followed this curriculum.
The test group consisted of a physics student class of about twenty students. This group was for part
of the course introduced to Workshops Physics [1-4], tutorials [5] and interactive lecture
demonstrations [6] to enhance the understanding of some important concepts. The items selected
for Workshop Physics have been motion of a particle subjected to a force, gravitation and the action
and reaction of forces.
Our laboratories are equipped with The PASCO Physics Systems which include physics apparatus,
computer interface 750, sensors and the data collection system DATA STUDIO
324
2. Variables
In this report we have studied the interdependence of three variables, the students result from the
examination of the mechanics course, and the students result from a conceptual test [7] before (pre-
test) and after (post-test) the mechanics course. All variables have been reworked to a scale from 0 to
100. Examination results are given in a scale where 0 corresponds to 0 points and 100 corresponds to
the maximal number of points. The force test is a multiple-choice test of 29 questions each having 5
alternatives. A test group knowing nothing about mechanics would thus score an average of about six
correct answers. However [8] ,completely non-newtonian thinkers may tend to score below the
random guessing level because of the very powerful interview-generated distractors so we have not
made any correction for this.
3. Test result versus examination result
The test is intended to measure the
understanding of the force concept and
Newtons laws. The examination consists of
solving problems. Obviously, they must not
measure the same thing. In Fig. 1 is displayed
the relation between post-test result and
examination result for students of physics and
mechanical engineering, respectively. The
covariance is for physics students 64% and for
mechanical engineering students 51%. There is
some connection between the two variables
test result and examination result, but not a
very impressive one.
4. Pre-test result versus post-test result.
Presumably, most students have improved their
understanding and knowledge after a course in
mechanics. This assumption may be investigated
by comparing the pre-test result to that of the
post-test. The result is displayed in Fig. 2. As can
be seen, there is a very good correlation (91%).
The improvement is of the order of 25 %. Taking
70% correct test answers as a measure of an
acceptable understanding of newtonian
mechanics, 10% of the students are newtonites
already before the mechanics course, while
another 15% achieve this level after the course.
In the same manner, taking a test result of 30%
correct answers as a measure of a decidedly
aristotelian view of mechanics, 40% of the
students are aristotelians before the course and
15% stubbornly remain so. Applying the same
criteria to the mechanical engineering students
after the course, about 20% are newtonites and
equally many are aristotelians.
For analysis purposes we have used the gain
factor g defined by Hake [8]
325
20 40 60 80 100
Posttest
20
40
60
80
100
Exam
Examination vs Posttest
Fig. 1: Plot of the post-test result versus the examination
result for physics students (squares) and for mechanical
engineering students (triangles).The covariance is 64%
for physics students and 51% for engineering students.
20 40 60 80 100
Pretest
20
40
60
80
100
Posttest
Covariance 91%
Fig. 2: A plot of the post-test result versus the pre-test
result for physics students. Data include students who
have worked with WP as well as those who not.
g =
posttest(%) ~ pretest(%)
100 ~ pretest(%)
If we apply this to our student group we achieve <g> = 0.53 for the WP students and <g> = 0.36 for
the traditional group. The first group falls in the region between Medium-g and High-g [8].
If we instead use the Gaussian fit to histogram presented by Redish [9,10] this group falls in the
WP-group from Dickinson College. In table 1 we give the gain factor with standard deviation as a
comparison.
Table 1: A comparison of gain factor for different groups
5. Results from working with Workshop Physics
In this section we compare in more detail the two groups of physics students who have, respectively
have not, worked with Workshop Physics. In Table 2 we give some results from a comparison
between these two groups.
The concepts selected comprised the force concept (questions 15, 18, 22 and 28, one-dimensional
motion of a particle subjected to a force (questions 3, 5, 16 and 23), and the concept of action and
reaction for forces (questions 2,11,13 and 14)
Table 2: Effects of working with Workshop Physics
326
14 trad courses from Hake 0.230.04
Traditional Vaxjo 0.360.20
WP Dickinson 0.420.04
WP Vaxjo 0.530.29
Physics students Physics students not Engineering
working with WP working with WP students, no WP
Examination result [%] 66 64 54
Pre-test result [%] 41 35 -
Post-test result [%] 66 57 42
Force concept, pre-test 32 36 -
post-test 59 40 21
Linear motion, pre-test 45 38 -
post-test 61 42 37
Newton III, pre-test 39 34 -
post-test 83 79 39
Comparing the two groups of physics students, the introduction of WP has no significant effect on
the examination result. The group working with WP has a higher post-test score, but this was the
case also in the pre-test. However, looking at the parts of the course where WP was applied, there
is a markedly higher improvement regarding the force concept and linear motion for the WP
group. Regarding the force action and reaction both groups have improved substantially. The
group of engineering students has a markedly lower score than physics students in the post-test.
6. Results from a gymnasium
Workshop Physics has been introduced into many a curriculum at the college or university level.
Students starting studies at the gymnasium level have at best some rudimentary knowledge of
physics from the compulsory school, while students starting at the university are obliged to have
taken physics courses at the gymnasium.
The Swedish gymnasium (school years 10 to 12) has two Physics courses for students oriented
towards natural sciences.
The first course is in the first year and is compulsory for all students. It comprises mainly
mechanics. The second course of the last two years is voluntary. In many cases the interest in taking
the second course of physics has been very low. In an attempt to improve this situation, Workshop
Physics [1-4] was introduced in some classes. We have studied the effect of this introduction.
Workshop Physics was introduced to two classes out of three. The number of students continuing
with the second course of Physics is the main interest of this study. The two classes receiving
Workshop Physics (WP) during the first year did so also during the two consecutive years to study
a possible influence on the final examination in physics.
The main results are presented in Table 3. We assume that three factors may influence the choice
of taking the second physics course.
These are the perceived success in studying mathematics and physics during the first year, a
decision made already before the first year not to choose further studies in physics, and an
increased understanding of physics due to the introduction of WP. In practice, we do not believe it
possible to disentangle the first two factors, so we have taken the examination result in
mathematics and physics during the first year of studies as a measure of both factors.
Table 3: First year Physics students
In the two classes with WP a much larger number of students selected the second course in physics.
However, students not continuing with physics had a lower grade in mathematics and physics
during the first year. This is probably the most important factor, the covariance between the first
year examination result and the decision to continue with physics is 75%, while for the exposure to
WP the first year and continued studies in Physics the covariance is 35%.
The application of WP during the last two years does not seem too greatly influence the
examination result in Physics.
This study is continued by a follow-up of how many students continue to study natural sciences or
engineering at university. There are no definite results yet, but there is a clear indication that
students having taken part in WP do so to a much larger extent.
7. Conclusions
There is a comparatively weak correlation between examination result and understanding, as
measured by the Force Concept Inventory, for an introductory course in Mechanics, the co-variance
is of the order 50%. The introduction of Workshop Physics for part of the course markedly
improves the understanding for this part of the course, but does not seem to greatly effect the
examination result. The introduction of Workshop Physics at the gymnasium level resulted in a
larger of students selecting more than one physics course.
327
Student category Number of students
WP course, Class 1 24
choosing Physics B 20
no more Physics 4
WP course, Class 2 26
no more Physics 6
Ordinary course 22
no more Physics 12
1st year
grade in
math-
physics
(average)
75
76
67
62
68
44
52
70
38
Students
continuing
with physics
[%]
83
77
45
3rd year
physics grade
63
72
70
References
[1] P. Laws, Calculus-based physics without lectures, Physics Today, (1991).
[2] P. Laws, Millikan lecture 1996: Promoting active learning based on physics education research in introductory
physics courses, Am.J.Phys. 65, (1997).
[3] Sokoloff, Thornton, Laws, Real time physics Wiley & Sons
[4] P. Laws, Workshop Physics, Wiley & Sons
[5] L. McDermott et al, Tutorials in Introductory Physics, Prentice Hall
[6] R. Thornton and D. Sokoloff, Interactive Lecture Demonstrations, Physics Teacher, (1997).
[7] D. Hestenes, M. Wells, G. Swackhamer, Force Concept Inventory The Physics Teacher, 30, (1992).
[8] R. Hake, Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test
data for introductory courses, Am. J. Phys. 66 (1), (1998).
[9] E. Redish, J. Saul, R. Steinberg, On the Effectiveness of Active-Engagement Microcomputer-Based
Laboratories, Am. J. Phys, 65, 45-54, (1997).
[10] E. Redish, Millikan Lecture 1998: Building a Science of Teaching Physics, Am. J Phys, 67, (1999).
328
329
3.7 Mathematisation
ON HOW TO BEST INTRODUCE THE CONCEPT OF DIFFERENTIAL IN PHYSICS
R. Lpez-Gay, J. Martnez-Torregrosa, Dpto. de Didctica General y Didcticas Especficas,
Alacant, Spain
A., Gras-Mart, Dpto. de Fsica Aplicada, Universitat dAlacant, Alacant, Spain
G. Torregrosa, Dpto. de Anlisis Matemtico y Didctica de las Matemticas, Alacant, Spain
1. Introduction
The almost unanimous opinion of 103 high school Physics teachers, and the results of the analysis
of 38 Physics textbooks, indicate clearly that Differential Calculus is necessary to teach Physics in
the last years of high school, and it becomes indispensable at university level (Lopez-Gay et al.,
2001). This necessity is obvious since Differential Calculus allows to study physical situations with
a higher degree of complexity than the ones dealt with in elementary courses.
In agreement with this importance, it should be expected that the use with comprehension of
Differential Calculus would be a concern of Physics teachers and a result of the learning process;
and that it should be perceived as an indispensable tool to progress in the comprehension of
Physics. In spite of this, our teaching experience has showed us that the reality of the customary
use of Differential Calculus in Physics lectures is very different: textbooks and lecturers use it in
an operational and mechanical way, the students dont understand what is being done and why is
it done when it is used even in simple situations, both teachers and students have low expectations
of it being used with comprehension and autonomy, its use is perceived as an obstacle and a source
of reject against Physics. This impression is confirmed by our analysis of the usual teaching
practice.
A clear uneasiness among Physics teachers exists, for they feel obligated to use Differential
Calculus in their lectures, but are aware that their students dont understand the reason and the
meaning of what is being done. Even worse, there is a diffuse uneasiness as a result of their
incapability to identify clearly the cause of this situation and to find an adequate way to overcome
it.
In order to confront this diffuse uneasiness, we have carried out a historical and epistemological
study (Martnez-Torregrosa et al., 2001) looking for answers to the following questions: in what
kind of situations is Differential Calculus used?, which is the global strategy of Calculus to deal
with those situations?, which is the meaning of the different concepts used?, which is the
relationship among them? These questions have remained concealed in the customary education
practice under a stream of rules and algorithms, which shows a clear disdain towards the more
understandable and conceptual aspects (Artigue and Viennot, 1987; Ferrini-Mundy and Gaudard,
1982, NCTM, 2000).
Taking into account that differential expressions constitute the starting point in the reasoning and
mathematisation of the physical situations, we have centred our study in the concept of differential,
although without losing sight of the global strategy of Calculus. The conclusions we have obtained
have enabled us to understand better the present deficiencies and to introduce proposals to
overcome them.
2. Towards a better understanding of the differential in physics
The concept of differential has not always answered to the same definition, nor has played the
same part in the whole of Calculus. In its origin, in the 17th century, the differential was invented
to undertake the step from approximation to exactness. For this, the differential of a quantity (dy)
was considered as an approximation of the increment of that same quantity (y), but an increment
so small that they tended to be the same (dy = y). This way one could ignore the error made when
the (very small) increments were substituted by differentials, or when the terms containing
differentials were neglected (which LHpital resumed in the equation: y+dy = y).
An analysis of 38 Physics textbooks shows that this concept of the differential -and the arguments
that accompany it- is the only one that appears in Physics lectures. The same criticisms that were
made more than 300 years ago about the use of infinitely small quantities, can be formulated
nowadays almost in the same terms: how small is the differential?, is it a fixed quantity, or a variable
quantity?, is it really possible to obtain an exact result by neglecting terms that are not zero?, what
criteria should be used to determine the differential expression in each specific case?
In general, in order to write the differential expression, an approximate expression of the increment
is written, with the certainty that, when that increment is very small, it can already be considered
an exact expression. For instance, it is said that the variation of the intensity of a plane wave when
crossing a material medium of very small thickness is: dI = -Idx. But this is not true, no matter
how small dx or dI are. It is true, however, that when dx is very small, that expression is very
approximately although it never coincides with- I, but the same happens to other expressions
(for example: dI = -I
2
dx, dI = -dx/I, dI = -Idx
2
...). If dI never gets to coincide with I, an error
will always exist when substituting one for the other. How then get to the exact result?
Furthermore, what criteria do we use to select which starting expression is adequate?
In usual teaching these questions are not dealt with. The wrong belief is implied that, whatever the
form of the approximate increment, as it is so small, the error will always be practically zero and
will not affect the result. This is wrong: there is only one correct differential expression for each
situation
1
. Therefore, the criticisms made to the use of the differential as an infinitely small quantity
do not only affect formal or philosophical questions, but have practical consequences.
Why are not wrong results obtained more frequently then? On the contrary, the use of Differential
Calculus is considered almost as a guarantee that the result is more correct than when it is not
used? It is known that by recalling past examples one selects the correct results, and the absurd
results that have historically been obtained are soon forgotten (Orton, 1983; Schneider, 1991). In
teaching, the starting differential expression is accepted as a dogma, without arguments nor
analysis that justify that particular choice and not a lot of other possible ones. This gives rise to the
feeling that the simple idea of differential as a very small increment, where everything is allowed,
is enough to sustain the whole of Calculus in the physical applications.
The weight of these criticisms and the adverse results lead to the creators of Calculus to doubt of
the identification between the differential and an infinitely small quantity [Kline, 1980, p. 480 and
511]. Leibniz left the differential without a rigorous meaning but, convinced of its utility, did not
give up the use of the differential: the differentials may be used as an instrument, in the same way
that the algebraists use the imaginary roots with great benefit [Kline, 1980, p. 509]. We have
confirmed this same ambiguity when we study in depth the significance that teachers and students
assign to the differential expressions they constantly use in the Physics lectures.
The following 150 years showed the enormous power of Calculus, but no substantial progress was
made in understanding correctly what was being done: one worked in an almost blind way, often
guided by a nave intuition that what they did had to be valid (Eves, 1981). Early in the 19th
century Cauchy laid out the foundations of Calculus; based on a precise definition of the concept
of limit, he transformed the concepts of derivative and integral into the pillars of Calculus, leaving
the concept of differential relegated to a marginal role, useful to abbreviate certain formal
expansions. Even the definition of differential (dy = ydx) depended on the previous definition of
derivative (y). This work, nevertheless, barely affected the use of Calculus in physical applications,
where the differential expressions continued to play an essential role, as starting points to tackle a
great number of problems and situations; not in vain, the Mathematics of the 19th century marks
330
3. Topical Aspects 3.7 Mathematisation
1
For example, approximating the portion of a sphere by the corresponding cylinder, the volume of the sphere is correctly
obtained, but not the area of its surface [Artigue and Viennot, 1987].
the break up between Physics and Mathematics, considered by some as a divorce (Gonzalez-
Urbaneja, 1991), and by others as a decolonization (Aghadiuno, 1992). It is not strange, then, that
the differential has kept in Physics the original meaning of Leibniz, without overcoming its
inconsistence, in spite of the precise definition of the concept of limit and of an infinitesimal
quantity provided by Cauchy
2
.
3. A definition which improves its use with comprehension in physics
At the beginning of the 20th century, in the context of Functional Analysis, the French
mathematician Frchet formulated a new definition of differential, which resembles the old
definition ... and offers all its advantages, but escaping all the objections of rigour that very justly
had been made to it, according to a textual quote of the author [Artigue, 1989, p. 34]. This
definition is independent of the derivative, it is centred in the original idea of an approximation,
and provides a precise meaning to any differential expression; for this reason, we have used it
adapted to functions of one variable- to rebuild the use of Differential Calculus in a wide variety
of physical situations, giving a precise answer to all the enigmas related with its comprehension
(Lpez-Gay et al., 2001).
In short, dy (the differential with respect to x) is an estimate of the y produced by an x; such an
estimate is linear with respect to x. Among all the possible linear estimates, the differential is the
one whose gradient (dy/dx) coincides with the derivative (y); this guarantees the possibility of
obtaining the exact result by integration, that is, that the limit of the total error accumulated when
differentials are added is zero. This conception allows us to overcome the deficiencies related with
the original concept:
- It clearly shows that it is necessary to resort to the differential in non-linear situations and, for
this reason, the differential will never coincide with the increment (it can be bigger, or smaller),
no matter how small it may be.
- The differential is a new function of two variables: x, dx. Its value may be big or small, depending
on the value assigned to the variables x, dx. What is infinitely small, to a first order, is the
difference between differential and increment:
- The differential expressions acquire a precise meaning. For example, the expression: dp = Fdt is
used when the force is variable in the interval of time t o dt, and is an estimate of how much
would the linear momentum change if the force remained constant during t.
- Sometimes, it is easy to determine the differential expression: when the uniform behaviour is
known beforehand (for example, when the force is constant we know that: p = Ft, therefore
the corresponding differential expression when it is not constant will be: dp = Fdt). But, in most
physical problems, that behaviour is not known beforehand, and the starting differential
expression must be advanced as a hypothesis, based on the physical analysis of the situation, and
with the only formal requirement of it being linear with respect to the change of variable. The
confirmation of that hypothesis can only be done through the result to which it leads.
This clarification not only leads to a better understanding of the nature and the significance of the
differential expressions, but also of the general strategy of Calculus to tackle a physical problem,
the reason for the steps that are taken when applying that strategy, and the meaning of other basic
concepts (derivative and integral) and the relationships among them. With this clarification we
have identified some indicators of what is an adequate comprehension of the differential in Physics:
331
2
Cauchy defines an infinitely small quantity as a variable whose numerical value decreases indefinitely so that it
converges towards the limit zero [Cauchy, 1998, pp. 26-27]. It is obvious that the increment of any continuous function
obeys this definition, and therefore it is not useful to characterize the differential expression. Nor can one say that it is
the limit of the increment when it tends to zero as, if it is continuous, the differential would always be zero.
0
A
A
0 A
=
~
-
x
dy y
lm
x
1. To know when and why its use becomes necessary, that is, to know which is the problem that
makes ordinary calculus insufficient (i.e., it is necessary to resort to the differential when we
need the y produced in an x, and the relationship between both is not linear).
2. To understand the strategy that Calculus offers to solve that problem and comprehend the
reason of the different steps that are taken, i.e.:
a. To be able to explain with accuracy and physical sense the meaning of the expressions.
b. To know and justify the relationship that exists between the differential and the derivative y
= dy/dx, and accept without ambiguity the reasoning in which this relationship is used.
c. To know the meaning of the integral and to know how to justify the so called Fundamental
Theorem, i.e., why the definite integral requires the calculation of antiderivatives or primitive
functions.
d. To use that strategy with full knowledge of the physical content in situations and problems.
3. To be aware of the hypothetical and exploratory nature, in almost all physical situations, of the
starting differential expression, and to know that the validity of that hypothesis cannot be
checked directly but through the result to which it leads.
4. To value positively the role of the differential in learning Physics. This axiological component
should be a natural consequence when the crucial role that the differential plays in the
treatment of physical situations of interest is understood.
These indicators have been of use to us as a guide to analyse the use of Calculus in the common
teaching practices, and to elaborate an alternative proposal.
4. Improving the use comprehension: first results
Although we are aware that it is arguable which is the adequate school year to introduce the use
of Calculus, we are convinced that, once that decision is made, it is necessary to do it right, without
expecting the comprehension to be acquired in the future, out of the blue. In our case, we begin the
use of Calculus in the 3rd year of BUP (16 years old) and complet it in the year of COU (17 years
old). We have designed programmes of activities for those two years based on the idea of the
differential as a linear estimation of the increment, paying attention to the indicators of an
adequate comprehension as listed above. Only in the 2nd year the concept of integral is introduced
to all the students, therefore we are not taking into account the indicators 2c and 2d in the 1st year.
We have carried out a detailed experimental design to confirm that the incorporation, from the
beginning, of the new proposal on the differential, improves the teaching and learning. The
following diagram shows the results of the analysis of a problem solved by students of COU, in
which the use of Differential Calculus was necessary. The students of the experimental group have
had one of us (RLG) as their teacher during two years.
We may mention also some results in relation with the attitude that students adopt. 63% of the
students of control groups (COU) do not pay attention when Differential Calculus is used in Physics for
they know they are not going to understand it and only pay attention to the final formula. This clearly
reflects the preponderance of the mechanicism in standard teaching practice. On the other hand, 62%
of the students of experimental groups (3rd of BUP) taught by teachers trained by us, and 85.4% of
the students of one us (RLG) (3rd of BUP), plainly reject this idea, which we interpret as an indication
of the use with comprehension which is promoted in their Physics lectures.
In general, the comparative analysis of the results obtained by experimental and control groups
show clearly that significant differences exist among them in all the indicators of an adequate
comprehension, always in favour of the experimental groups, whether of one of us or of teachers
trained by us. The differences become bigger with students who have used the new teaching
materials for two years. We find ourselves, then, in an adequate direction to improve the use with
comprehension of Differential Calculus in the teaching of Physics.
332
References
Aghadiuno M.C.K., Mathematics: history, philosophy and applications to science, International Journal for
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 23, (5), (1992), 683-690.
Artigue M., and Viennot L., Some aspects of students conceptions and difficulties about differentials, Misconceptions
and Edu. Strategies in Sci. & Math. Cornell, Ithaca, USA, (1987).
Artigue M., Le passage de la diffrentielle totale la notion dapplication linaire tangente, en: Procedures
diffrentielles ... (Annexe I). Universit Paris 7: IREM et LDPES, (1989).
Cauchy A.L., Cours dAnalyse de Lcole Royale Polytechnique, Facsmil de la 1 ed., Sevilla: SAEM Thales, (1998),
1821
Eves H., Great moments in Mathematics (After 1690), Washington, D.C.: The Mathematical Association of America,
Dolciani Mathematical Expositions, 7, (1981).
Ferrini-Mundy J., and Gaudard M., Secondary school calculus: preparation or pitfall in the study of college calculs?,
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 23 (1), (1992), 56-71.
Gonzalez-Urbaneja P.M.,. Historia de la matemtica: gnesis de los conceptos y orientacin de su enseanza,
Enseanza de las Ciencias, 9 (3), (1991), 281-289.
Kline M., Math. Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, New York,Oxford, Univ. Press, (1980).
Lpez-Gay R., Martnez-Torregrosa J., and Gras-Mart A, What is the meaning and use of this expresion: dN=-
Nt
2
dt?, GIREP 2000. (2001) Selected Contributions. R. Pint & S. Surinach (eds.). Paris: Elsevier editions; and
Enseanza de las Ciencias, (to be published)
NCTM, (2000) (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics). Principle and Standards for School Mathematics,
http://standards.nctm.org/document.
Orton A., Students understanding of differentiation, Educ. Stud. in Math., 14, (1983), 235-250.
Schneider M., Un obstacle pistmologique soulev par des dcoupages infinis des surfaces et des solides,
Recherches en Didactique des Mathmatiques, (1991).
TEACHING QUANTUM THEORY
Hans Grassmann, Department of Physics, University of Udine, Italy
1. Introduction
Mathematics is important for the understanding of Quantum Theory. Often students have
problems with some aspect of mathematics, without being aware of this problem. As a result these
students will for the first time realize to have a problem, when confronted with Quantum Theory.
They will therefore wrongly conclude to have a problem with Quantum Theory. Having wrongly
identified their problems, they will have difficulties to solve them: they fail to understand that they
need to study again some particular aspects of mathematics, in spite of the fact that they are having
problems in their physics course, not in the mathematics course.
333
0
20
40
60
80
100
Uses Differential
Calculus
He/She justifies it Some meaning to
the differential
Writes integrals Addition of a lot
of terms
Justifies
Fundamental
Theorem
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
Control group COU (57) Experimental group COU (18)
In this paper we discuss a possible strategy of teaching quantum theory in such a way, that the
student more easily can identify his problems: while it is not possible to do quantum theory without
mathematics, it should be possible to formally disentangle them to a point, where the presentation
of the subject to the student enables him to see, for instance, that his problems with quantum theory
really are problems in his understanding of the mathematics of waves.
Quantum theory can be expressed either using complex vectors and matrices or waves. There is no
fundamental difference between these representations, as is discussed in the presentation of Cobal
et al. at this conference.
For our presentation we make use of the wave formalism. This choice is motivated by the
observation that many students are even less familiar with complex numbers than with waves.
2. Prerequisits
Ideally, the student should have knowledge of the following:
He should be familiar with the basic concept of what a field is, in order to better understand what
a wave is, and why and how disturbances in fields are propagating as waves. From a formal point of
view, the wave equation can be introduced simply as a generalization of Newtons second law. For
the discussion of the kinematics of a point, which can be described in terms of some function in
time, f(t), the second law is sufficient, F=md
2
f/dt
2
, but for a multitude of points, which are
connected to each other (concept of physics field), one needs for the description a function both
in space and time f(x,t), there must then be a force F= d
2
f/dx
2
, too, and these two forces must be
equal (3rd law of Newton), that is d
2
f/dx
2
= d
2
f/dt
2
, which is the wave equation.
The student ideally should learn about the superposition of waves and the part of mathematical
wave theory, which in physics is called uncertainty principle. Where a deeper study of the Fourier
formalism is not possible for that, a phenomenological understanding would be totally sufficient
(for examples refer to H.Grassmann, Alles Quark?, Rowohlt Berlin, 1999).
And the student should understand, that one can construct each and any function from a
superposition of waves.
The ideal student should know that in special relativity no signal can travel faster than c, and some
phenomenological evidence should be given for the atom structure of matter and/or some greek
philosophy. As definition for what is elementary, one would define a particle is elementary, if it
cannot be made smaller, without destroying it. (For which reason one can describe a proton by a
simple wave function, without taking into account, that it is composed of quarks.)
While these prerequisits seem to be rather demanding, it should be noted, that they are in the end
required anyhow, no matter how the subject is tought. Sometimes they are in one way or other
tought as a part of Quantum Theory - while we rather suggest to identify them clearly as
prerequisits.
3. Foundations of quantum theory
The discussion of the physics of quantum theory could for instance start with a challenge to the
student: Go and build a world. You are in charge and you can do whatever you want. You only
need not to come into contradiction with yourself, be consistent. First, this kind of approach is
raising the students curiosity and should increase his motivation, since he is now personally
involved. Secondly, it helps to make the student understand that quantum theory results as an
unavoidable consequence from a total (though temporary) lack of alternatives. Referring to the
prerequisits, a hint is given to the student try a world, which is made of discrete units, elementary
particles, like the Greeks wanted to do (atomos).
What are the mathematical entities from which one could build the world ?
Points would be most easy, physics also knows the concept of point mass, so the points could
indeed have mass. But points do not have any dimensions, we cannot create extended objects from
points only, which do not have any spatial extension. (And this is the more true, if we want to limit
ourselves to a finite number of point objects.)
334
One-dimensional objects (strings) could be considered, or two-dimensional objects (branes). That
indeed is being done presently (string theories), however, there are no conclusive results yet.
Theorists continue working, up to now building a world from strings seems in principle possible, but
it seems at least very difficult, theorists have not yet succeeded.
Can we use three-dimensional massive objects, like the Greeks imagined ? They imagined the
atoms to be little spheres, very hard, which never change form or properties (=are elementary). The
answer again is negative: a body made of hard little spheres would - like the spheres from which it
is made of -, be totally hard too. If one moves it at one end, the other end would need to move, too,
at the same time. One could transmit messages at the speed of light.
The student should be encouraged to come up with suggestions of his own. So that he realises, that
at the present status of science, only one possibility remains (though it can be realised in different
representations, as mentioned before, as complex vectors or as wave formalism).
We need to use fields: Fields are three-dimensional, and they are not hard : if one disturbs the field
at some point (hits it), this disturbance propagates as a wave at some certain velocity. Actually,
we are not interested in static fields, since in a static world nothing ever would happen, but we are
interested in the field changes, and those are the waves. We therefore need to use waves, from which
to build the world.
We need to describe the particles as waves. Therefore we need to identify what property of the
particle is described by the characteristic parameters of the wave, which are amplitude, frequency,
wavelength.
Obviously, the amplitude of a wave somehow (to be clarified later) tells, where the wave is. For
a classic wave, which is composed of very many elementary waves, the amplitude then also tells us
about how much energy the wave has at a given point: in a region, where there is much of the
classical wave, there must be correspondingly many of the elementary waves, and therefore a
correspondingly large fraction of the total energy of the classical wave.
Instead, for an elementary wave, the amplitude of the wave cannot have anything to do with its
energy. The amplitude of a wave in general depends on space and time, while the energy of a
particle may very well have a well defined and constant value. This discussion was qualitative. A
quantitative measure, of where the wave is is given by its intensity, which is the energy
transported by the wave per area radiated and per time. The intensity of the classical wave is
proportional to the square of the amplitude. Since the intensity of the classical wave in a certain
volume is equal to the probability to find one of the particles from which the wave is composed in
this volume times the total number of particles, it follows, that for the elementary particle the
intensity gives the probability to find the particle in this volume.
If a wave is not of infinite length, but has a certain finite length (expressed in number of maxima,
for instance), then we find that the energy of the wave is proportional to its frequency. Since in
general particles are presented by waves of finite length, one would expect, that in quantum theory
the frequency gives a measure for the energy of the wave.
For the energy of the elementary wave we therefore would expect a law of the form E=h, with h
to be determined in experiment.
The wave length of the wave can be associated to its momentum, when we consider the process of
absorption of the wave : the wave shall be absorbed by a force F which acts over a time t and a
distance l (by which the wave is moving in this time t). We can express t in terms of the period of
the wave T, as t=T, in which case l = . A can have any suited value, and the argument also holds
if and are functions of time. The force F then absorbs the momentum p=F*T and the energy
E=F*. p can be written as p = (E/)*T = h*T/
.
= h/ = p.
At this point the student should understand, that one can express elementary particles in terms of
waves, where the square of the amplitude of the wave gives the probability to find the particle, the
frequency gives the energy and the wave length the momentum of the particle. The students
understanding of the implications of quantum theory, which need to be discussed next, is limited
now primarily by the extent to which he understands the prerequisits.
335
For instance, an elementary wave in a potential will automatically lead to
Stable states with certain eigenvalues. In this way one can build up for instance the atoms, or
molecules.
The uncertainty principle follows directly from the mathematics of waves.
Interference experiments with, for instance, electron beams show the wave behavior of the
particles directly. Etc.
These and similar well known observations and experiments are very important in order to make
the student familiar with Quantum Theory, and they obviously need to be presented with great care
and effort also in the kind of teaching which is suggested here. But since they can be used in our
context in the same way as in any other context, it is not necessary to describe them here separately.
4. Is the wave real?
In some sense, even in classical physics waves are an idealization : on the one hand the wave
equation is a differential equation, it has its roots in the differential calculus, that is, in the infinite
small. On the other hand one needs to average over large distances and large numbers of particles,
to observe wavephenomena. For instance, sound is described as a wave, but the behavior of the
atoms or molecules of the gas in which the sound wave travels, individually do not show this wave
behavior.
Even if the discussion presented in this paper, or any other kind of discussion, has shown to the
student, that it is rational and unavoidable (at our present status of knowledge) to build the world
from waves, still often a vague feeling of uneasiness will remain with the student, which might be
phrased as it is weird to build a world of waves. The student wrongly may interpret this feeling
of uneasiness as evidence for not having understood Quantum Theory, even if he has. This
unnecessarily will undermine his enthusiasm for physics and his motivation to proceed with his
studies. Concluding this paper, we therefore would like to suggest, to make it clear to the student,
that Quantum Theory is simply the best we can offer at the time being, not more and not less :
Quantum Theory as well as the Theory of Relativity are nowadays believed to be incomplete or
partial pictures of a more fundamental point of view, a more fundamental theory of time-space.
Depending on how advanced the students is, one or some of the following arguments should be
given to the student :
No single elementary wave has ever been observed and it cannot be observed. This is, because the
wave collapses everywhere, when observed at one point, otherwise one and the same particle could
be observed several times. Having been observed at one point, the wave disappears immediately
and at infinite velocity. Nowhere else in physics is there anything infinite.
Furthermore, the discussion presented above uses space and time as if something like an absolute
time and space would exist at least in a given inertial system. While the electromagnetic and the
strong force are known to result precisely from the contrary of this assumption, namely from the
requirement, that the elementary waves need to be invariant under global and even under local
gauge transformations, respectively.
But if the electromagnetic and the strong force in this sense can be seen merely as properties of
space-time, then the particles, which mediated these forces, should be allowed to be seen as
properties of space-time, too. And one needs to ask, whether the particles in general can be seen
simply as properties of space-time:
Due to E=h and p=h/
.
not only the position, but all of the kinematics of a particle can be
expressed in terms of space (
.
) and time (), and the mass of the particle can be seen merely as the
dispersion relation between and .
The existence of such a dispersion relation in turn indicates a discrete space-time structure.
And instead of describing a particle in terms of E =F*l and p=F*t, one can equally well describe it
by its action H=F*t*l. But the action of particle waves is described by the formula E= h, which
says, that the action is always the same : it is h. It is easy to understand, why the action of a particle
never changes, that is because it never senses any effective force (due to not being extended, as
336
explained above). But that would not yet explain, why the action of all particles is the same. If
however particles are nothing but space-time properties (like oscillations on a solid body are
properties of this body), then one could understand h as a fundamental property of space-time, and
h naturally would need to be the same for all particles. From this point of view it becomes clear,
why matter particles are fermions and force carrying particles are bosons : it is a consequence of
the fact, that particles never can change their action. For an electron of action h to emit a photon
of action h, without changing its action, the only way is to flip the electron spin by 1 (from 1/2 to
1/2 h, for instance), emitting a photon of spin 1.
These or similar arguments should help to communicate to the student, that Quantum Theory -
being for the time being the best and only way of describing elementary particles - is very well
compatible with a possible existence of a more simple picture on a more fundamental level. Under
this point of view, the initial uneasiness of the student with the idea to build the world from waves
should from the beginning not be undermined or questioned. Rather it should be confirmed at the
end of the discussion, by telling the student yes, you have got the right feeling, there is a great
theory but it still may be improved. Come and help us. Or simply stay tuned.
ANALYSING DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRESENTING NEWTONS LAWS EMPHASYSING
THE RELATED CONCEPTS
Jos Luis, Jimnez, Departamento de Fsica, Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa,
Mxico
Ignacio Campos, Departamento de Fsica, Facultad de Cienci,s, Universidad Nacional Autnoma
de Mxico, Mxico
Gabriela Del Valle, rea de Fsica Atmica y Molecular Aplicada, Universidad Autnoma
Metropolitana-Azcapotzalco, Mxico
1. Introduction
Our scientific knowledge is an organized conceptual structure that intends to capture some
structural aspects of the world. In other words, we try to mirror a material system with a conceptual
system.
In our scientific tradition we have as a model of conceptual systematization, Euclidian Geometry
(300 B.C.); that is the first example of axiomatic systematization.
This particular conceptual system encompasses the geometrical knowledge accumulated through
thousands of years of experience in land surveying, constructing and trading. Thus the
axiomatization of a particular domain of knowledge is a late stage in the development of that
domain. In such development the first step is the establishment of the pertinent concepts, that are
usually decanted through years of controversy.
We have, for example, that the concepts of constant velocity and constant acceleration were
established only with N. de Oresme and J. Buridan in the fourteenth century during a long
controversy with the aristotelians. These thinkers also introduced through the theory of impetus,
the concept of inertia that later was refined by Descartes, Galileo and Newton (H. Butterfield,
1957).
Once the pertinent concepts of a domain of knowledge are developed, these are used in statements
about certain aspects of the world. In this way Galileo began to use the concepts of velocity,
constant acceleration and inertia, to describe the motion of projectiles and falling bodies.
On these grounds, Newton structured the accumulated knowledge of the motion of bodies and
tried to give this conceptual structure the format of Euclidian geometry, that is, the format of an
axiomatized system.
337
2. Elements of an axiomatized system
Since Newton the idea is to give our physical theories the structure of an axiomatized system of
propositions.
In such a system we distinguish:
1) Primitive concepts; these are concepts that are not explicitly defined within the conceptual
system, as point or line in Euclidian geometry, or space and time in mechanics.
2) Definitions. Some concepts are defined in terms of primitive concepts or other definitions, as
velocity and acceleration are defined in terms of space and time.
Definitions are a matter of convenience, but theoretically, all definitions are superflous
,
(B.
Russell, 1910).
3) Primitive propositions or axioms. These are propositions that are not proved within the system;
they are rather the initial assumptions from which all other propositions follow by logical
entailment.
4) Theorems. These are the propositions that can be proved starting from the axioms or from other
theorems already proved; according to their importance, sometimes theorems are called lemmas
or corolaries.
In the case of Newtonian Mechanics, as exposed in The Principia, we find some definitions, as that
of mass, quantity of motion, and others, but there is not an explicit list of primitive concepts.
However, Newton does state his three axioms or laws of motion. Hundreds of years later Poincar
would complain that Newton did not distinguish clearly what is experimental fact, what is a
definition, or what is an assumption. Indeed, this complain is just an indication of the difficulties in
axiomatizing a physical theory. Until now there is not a completely satisfactory axiomatization of
classical mechanics, and this task is included in the fundamental problems listed by Hilbert.
A succesful axiomatic system must satisfy the following conditions:
I. It must be consistent, that is, a proposition and its negation can not be logical consequences of
the system.
II. It must be complete, that is, any known true statement of the domain of knowledge that the
system intends to mirror must appear either as a theorem or as an axiom.
III. The axioms must be independent, that is, an axiom cannot be a logical consequence of the
other axioms.
Of course these conditions are not easy to establish and therefore most axiomatic systems are
subject to permanent investigation. It was precisely the investigation of the independence of
Euclids axioms what lead to non-Euclidian geometries. These conditions are still harder to
evaluate in physical theories.
3. Machs Criticism to Newtonian Mechanics
As an example we consider Machs criticism to Newtonian mechanics. In this case we can see the
influence of empiricism in Mach, who tried to reduce dynamics to kinematics, eliminating the
concepts of mass and force because he saw in them traces of metaphysical concepts as matter
(mass) and cause (force). A great deal of Machs view has passed to modern textbooks on
mechanics. We give some examples in the appendix.
In his program Mach criticizes Newtons definition of mass in terms of density and volume.
However, since Mach does not list primitive concepts, his criticism is useless.
It is possible in principle to take density as a primitive concept and define mass in terms of it. There
is some freedom to choose our primitive concepts as well as our axioms. The aim is to obtain a
consistent and functional conceptual structure. Mach instead proposes to define mass in terms of
accelerations. Here we find some problems since accelerations are vectors, while masses are scalars,
however, it is commom to find this definition of mass in textbooks.
Besides Mach, following Kirchhoff, defines force as mass times acceleration. Thus Newtons second
law is regarded as superfluous and replaceable by a definition. This is again a common view in many
contemporary texts. However, if force is really a definition then, following B. Russell, it is
superfluous!
338
If the second law is not a proposition about the behavior of the world, but a definition, then when
we find in a statement force, we can substitute ma, or vice versa. This cannot give us any
information about the possible motions of a body.
Poincar (1902) gives us some indications about this dilemma. He proposes that the acceleration of
a body depends only of the position of the body and the positions and velocities of near bodies.
This, he says, implies that the motions of any body are ruled by second order differential equations.
If the world were such that velocities instead of acelerations depend on other bodies, as in
Aristolian physics, then the equations would be first order, and if it were the case that change in
acceleration depends on other bodies, then the equations would be third order. In this way we can
see that Newtons second law certainly is a statement about how the material bodies move under
the influence of other bodies.
Hence our view is that it is much more sound to consider mass and force as primitive concepts than
to pass them as useless pseudo definitions. Then the study of classical mechanics amounts to
investigating the possible motions implied by the differential equation
for pertinent force functions F. In the study of these models of force, that the theory does not
provide, lies the pragmatic aspect of classical mechanics (Moulines, 1979).
These force models may be suggested by experiment, like Hookes law, or may be conjectured, as
the law of universal gravitation, but certainly they are additional hypotheses that must be fed into
the general theory. Therefore the role of experience is to suggest and test our theories, but certainly
it does not logically implies them.
Another point that deserves attention is the common statement that the first law of motion, the law
of inertia, is a particular case of the second law: no force no acceleration. Sometimes it is said that
the first law defines implicitly inertial frames of reference.
Here again Poincars observations may clarify the point. We can express the content of the first
law as a further characterization of force: far away bodies cannot accelerate a given body. Hence
the relation to inertial frames: the farther a body the better inertial frame it is. This is the reason
why Newton proposed the fixed stars as the best inertial frame.
4. Conclusions
We can conclude that in teaching classical mechanics we must take into account that the involved
concepts are free creations of the spirit, as often remarked Einstein. Then the students must be
acquainted with enough mechanical experiences in order to draw the pertinent concepts from the
context of those experiences.
On the other hand, the laws relate these concepts and therein lies their usefulness to understand
some aspects of the world. Thus our students must see that studying physics enables them to
understand many phenomena and the technological advances familiar to us. In this respect it may
be helpful to study the evolution of our knowledge in order to see how the concepts are created
and refined. For example, Galileo saw the need to substitute the Aristotelian concept of resistance
to motion by the concepts of inertia and friction, identifying this as a force.
This historical perspective can also warn us about the tentative character of our concepts. As
Einstein once wrote: And yet in the interest of science it is necessary over and over again to
engage in the critique of these fundamental concepts, in order that we may not unconsciously be
ruled by them. A. Einstein in the Foreword to Concepts of Space by , Max Jammer (1993).
Thus, in our view, the study of mechanics must begin with a familiarization with mechanical
phenomena, as rotational inertia, motion of projectils, etc. Then we study how these phenomena
have been understood in terms of different conceptual structures, as Aristotelian physics and
Newtonian physics. The student must appreciate why Newtonian mechanics is a better
approximation to mechanical phenomena than Aristotelian physics. This may be a beginning to a
339
dp
dt
= F (r, r, t)

.
critical attitude that Einstein considers so necessary to the development of scientific knowledge.
As they advance in the study of mechanics, they can be exposed to the most elementary model of
force, for example the almost constant gravitational force near the Earth. In advanced courses they
may be put in contact with the mathematical structures of differential equations, variational
principles and differential geometry, without forgetting that these structures give us an
approximation to the motions that real bodies in interaction do have.
References
Russell Bertrand, Principia Mathematica, Cambridge U. P., 1910, reprint (1962).
Butterfield Herbert, The Origin of Modern Science, McMillan Publishing Co, 1957, reprint (1965).
Poincar Henri, La science et lhypothse, (1902), Flammarion, Paris, (1968).
Ernst Mach, Desarrollo Histrico-Crtico de la Mecnica, Espasa-Calpe Argentina, (1949).
Moulines C Ulises., Theory-nets and the evolution of theories: The example of Newtonian Mechanics, Synthese, 41,
(1979).
Bunge Mario, Foundations of Physics, Springer-Verlag, New York, (1967).
Bunge Mario Epistemologa, Siglo Veintiuno, Mxico, D. F., (1997).
Jammer Max, The Concept of Space, Third Edition, Dover, New York, (1993).
Some textbooks that follow Machs view:
M. Alonso and E. Finn, Physics, Addison-Wesley, Reading Massachusetts (1992).
M. Alonso and E. Finn, Fundamental University Physics, Mechanics Vol. I, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts
(1967).
K. R. Atkins, Physics, Wiley, New York (1967).
V.D. Barger and M.G. Olson, Classical Mechanics. A Modern Perspective 2
nd
edition, Mc Graw Hill, New York
(1995).
H.C. Corben and P. Sthele, Classical Mechanics 2
nd
Edition, Wiley, New York, (1960).
R.P. Feynman, R.B.Leighton and M.Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol.I, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Massachusetts, (1963).
W. Hauser, Introduction to the Principles of Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Reading, Massachusetts (1966).
U. Ingard and W.L. Kraushaar, Introduction to Mechanics Matter and Waves, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Massachusetts, (1960).
T.W.B. Kibble, Classical Mechanics, Mc Graw Hill, London, (1966).
J.B. Marion and S.T. Thurnton, Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems 4
th
Edition, Saunders, Philadelphia
(1995).
K.R. Symon, Mechanics 2
nd
Edition, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, (1965).
P.A. Tipler, Physics for Scientist and Engineers 3
rd
Edition, Worth, New York, (1994).
HOW TO AVOID WORK. UNDERSTANDING THE WAYS IN WHICH PHYSICS USES
MATHEMATICS TO RECOGNIZE THE CONSTANT OF MOTION OF MECHANICAL
ENERGY
Marisa Michelini, Gian Luigi Michelutti, Department of Physics, University of Udine, Italy
1. Introduction
Researchers and teachers often find themselves faced by the difficulties which students have with
the mathematical instruments which physics uses both on the descriptive level and also on the
interpretative level; almost as a logical, unquestionable consequence, they look for ways to avoid
or reduce involvement on the formal level [1,2,3]. For example, they try to give greater weight to
experimental activities (the educational role of which is beyond discussion for an experimental
subject) [4,5,6], or they try to entrust to operativity and/or informal education the connection
between the perception and observation of phenomenology and the physical description [7,8,9].
Didactic projects done in the 60s and 70s throughout the Western world [10] are examples of a
translation of the various pedagogical theories into operational strategies for effective teaching.
These projects mainly relied on experimental activity to construct a gradual awareness of the
formal relationships between the significant variables in selected experiments (PSSC, IPS, PS2),
340
even when the formulation was of a historic type (PPC). Such experiments were conducted over a
wide scale, and established that it is not sufficient to optimize teaching in order to achieve good
learning, and that other types of difficulties occur [11], such as those linked to the lack of
connection between common-sense interpretation and physical interpretation [12,13], or those
linked to the ability to use ways of representing things which physics uses, for example graphs [14].
The difficulties in mechanics are particularly well-known [15-21]. If we examine them we notice
that the difficulties are of a conceptual type, both with regard to the significance of the elements of
formulas which physics introduces to describe and interpret, and also with regard to the styles of
formalization which physics assumes.
Studies on learning processes [22,23], and theories on conceptual change [24] have given useful
indications for involving students, for the processes of building knowledge, for ways to encourage
the contextualization of concepts, and for the ways in which to help students look at the world from
a physical point of view. Research into the use of the computer in physics teaching has given an
important contribution to the ability of looking at processes from a physical point of view, to
reading and using graphs [25-29]. Such research has contributed decisively to putting into students
hands the process of constructing formalized physical models starting from qualitative hypotheses
[30-34].
With regard on how to make students aware of the ways physics uses mathematics to deal with
descriptive and interpretative problems in various circumstances: this problem is still open. It seems
to us that this cannot be considered a secondary problem for a subject like ours, which has assumed,
as a work style, a predictive capacity based on the description of phenomena by means of
mathematical tools. It is a style which is a part of the epistemic roots of physics and we do not think
it is possible to give this up, if we want to give young people the opportunity to develop a passion
for this discipline [35]. Therefore, we need contributions which show the ways physics uses
mathematics, which familiarize students with these ways, and which give young people the
opportunity to operate on this level without inhibitions, overcoming the prejudice that the symbolic
language is impossible for them to manage.
This work wants to give a contribution to this end, and offer a new way of recognizing mechanical
energy as a constant of motion.
2. Definition of the proposal
The point of view which directs this proposal favors the principles of energy conservation in the
knowledge of physics and associates them with the existence of one or more constants of motion.
In this conference we shall consider the conservation of mechanical energy, which allows to identify
interesting characteristics of the motion of a material point, establishing a relationship between
position and velocity.
In the teaching of physics, the principle of conservation of mechanical energy is traditionally
introduced by using the concept of work. In reality, in many basic physics problems, it is this very
same concept which takes on significance and usefulness from the formulation of the principle of
energy conservation.
We therefore propose a didactic definition which sees the principle of energy conservation as the
pivot of a mechanism which holds the concept of work as marginal and reserved only for dissipative
forces.
This approach develops from the second law of dynamics to a search for quantities which are
constants of motion, that is, which re-write the law in terms of temporal derivatives of quantity,
which express it in the direction of the motion.
In order to do this, we consider the scalar products with the velocity v of both terms of Newtons
second law.
On the didactic level, in carrying out this first step, we point out to students that the scalar product
of two vectorial sizes selects the contribution of one in the direction of the other. Moreover, we get
the students used to exploring the significance of the temporal variation of one size with respect to
341
its value: this usually helps us to know new properties, as happens in the description of phases in
space. By representing the quantity of motion as a function of the position for a mass-spring
oscillator, we see immediately if the motion of the system is dissipative or not.
The expression of the kinetic energy emerges from the search for a quantity whose derivative gives
the scalar product of the quantity of motion with the velocity. The expression of the potential
energy is defined as that quantity whose temporal derivative gives the scalar product of the force
with the velocity and it is recognized that this is possible only if the force has constant components
in all directions. Since the two scalar products are equal, students recognize the conservation of
mechanical energy both in classical dynamics and also in relativistic dynamics. The student finds
himself face-to-face with a new way of looking at the characteristics of force. It must be subjected
to verification and the general characteristics must be examined. From the expressions already
found it is easy to obtain the known expressions of mechanical energy in the case of weight force,
elastic force, gravitational force, Coulomb force and Lorenz force. The definition of conservative
force emerges as the consequence of the fact that the scalar product of force times the velocity is
equal to the temporal derivative of the potential energy. Work is obtained by examining the
variation of mechanical energy when forces of friction are in play.
This approach uses elementary mathematical tools, without losing the formal elegance and
generality of the ordinary treatment based on infinitesimal calculus. It can therefore be given to
first year students on no-calculus courses or as more detailed work for secondary school students
specializing in science.
342
3. The formal itinerary proposed
Newton's second law
p
p
F & = =
dt
d
, (1)
compares the resulting force F acting on the material point with mass m and velocity v with the
derivative of its quantity of motion p = m v.
To recognize the contribution in the direction of motion, we consider the scalar products with the
velocity v of the two members of the law.
v F
= v p &
(2)
3.1 The classic case of the scalar product v p &
It is known that the second member of (1) in the classic case of constant mass can be written as
follows:
p&
=
dp
dt
=
d
dt
mv ( ) = m
dv
dt
= ma (1.1)
and hence the scalar product v p &
which is the second member of (2) can be written as
) (
dt
dv
v
dt
dv
v
dt
dv
v m m
z
z
y
y
x
x
+ + = v a
. (3)
Each term of (3) contains the component of the velocity vector in that direction and its temporal
derivative, we shall therefore look at it as the temporal derivative of a single quantity. It is
recognized that:
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
x x
x
x
C v
dt
d
dt
dv
v
2
2
1
, v
y
dv
y
dt
=
d
dt
1
2
v
y
2
+ C
y
|
\
|
.
|
, v
z
dv
z
dt
=
d
dt
1
2
v
z
2
+ C
z
|
\
|
.
|
,
where C
x
, C
y
and C
z
are arbitrary constants, from the second member of (3) we get
343
v
x
dv
x
dt
+ v
y
dv
y
dt
+ v
z
dv
z
dt
=
d
dt
1
2
v
2
+ C
|
\
|
.
|
,
Due to the principle of composition of motions we can put
v
x
2
+ v
y
2
+ v
z
2
= v
2
and C = C
x
+ C
y
+ C
z
.
Thus we obtain
|
.
|
\
|
+ = = '
2
1
2
C mv
dt
d
m
dt
d
v a v
p
. (3.1)
putting C'=0 so that the kinetic energy E
c
v ( ) =
1
2
mv
2
, is cancelled when velocity is nil, we obtain
dt
dE
dt
d
c
= v
p
(4)
3.2 The relativistic case of the scalar product v p &
In relativistic dynamics the expression of the quantity of motion vector is
p = m v = m 1 ~
v
2
c
2
|
\
|
.
|
~1 2
v , (5)
where m is constant and v ( ) = 1 ~ v
2
c
2
( )
~1 2
. Deriving (5), therefore, we find
dp
dt
= m 1 ~
v
2
c
2
|
\
|
.
|
~3 2
v
c
2
dv
dt
v + m 1 ~
v
2
c
2
|
\
|
.
|
~1 2
dv
dt
. (6)
By definition, therefore,
We want to show that there are four basic cases where the law of force, acting on a free material
point, allows us to find the constant of motion mechanical energy, using elementary rules of
derivation
a v F
2 1
2
2
2
2 3
2
2
1 1
~ ~
|
|
.
|
\
|
~ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
~ =
c
v
m
c
v v
c
v
m
&
. (7)
4. The law of force and mechanical energy in free motion
If the force acting on the material point is constant and can be written as
F = F
0
= F
0,x
x + F
0, y
y + F
0,z
z . (4.1)
The scalar product of the force times the velocity gives
( ) C z F y F x F
dt
d
dt
dz
F
dt
dy
F
dt
dx
F
z y x z y x
+ + + = + + =
, 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0
v F
(4.2)
-1/2
-3/2
-1/2
344
Thus we can introduce the function of the coordinates of potential energy
~E
p
x, y, z ( ) = F
0, x
x + F
0,y
y + F
0,z
z + C, (4.3)
where Cusually represents an arbitrary constant
By choosing C = 0 , so that E
p
0, 0, 0 ( )= 0 we can write
( )
p
E
dt
d
~ = v F
. (4.4)
Remembering v p v F = &
.
Replacing in (4), we find
d
dt
~E
p
( )
=
d
dt
E
c
( ), that is to say,
d
dt
E
c
+ E
p
( )= 0 . (4.5)
We can interpret (5) saying that mechanical energy
E
m
= E
c
+ E
p

remains constant during the motion of the material point. We point out that the expression of kinetic
energy is always given by (2.4) or by (2.9), whereas the expression of potential energy changes,
case by case, and is deduced from the equation
p
E
&
= v F
.
Replacing (4.3) in (3.1) we find, in classic dynamics,
E
m
=
1
2
mv
2
~ F
0, x
x ~ F
0, y
y ~ F
0,z
z (4.4)
or, in relativistic dynamics,
E
m
= mc
2
~1 ( ) ~ F
0,x
x ~ F
0, y
y ~ F
0,z
z. (4.5)
Let us examine the case of weight force and take, to fix our ideas, F
0
= ~mg
z . (4.4) becomes
E
m
=
1
2
mv
2
+ mgz (4.6)
that is
1
2
mv
x
2
+
1
2
mv
y
2
+
1
2
mv
z
2
+ mgz =
1
2
mv
0, x
2
+
1
2
mv
0, y
2
+
1
2
mv
0,z
2
+ mgz
0
. (4.7)
From (4.6), since the Cartesian components of acceleration a
x
e a
y
are nil, we deduce the relations
between the components of the position vector and the velocity vector in the motion of free fall of
bodies
v
x
= v
0, x
, v
y
= v
0,y
, v
z
2
~ v
0, z
2
= g z
0
~ z ( ). (4.8)
345
Let us consider a material point subject to a force, which obeys Hookes law,
F = -k x x . (5.1)
By calculating the scalar product of force times the velocity, we find
|
.
|
\
|
+ = = C x k
dt
d
dt
dx
x k
2
2
1
- - v F
. (5.2)
By comparing (5.2) with (3.1), we can put
E
p
=
1
2
k x
2
+ C. (5.3)
If we take C = 0 , so that E
p
0 ( ) = 0 , we find
E
m
=
1
2
mv
2
+
1
2
k x
2
(5.4)
or, distinguishing the relativistic case from the classic case,
E
m
= mc
2
~1 ( ) +
1
2
k x
2
. (5.5)
6. Gravitational force and Coulomb force
5. Elastic force
On the level of macroscopic objects, motion is governed by two basic forces only, gravitational
force and Coulomb or electromagnetic force. Mathematically, these two forces can be represented
by the same formula,
F = k r
~3
r = k x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
( )
~3 2
x
x + y
y + z
z ( ). (6.1)
If we put k = ~GMm, then (6.1) identifies the gravitational force which the material mass point M,
located at the origin of the reference system, exerts on the material mass point m, located in the
point identified by the position vector r . On the contrary, if we put k = Qq 4r
r
r
0
then (6.1)
identifies the Coulomb force which the punctiform load Q exerts on the punctiform load q .
If we calculate the scalar product of the force times the velocity, from (6.1) we directly obtain
( ) ( )
z y x
zv yv xv z y x k + + + + =
~ 2 3
2 2 2
v F . (6.2)
On the other hand, if we take u = r
2
= x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
e u
~1 2
= r
~1
= x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
( )
~1 2
, we find
d
du
u
~1 2
= ~
1
2
u
~3 2
= ~
1
2
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
( )
~3 2
, (6.3)
and
d
dt
u =
d
dt
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
( )= 2 xv
x
+ yv
y
+ zv
z
( ). (6.4)
346
Consequently, by combining (6.3) and (6.4), we have
d
dt
u
~1 2
=
d
du
u
~1 2
d
dt
u = ~ x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
( )
~3 2
xv
x
+ yv
y
+ zv
z
( ). (6.5)
Therefore, by replacing (6.5) in (6.2), we can write
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ ~ = + ~ =
~
C
r
k
dt
d
C u k
dt
d
2 1
v F
. (6.6)
By comparing (6.6) with (3.1), which provides the definition of potential energy, we can put
E
p
=
k
r
+ C. (6.7)
If we choose C = 0 , so that the potential energy is annulled at an infinite distance from the origin,
the formula for the constant of motion mechanical energy is
E
m
= E
c
+ E
p
=
1
2
mv
2
+
k
r
(6.8)
in classical dynamics, while in relativistic dynamics it becomes
E
m
= E
c
+ E
p
= mc
2
~1 ( ) +
k
r
. (6.9)
Lorentz force acts on a punctiform electric load moving in a magnetic field
7. Lorentz force
F
L
= qv B, (7.1)
where q is the algebraic value of the movable load, v is the velocity of the load, B is the magnetic
induction of the field where the load moves. The scalar product of the Lorentz force for the velocity
is nil,
( ) 0 = = v B v v F q
L
, (7.2)
because in the double mixed product the same velocity vector appears twice. In this case, therefore,
the motion constant of mechanical energy coincides with the kinetic energy,
8. Conservative forces
We underline the fact that the mechanical energy of a material point on which any force F acts, is a
motion constant if
p
E
&
~ = v F . This consideration also suggests the way to define the concept of
conservative force.
9. The exact differential
p
dE d ~ = r F
Let us take a free material point, immersed in a force field F = F r ( ), which describes the trajectory
identified by r = r t ( ), with velocity v =
r . If the hypothesis
( ) r v F
p
E
&
~ =
is valid, we find
( )dt E dt
p
r v F
&
~ = , that is
( ) r r F
p
dE d ~ = . (8.1)
E
m
= E
c
. (7.3)
347
(8.1) expresses the variation in potential energy along an elementary segment of trajectory. If we
take a finished arc of the trajectory, with ends r
A
ed r
B
, the variation in the potential energy is given
by
( ) ( )
B p A p p
E E dE d
B
A
B
A
r r r F
r
r
r
r
~ = ~ =
) )
. (8.2)
If we consider all the possible trajectories, with ends r
A
and r
B
, then (8.2) states that the integral
)

B
A
d
r
r
r F , although calculated along different integration paths, always assumes the same value
expressed by ~AE
p
. Therefore (8.2) suggests the well known definition of conservative force; if it
is an exact differential, the force F is conservative, that is,
( ) ( )
B p A p
E E d
B
A
r r r F
r
r
~ ==
)
, whatever
may be the path which has r
A
ed r
B
as its ends.
10. Constrained motion, friction forces and the concept of work
Let us consider the material point on which not only active forces but also constraining reactions
act. We shall indicate these constraining reactions with the symbol d. The law governing these
forces is not generally known in advance, that is, before finding the law of motion. However, if the
10. Constrained motion, friction forces and the concept of work
Let us assume that the resultant force acts on the material point
R = F + d, (9.1)
where F represents the active force, while d represents the constraining reaction. If
0 = d v
, (9.2)
the mechanical energy is always a motion constant. In fact, we can write
( ) v
p
v F v F = = d +
dt
d
. (9.3)
Consequently, if
p
E
&
~ = v F
, we can conclude that the principle of conservation of mechanical
energy E
m
= E
c
+ E
p
remains valid.
We observe that d can represent the tension of the unstretchable wire, T, in the motion of the
mathematical pendulum, or the normal constraining reaction of the supporting plane, N, in the case
of motion along an inclined plane without friction.
constraining reactions are normal at the trajectory of the material point, that is, normal to the
velocity vector, the mechanical energy is always a motion constant. But if there are constraining
reactions acting on the material point which possess an anti-parallel component to the velocity
vector, the mechanical energy is not preserved. In may cases which occur in practice the anti-
parallel component is due to the friction or resistant forces. If we calculate the quantity of
mechanical energy dissipated due to the friction forces, this leads to the natural definition of work
done by a force.
11. Constraining reactions normal to the velocity vector
348
Let us now suppose that on the material point a resultant force is acting, given by
R = F + d+ F
r
, (10.1)
12. Friction forces
where F represents the active force, d the constraining reaction perpendicular to the velocity
vector and F
r
= F
r
~
v ( ) a friction force, anti-parallel to the velocity vector. In the case of dynamic

grazing friction, for example, we have
( ) v F ~ = N
d r

, in the case of viscous friction F
r
= bv ~
v ( ).
Remembering that p R & = , from (10.1) we find
v F v F v
p
= ~
r
dt
d
, (10.2)
that is, thanks to (2.5) and to (3.1),
v F =
r m
E
dt
d
. (10.3)
Therefore the mechanical energy is not preserved, in fact the product
v
r r
F v F ~ =
expresses the
rapidity with which it is dissipated. The variation of energy in a time interval t
A
, t
B
[ ] is defined by
means of the integral of the first and the second member (10.3), that is,
)
= A
B
A
t
t
r m
dt E v F . (10.4)
Since vdt = dr , from (10.3) we obtain
r F d dE
r m
=
and we can re-write (10.4) in the form
)
= A
B
A
d E
r m
r
r
r F , (10.5)
Traditionally, the integral
)

B
A
d
r
r
r
r F is called work done by the resistant force F
r
and is indicated by
the symbol
where r
A
and r
B
are the ends of the trajectory arc described by the material point in the time
interval t
A
, t
B
[ ].
We should point out that, in general, (10.4) or (10.5) do not allow us to calculate AE
m
and
therefore of the integral which appears as the second member, if the dependency of the velocity on
the time v = v t ( ) is not explicitly known. Therefore, for the actual calculation of the dissipated
energy, we must first solve the differential equation
T F T F T
p

+ =
r
dt
d
, (10.6)
obtained from (10.1) by multiplying in scalar fashion the first and second member by the versor
T,
tangent in every point of the trajectory, replacing R =
p and remembering that

0
= d T
.
13. Work
)
=
B
A
d L
r
r
r
r F . (11.1)
The physical meaning of (11.1) is supplied by (10.4) or by (10.6). We would add that this definition
of work also clarifies the etymological meaning of the term , which in Italian derives from the Latin
labor and, apart from work, action, enterprise can also denote labor, toil, worry.
14. Conclusions
The teaching of physics to young people must include activities suitable to develop awareness of
the role of mathematics in physics and the ways in which it is used in different circumstances. In
physics, it is the integration of the two planes, phenomenal and formal, which creates the meanings;
it builds those concepts which allow us to describe and interpret the world, using models able to
explain classes of phenomena through theory. The well-known limits in managing mathematics are
mainly of a conceptual character and due to the fact that students are not used to looking for the
significance of the calculus which they have learnt to do. Attention must therefore be paid to this
problem and time must be spent on didactic research in order to construct proposals able to
encourage the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of quantitative features of physics.
Starting from the following considerations:
- The principles of conservation are part of the deepest roots of physics and, in particular, are
decisive in the development of mechanics.
- Every principle of conservation entails the existence of one or more constants of motion.
- Among these, mechanical energy is particularly important, which allows us to identify
interesting characteristics of motion of a material point, establishing a relationship between
position and velocity.
We have developed a proposal which leads to identify mechanical energy and its conservation
starting from Newtons second law, without the prior introduction of the concept of work. Its
coherence and completeness are recognized by the possibility of obtaining the expressions of
mechanical energy in the same way when the forces in play are of various types: from gravitational
forces to Coulomb forces, from weight to elastic force, from Lorenz force to restraining reactions.
The definition of conservative force can be recognized in terms of a corollary with respect to the
prior introduction of a potential energy. The case of forces of friction introduces the non-
conservation of mechanical energy and the concept of work. The itinerary proposed, which does
not require mathematical knowledge and/or ability above those which every student learns in a
secondary school specializing in scientific subjects, allows the student to familiarize himself with
some important ways of looking at physics through mathematics, such as using the scalar product,
vectorial de-composition and the properties of temporal derivatives with respect thereto, the
search for primitive functions, the identification of quantities which are conserved.
If we do not choose it as an alternative to the traditional way of introducing mechanical energy and
its conservation, it represents a powerful opportunity for reflecting on concepts which connect the
way of looking at the world through forces with the way of looking at the world through energy.
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experimenting, thinking: exploring informal learning within an exhibit of simple experiments, in Proceedings of
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Curriculum, developed in MIT, USA; PPC : Project Physcs Course, developed in Harvard University, USA;
349
Nuffield developed by Nuffield Foundation, UK; IPS & PS2 developed in MIT, USA for introduction of science
in 14-16 age; Spoerg Nature developed in Denmark; IPN Curriculum science, developed in Kiel, Germany
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[14] L.C. McDermott, M.L Rosenquist and E.H Van Zee, Students difficulties in connecting graphs and physics:
Examples from kinematics, Am. J. Phys., 55, (1987), 503.
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[16] L. Viennot, Le raisonnement spontan en dinamique lmentaire, Hermann, Paris, (1979).
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[18] D.E. Trouwbridge and L.C. McDermott, Investigation of students understanding of the concept of velocity in
one dimension, Am. J. Phys., 48, (1980), 1020.
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in one dimension, Am. J. Phys., 49, (1981), 242.
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didactiques, BUP, 716, (1989), 951.
[21] M. Gagliardi, G. Gallina, P. Guidoni, S. Piscitelli, Forze, deformazioni, movimento Emme Edizioni, Torino,
(1989).
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technology. Past, present and future, J. C. Angelin ed., Englewood, Colorado, Libraries Unlimited, (1991).
[23] M. D. Merrill, Constructivism and the technology of instruction, Hillsdale, New Jersey, Erlbaum (1992).
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theory of conceptual change. Sci. Educ., 66, (1982), 211.
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Research in Computing in Education, 25, (1993), 121-127.
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in Science Education, 19, 8, 1997, p. 981.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS AND SQUEEZED STATES
Carlos A. Vargas, rea de Fsica, Departamento de Ciencias Bsicas, UAM-A, Azcapotzalco, Mxico
Arturo Ziga-Segundo, Departamento de Fsica, Escuela Superior de Fsica y Matemticas-
IPN, Zacatenc., Mxico
1. Introduction
One hundred and two years ago quantum mechanics begun and at the beginning of other century
it is necessary to ask a question on the understanding of this theory by the students on several levels
and careers. At the present there are many books, articles and web sites, directed to show the
properties, experiments, paradoxes and mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Many
groups of teachers in the world try to instruct the students on this important theory, mainly during
the last decade motivated by technological advances. The Planck constant was a consequence of a
revolutionary postulate to solve the blackbody radiation law [1]. Each atom into the radiation
cavity oscillating with frequency can only gain a multiple of an energy E=h, called the quantum
of energy. Einstein was able to treat the radiation from the blackbody as a gas of photons. Einstein
350
postulated the maximum kinetic energy of the liberated electron must be KE
max
=hf-, in this case,
the electromagnetic radiation consists of a stream of photons of energy hf and is the work
function. Bohr extended the notion of quantization to the hydrogen atom. Bohr postulated that
electrons confined to certain stationary states. The radiation only will be emitted when the
electrons make transitions from one stationary state to other: the atom emits a single photon of
energy equal to the difference between orbital energies. As the transition must be happening
instantaneously, is common refer to this type of transitions as quantum jumps [2]. The early
quantum theory was supported on classical mechanics and supplied Newtons laws with
quantization properties, then was possible to obtain the selection of the stationary states in the
Borh model. The matter waves proposed by de Broglie move away from the Newtonian
propositions. He postulates that the frequency of the wave associated with a particle is related to
their energy by the same equation for the electrons, it is E=hf. De Broglie established that =h/p,
in this way he proposed the wavefunction as follows:
The confirmation of de Broglie ideas were due to the Davisson-Gremer and Thomson experiments
on electrons scattered by crystals and metallic films respectively. These results secured the wave
properties of the electron but also that the particle waves satisfy the principle of superposition. By
this time, Schrdinger formulated the now generally called Schrdinger wave equation:
This equation applied to the hydrogen atom generated the quantization of both angular moment L
and energy E. The Schrdinger absolute wave function ||
2
represent the probability distribution
for the position of the electron. This Schrdinger formulation or wave mechanics is the new
quantum mechanics that is included in most of the textbooks. However, another alternative
formulation was developed by Heisenberg and is known as the matrix mechanics.
In this scenario the classical entities, position and momentum had no meaning. Matrix mechanics
replaces these classical quantities with ones directly related with the stationary levels. Both
formulations are equivalents and produce the same results.
2. Strategies to Teach Quantum Mechanics
The state of art in science embraces from research to divulgation. However, as we know, in some
cases the physical theories have some centuries, by example, the classical mechanics, while others
as by example the cosmological or particle theories have only some decades. The first one has many
experiments that corroborate its propositions; the new theories are waiting for experimental
replication. The quantum mechanics for example has nowadays several disagreements in the area
of the observations. This type of problems are of philosophical nature and falls into the territory of
quantum interpretations [3,4]. We consider these types of questions are more appropriate to
advanced students because of possibly they require many tools to explain the phenomena.
Moreover quantum mechanics in many cases is contrary to the intuition. This is a difficulty when
we try to teach the quantum mechanics. But this challenge can be surmounted with fine scientific
literature. By example, at the present there exists much interest in the physical societies to put
public web sites with the more recent advances of the physics. In this sense, we remember by
example the outstanding efforts of the European Society of Physics and the American Physical
Society. Other institutions like Nobel foundation provide a series of descriptive posters on different
topics of the physics directed to all people; they also have a public web site. As we know any
contemporary physics topic securely have in its structure the quantum theory. The other source of
quantum physics information comes from the regular articles published in specialized journals. We
can observe now the great interest to focus the attention to secondary level by several European
physics groups, where is possible to distinguish works on physics history, physical concepts,
experimental and curricular physical research [5]. For the secondary level we think the concrete
351
)]. )( / 2 sin[( )] / ( 2 sin[ px Et h x ft ~ = ~ = q
. 0 ) , ( )) ( (
2
) , (
2 2
2
= ~ + t x x V E
h
m
t x
dx
d
q q
activities on quantum mechanics are very important. It is preferable that the students of this level
have a first hand experience. It is not necessary to be an experiment; it can be for example, an
exercise with matrices. Also, the thought (gedanken) experiments are beautiful quantum
recourse when we have not other alternatives [6,7]. The single and double slit diffraction and the
Stern-Gerlach experiments are the most ubiquitous in order to explain the quantum mechanics
[8,9]. Fortunately there is a vast and brilliant literature on them. However, we try to use other
examples, in our case not only to understand quantum mechanics but also to clarify certain type of
strategies we suggest here. We will go from the old to the present quantum mechanics in order to
fix ideas that possibly can be included for teaching quantum theory. Also, we will go from the
apparent simple to more complex systems, and also from the one to more dimensions. We believe
the problems here suggested not only suitable as a pedagogical tool for introduce basic concepts
but also ideal for communicating some aspects of the physics behind quantum mechanics for
advanced undergraduates.
3. Electron-Atom Scattering
Sometimes, we see the footnotes accompanying the principal text or simply a little mention, and
possibly we have no time to reflect on this point. The problem on electron-atom scattering to low
energy, so called Ramsauer-Townsend effect, we describe here, appears mentioned in many
textbooks as footnote or it has been included as a little mention [10]. When we reflect on its
characteristics, it involves many interesting features. It is possible that the authors consider it as a
problem that is only applicable in a few cases. But when we are introducing problems on barriers
and wells in a course of quantum mechanics, it is a very simple and funny problem; moreover, it is
more interesting if we can do the experimental demonstration [11]. The strategy is as follows: first
we ask for a classical mechanics analogy, later we proceed to think on the constellation electron-
atom and their relative velocities in order to understanding the undistinguished character of the
electron, that is we cannot put a label to the incoming particle in order to distinguish it of the
stream of electrons. Therefore, we ask for kinetic theory in order to calculate the cross section.
Finally, the square well is proposed and resolved. With them we can put in confrontation the
theoretical computation with experimental results. The student has a first quantum approximation
to the problem, which is sufficient to adopt this point of view. In this stage the student has more
information on the theoretical structure and is able to recognize that the spherical potential is a
more convenient explanation of the problem. In this point the student will need to know the partial
wave treatment. As we see the student get an insight in the problem with the consequent skills to
attempt to resolve similar problems. The noble-gas atoms can be considered to present an attractive
potential, the Schrdinger equation for slow electrons indicates that the cross section will be have
a minimum to electron energies near 1 eV. In the kinetic theory the cross section is independent of
the energy and thus gives nearly four times the quantum result. The experiment exhibits an energy
minimum approximately to 1 eV.
4. Hydrogen Atom in One-Dimension
The Hydrogen atom in one dimension (1DHA) has interesting features, and a possible didactic
value, and diverse applications for example: atoms in high magnetic fields or models of the
interaction of electrons with the surface of liquid helium [12-14]. If we consider the 1DHA with
Coulomb interaction then V(x)=-e
2
/|x|. Its Schrdinger equation in momentum representation has
the form
352
) ( ) (
| | 2
2
2
2 2 2
x E x
x
e
dx
d
m
q q
q
= ~ ~
h
Transforming the previous equation to momentum space and rewriting the regions x>0 and x<0, we
obtain the Schrdinger equation to a pair of Volterra integral equations one of them with
+
and
other with
-
thus:
353
) ( ' ) ' ( ) (
2
2 2
p E dp p
ie
p
m
p
p
+
~
+ +
= +
)

h
)
+
~

dp p ipx x ) ( ) / exp( ) 2 )( (
2 / 1
q h h
)
Notice that q
+
(q
-)
are defined only for x~0 (xs0) while the functions
+
(
-
) are defined for all values
of p from - to +. The real and imaginary parts of the two momentum-space eigenfunctions
+
and
-
do not describe completely the states of the 1H,
+
describes an electron moving to the right of the
singularity (the origin) whereas
-
describes its movement to the left. It means that if the electron is
moving to the left (right) it will remain confined to this region for all time. If we go on to obtain the
eigenfunctions
n
+
q and
n
~
q it is found that both correspond to the same energy spectrum, the energy
levels appearing twofold degenerated; so that the right and left regions turn out to be independents. It is
possible to say that we are dealing with two-dimensional problems simultaneously. Effectively the
degeneracy is explained by the operation of a superselection rule between the bound states of the 1D
system. This system impose restrictions to the Hermeticity of their Hamiltonian
| |
1
2
1
2
x
p H ~ = in
units m=e=h =1. This superselection rule forbids the superposition of states on one side of the
singularity of the potential with those on the other side. Allow the superposition of two arbitrary states
~ +
+ =
n m
b a q q
1
and
~ +
+ =
n m
c b q q
2
, with |a|
2
+|b|
2
=1 and |b|
2
+|c|
2
=1. The condition that both of
these states vanish in x=0 implies that their Wronskian determinant must vanish too: W (
1
,
2
) =0.
Then the functions
1
and
2
cannot be regarded as describing independent states. Therefore we must
conclude that there is a superselection rule between the states q
+
and the states q
-
. An immediate
consequence is that the parity operator becomes an unobservable. Moreover the absence of a non-
degenerate ground state implies the spontaneous breaking of supersymmetry in the 1DH atom.
The wave functions in the momentum space
+
and
-
are related to the coordinate-space
wavefunctions as
5. Squeezed States
The squeezed states are relevant to optical interferometry and optical communications [15]. The
relevant element for the development of this subject is the harmonic oscillator, which form a central
part in any quantum physics course. The squeezed states of the electromagnetic field can be
established with elementary quantum mechanics concepts and statistical properties of several
harmonic oscillator states that are linear superpositions of its energy eigenfunctions [16]. The
radiation in each standing wave mode in a cavity is analog to the harmonic oscillator. The oscillator
displacements x correspond to the radiation electric field modes while the momentum p corresponds
to the magnetic field modes. As a consequence the energy interchange of the oscillator is shared
between potential and kinetic energy. The oscillator total energy according to quantum theory
corresponds only to an integral number of photons into their radiation mode. The coherent states, a
type of linear combinations, have constant the variances of the position and momentum in any time
and their product equals the minimum allowed by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The variance
is the squares of the uncertainties. A squeezed state is produced when the variances of position and
momentum are oscillating in time 180 out or phase one with other and with the two times the
oscillator frequency. The coherent and the squeezed states constitute the backbone of the theoretical
framework of modern optics [17]. The Wigner function directly allows the calculation of expectation
values in the quantum phase-space, with the advantage that the parameters q and p of these quasi-
probability functions are c-numbers [17,18]. Is possible to make quantitative analysis in phase-space
without use the Wigner function? The answer is yes. The coherent-state representation of quantum
mechanics [19], allows analyzing completely the dynamics of the quantum systems in the phase-space
354
in the same way that in the coordinate representation. Here the projection <I|q> of the abstract ket |q>
into the basis vector |I> =|p,q>, gives us a complex wave function in phase-space, i.e., a wave function
with independent variables p and q, and the quantity |q(I)|
2
=q
-
(I)q(I) represents a probability
density ( where q
-
(I)=<q|I>=<I|q>
-
). This definition ensures that the quantum density |q(I)|
2
is a
nonnegative quantity in phase space and fulfills all the requirements of a probability density. The
closure relation for the basis vectors

( ) ( ) I d A q q
-
= I I I
)
(where the integration is carried out over the
whole phase space) can be used in the calculation of the expectation value of the operator , as the
usual definition

( ) ( ).| A d A q q
-
= I I I
)
The actions of the operators
P and
Q on the arbitrary ket |q> are given by

2
2
| | ( ) ( );
| | ( ) ( ).
p
q
q
p
P i
Q i
q q
q q
o
o
o
o
(I ) = ~ I
(I ) = + I
h
h
Fig. 1: Square magnitude of the squeezed state in phase-space.
These operators are Hermitians and do not commute with each other, in fact

, . Q P i I
(
=

h
Based on these operators, the phase-space Schrdinger equation is given by
2
1
2 2 2
[ ( ) ( )] ,
p q
m q p
i i V i
t
q q
o o
o o
o
I = ~ + + I
o
h h h
where
2
( )
q
p
V i
o
o
+ h indicates that the potential function V(q) is evaluated in the operator
2
( )
q
p
i
o
o
+ h . For
simplicity in the following, we will use 1 m c = = = h .
The phase-space squeezed wave function , 0 I is obtained by squeezing the initially prepared
harmonic oscillator ground state 0 (vacuum state). The squeezed state with complex squeezing
parameter exp( ) i j 0 = , corresponding to the vacuum state, is known as squeezed vacuum, and is
written as
2 2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
, exp[ ( ) ( ) ], N q p i pq q o o o I = ~ ~ ~ + ~
with
0
exp( ) i o o 0 = ~ ~ . The photon number
N and the squared photon number

2
N are the most

important operators in quantum optics. According to the harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian
1
2

N H = ~ ,
we can write
References
[1] A.J. Makowski, A century of the Planck constant, Phys. Educ. 35, (2000), 49-53.
[2] G. Ireson, A brief history of quantum phenomena, Phys. Educ. 35, (2000), 381-385.
[3] G. Pospiech, Uncertainty and complementarity: the heart of quantum physics, Phys. Educ. 35, (2000), 393-399.
[4] P. Mittelstaedt, Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics and the Measurement Process, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, (1988).
[5] M. Michelini, R. Ragazzon, L. Santi and A. Stefanel, Proposal for quantum physics in secondary level, Phys.
Educ. 35, (2000), 407.
[6] H. Helm and J. Gilbert, Thought experiments and physics education-part 1, Phys. Educ. 20, (1985), 125-131.
[7] H. Helm, J. Gilbert and D.M. Watts, Thought experiments and physics education-part 2, Phys. Educ. 20, (1985),
211-217.
[8] R. Feynman, The Character of Physical Law, MIT Press, Cambridge, (1967).
[9] J.C. Polkinghorne , The Quantum World, Princeton University Press, Princeton, (1984).
[10] S. Gasiorowicz, Quantum Physics, John Wiley, New York, (1974).
[11] S. Kukolich, Demonstration of the Ramsauer-Townsend effect in a Xenon thyratron, Am. J. Phys, 36, (1968),
701-703.
[12] H.N. Nez-Ypez, C.A. Vargas and A.L. Salas-Brito, The one-dimensional hydrogen atom in momentum
representation , Eur. J. Phys., 8, (1987), 189-193.
[13] H.N. Nez-Ypez, C.A. Vargas and A. L. Salas-Brito, Superselection rule in the one-dimensional hydrogen
atom, J. Phys A , 21, (1988), L651-l653.
[14] R. Martnez y Romero, C.A. Vargas, A.L. Salas Brito and H.N. Nez Ypez, Note on supersymmetry in
quantum mechanics and the hydrogen atom in one dimension, Rev. Mex. Fis, 35, (1989), 617-622.
[15] R.W. Henry, S. C. Glotzer, A squeezed-state primer, Am. J. Phys, (1988), 318-328.
[16] A.K. Ekert, P.L. Knight ,Correlations and squeezing of two-mode oscillations, Am. J. Phys., 57, (1989), 692-697.
[17] Y.S. Kim and M.E. Noz, Phase Space Picture of Quantum Mechanics. Group Theoretical Approach, Lecture
Notes in Physics Series,. 40, (1991) (World Scientific, Singapore)
[18] E.P. Wigner, On the Quantum Correction For Thermodynamic Equilibrium, Phys. Rev, 40, (1932),. 749-; M.
Hillery, R.F. OConnell, M.O. Scully and E.P. Wigner, Distribution Functions in Physics: Fundamentals, Phys.
Rep., 106, (1984), 121-167.
[19] Go. Torres-Vega and J.H. Frederick, Quantum Mechanics in phase space: New approaches to the
355
( )
( )
2
0
2 1
0 4
2
0
2
2 1
0 4
1
2
0
2
2
1 1
2 2
0
(cosh 4 1),
sinh 4 ,
N
N
o
o
o
o
j
j
~
~
= = ~
A = =
agrees with the standard squeezed-state result in the Wigner representation [17]. In Fig. 1 the shape of
the square magnitude of the squeezed state in phase space, with
2
0.25exp( ).
i
o = ~ is shown by means
of density contours. We can see that the probability density from the squeezed state, is rotated by an
angle / 2 0 in a counterclockwise sense, where 0 is the argument of o. In this figure, we show also the
quantum probability flux vector corresponding to a squeezed state. These vectors assemble a non-
It is a pleasure to thank the referee for his or her comments and clarifying remarks.
In summary, we have described a series of problems that we consider with possible didactic value with
the aim to motivating the teaching of the quantum mechanics. The Ramsauer-Townsend effect would
be an interesting problem to contrast the kinetic theory with the quantum mechanics. The one-
dimensional Hydrogen atom has illustrating aspects from elemental to high mathematical level. Finally,
we suggest the application of the properties of the harmonic oscillator with the purpose of illustrating
the analysis of squeezed states.
Aknowledgment
stationary vortex, allowing the squeezed density to rotate in a clockwise sense around the origin in
phase space, according the Wigner density time evolution [20].
6. Conclusions
356
correspondence principle, J. Chem. Phys., 93, (1990), 8862-8874; Go. Torres-Vega and J.H. Frederick, A quantum
mechanical representation in phase space, J. Chem. Phys., 98, (1993), 3103-3120; Go. Torres-Vega, Lanczos
method for the numerical propagation of quantum densities in phase space with an application to the kicked
harmonic oscillator, J. Chem. Phys., 98, (1993), 7040-7045; Go. Torres-Vega, Chebyshev scheme for the
propagation of quantum wave functions in phase space, J. Chem. Phys., 99, (1993), 1824-1827; Go. Torres-Vega
and J.H. Frederick, Numerical Method for the Propagation of Quantum-Mechanical Wave Functions in Phase
Space, Phys. Rev. Lett, 67, (1991), 2601-2604; K.B. Mller, T.G. Jorgensen and Go. Torres-Vega, On coherent-
state representation of quantum mechanics: Wave mechanics in phase space, J. Chem. Phys., 106, (1997), 7228-
7242
[20] A. Ziga-Segundo, Squeezed states obtained by means of canonic transformations in quantum phase space,
Rev. Mex. Fis., 47, (2001), (in Spanish).
357
GRAPHS AS BRIDGES BETWEEN MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION AND
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Laurence Rogers, School of Education, University of Leicester
1. Why do physicists use graphs?
When physicists accumulate numerical data from practical experiments they need to store the data in
some form and this is traditionally done in a table of results. When it comes to analysing results, although
a table has a certain amount of use for comparing items of data and deriving further information, the
graph is a far more informative tool for this purpose. The visual impact of graphs and their relational
properties makes them extremely valuable for analysing and appreciating the properties of data. It is
implicit that a typical graph stores a large quantity of numbers, the data pairs associated with each plotted
point, but more importantly the graph contains valuable information about the relationship between the
variables represented by the data. Describing the relationship between variables is an important but
sophisticated skill for students to acquire and an understanding of graphs, how they work and how they
can be used, can be a key factor in helping them develop this skill.
2. Information from graphs
The most obvious feature of a graph is its shape. When experimental data is presented as a graph,
the shape of the graph immediately conveys information in a qualitative manner without
concerning the observer with unnecessary, numerical detail. The shape of a graph can give pupils
a quick overview of what may be going on in an experiment; pupils can see gradual or sudden
changes, continuity or discontinuity, the difference between a complex sequence of events and a
progressive trend. A range of features give valuable information about the variables: a gentle or
steep gradient indicates a slow or rapid change, the curvature of a line indicates a varying rate of
change, peaks and troughs indicate maxima and minima, and so on. Let us consider some common
types of graph shape and consider what scientific information pupils might be expected to infer
from their observation of the graph.
The first is a graph whose dominant feature is an upward trend. The upward trend indicates that as
one variable increases the other variable also increases. The classic example of this is a graph of current
against voltage for an electrical resistor. If the data is gathered using a data logger and plotted using
software, it is very easy to vary the plotting format to emphasise the relationship between changes in
the variables. A useful variant is to plot both voltage and current against time. Inspection of the graph
in Figure 1b leads to the simple observation that, as one variable increases, so the other also increases.
Thus the graph shape provides basic information about how the variables are related.
The second graph shows a general downward trend. This shows a relationship between two
variables which is the inverse of the first case, namely, as one variable increases the other variable
decreases. The example of pressure plotted against the volume of a fixed mass of gas illustrates this
type of relationship. Again, the use of software to plot the data provides a useful alternative format
for plotting the graph. Figure 2b makes it abundantly clear that the two variables vary in the
opposite sense.
3. Understanding the properties of graphs
The graphs in Figures 1a and 2a both illustrate progressive trends, without irregularities or
discontinuities. It is reasonable to expect that such smooth trends can be described by fairly simple
mathematical formulae. Clearly the straight line graph in Figure 1a can be described by the
formula y = mx + c and the constants m and c are readily evaluated by taking measurements from
the graph. Software provides useful tools for conducting these measurements speedily, using a
curve fitting facility or by adjusting a trial function to match the graph under observation.
3.8 Software Packages-Multimedia
358
3. Topical Aspects 3.8 Software Packages-Multimedia
However, even more usefully,
software allows pupils to explore
the properties of the graph to
teach them the significance of
the linearity for precisely
describing the relationship
between the variables. The main
tools for this type of exploration
are the cursors which provide
automatic reading of data points
on the graph and which can
calculate changes of both sets of
variable simultaneously. From
such explorations a variety of
statements may be made about
the properties of a straight line
graph:
1. Changes in the variables
occur at a constant rate.
2. For a given increment in one
variable, the other variable
always increases or decreases
in equal steps. (For the case of
a variable plotted against
time, the size of the step for a
given time interval is always the
same.)
3. This is independent of the
magnitude of either variable.
4. The ratio between the increases
or decreases in either variable is
constant.
5. When this ratio is not unity, one
variable changes more rapidly
than the other.
6. The gradient is the same at all
places on the graph. i.e. it is
constant.
7. When the gradient is negative,
an increase in one variable is
accompanied by a decrease in
the other.
To the tutored eye, these
descriptions are clearly equi-
valent to or follow from each other. Their significance here is that they are individually testable
using software tools: when a cursor is moved across the graph, changes in the variables may be read
automatically and the rate of change calculated; measurements may taken from any selected part
of the graph; x and y cursors may be locked together, easily showing the relative changes in two
variables; the gradient at a cursor may be read automatically. Through a variety of explorations,
pupils may learn to associate a characteristic set of properties with the linear graph so that when
experimental data yields a straight line, they will have a certain understanding of how the variables
Figure 1a. Graph of current against voltage
Figure 1b. Graph of current and voltage against time
relate to each other, how changes
in one variable are associated
with predictable changes in the
other. Thus for ohmic resistors,
the straight line indicates
behaviour which may be
described by phrases like equal
increases in voltage lead to equal
increases in current, or the ratio
between the voltage and current
does not vary.
The straight line graph is a
common occurrence in the
analysis of experimental data and
its unique properties are easily
described informally and
mathematically. However, it is
only one shape of many which can
describe variables which increase
simultaneously. The example of
the ohmic resistor points to
another relationship which is
certainly not linear, that between
the power dissipation and the
current flowing. Figure 3 shows
the curve which is characteristic
of this relationship.
Although power increases when
current increases, the ratio
between the increases is clearly
not invariant as it was for the
straight line graph. Software tools
allow the properties of this shape
of curve to be explored:
Cursors are used to calculate
successive increases in power for a
given increase in current. For an
upward curve it can be expected
that the increase in power for a
given increase in current is larger
according to the value of the
current. For this particular curve,
the difference between successive
increases in power is always the same. This is a unique characteristic of the quadratic curve. The use
of a software curve fitting facility identifies the formula and indeed confirms that this curve is a
parabola described by y = ax
2
. Further use of cursors shows that the power increases according to
the square of the current.
Again, through a variety of explorations, pupils may learn to associate a characteristic set of
properties with this particular graph shape which can in principle be applied to any experimental
data yielding a parabola. For example the braking distance of a motor car can be related to the
square of its velocity, demonstrating that a required braking distance does not increase in simple
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Figure 2a. Graph of pressure against volume
Figure 2b. Graph of pressure and volume against order of recording
proportion to the velocity of a
car.
The previous example of an
inverse relationship between
the pressure and volume of a
gas can be analysed with a
similar range of software tools.
Informally the downward slope
of the graph (Figure 2a) shows
that increases in one variable
are associated with decreases in
the other. The use of cursors can
confirm that there is a definite
pattern to this trend which
allows predictions to be made.
For example when the volume
is reduced by half its value, the
pressure doubles in value. pupils
can gain a feeling for this
relationship by looking out for
this pattern. As for the previous graph shape, a software fitted curve identifies the characteristic
formula for inverse proportionality, in this case expressing Boyles Law.
The inverse square law is another common relationship with a downward curve graph which at first
sight appears to be very similar to the previous example. Exploration with cursors soon reveals the
distinctive properties of this curve which has much more rapid changes to the gradient. A casual
view of a curve for exponential decay might also suggest a similar relationship, but curve fitting and
cursor reading techniques soon reveal its unique constant ratio properties.
4. Graph shape as an indicator of a relationship
The discussion in this paper has argued that, when experimental data is represented by a graph, this
facilitates three levels of description of the data:
informal qualitative description based on observations of graph shape e.g. the temperature falls
quickly at first and then slowly rises.
informal quantitative description based on numerical exploration of the data using software
cursor tools e.g. at double the speed the distance is four times greater
mathematical description using formulae evaluated by curve fitting and curve matching
techniques.
Pupils should be encouraged to develop all these levels of description and build up a notion of the
characteristic properties of each graph shape so that when graphs of experimental data are
observed these properties can be applied to the variables concerned.
References
Barton R., Computer-aided graphing: a comparative study, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 6, (1),
(1997), 59-72.
Newton L.R., Graph talk: some observations and reflections on students data-logging, School Science Review, 79, (287),
(1997), 49-54.
Rogers L.T., Probing the Hidden Secrets of Graphs, Hands-on Experiments in Physics Education - Proceedings of the
GIREP, Conference in Duisburg (1998).
360
Figure 3. Graph of power vs. current for an ohmic resistor
THE USING OF MULTIMEDIA COURSEWARE FOR COLLEGE PHYSICS RELATIVITY
TEACHING AT HARBIN NORMAL UNIVERSITY
Zhang Changbin, Song Guilian, Mu Hongchen Department of Physics, Harbin Normal
University, PRC
1. Introduction
The theory of relativity is a very important foundation stone for modern physics. The founding of
this theory is also one of the greatest discoveries in the 20
th
century. The content of the theory of
relativity has made strong influences on physics, astronomy, as well as philosophy. In this theory, a
series of fundamental conclusion and deductions such as the principle of relativity, the Lorentz
transformation, the Length Contraction and the Time Dilation of an object in motion etc., had
changed our notions of space and time as well as of matter and energy. As the theory of relativity
has made a revolutionary break through to the classical physics, it is not so easy for college students
to understand about. In traditional physics class, teaching methods was usually of white chalk and
black board, teaching information was mostly transformed through blackboard drawing and oral
language speaking from the teacher. The inefficient of such kind of teaching is obvious.
Nowadays, as the development of modern technology, especially the using of computer and
multimedia technology in class room, has changed our physics teaching greatly. Of course, the
making of a suitable and powerful courseware for physics education is a very important step for
computer assist physics teaching. Our group has done several such works since 1996, and the
Relativity Multimedia Courseware is one of our works.
2. The idea of design of the Relativity Multimedia Courseware
The greatest advantage of multimedia technology using in classroom is that through this
technology the transformation of teaching information could be a way of all-round in
sounds(voices), movies(3D simulations), images(pictures), and texts(words). Physics phenomenon
on-the-spot simulation is another important advantage for physics teaching. So, the main purpose
of the designation of the Relativity Multimedia Courseware was to bring the advantages of
multimedia technology into full play in our college physics education. That is to present theories,
concepts, as well as events of the theory of relativity by vivid and formed texts, images, movies, and
voices in front of college students.
Contents of the Courseware (Fig.1):
Galilean principle of relativity and the time-space notion in classical mechanics.
The Michelson-Morley experiment.
Einsteins assumptions and the time-
space notion in the theory of
relativity.
The Lorentz transformation.
Fundamental theory of relativity
dynamics.
The verification of relativity theory.
The general theory of relativity.
A city of relativitycartoon.
A brief account of Einsteins life.
Old pictures related to relativity.
The detail of the above contents are
formed from the following four data-
base:
(1)Text data-base. (2)Image data-base.
(3)Voice data-base. (4)Movie data-
base.
361
Fig.1. Major manual of the courseware
3. The way of achieve to the Relativity Multimedia Courseware
As we have mentioned before, the main purpose of the courseware is to take the advantage of
multimedia technology to improve our physics teaching in college classroom. So, the processing
software should be popular and easy to use by physics teachers. Then they may modify the
courseware by himself during physics teaching. The processing tools we chose as follows:
Platform of composition: Office 97, Powerpoint.(Fig.2)
3D simulation developer: 3D Studio MAX4.0 and 3D F/X
Image processor: Photoshop5.0
Movie processor: Premier5.0
4. The characteristics of the Relativity
Multimedia Courseware
Contents full and accurate.
Operating and modifying easy and simple.
Teaching material vivid and form.
Utilizing environment moderate.
5. The teaching practice of the Relativity
Multimedia Courseware
To make is for to use. We have used the
relativity multimedia courseware in our
college physics course since 1998. The
following points should mentioned
according to our teaching practice:
Teacher should always remember that
courseware is only an assistant to our
physics teaching. Teacher plays a leading
role in the classroom and courseware is the second.
The courseware is not a lifeless dogma. Teacher should reconstruct or modify the courseware to
suit the real teaching circumstances.
Pay more attention to the advantage of the courseware, fully and correctly use the materials in
image, movie, sound, and text provided by the courseware.
362
Fi 2 C f
Fig.2. Courseware front page
Fig.3. Example slides in the courseware
The designing and teaching practice on Relativity Multimedia Courseware has given us a strong
confidence on the reform in college physics education by using modern technologies. It is a fine
feeling that the students heighten their learning interests and motivations when we are using
multimedia courseware in our physics teaching and the educational results is growing up obviously.
Being optimistic, we are sure that college physics education, together with the development of
modern multimedia and information technologies, will greet a new flourishing era in the 21
th
century.
References
R.P. Feynman, R.B.Leighton, M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley, Publishing Company,
(1964).
M. Alonso, E.J.Finn, Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, (1992).
L. Fan, Multimedia and Education, Higher Education Press, (1998) (in chinese).
e-mail cbzhang@public.hr.hl.cn
DEVELOPING STUDENTS COMPETENCES BY MEANS OF SIMULATION: USE OF A
RESEARCH TOOL FOR UNDERSTANDING ION-MATTER INTERACTION IN SOLID
STATE PHYSICS
Federico Corni, Dipartimento di Fisica, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
1. Introduction
Science and technology define the degree of development and potential progress of a modern
society and researchers and engineers are stimulated to search for new materials and methods to
improve and renew technological artifacts. Physics education plays a fundamental role in the
education system and it cannot undervalue the importance and urgency of integrating and updating
the curricula with modern physics and technology.
The introduction of modern physics in secondary school and university must be relevant and needs
correlation to the actual technological world. However, the understanding of the laws and the rules
that govern the phenomena in the modern fields of physics often requires a background knowledge
of quantum mechanics, statistical physics and mathematical methods that make very hard or
impossible an approach to students.
In this paper a possible way to introduce fundamental aspects of ion-matter interaction is
presented. The aim is pursued through the use of a program, SRIM: the Stopping and Range of Ions
in Matter, for the simulation of ion implantation, a widely used technique, in particular, in materials
research and industry. The background knowledge can be very essential and coincides with subjects
which are normally introduced in secondary school, such as the atomic structure of matter, the
periodic table of the elements, neutral and ionized atoms, the charge interactions and the collision
physics. This activity is then suitable for first level university students as well as for students of
secondary school especially with materials science specialization. School teachers could not have
the needed attainments and a materials science training course is recommended.
SRIM calculates the stopping and ranges of ions in the kinetic energy range 10 eV 2 GeV per amu
into matter and simulates an ion implantation using full quantum-mechanical treatment of ion-
atom collisions. It supplies as output complete numerical tables as well as 3D plot distributions of
the ions with target damage, sputtering, ionization and phonon production. Each ion track and
target atom cascade are followed in detail and presented in animated plots. Students experiment
with the use of an advanced research instrument and are allowed to understand and learn new
physical phenomena such ion diffusion, target atom recoiling, atom cascade and surface sputtering,
as well as statistical concepts such projected range, straggling, electron and nuclear stopping power
and radiation damage.
2. SRIM simulation for physics education
Ion implantation technology is widely used for electronic materials and recently is more and more
often mentioned and treated in books or in scientific documentary films. Besides, the phenomena
involved in this process such ion production, acceleration and interaction with matter are common
363
to many scientific fields. Few emblematic examples: ion beams are employed in medicine for
irradiation of cancerous cells with high efficiency and spatial resolution; natural radioactivity and
fast charged particles coming from space, in some cases, can be thought of as ionized atoms
interacting with the atmosphere, with the earth or the skin and the organs; the problem of the
nuclear waste storage since the walls of the container are affected by alpha particles (helium ions)
implantation coming from the nuclear decays.
It is very important that a physics course gives students the opportunity of moments of direct
contact with the research and technology world, just treating particular topics which involve
arguments transversal to many fields of science [1].
The problems often encountered introducing modern technology in physics teaching are: i) high
technical instrumentation required to obtain reliable and significant experimental data; ii)
prohibitive and expensive costs; iii) particular environmental conditions needed (e.g. powder
particle concentration, humidity and temperature); iv) health hazard for the use of high voltages,
toxic gases and substances; v) long period of specialization training to acquire competencies in the
use of instrumentation, machines and processes.
The use of a simulator, a technique also adopted in formation courses for technician and
researchers, overcomes all these technical difficulties making easier the students reaching the
results and learning physics. Moreover students are not required to know the numerical and
analytical methods, often overcomplicated, which are necessary to solve the physical equations.
An other important advantage coming from the use of a simulator in a learning activity is the
possibility of trying situations not easily realizable or absolutely unrealistic and purely theoretical
to investigate the influence of the input parameters. This is perhaps the major motivation that
justifies an activity exclusively employing simulations as this.
SRIM simulates the ion implantation process starting from few input parameters about the beam
and the target and makes Montecarlo calculations of the ion trajectories which can be displayed
singularly with details and synthesized into distribution graphs and synthetic statistic quantities.
Simulation and modeling in physics education are didactic strategies widely experimented and
adopted, and various research papers have been published on these topics [2,3]. An important point
is that students could have difficulties to distinguish model and reality [3]. Working with SRIM,
students are precluded to have any direct contact with the phenomena under investigation and the
teacher has to guard the students (and himself) against confusion. The activity with SRIM should
be preceded by an introduction about the role of modeling in the knowledge of the physical world.
An important topic to be submitted to the students and discussed is the Montecarlo method
employed by SRIM. The simulation is made by solving the equation of motion of each ion
singularly. The calculation of a particular ion trajectory is obtained using random numbers to
quantify the stochastic quantities involved in the collisions, e.g. the collision probability, the
collision parameter and the degree of energy loss. The final product, as it happens in an actual
implantation process, is the result of the superimposition of all the single ions events.
Taking into account the above observations, we propose an activity employing SRIM designed
according to the following points:
i) qualitative exploration of the ion motion into matter;
ii) analysis of the influence of the input parameters;
iii) search for physical phenomena occurring in the implantation process;
iv) identification of quantities typical of the ion-matter interaction physics;
v) problem solving activities aimed to the evaluation of these quantities by elaboration of the
simulated data.
3. What is SRIM?
SRIM is a free simulation program that can be downloaded from the internet address
www.srim.org and runs on personal computers. It results from the original work by J.P.Biersack [4]
on range algorithms and the work by J.F.Ziegler on stopping theory [5].
364
SRIM is used in research to plan ion implantation processes to fit the desired ion depth profile and
target damage. SRIM calculates the stopping and range of ions (10 eV 2 GeV/amu) into matter
and simulates an ion implantation using a full quantum mechanical treatment of ion-atom
collisions. This calculation is made very efficient by the use of statistical algorithms which allow the
ion to make jumps between calculated collisions and then averaging the collision results over the
intervening gap. During the collisions, the ion and atom have a screened Coulomb collision,
including exchange and correlation interactions between the overlapping electron shells. The ion
has long range interactions creating electron excitations and plasmons within the target. These
are described by including a description of the target collective electronic structure and
interatomic bond structure when the calculation is setup. The charge state of the ion within the
target is described using the concept of effective charge, which includes a velocity dependent
charge state and long range screening due to the collective electron sea of the target. A full
description of the calculation is found in the tutorial book [6]. This book presents the physics of
ion penetration of solids in a tutorial manner, then presents the source code for SRIM with a
full explanation of its physics. Further chapters document the accuracy of SRIM and show
various applications.
SRIM accepts complex targets made of compound materials with up to eight layers, each of
different materials. It calculates both the final 3D distribution of the ions and also all kinetic
phenomena associated with the ion energy loss: target damage, sputtering, ionization, and phonon
production. All target atom cascades in the target are followed in detail. Plots of the calculation is
made in real time, moreover they can be saved and displayed when needed. On request, numerical
tables of the stopping of ions as well as of the ions and displaced target atoms trajectories and
energies can be compiled and saved for elaboration purpose.
Figure 1 shows the window of input parameters for stopping calculation of hydrogen ions into
silicon. The parameters to be supplied are: the ion type and its mass, the energy range of stopping
power calculation, the target composition, the units. Table for frequently used materials are
available.
Figure 2 shows the window of input parameters for implantation simulation of hydrogen ions into
silicon at 100 keV. The parameters to be supplied are: the ion type and its mass, the initial kinetic
energy, the angle of incidence, the target in terms of layer thicknesses and compositions, the
number of ions to be calculated, the plotting window and the output table files to be saved. The
damage calculation option and the type of live plots to be displayed during calculation can be set
with the choice windows.
The large number of information supplied by SRIM can constitute matter of study at different
school levels and for different degrees of specialization. In this initial work, only the ions
trajectories and the target atoms cascades will be treated. Physical background needed are the
fundamentals of classical mechanics and electrodynamics.
The particular choices of the target material, of the ions and their energy could limit the generality
of the study. However the aim of this paper is the suggestion of guidelines for the use of such
research tool to teach ion-matter interaction. The SRIM version adopted is the 2000.39.
4.1 Qualitative exploration
4.1.1 Ion trajectories
Figure 3 shows the simulations of the trajectories of four ions with same initial kinetic energy
(100 keV) impinging on silicon. The ions are H (Fig. 3a), C (Fig. 3b), Ge (Fig. 3c) and U (Fig. 3d).
The horizontal axes report the depths and the vertical axes report the lateral displacements of the
ions. It can be observed that the trajectories are finite in length and decrease with increasing the
ion atomic number and mass. The trajectories appear not rectilinear and of irregular forms. Ions of
the same kind produce almost similar shapes, while different ions present different features in their
motion. For example, light ions as H travel in a straight way at the beginning and tracing hook-
365
366
Figure 1. SRIM window of input parameters for stopping calculation.
Figure 2. SRIM window of input parameters for implantation simulation.
shaped trajectories at the end of their motion. Heavy ions as U travel in a more regular way, with
light curves distributed within the whole track.
The statistics of the simulations can be improved by increasing the number of calculated ions.
Figure 4 reports the simulations of 100 ions. The trajectories are contained within pear-shaped
volumes of different dimensions and proportions. The region where the ions come at rest appears
of cylindrical symmetry with the axis perpendicular to the target surface through the beam
incidence point. Occasionally insulated trajectories, very long or with strong deflections, occur.
4.1.2 Recoils.
Figure 5 shows the simulations of one trajectory per ion type including the detailed calculation of
full damage cascades. Green traces are the target atoms (recoils) tracks. For a more extensive
exploration it is possible to do multiple ion simulations with the caution of clearing the screen to
prevent confusion. The simulator allows the formation of the collisional cascades to be followed by
switching the animation button.
Observing Figure 5, very few recoils are produced along light ion trajectories (H: 11, C: 518) and
concentrated at the end of the track in correspondence of the hook. As ion mass and atomic
number increase, the number of recoil increases (Ge: 1750, U: 2200) almost uniformly distributed
along the track. Occasionally long trajectory recoils are produced.
4.2 Influence of the input parameters
In this section the input parameters will be varied. For a matter of simplicity the target composition
will be kept constant, since having considered ions either lighter either heavier than silicon, the
investigation does not loose generality.
4.2.1 Ion mass and atomic number
All the above qualitative observations exhibit dependence on the ion type. A question rises: is the
control parameter the ion mass or the atomic number?
4.2.1.1 Trajectory length. Figure 6 reports the simulations for H and He ions with their correct masses
(Fig. 6a and d) and with the inverted ones (Fig. 6b: H with mass 4 uma, Fig. 6c: He with mass 1 uma).
Comparison between Fig. 6a and b and between Fig. 6c and d reveals that the mass increases the
trajectory lengths, while comparison between Fig. 6a and c and between Fig. 6b and d reveals that
the atomic number shortens the tracks. Same conclusions are deduced from similar simulations of
Sn and U ions reported in Figure 7. Ion mass and atomic number have opposite effects and this
leads to the conclusion that the atomic number prevails on the ion mass in determining the track
lengths.
4.2.1.2 Trajectory shapes. To investigate the influence of the two parameters on the trajectory shape,
simulations of H ions with the U mass and of U ions with the H mass can be used (Figure 8). Fig. 8a
appears very similar to Fig. 3d and Fig. 8b appears very similar to Fig. 3a indicating that, in this case,
the ion mass is the control parameter.
4.2.1.3 Recoil production. The simulations of Figure 8 are recalculated with full damage cascades and
reported in Figure 9. It can be deduced that silicon atoms are displaced more efficiently by high
atomic mass ions, either in terms of number (H: 2170 recoils/ion, U: 128 recoils/ion), either in terms
of displacement from the ion track and dimension of the collisional cascade.
4.2.2 Ion energy.
The kinetic energy of the impinging ions is expected to play a role in the recoil production (the
displaced silicon atoms appear at first in the ending part of the ion track, see Fig. 5c, where the ion
energy is low) other than, obviously, in the ion trajectory length. Figure 10 reports the simulations
for C and U ions at different initial energies.
4.2.2.1 Trajectory length and shape. The trajectory lengths increase with ion initial energy (note the
different depth axes). However the two physical quantities are not proportional, especially in the
case of U. The shapes seem to be unaffected.
4.2.2.2 Recoil production. The number of recoils increases with ion initial energy (C at 10 keV: 108, C
at 30 keV: 225, C at 60 keV: 325, C at 100 keV: 518; U at 10 keV: 262, U at 30 keV: 714, U at 60 keV:
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1390, U at 100 keV: 2200). Moreover, observing Figure 10a, the displaced silicon atoms are roughly
distributed along the whole ion track, while in Figure 10c they are less dense in the initial part. In
the case of U ions the behavior appears the opposite: many recoils are produced along the track
and fewer at the ending part of it.
It is useful for students to design and compile a table which summarizes the observations made. A
suggestion is the following:
The previous two activities, qualitative exploration and input parameter variation, constitute
fundamental moments of the present didactic activity with SRIM, because they play the role of the
experimental stage in a usual laboratory activity, with the advantage of offering large space to
personal choices. In this sense, these activities are occasions for the students of measuring
themselves in a research activity and of acquiring project skills and scientific method.
4.3 Identification of physical phenomena
From the above observations, physical phenomena can be recognized. In the following, some of
them will be identified and described in a schematic way, leaving to the teacher the job of
completing the treatment and the strategy with students.
4.3.1 Friction
Arguments: the ion trajectories are finite in length; the ion trajectories are not rectilinear
Properties: it depends on the ion atomic number; it depends on the instantaneous ion
energy; it is not constant (exhibits different regimes within the same track)
Conclusion: it is of coulombian origin; there are two principal ways of loosing energy: as in a
viscous medium and by collision with target atoms
Topics motion in a viscous medium; elastic and inelastic collisions
4.3.2 Energy loss as in a viscous medium
Arguments: trajectories present rectilinear parts
Properties: typical of light ions; more efficient at high instantaneous energy
Conclusion: model of coulombian collision of the ionized projectile with the electrons of the
target
Topics: energy transfer from a projectile to mass orders of magnitude lighter;
dependence of the charge of an ion on its velocity in matter
4.3.3 Energy loss due to target atom collision
Arguments: the trajectories present deflections; target atoms displacement (recoil
production)
Properties: typical of heavy ions; more efficient at high energy
Conclusion: model of nuclear collision of the ion and the target atoms
Topics: equations of classical collisions; energy transfer from a projectile to target mass
of comparable order of magnitude [7] Rutherford cross section [8]; nuclear
charge screening due to electrons; interatomic potentials
4.4 Typical quantities of ion-matter interaction
The stochastic character of an ion implantation process requires the identification of measurable
statistical quantities. Here will be mentioned the principal ones.
An implantation is performed in order to locate impurities at a desired depth and with a suitable
profile in a material.
368
Trajectory length Trajectory shape Recoil number
Ion mass Y/N Y/N Y/N
Ion atomic number Y/N Y/N Y/N
Ion initial energy Y/N Y/N Y/N
Ion instantaneous energy Y/N Y/N Y/N
4.4.1. The principal quantity is then the projected range, defined as the average depth of the
implanted ions. Moreover, a crucial point is the statistical width of the impurity distribution due to
the so called straggling. Such quantity can be represented by the distribution standard deviation or
by more sophisticated statistical parameters, such skewness and kurtosis, taking into account
asymmetries in the ion distribution. SRIM supplies live graphs during simulation of the ion
distribution with the corresponding statistical parameters which can be used to give the students a
graphical representation of the ion implantation process.
4.4.2. An other important point in implantation technology is the damage caused in the target
material. The damage can be represented in first approximation by the distribution of the target
atoms taking part to the collisional cascade or the so called interstitials. Also in this case the
principal quantity is the average depth of recoils, and, consequently, the standard deviation of their
distribution.
4.4.3. The sites originally occupied by the displaced atoms are called vacancies and also contribute
to the damage. The vacancy depth distribution is in most cases practically superimposed to that of
the interstitials, however, for light target elements the interstitial distribution can result deeper.
SRIM supplies live plots both for interstitial and for vacancy distributions.
4.4.4. The energy loss of ions during their motion into matter is called stopping. Such phenomenon
is roughly distinguished in the two contributions of the electronic friction and of the nuclear
collisions.
4.4.4.1. The electronic stopping power is defined as the energy loss per unit depth due to the
interaction with target electrons. Such quantity depends on the velocity (so the instantaneous
energy) of the ion since, in the typical energy range of ion implantation, it can be comparable with
the ion core electron velocities with a consequent stripping and increase of interaction. The
electronic stopping power is energy dependent and initially increases with energy; after a
maximum, roughly corresponding to the ion velocity similar to that of its core electrons (total
electron stripping), the stopping decreases due to less and less interaction time spent by the ion
near the electron.
4.4.4.2. The nuclear stopping power is defined as the energy loss per unit depth due to the
collisions with the target atoms. It depends on ion energy since at low velocity the ion does not
penetrate the electron cloud of the target atom with a consequent decrease of nuclear coulombian
interaction. Also the nuclear stopping power reaches a maximum with increasing energy, then it
decreases due to the decrease of interaction time.
Figure 11 reports the calculated stopping powers for the considered ions. Their dependence on ion
atomic number and energy reflects the observations and the deductions reported above.
4.5 Elaboration of calculated data
An useful activity for students is now the numerical evaluation of the identified physical quantities.
A first ability they can acquire is the use of statistical functions and methods of data elaboration
and representation. SRIM supplies all the needed data in numerical tables for depth distributions
of ions (RANGE.TXT), interstitials (RANGE.TXT) and vacancies (VACANCY.TXT).
A more complicated and not univocal job is the evaluation of the stopping powers (both electronic
and nuclear) employing the data of calculated ions. Numerical tables do not supply these quantities,
but give many informations about the ion motion and the collisional cascades (E2REC.TXT,
COLLISON.TXT). This activity can be proposed to student as problem solving and then the
outputs of the various adopted solutions can be compared with the stopping powers calculated
(and employed) by SRIM as those plotted in Figure 11.
5. Conclusions
A possible didactic activity using SRIM has been proposed. The fundamentals of ion-matter
interaction can be easily evidenced, recognized and investigated by means of simulations of the ion
369
e
dx
dE
n
dx
dE
370
H C
G
e
U
a) b)
c) d)
H
C
Ge
U
d
)
b
)
a)
c)
Figure 3. SRIM simulation of the trajectories of 5 a) H, b) C, c) Ge, d) U ions implanted in a Si
target with energy of 100 keV.
Figure 4. SRIM simulation of 100 ions of a) H, b) C, c) Ge, d) U with energy of 100 keV in Si.
371
Fi 5 SRIM i l i i l di f ll d d ( k d i ) f ) H b) C ) G d) U i
H C
G
e
U
a) b)
c) d)
H H
He He
Z = 1
M = 1
Z = 1
M = 4
Z = 2
M = 1
Z = 2
M = 4
d)
a) b)
c)
Figure 5. SRIM simulation including full damage cascade (marked in green) of a) H, b) C, c)
Ge, d) U ion implanted in a Si target with energy of 100 keV.
Figure 6. SRIM simulation of H and He ions into Si with the right masses (a and d) and with
the inverted ones (b and c).
372
U U
Sn Sn
Z = 50
M = 119
Z = 50
M = 238
Z = 92
M = 119
Z = 92
M = 238
a) b)
c) d)
H U
Z = 1
M = 238
Z = 92
M = 1
a) b)
Figure 7. SRIM simulation of Sn and U ions into Si with the right masses (a and d) and with
the inverted ones (b and c).
Figure 8. SRIM simulation of a) H ions with the U mass, and b) of U ions with H mass.
373
H
Z = 1
M = 238
U
Z = 92
M = 1
a) b)
C 10 keV
C 30 keV C 60
keV
U 10
keV
U 30
keV
U 60 keV
a
)
b) c)
d
)
e) f)
Figure 9. SRIM simulation including full damage cascade (marked in green) of a) H ions with
the U mass, and b) of U ions with H mass.
Figure 10. SRIM simulation including full damage cascade (marked in green) of C and U ions implanted in Si at
different initial kinetic energies.
d)
a)
implantation process, overcoming all the constrains that an experimental activity imposes. The
activity has been projected in a similar way to an experimental investigation, allowing the students
to acquire method and ability as well as competencies in data handling and elaboration.
References
[1] Teaching the science of condensed matter and new materials GIREP Book, ed. M. Michelini, S. Pugliese Jona, D.
Cobai, Udine (1995).
[2] D. Hestenes, Toward a modeling theory of physics instruction, American Journal of Physics, 55, (1987), 455-462.
E. Sassi, Luso dellelaboratore nella didattica della fisica: potenzialit e problemi, Giornale di Fisica, 28, (1987),
109-123. G. Marx, Il microelaboratore nella scuola, La Fisica nella Scuola XXIII, (1990), 27-31. J. Ogborn,
Modellizzazione con lelaboratore: possibilit e prospettive, La Fisica nella Scuola, XXIII, (1990), 32-43. D.
Hestenes, Modeling game in the newtonian world, American Journal of Physic, 60, (1992), 732-748. S. Pugliese
Jona, Modellizzazione dinamica nel biennio di scuola secondaria, La Fisica nella Scuola, XXVI, S1 Q1, (1993),
62-73. M.L. Aiello-Nicosia et al., Teaching mechanical oscillations using an integrated curriculum, International
J. of Sci. Educ., 19, (1997), 981-995.
[3] R.M. Sperandeo-Mineo, Il calcolatore nella didattica della fisica, in M. Vicentini and M. Mayer ed, Didattica della
Fisica, ed La Nuova Italia, (1996), 251-286.
374
0 20 40 60 80 100
Energy(keV)
0
5
10
15
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g
p
o
w
e
r
(
e
V
-
1
)
Total
Electronic
Nuclear
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Energy(keV)
0
10
20
30
40
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g
p
o
w
e
r
(
e
V
-
1
)
Total
Electronic
Nuclear
0 20 40 60 80 100
Energy(keV)
0
50
100
150
200
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g
p
o
w
e
r
(
e
V
-
1
)
Total
Electronic
Nuclear
0 20 40 60 80 100
Energy(keV)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g
p
o
w
e
r
(
e
V
-
1
)
Total
Electronic
Nuclear
H
C
Ge U
Figure 11. SRIM calculated stopping powers for H, C, Ge, and U ions in Si.
375
[4] J.P. Biersack and L. Haggmark, Nucl. Instr. and Meth., 174, (1980), 257-267.
[5] The Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter 2-6, Pergamon Press, (1977-1985).
[6] J.F. Ziegler, J.P. Biersack and U. Littmark, The Stopping and Range of Ions in Solids (New York: Pergamon Press,
(1985).
[7] F. Corni, M. Michelini, L. Santi and A. Stefanel, Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry: a technique worth
introducing into pedagogy GIREP Book, (Udine), (1995), 266-272.
[8] F. Corni, M. Michelini, L. Santi, F. Soramel and A. Stefanel, The concept of the cross section GIREP Book,
(Udine), (1995), 192-198.
MULTIMEDIA PROGRAM - ELECTRIC CURRENT
Libor Konek, Erika Mechlov, University of Ostrava, Faculty of Science, Department of
Physics, Czech republic
1. Introduction
The concept of electric current is difficult for pupils. There are many reasons of these difficulties
but the very important one is that pupils cannot manage with electric current in the same way as
with the flow of liquid.
Many articles were published on the subject of how pupils understand the concept of electric
current. The understanding of this concept depends on curriculum, on textbooks of physics, on the
control of pupils by teacher and on the opportunity of pupils to handle the electric current in the
same way as the flow of liquid.
The conclusions on the investigations on the understanding of electric current, depend on different
circumstances in different countries, however, there is an element which is common.
We give the results on the understanding of the concept of electric current by pupils at a grammar
school in the Czech republic. On these results, the multimedia program was developed to improve
the children understanding of the concept of electric current.
2. Results of the investigation on the concept electric current
The investigation was focused on the relations of the concept of electric current with other
concepts.
The electric current is a phenomenon, and a quantity that describes the characteristics of the
phenomenon.
The electric circuit may be explained as a system where energy is transformed or as a system where
currents flow and voltages are measured. The second way of looking at the electric circuit uses the
concepts of voltage V, current I and resistance R. These two views of an electric circuit are
connected with each other through the energy flow dW/dt into resistor: dW/dt = VI, which means
voltage and current determine the energy flow. The two flows, the flow of energy and the flow of
particles with charge, should be distinguished - while the energy flow is unidirectional, the flow of
particles circulates [1].
The test Electric current was constructed on these ideas and was given to 17-year-old-pupils. The
results of the test gave answers on how pupils adopt the electric current (phenomenon and
quantity) in relation to the other concepts.
The results [2]: Correct or partially correct answers were given by 23 % of pupils on two basic
conditions why electric current flows through a body. They gave electrons only as carriers of the
electric charge.
2.1 Conduction of electric current in metals
The best results in thinking about electric current by pupils were in the area of electric current in
metals.
There were 63 % of the correct answers that referred to the free carriers of charge in metals.
Although the validity of Ohms law was recognised by 76 % of pupils, nobody gave the condition
of the validity of Ohms law. Ohms law expressed with words was given by only 4 % of pupils, and
with formula by 33 % of the pupils. Pupils gave incorrect formulae, that are not the functional
relations R= U/I (41 %), U= RI (18 %). Correct answers in all items were given by only 11 % of
the pupils. Only these pupils demonstrated mastery of Ohms law and could decide in case from
practice.
For what concerns the Kirchhoffs laws, pupils failed. The pupils did not adopt Kirchhoffs laws. The
reason of this is the misunderstanding of a simple circuit on the basis of measuring the electric
current in its different parts. Only 9 % of pupils adopted a single circuit and the same current in all
places of this circuit. Pupils think that the current is consumed in the circuit as energy, the biggest
current is near the positive pole, the smallest near the negative pole of the battery.
2.2 Conduction of electric current in liquids
The results given by the pupils in thinking of an electric current in liquids were bad. The free
carriers of charge in electrolytes were correctly given by 45 % of the pupils. The condition of
validity of Ohms law was not given by anybody. The total current in electrolytes was not given by
80 % of pupils.
2.3 Conduction of electric current in vacuum and gases
The worst results were given in thinking about the electric current in vacuum and gases. The free
carriers of charge in gases were correctly given by 1 % of pupils, in vacuum by 4 %. Some of the
pupils gave the incorrect answers that the carriers of electric charge are protons and neutrons.
The condition of validity of the Ohms law was not given by anybody. The total current was not
given.
3. Multimedia program Electric current
3.1 Part one: Conduction of electric current in metals
a) Ohms law
Ohms Law is the basic law for conduction of electric current in metals. It links the electric current
and the electric voltage.
The real experiment is a very useful method to gain the understanding of the Ohms law. The
experiment must be a convincing experiment for pupils. The set of instruments for demonstration
has to give evidence that the Ohms law is a proportional relation I=V/R, where the resistance R is
constant during the measurement. For this experiment a bulb is inconvenient because it is a non-
linear element since its resistance changes with temperature. The bulb is totally unsuitable
instrument as resistor. The Ohms Law is correct only if the resistor stays at a constant temperature.
Multimedia program includes two types of instructions. The first are for classical real experiments
with battery, ammeter and voltmeter while the second one for computer-aided experiments with
the system ISES (Czech system). The recommendation is given to do the classical experiment at
first to understand the electric circuit and the principle of connection of the various elements of the
circuit. The computer-aided experiments have the big advantage that they run very quickly. Pupils
can receive many V-A characteristics of different elements, and compare them.
b) Kirchhoffs laws
A good understanding of the Ohms law is the condition for a good understanding of the
Kirchhoffs laws.
Multimedia program includes instructions for real experiments and measurements in single electric
circuit (Fig. 1) and afterwards electric circuit with sub-circuits (Fig. 2, Fig. 3). Later, inn the same
experiments, pupils measure electric energy, electric power and compare current and energy
consumption in the same electric circuits.
3.2 Part two: Conduction of electric current in liquids
Multimedia program includes instructions for investigations of liquids. Pupils investigate what
376
liquids are good conductors and bad conductor of electric current (distilled water, solution of sugar,
solutions of acids and solutions of salts).
Conduction of current in liquids is very complicated; the aim of the program is to give an
understanding of the main principles and of the Faraday laws, only. Instructions lead to the
conclusions that the electric current in a liquid has a similar effects as an electric current in a metal
(magnetic field near the electrolyte with current, increase of temperature of electrolyte with
current, electric current as a function of the distance of the electrodes and of the immerse surface
of electrodes). The special characteristics of the electric current in liquid follow: dependence on the
concentration of the electrolyte, chemical composition, moveability of positive and negative ions.
377
Fig.2: Example of electric circuit with sub-circuits Fig. 1: Example of a simple electric circuit.
Fig. 3: Example of electric circuit with sub circuits and voltmeters
Fig. 4: As an example, there is dissociation of NaCl molecule to Na+ and Cl- ions in water.
3.3 Part three: Conduction of electric current in vacuum and gases
Multimedia program ends with experiments on the creation of ions and free electrons by ionisation
(thermal ionisation, ionisation by electric field) on video. Instruction for pupils point out that the
conduction of current is visible as an ionised gas (many videos with different gas discharge). The
magnetic properties of gas discharge in tube are demonstrated on videos.
378
4. Conclusion
The Multimedia program Electric current comes from an investigation of the pupils
understanding, and of their permanent knowledge. The aim of the program is to unify the
understanding, and afterwards the knowledge, of pupils on electric current in all matters metals,
liquids, gases and vacuum. The program involved pupils in real experiments and contains many
videos on the place where real experiments are difficult. The program will be verified in a grammar
school in the Autumn 2001.
Remark: Multimedia program Electric Current is developed in the frame of the program
Leonardo da Vinci No SI 143008 Computerised laboratory in science and technology teaching
(ComLab-SciTech).
References
[1] R. Duit, W. Jung, Ch. Rhoneck, Aspects of understanding electricity, Proceedings of an International Workshop,
Ludwigsburg. Kiel, IPN, (1985).
[2] E. Mechlov, The investigation of concept electric current at gymnasium, In Acta Facultatis Rerum Naturalium,
Universitas Ostraviensis, Ostrava, Ostravsk universita, (1993), 39-46.
[3] L. Konek, M. Svobodov, Multimediln vukov program Veden proudu v kapalinch, In Scientific
Pedagogical Publishing, esk Budjovice. Pedagogick software 2000, (2000), s. 103. ISBN 80-85645-40-8.
[4] L. Konek, E. Mechlov, Preparation of Multimedia Modules of Physics by Students, International conference
Phyteb 2000, Barcelona ISBN 84-699-4416-9.
Fig. 5: Demonstration device for electrical discharge principle of lightning conductor
DO YOU HEAR THE SEA FROM A SHELL?
Verovnik Ivo, National Education Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Mathelitsch Leopold, Institut fr Theoretische Physik, Universitt Graz, Austria
Holding a sea shell to the ear produces a definite, reproducible sound. Where does this sound come
from? It is clear that it is not connected to the sea as the saying goes. A widespread explanation is
that the seashell amplifies the sound of the blood. One can perform two simple experiments in
order to falsify this opinion:
- When the outside is quiet, one should hear the sound clearer, but the opposite is true.
- When one does some exercising (for example running), the blood streams faster; therefore the
effect should be larger in fact it is not [1].
The explanation of this sound phenomenon is the following: In our surroundings, there exists
always a certain level of noise. The shell acts as a resonator which amplifies the sound at specific
frequencies, which are given by the dimension and the shape of the shell. The question arises whether
it is possible to include this interesting example in a more detailed, maybe also quantitative way, in the
teaching of acoustics at school. We propose an approach where the teacher/student can perform a
series of experiments accompanied by a computer assisted analysis.
PCs are nowadays usually already equipped with a powerful sound card. In addition there exist
software programs which allow comfortable on-line data taking by microphones as well as a fast
analysis of the input. The following results have been obtained with the shareware program Cool Edit
[2]. The data can be visualized in form of the time-dependent pressure level; they can be Fourier
transformed and presented as a frequency spectrum (the intensities of the sound at different
frequencies are calculated at a given time) or as a sonagram (the time development of the spectral
components is shown, where the respective intensities are indicated by different gray shading, Fig. 1).
One can start the exploration of the sound of sea shells by the very simple experiment that one
holds a hand (formed as a cup) close to the ear. One can hear some sound. The effect is much more
pronounced when one takes a larger resonator, for example a cylindrical tube. Holding the tube very
close to the ear changes the sound to lower frequencies. This can easily be understood and is also
explained in every textbook on acoustics. Standing waves build up in the tube, and the frequencies of the
fundamental and the higher modes (overtones) are related to the length L of the tube, and are given by
for a tube open at both ends (c is the speed of sound), and
for a tube closed at one end.
379
L
c
n f
n
2
. =
L
c
n f
n
4
). 1 2 ( ~ =
Fig. 1: Sonagram of the
eigenresonances of a
cylindrical tube. Two
sides of the tube are
open (left and right)
and one side is open
(middle) giving rise to
higher/lower
frequencies of
fundamental and
overtones.
We have used a tube with a length of 0.48 m which would theoretically give fundamentals of f
1
=
350 Hz (open at both ends) and f
1
= 180 Hz (closed at one end). The measured values were f
1
= 340
Hz and f
1
= 170 Hz, respectively. Also the difference can be understood: The acoustical length of
a pipe is a bit longer than the real length giving rise to a slightly deeper tone [3].
The analogy of a sea shell with a cylindrical tube looks a bit crude. As a next approximation we used
some plastic bottles and cups for our experiments. Fig. 2 gives the result with a plastic can. Again
one can see the fundamental and higher partials, but some more comments are in order regarding
these results.
Acoustical resonating systems are often associated with Helmholtz resonators. Helmholtz first
described these resonators in 1860, and he used them for the spectral analysis of complex sounds.
They are hollow metallic bodies in various shapes (spherical or cylindrical), some of them even
tunable. There is a small hole at one end so that the sound from outside can enter the resonator.
On the other side there is some small nipple which should be placed into the ear canal. The
theoretical model of a Helmholtz resonator is that of a large oscillating air volume acting like a
spring on the small air volume in the nipple (being the oscillating mass of the system). The
corresponding eigenfrequency is given by [3,4]:
380
L V
A c
f
. 2
= ,
frequency spectrum of
a plastic can. The can is
opened and closed
successively. When it is
closed, no noise can
enter from the outside
and the
eigenresonances
disappear.
where A and L are the cross section and length of the nipple, respectively, and V stands for the
large air volume. Our examples, bottles or cans, should act in between these two models, namely
ideal Helmholtz resonators and ideal cylindrical tubes, and the measured resonance frequencies
confirm this statement.
Fig. 2 exhibits also another sound detected at very low frequencies, i.e. around and below 20 Hz.
Of course, this sound cannot be heard, it is infrasound. Nevertheless the question arises about the
origin of this phenomenon. A direct hint to the explanation can be given by the following
experiments: One holds the can with one or two hands; the can lies on the floor or on some table;
one holds the can firmer and firmer. When the can is not held by hands, the effect disappears, and
the firmer one holds the can, the larger the amplitude of the oscillation is. It is the trembling of the
muscles which can be seen by these experiments: The microvibration of muscles have been found
in 1943 by the Austrian neuropathologist Rohrbacher. The average frequency of a relaxed muscle
is between 7 and 10 Hz, a maximally contracted muscle can have a frequency as high as 30 Hz [5].
Let us finally come to experiments with real sea shells. We recorded and analyzed the sound of two
shells, Murex and Cassis Fig. 3). The fundamentals are clearly visible, and, naturally, the frequency
of the larger shell is lower (400 Hz) than that of the smaller shell (640 Hz). The higher partials are
381
not so clearly developed in Cassis as in Murex. Due to the complicated geometry of the shells, the
overtones are not multiples of the fundamental. From the frequencies of Murex (640, 1350, 2090,
2870 Hz) one could be tempted to read off a similarity to the law of a tube. This mixture of
overtones which are not perfect multiples of the fundamentals and the appearance of rather broad
resonances give rise to the impression of a non-technical, natural sound, as from the sea; thus we
finally come back to our headline.
sound of two shells,
Murex (left) and Cassis
(right).
We have tried to present an example, where one starts with a question which might be of interest
to the students. Guided by the teacher, students can approach the final answer by some
experiments accompanied by theoretical considerations. The computer assisted analysis should not
be a barrier but an additional motivational component for the students, and for the teachers as
well.
References
[1] G. Rosenberg, American Conchologist, March (1995), 21
[2] Cool Edit 2000 by Syntrillium Software Corporation; http://www.syntrillium.com.
[3] M.P. Silverman, E.R. Worthy, The Physics Teacher 36, (1998), 70
[4] T.B. Greenslade, Jr., The Physics Teacher 34 (1996), 228
[5] http://www.studio32.net/WWW/Portfolio/Optimalife/TheoreticalBasis.html.
382
3.9 Text Books
DISCUSSING THE PROBLEMS IN TEXTBOOKS
Consuelo Escudero, Margarita Garca, Physics Dept., Fac. de Ingeniera, Universidad Nacional
de San Juan, San Juan, Argentina
Sonia Gonzlez, Physics and Chemistry Dept., Facultad de Filosofa, Humanidades y Artes,
Universidad Nacional de San Juan, San Juan, Argentina
Marta Massa, Physics and Chemistry Dept., Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Ingeniera y
Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
1. Introduction
Problem solving is a basic recourse in Science teaching at secondary school, through which
students work with the analysis of events and associated data, and reason in order to design the
required strategy to solve problems. Many activities, such as written texts comprehension,
interpretation of data (literal, numeric and graphic), production of inferences, planning strategies,
calculus, argumentation, application of concepts and communication, need to be developed during
a class (Pozo Municio & Gmez Crespo, 1998). Solved problems presented in textbooks are usually
main models that students use in their apprenticeship. Therefore, the perspective of the author
defines implicitly the role, goals and possibilities that students will attribute to problem solving in
their own apprenticeship.
Previous researches have shown serious difficulties in a significant number of college students of the
first Physics course (Escudero, 1996, Escudero et al., 1998; Snchez et al., 1998) and that features of
their secondary studies influence their performances. The inabilities to recognize the relevant
information and the lack of procedural skills to organize it reflect a degree of scientific illiteracy.
Therefore, it is important to analyze the teaching-learning strategies concerning with problem
solving, the didactic material, the criteria for its choice, the internal coherence and theoretical
consistency of the textbooks, the relationships established between the conceptual contents and
those related to procedures.
We present a study about problem solving that appears in secondary school textbooks. We intend
to develop a model for the analysis of problem statements provided by secondary textbooks. We
assume that textbooks problems serve as efficient prototypes to elucidate useful didactic models
for the development of criteria which may be applied in teachers training.
2. Theory
We assume that scientific literacy implies an optimal usage of a set of actions to arrive to a goal,
but not with a sense of a sequence but as a global instruction to decide and select opportunely
during action. It demands a sufficient declarative knowledge (Rumelhart, 1980), but it is also
necessary that the subject knows how to activate and apply it to solve problematic situations.
Therefore, learning Science requires the construction of the meaning of the experiences with
language (Lemke, 1997). Discourses, written or spoken, are used not only to inform but also to
guide observation, to persuade, to convince and to structure thinking (Vygotski, 1988). Teaching
lies on discursive activities that mediate apprenticeship and support strategies to relate concepts,
organise explanations and validate or deny statements. Dialogic interchange between subjects
provides instances to negotiate and to arrive to a consensus of meanings, by extending or refuting
common sense (Vygotski, 1988; Ausubel, 1978).
The teachers attitude towards science and, specifically, towards scientific procedures and activities
defines the orientation that is prescribed in the didactic model employed in classes. Therefore,
teachers actions and the resources selected to support the discourse are relevant for
apprenticeship. In this sense, it is important to provide some reflections on the didactic models and
materials in which sustain classes planning.
383
The word model has been used with several senses in science education and in published papers.
Colinvaux (1998) has detected five categories within them, that she characterizes as: mental model,
consensus model, meta-model, educational modelling and didactic model.
3. Design
The purpose of this article is to organize didactic models of problem solving which can be useful
for the preparation of teachers, taking into account the set of problems that usually appear in
secondary textbooks as introductions, examples or routine exercises, within explanations related to
concepts and laws, or, at the end of a chapter, as a base for workshops and laboratory activities,
discussions on environmental issues, analysis of everyday experiences and cross-disciplinary topics.
We analyse problems offered in textbooks commonly used by secondary students. These problems
are shown by authors and teachers as examples to orient problem solving processes. We have
considered all the problematic proposals stated in textbooks, presented with different title formats,
such as activities, workshops, debates, problems, applications, researches, opinions, questionnaires and
tests. Each problem, including its solution, is assumes as the analysis unit.
We have assumed the following set of 8 categories for the analysis, with their corresponding modalities.
Some of them have emerged from results of researches on problem solving, misconceptions and/or
evaluation. Others have been incorporated pragmatically during the research.
Analysis categories
1- Formulation level
Textual language: written problems exclusively. Questions are also included.
Textual language with graphics: written problems that include graphics.
Graphic with questions: Problems with a graphic predominance in their formulation.
2- Transformation level
Closed: the statement proposes an explicit or implicit model and the student only has to identify it.
Open: the student organizes the model. The problem can have one or more solutions and the
subject can generate a variety of plausible and fruitful outcomes.
3- Language for expressing the solution
Qualitative: descriptive, attractive, with logic and extra logic aspects (Stinner, 1990, cit. Lpes &
Costa, 1996). Measurements are no required.
Quantitative: characterized by the existence of precise relations among magnitudes and concepts
(Ibid). Includes possible comparisons with scales or tabulated values.
Formal: includes a reference to a physical mathematical model as a semantic dimension.
Modelling is stated not only in a logic and mathematical sense for the interpretation of calculus
but also as a simplified representation, with a complete and relevant set of variables, strictly
related to the analysed fact. Predictions are based on modeling (Greca & Moreira, 1998);
measurements are not implied.
4 - Alternative conceptions:
includes texts that orient students to reflect or discuss specifically on misconceptions that have
been detected as obstacles for conceptualization (Driver el al., 1989).
5 - Solving Method
Graphic: refers to a strictly graphic solution, without consideration of the presence of a
representation as a support to the solver.
Analytic: includes solutions done with explicit equations and algebraic transformations.
Verbal: includes solutions stated in a propositional level, without explicit calculus. Inferences and
analogies are included.
Numeric: includes solutions based on a direct probe and on substitution of numeric values in
algebraic expressions.
6 - Contents
Pure: considers topics of the highest specificity within a conceptual framework (e.g., kinetics
energy).
Theme: exclusively centered on a single content (e.g., energetic processes)
Integrated: problems that only involve general Physics contents.
Interdisciplinary: problems that include contents concerning different disciplines.
7- Statement context
Natural: refers to an everyday problem situation.
Academic: offers a model situation with a high level of abstraction, such as a particle with mass
m, a rigid body or an infinite charged plane. Problems only provide strictly relevant data.
Technologic: involves human-developed devices, processes and tools.
8 - Possibility of functional analysis (used to determine tendencies to variations and
dependences of a variable on others):
Graphic: by means of representations.
Algorithmic: by means of analytic searching.
Experimental: by means of controls carried out with instruments and lab equipments.
Sample
We analysed 312 problems that were extracted from 11 textbooks commonly used at secondary
schools. Each problem was considered as an individual and each dimension previously mentioned
as a variable. Therefore each individual was characterized by a set of eight values (modalities)
associated with the category identified for each dimension. Results were organized in a data matrix
of 312 files (problem) 8 columns (variables). Data were processed using multivariate statistical
techniques (Multiple Correspondence Analysis and Factorial Cluster) (Lebart et al, 1985), using
the software SPAD. N (CISIA - CERESTA, 1998). The obtained clusters were used as initial
models to develop didactic strategies.
4. Results
The classification analysis allowed recognition of six groups (classes) of problems with similar
characteristics, as shown in Figure 1:
384
3. Topical Aspects 3.9 Text Books
Figure 1: Affinity classification of the problems
385
Class 1: includes 136 problems, with an academic content. They are written with a quantitative
language since they include literal expressions but all the relevant data are expressed with numbers.
They require an analytical solution. They are oriented to an efficient calculus and to a coherent
numeric result. Problems that are explicitly solved in the textbooks allowed to say that the author
assumed that the reader is able to comprehend the text adequately. It is also implied that students
dominate algebraic strategies.
Class 2: includes 95 problems related to everyday situations. They are written with a qualitative
language. They also demand a verbal solution. They focus on misconceptions or on specific
concepts, in order to support the construction of the new concepts previously treated in the
textbook.
Class 3: includes 17 open problems that are stated with an academic language. They are
characterized to use a graphic solving method. They emphasized the development of alternative
strategies to arrive to the goal.
Class 4: is constituted by only 7 problems. They are stated through a graphic, accompanied by
questions. They require an image processing, related to some numerical data. The author
emphasizes the comprehension of representations.
Class 5: includes 26 problems that deal with technological situations. They take into account the
application of scientific concepts to comprehend or to explain how devices work.
Class 6: is formed by 31 closed problems, stated with a formal language. They demand the
integration of different contents. Therefore, the solver ought to relate concepts and laws during the
solving process. An analytical, and not always direct, solution is required. These problems
emphasize the construction of conceptual structures within the discipline.
5. Conclusion
The six categories recognized in textbooks may be used to model different strategies for teaching
problem solving. Class 1 offers prototypes whose purpose is the calculus, based on the correct
comprehension of numeric data. These problems can be used to attract teachers attention on the
lack of discussion about data and are an opportunity to discriminate between relevant and
irrelevant data. Problems of class 2 may be employed as introductory ones when the purpose is to
fill the gap between abstractions and natural contexts. The scarce percentage of problems
belonging to classes 3 and 4, many of them found in a same textbook, reveals that graphic solving
strategies as well as graphic interpretations are considered by few authors. The relevance of
representation and the interesting opportunity to install the discussion in the codification between
concepts, models and geometric symbolism are not taken into account. Classes 5 and 6 reflect the
intention of the author to produce an actionable knowledge through problems that demand the
application of concepts and laws to interpret devices or to integrate them to previous knowledge.
From a didactic perspective, these results provide tools of analysis for the discussion of the
usefulness of textbooks problems not as scaffolding examples that orient students in their
independent study, but as a means to enlarge the criteria for the design and selection of problems
in the different stages of teaching and learning processes.
References
Ausubel D. P., Psicologa educativa: un punto de vista cognoscitivo, Mxico, Trillas, (1978).
Colinvaux D., Modelos e educao em ciencias, Rio de Janeiro, Ravil, (1998).
Driver R., Guesne E., Tiberghien A., Ideas cientficas en la infancia y la adolescencia, Ediciones Morata, Madrid,
(1989).
Escudero C., Los procedimientos en resolucin de problemas de alumnos de 3er ao: caracterizacin a travs de
entrevistas. Investigaciones em Ensino de Ciencias, 1, (3), (1996).
Escudero C., Gonzlez S., Garca M. y Massa M., Las leyes de Newton: problemas y ejercicios propuestos en libros
de enseanza media, Memorias del II Simposio: La Docencia de las Ciencias Experimentales en la Enseanza
secundaria, Madrid, (1998).
C.I.S.I.A. CERESTA, SPAD. N integrado versin 4. Pars, (1998).
Greca I., Moreira M. A., Modelos mentales, modelos conceptuales y modelizacin,. Caderno Catarinense de Ensino
de Fisica, 15, (2), (1998), 107-120.
Lebart L., Morineau A., Fenelon J., Tratamiento Estadstico de Datos, Barcelona, Marcombo, (1985).
Lemke J., Aprender a hablar ciencia, Madrid, Piados, (1997).
Lopes B., Costa N., Modelo de enseanza-aprendizaje centrado en la resolucin de problemas: fundamentacin,
presentacin e implicaciones educativas, Enseanza de las Ciencias, 14, (1), (1996).
Llonch E., Snchez P., Massa M., La activacin representacin situacin en los procesos de comprensin y
resolucin de problemas, publicacin en CD, Actas del V Simposio de Investigadores en Educacin en Fsica, Santa
Fe, (2000).
Rumelhart D. E., La representacin del conocimiento en la memoria, Infancia y Aprendizaje, (1980), 19-20.
Pozo Municio J. I., Gmez Crespo M. A., Aprender y Ensear Ciencia, Ediciones Morata, (1998)
Vygotski L., El desarrollo de los procesos psicolgicos superiores, Mxico, Grijalbo, (1988).
e-mail: cescude@unsj.edu.ar
DO PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TEXTBOOKS CONTRIBUTE TO SCIENTIFIC
REASONING?
Marta Massa, Hilda DAmico, Physics and Chemistry Dept., Facultad de Ciencias Exactas,
Ingeniera y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
1. The discourse and knowledge representation in science textbooks
Theory and practice of science, as knowledge, are transmitted, explored and re-constructed through
the semiotic function of language in classes and textbooks. Lemke (1997) has stated that teachers
discourse in classes may frequently alienate students as it presents an opposition between a world
of impersonal, authoritative and boring facts and their own world of uncertainties, beliefs and
interests. Unfamiliar discourses with technical words and mathematical expressions will either bore
or attract students, mainly in secondary school. These features may also be attributed to textbooks
discourse and may act as a model for teachers when they prepare their classes (DAmico & Massa,
2000).
Textbooks have traditionally helped Physics teaching, by introducing a scaffolding discourse to
construct a conceptual framework and to develop reasoning skills. Therefore, textbooks induce
learning situations by means of the provided information, the questions to orient the reader, the
proposed activities, the graphic design and the language.
Discursive styles of the authors externalise their reasoning and influence readers thinking, through
the way ideas are supported or contrasted; experiments are designed or beliefs are denied or
reinforced (Billig cited in Kuhn, 1991; DAmico & Massa, 2000). The logical structure and
coherence of written discourse may be considered as a good expression of the reasoning that the
author develops when he organizes the contents, applies them to certain facts and brings or
strengthens the conclusions. The argumentation of the authors, as a way to support or to refuse
statements, defines a position towards the construction of knowledge.
The language of science has evolved in the construction of a special kind of knowledge a scientific
theory of experience. Science textbooks deal with information and explanations related to facts,
processes and devices. Therefore the language is a basic unit to introduce concepts, principles and
laws, whose meanings are negotiated by specific figures and expressions provided by the writer in
a communicative and constructive process. In this sense, language is viewed as a meaning-making
system within a context rather than a meaning-expressing one (Halliday et al., 1993).
Theories dealing with information processing assume that external information is registered,
codified and processed by subjects before being expressed by actions. Written discourses, drawings,
photographs, diagrams are inputs for learning processes. In fact, when a subject reads, he
integrates the meaning of each sentence in order to construct the global sense of the text within a
context. Language comprehension lies on the processing of propositions (assertions, arguments,
questions), images and mental models (Johnson-Laird, 1983) as individual representations. The
latter are organised dynamically and their meanings are developed in different levels as a result of
the comprehension of the text associated with the construction of a mental representation of the
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stated situation. This process is known as the resolution of the reference. The links between the
new information and previous knowledge and beliefs, and the inferential processes that derived
from them, characterize the style of the discourse, which may be descriptive, informative or
argumentative (de Vega et al., 1990).
Researchers have identified many problems related to the organization of science textbooks, such
as: a cookbook approach to experimental activities, scarce attention paid to the development of
scientific processes, the introduction of terms preceding the exploration of examples. In addition,
the style is descriptive rather than argumentative, with a frequent lack of justification or refutation.
Graphic design and structural devices are oriented to attract the attention of the reader rather than
promoting reasoning skills (Musheno & Lawson, 1999).
Assuming that textbooks are the main source of models of written scientific language for students,
they contribute, together with formalized productions of teachers, to construct an alternative
interpretation of the world (science versus common-sense). Therefore four questions emerged: (a)
How do textbooks discourses contribute to a progressive development of scientific concepts?; (b)
What propositional and procedural knowledge is introduced for constructing a formal thinking?;
(c) How do authors use the argumentation as a mechanism for conceptual changes?; (d) How are
language and language activities (discussion of concepts, questions, formalization, linguistic
resources) used to promote understanding?
This exploratory study focuses on the development of the concept of ENERGY in science
textbooks. Assuming that textbooks provide a relevant discourse that defines an attitude towards
Science, we research on the use of argumentation as a resource for a meaningful understanding of
these concepts.
2. Method
Thirteen science textbooks, mainly adopted by teachers of the 3
rd
cycle of the Basic General
Education (for students aged 11-14 years) and Physics textbooks for Polimodal courses (students
aged 15-17) were analysed (see Table I). The texts contain prose, pictures, diagrams, mathematical
expressions and suggested activities throughout the book. The study was focused on the chapters
dealing with Energy.
Two stages were followed in order to identify textbooks structure and strategies to promote
learning,: (a) a general approach with four analytical dimensions: conceptual development,
structure, language, and proposal of activities; (b) an analysis of the evolution of the argumentation.
The latter was done using Toulmins scheme (Alvarez Prez, 1997). It considers the existence of six
Code Title Author- Editor-
Edition
Level Grades
A Natural Sciences Santillana - 1997 General Basic Education 8
th
B Physics Plus Ultra General Basic Education 7
th
, 8
th
,
9
th
C
7
, C
8
, C
9
Natural Sciences Santillana 2000 General Basic Education 7
th
, 8
th
,
9
th
D Natural Sciences 9 Kapelusz 2001 General Basic Education 9
th
E Natural Sciences 7 Kapelusz 2000 General Basic Education 7
th
F
7
, F
8
, F
9
Natural Sciences and
Technology
Aique 2000 General Basic Education 7
th
, 8
th
,
9
th
G Physics I Aique 1998 Polimodal 1
st
H The Universe of Physics El Ateneo 1997 Polimodal 1
st
I Physics I Santillana - 1999 Polimodal 1
st
Table I. Analysed textbooks
elements in an argument, and the relationships among them. Three basic elements for
comprehensive reasoning are: data [D] (all relevant information related to the events, subjects and
objects), conclusion [C] (derived proposition for a general acceptance) and justification [J]
(statement that gives continuity to the gap between [D] and [C]). The other three elements, that
enrich the reasoning, are: modal qualifiers [M] (intensity with which the data support the
conclusion), refutation conditions [Rf] (particular circumstances in which the justification is not
valid) and support conditions [Rs]. Refutation [Rf] and support conditions [Rs] sustain the
acceptability of the justifications.
3. Results
The first stage of the study involved the identification of the features employed by the author to
try to enable the comprehension of the text.
The different dimensions for the analysis of the textbooks, the associated variables and the
respective modalities are described in the following paragraphs.
Conceptual development
I. Central topics: problems related to the use of energy (1) - energy in nature and/or energy
resources (2) - forms of energy, energy transformations (3) - conservation of energy (4) - heat
and nuclear energy (5) - electrical energy (6) - physical and chemical changes (7).
II. Energy concept: A concept impossible to define. Energy is transformed and transferred (8) -
ability to do work (9) - associated to movement and substance (10) - the total energy of a system
is the sum of the macroscopic energy and microscopic internal energy (11) - power to make
changes (12) - heat as a form of energy that travels from one body to another due to T (13) -
identifiable by its forms (14) - social concepts (bills, home devices) (15).
III. Misconceptions (towards a conceptual evolution): existence (through initial questionnaire) (16)
omission (17) - existence of perpetual mobile (18).
Structure
I. Introduction: energy conservation (1) - energy sources (2) - historical reference (3) - questions
related to misconceptions (4) - lab experiments (5) - physical and chemical transformations (6)
- scheme as previous organizer (7) - electric energy: generation system, distribution and
consumption; conceptual activities (8).
II. Body: work, heat, internal, nuclear, mechanical energy (9) - analysis of forms and principles
related to devices and nature (10) - energy: forms and transformations in industries (11) - work
and impulse related to kinetic energy and linear momentum (12) - work and kinetic, potential
and mechanical energy (13)
III. Conclusion: historical references of applications, reflective and argumentative activities based
on papers and Internet sites (14) - historical references of applications, reflective questionnaires
(15) - energy transformations in industries and technological devices (16) - work equal to the
variation of kinetic energy (17) - reflection on energetic self-sufficiency (18) - environmental
effects (19) - WE
k
and WE
p
, energy conservation and W
fnc
- E; work done by
gravitational forces along a closed trajectory; analysis of several cases (20).
Language
I. Approach: Declarative and descriptive (giving information) (1) - interrogative (demanding
information) (2) - imperative (demanding services or providing instructions) (3).
II. Format: photographs with explanation (4) - schemes and related questions (5) - maps (6) - new
concepts in vignette without explanations (7) - caricatured drawings (8) - tables with
informative data (9).
III. Formal structure: scientific terminology; definition (without units); principle and laws without
formalization (10) - scientific terminology; definition with mathematical expressions without
deductions and units (11) - scientific terminology; definition stating dependences between
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389
variables (12) - scientific terminology; definition with mathematical expressions and units;
principles with formalization (13) analogy (14)
IV. Questions (related to the frequency of occurrence of each type of question): qualitative
description explanation or justification complement of description (15) - qualitative
description complement of description explanation or justification (16) - qualitative
description complement of description (17) - quantitative description complement of
description explanation or justification (18) - explanation or justification qualitative
description (19).
V. Arguments: D C with J and R
s
(20) - D C with J and M (21) - D C with R
s
(22).
Activities
Working on misconceptions (1) - experimental activities and related questions (2) - analysis of
graphics and tables (3) - explanations to everyday situations (4) - selection of alternatives (5) -
research (6) - debates (7) - calculus (8) - design of devices where transformations take place (9) -
use of a dictionary to search for meanings (10) - open situations (11).
4. Conclusions
It has been observed that textbooks for EGB3 students offer a general treatment that begins with
the analysis of energy in natural processes; followed by the identification of different forms of
Conceptual
development
Structure Language Text-
book
Code I II III I II III I II III IV V
Activities
A 2, 5 9 16 2, 8 9, 10,
11
15 1 4, 5, 9 10 15 22
x
2, 3, 4, 11
B 3, 4 10 16 4, 6 10 17 1,
2
4, 5 11 17 22 4, 8
C
7
2, 3 14 16 3, 4, 5 10 15 1,
3
4, 5, 6 11 15 20 1, 2,4, 6,
8
C
8
2, 3, 4,
5, 7
12,14 17 2, 3, 6 9, 10,
11
14, 15,
19
2,
3
4, 5, 9 10
13
15 22 3, 4, 7, 11
C
9
5 11, 13 16 3, 4, 5,
7
9 14 1 4, 5 11 15 20 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7
D 6 14 16 8 11 16 1 4, 5, 9 14 15 20
21
1, 4, 6, 7,
8, 10
E 1 9 17 2 11 18 1 4, 5, 7,
8
12 17 20 1, 2, 7
F
7
3, 7 12, 14 16 6 11 16 1,
2
4, 5 10 16 20 2, 5, 8, 9
F
8
6, 7 13, 15 17 6, 8 10, 11 16 1 4, 5 10 15 20 2, 4, 9
F
9
4, 5 10, 12, 14 17 7 9 17 1 4, 8 11
14
19 20 2, 4, 5, 7,
8
G 4 9, 11, 15 18 1 12 15,
20
1,
2
4 13
14
19 20 5
H 2, 4 9, 14 16 1, 2, 4 11, 13 19, 20 1 4, 6, 8,
9
13
14
18 20 1, 3, 4, 6,
9, 11
I 3 8, 14, 15 17 3 10, 11,
12, 13
14, 15,
16, 17,
19, 20
1 4, 5, 8,
9
14 19 20 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 10
Table II: Main characteristics observed in the analysed textbooks
energy and a slight introduction to principles; while those developed for the 9
th
year deal with forms
of energies that are important for human beings activities. They all have a colloquial style, written
in everyday language to present examples as scaffolding mental activities, and they use
photographs, graphs, vignettes, and any other graphic design to accompany the explanations. Few
of them use historical references, experiments and questions as complements to the construction of
concepts. Only one text, as can be seen in Table II, centres the treatment on problems derived from
energy uses nowadays. As a general perspective, the organisation of these textbooks resembles a
schema associated to the intention to construct answers to: why (is it important to know about
energy) how and where (can energy be recognized) how (do human beings obtain energy to
perform their activities). The main purpose is to introduce scientific language by a close
correspondence between words and facts, but not to organize formal thinking.
Polimodal textbooks are basically centred on developing a deep and specific conceptual
background. Examples are discussed with precision, presented by models and accompanied by
demonstrations, diagrams and mathematical expressions. It may be interpreted as the authors
intention to produce a first level of semantic activity within a scientific language, by a close
relationship between specific concepts and examples. Analogies are used in this level in order to
support statements or as a scaffolding guide to reasoning. These textbooks abandon the narrative
and descriptive style seen in EGB3 textbooks to become explicative. Nevertheless, very little
argumentative structures, using counterexamples as refutation conditions, have been detected in all
the textbooks. Only some of them have been stated as proposed activities to be done by students
to complement their study. A question arises in this sense: Do teachers use these activities to
organize and to produce an open perspective to science theory?
References
lvarez Prez, V., Los libros de texto, Alambique. 11, (1997).
DAmico H., Massa M., Argumentative Style In Teachers And Textbooks Discourses, PHYTEB, Barcelona, (2000).
De Vega M., Carreiras M., Gutirrez-Calvo M., Alonso-Quecuty, M., Lectura y comprensin. Una perspectiva
cognitiva, Alianza Editorial, Madrid, (1990).
Halliday M., Martin J., Writting science: Literacy and Discursive Power, University of Pittsburgh, Press Pittsburgh,
(1993).
Johnson - Laird P. N., Mental Models, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1983).
Kuhn D., The skills of argument, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1991).
Lemke J. L, Aprender a hablar ciencia. Lenguaje, aprendizaje y valores, Paids, Madrid, (1997).
Musheno B. V., Lawson A.. E.,. Effects of Learning Cycle and Traditional Text on Comprehension of Science
Concepts by Students at Differing Reasoning Levels, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36, (1), (1999), 23-
37.
e-mail: mmassa@fceia.unr.edu.ar
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3.10 Teacher Training
FORMALIZING THERMAL PHENOMENA FOR 3-6 YEAR-OLDS: ACTION-
RESEARCH IN A TEACHER-TRAINING ACTIVITY
Luca Benciolini, Dipartimento di Georisorse e Territorio, University of Udine, Italy
Marisa Michelini, Dipartiment of Physics, University of Udine, Italy
Adriana Odorico, Facolt della Formazione, University of Udine, Italy
1. Introduction
Previous research has led us to identify teachers main needs for open and innovative activities
regarding the scientific education of children from 6 to 14 [1]. Research on didactic innovation
based on new technologies for the teaching of physics have shown that it is necessary to integrate
Meta-Cultural, Experiential and Situated models [2, 3, 4] into teachers in-service training. A
recent pilot project organized by the Italian Ministry of Education has made us aware that we need
to completely change the ways in which we carry out our in-service teacher-training so as to
include the dimension of educational and didactic research [5]. Action-Research, based on a
reflection on work done in the field, contributes in a unique way to the teachers professional
competence and gives him those elements of flexibility which make him able to follow and manage
dynamic mental models connected to the context [6]. For this reason the action of reflection and
research which teachers can make is one of the factors which, with increasing attention, are located
at the center of processes for improving the learning/teaching system [5]. There is now a general
agreement on the need to introduce science teaching right from play school. Science teaching
performs an educational function, by accustoming students to group work, to an open comparison,
to explaining ideas, to recognizing the validity of results based on the sharing of common elements.
It also performs a training function, stimulating representation, symbolization and modelling,
which are essential in the development of cognitive skills. In the Italian school system, which is still
strongly influenced by the reforms made by Gentile in 1923, the introduction of scientific
education in the basic school is still an open problem [7].
This work reports on an experience of teacher training in the Play school: it integrates research and
innovation while it introduces scientific education into a specific field of experience: thermal
phenomena. The work focuses attention both on the teacher-training process and also on the
activities of the children (from 3 to 6 years of age): the indivisible nature of the two processes puts
particular attention on the childrens formalization processes on the experiences of constructing
and structuring scientific thought.
2. Scientific education in the play school
Children are looking for stimulating activities in order to lessen their need of competence [8]. The
child has to recognize sensorial information and learn to use it to collect information, including
quantitative information, on phenomena [9]. The childs curiosity is the starting point for his
development of scientific knowledge. Through curiosity scientific education is constructed by
asking questions, discovering problems, working on them with ones thought, starting to observe or
to make experiments [10]. In this way he develops a flexible attitude, a readiness to change opinion
when this is reasonable, and an ability to analyze and synthesize [11]. Recent research has shown
how children from 3 to 6 do not limit themselves to asking questions and waiting for the answers
from us: they look for personal ways to give answers [12]. Between 3 and 5 children develop
systematic strategies and a generalized rule-governedness; there is an impressive variety of
situations where children construct and use different rules, and this is particularly evident in the
way they deal with new situations of problem solving [13].
Scientific education in the play school must therefore be conducted in such a way as to stimulate
in play, in stories, in moments of didactic activity, that curiosity which activates processes to
organize knowledge, able to evolve in a continuous re- processing of the results of the childs
exploration of the world.
The professional ability of the teacher who must produce this dynamism implies a combination of
technical, social and organizational skills [2, 3, 14] and therefore the teacher training for this level
of school is particularly delicate. The degree course in the Science of Primary Education, which was
only started in Italian Universities in 1999, has to deal with these problems. However, the problem
remains of teachers already in service, especially with regard to the following needs:
A) possessing a scientific competence which can be integrated with their pedagogical competence,
gained by their experience in the field [15]; understanding the cognitive skills of the children in
the scientific field at this age;
B) understanding the cognitive skills of the children in the scientific field at this age;
C) being able to manage informal education, with play, to give the children the necessary
familiarity with the world around them;
D) having experience in constructing contextualized formalization processes.
Physics is one of the subjects which best lends itself to perform this task, because it uses
mathematics in describing and interpreting phenomena and offers opportunities for symbolization,
seriation and tabulation.
We shall now illustrate the contents of a teacher training activity for play school teachers; it was
created as a training course and transformed into a research gymnasium for the trainers and
trained, through analysing the cognitive processes of the children who were in the classes.
3. Training play school teachers
The activity of training as research, which we shall be reporting on here, had its origin in an
excellent experiment in the play school of Terenzano (Udine). It was called Fisicando and
proposed physics as the subject matter and play as the didactic method for children of 5-6 years of
age.
Both the planning part and the practical part of the project were followed, analysed and evaluated
in the context of the Degree course in Primary Education, with consequent influence on the
practical experience in the participating schools. This activity has stimulated great interest and 32
teachers from the provinces of Udine and Pordenone have requested a specific training course at
the Interdepartimental Centre for Research in Education (Udine University), which has developed
in the following five stages:
I) Seminar on operativity in the construction of formal thought in the scientific field
II) Visit to the GEI exhibition [16] with the children in the context of the Science Days 2001,
with their actions monitored
III) Paths on thermal phenomena were discussed, simple experiments, including on-line
experiments, were performed and analyzed
IV) Didactic activities were planned and feasibility studies were made in the field of thermal
phenomena
V) The experiments were carried out in class and there were periodic discussions of the paths
followed and the materials produced by the children.
These five stages developed the following points in the training process of the teachers:
Role and method of scientific education for children:
A) Contribution of science to general education. Science has to be used for rethinking and
understanding experiences already made. Describing, interpreting, predicting and checking
predictions is a strategy proper to scientific investigation.
B) Role and duties of the teacher:
- to help the children to pay attention to and reflect on the phenomenon;
- to use common sense experiences and spontaneous interpretative patterns;
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- to look for answers by exploring with hands and mind: the teacher must not impose answers which
have not been identified/recognized;
- to stimulate questions rather than give answers to questions which have not been asked. In
particular, to educate the children to recognize that the decisive element for accepting a correct
interpretation of the phenomena is sharing:
- to accastom the children to always insert the evidence of their prediction with respect to the result
of the experimental investigation.
C) Processes of formalization, the role of operativity, ways and means of scientific communication
(graphs, etc). Examining some examples taken from research with GEI [17]. Some examples of
experiments with GEI were provided, some disciplinary contents in the field of thermology were
illustrated and some possible didactic activities were suggested.
Attitudes and cognitive processes activated in informal contexts by the children
A group of 15 children of 4 and 5 years old, in the play school, was observed with parameters as
used in other studies [18] during a visit to the GEI exhibition, to acquire experience of their ways
of exploring in a scientific field. The childrens attention span and interest was surprisingly long:
about 70 minutes, during which they asked a lot of questions, often redundant, showing in this some
typical features of their age, such as the need for a personal answer and for repetition [19].
The cognitive path of the children on specific concepts of the subject dictated the criteria on which
the activities proposed were set up in the subsequent teacher training step.
Planning didactic activities
It was mainly the task of the teachers to plan the activities to be carried out with the children and
the way to carry them out. The task was performednot in isolation but with a variety of human
resources and instruments. The human resources were not only the researchers, but also the
teachers, in an integration of skills and experiences combined in a learning community. The
conceptual knots we pointed out were:
1) Heat as an exchange quantity and temperature as state property;
2) measuring the temperature of objects and the human body;
3) thermal interaction and exchange processes between metal cubes at different initial
temperature;
4) thermal interaction and exchange processes between water masses at different initial
temperature;
5) specific heat and thermal conductivity of materials;
6) analysis in energy terms of transformations.
Didactic activities with play school children
Even though the proposed activities were elaborated, discussed and shared in the learning
community, the teachers actuated a wide variety of didactic strategies and ways of conducting the
experiments. Let us consider the following three points, dealt with by at least 5 teachers:
I thermal sensation (all teachers);
II thermal state (15 teachers);
III conductivity (5 teachers).
I Thermal sensation
The didactic experiments on thermal sensation were for example, a thermal mapping of a space and
classification of a defined series of objects (cubes of polystyrene, wood, plastic, a rubber, a piece of
iron) according to thermal sensation.
The children touched the objects with their hands and then had to formalize the thermal sensation
they experienced. Different formalization strategies were tried, as listed hereafter.
Seriations. The children classified the sensation produced, and seriate the objects in a diagram
along a diagonal. The objects which produced the sensation is symbolized using the objects,
photographs, sketches or symbols. They frequently used symbols or symbolic drawings, for
example: red balls for heat and blue balls for cold. From the cognitive point of view, the drawing
was equivalent to the symbol, since the childrens limited drawing ability always puts the fact
into a symbolic context. In fact, when the teacher asks the child to draw objects, the similarity of
the drawing to the real object is not very relevant, because either the sign is shared and therefore
recognized or it remains extraneous.
Ven representations: they are used both to define groups and also to make correspondences.
Shared rules of spatial collocation or symbolic representation.
Double entry tables with seriations identical to those cited above. The correspondence with the
place or participating child is explained.
Spontaneous quantitative representations: diagrams and/or graphs. The intensity of the thermal
sensation is represented with squares of an area proportionate to the thermal sensation
experienced, or is translated into histogram bars or even graphs where the elements are ordered
in increasing or decreasing fashion.
The initiative of one teacher (Emma) to include a step of intermediate binary classification proved
useful.
II - Thermal state
The didactic experiments on thermal state consisted in putting some objects in the freezer and in
hot water in order to take them to different thermal states. The children examined the sensation
produced by different objects which had been for a long time in the same environment (freezer,
tank of hot water, environment) and by the same object in different environments. The children
made the deduction that the thermal state is determined by the environment and that the material
influences the rapidity with which every object reaches the thermal state without particular help.
Formalization remained on the same level as the previous experiment: no formalization was noted
which took the temporal variable into account. In order to overcome this limit, one teacher (Rita)
translated this experiment into a game: three environments at three different temperatures (the
fridge, the tank of hot water, the class room) were symbolized by different objects (foam rubber
cubes / freezer, basin / tank of hot water, area of the gymnasium limited by a rope / environment)
at different points of the gym. The children chose an action to carry out at random. If, for example,
a child drew it gets hot, he went to the hot water and removed some clothes; if he drew it gets
cold, he had to go into the fridge and put his clothes on.
III Conductivity
The didactic experiments concerning conductivity were conducted to evaluate the ways children
recognize process with respect to state. They led the child to observe the fact that ice placed on top
of a metal melts more quickly than ice placed on top of polystyrene. In this case the question which
some children asked was: why does the object which I feel as colder make the ice melt quicker?
In this way there was a spontaneous separation and recognition of states with respect to processes.
In fact, the children explained the process with a motivated animation (metal is a friend of ice and
takes it away) on the process variables,
4. Conclusions
When children report their experiences they often use drawings and this corresponds to
symbolizing, sharing the meaning of the symbol. The similarity of the symbol to reality is not very
important. At this age socialization begins and the comments of their peers are more important
than those of adults (cooperative learning). Therefore, the object symbolized will be recognized
irrespective of its similarity to reality.
However, the symbols are often too distant from reality to be understood outside the group. In the
game where the children become hot or cold objects, the child uses himself as a symbol (he
identifies) and this facilitates comprehension [19].
In seriating hot and cold objects, the child has a problem: he is representing quantities of a
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3. Topical Aspects 3.10 Teacher Training
395
single property, still not well identified, of a system outside himself. Seriating the objects along a
diagonal line unifies these features and helps the child to recognize the first quantitative elements.
When the experience is discussed and repeated, the children are faced by the problem of
reproducing the experiment and by the significance of the data. Representing thermal sensation
with an area-intensity translation, by means of squares, offers the child the opportunity to consider
two-dimensional spaces, which he can connect with geometry later, and immediately with the
recognition of the space in which he is. In this case, when the thermal sensation is tabled for each
child and object touched, the children can observe the total thermal sensation of a single object
for an entire class of pupils, making integrations for classes. The concept of average also emerges:
they are able to recognize an average thermal sensation and use it to obtain secondary
information and also a shared table of data.
With the experiment of the ice cubes the predictions are compatible with the proof of the
deduction.
Our data show how very young pupils can manage very complex concepts. They discuss laboratory
experiments and the meaning of data, they reflect on the experience finding different methods of
formalization, also producing symbols, tables and types of seriations of the data.
In order to obtain a shared seriation of the objects touched, different strategies were used: first of
all, the children discuss the different opinions [20], then they make a seriation of pairs of objects,
they establish a series over the whole group, repeat the experiment after some days and finally the
data not shared are excluded from the representation.
These results, of considerable interest, have emerged thanks to the learning environment which was
developed: neither the teachers with autonomous activities, nor the researchers observing the
children in unplanned activities, would have been able to recognize the obvious potential for
formalization which the children show in the core of a subject. The dimension of the Action-
Research associated with that of comparison has enabled the development of skills in the teachers
on various levels (not least, the subject level). Although it was not expected, important skills were
acquired in managing the conceptual points which the children bring out in practical activities,
creating a cognitive crisis in the teacher too; to overcome this crisis entails looking at the same
knowledge on many different levels. Reflecting on practical didactics is thus revealed to be the
essential moment of in-service training for teachers.
Acknowledgments
We are greatly indebted with the 32 play-school teachers participating in teachers education
activity and particularly Giuseppina Tirelli, Rita Maurizio, Emma Ciannavei, Ornella Milad and
Carla Pecoraro. Their feeling and experience in teaching improved the work.
References
[1] S. Bosio, V. Capocchiani, M. Michelini, F. Vogric and F. Corni, Problem solving activities with hands on
experiments for orienting in science in Girep Book on Hands on experiments in physics education, eds G Born,
H Harries, H Litschke and N Treitz (for ICPE_GIREP Duisburg), (1998); Michelini M, Mossenta A and
Benciolini L, Teachers answer to new integrated proposals in physics education: a case study in NE Italy in:
Information and Communication Technology in Education, (Roznov pod Radhostem, Czech Republic, 18 - 21
September 2000), Proceedings, ed E Mechlova (University of Ostrava, Faculty of Science), (2001), 149-154.
[2] M. Michelini and C. Sartori , Esperienze di laboratorio didattico in una struttura di raccordo scuola-universit,
Universit e Scuola, III 1/R, (1988), 18-29.
[3] R. Martongelli, M. Michelini, L. Santi and A. Stefanel, Educational proposals using new technologies and
telematic net for physics in: Girep book on Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000 (Barcellona), (2000).
[4] G. Marucci, M. Michelini and L. Santi 2000 The Italian pilot project LabTec of the Ministry of Education in: Girep
book on Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000 (Barcellona).
[5] M.G. Dutto, M. Michelini and S. Schiavi, Reinventing in-service teacher training: research grants for teachers in:
Practitioner Research - International trends and perspectives 2001, eds V Trafford and F Kroath (Treccani in
printing); M Michelini 2000 The contribution of institution to the improvement of physics teaching in: Girep
book on Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000, Round Table (Barcellona).
[6] S. Vosnodiou, Capturing and modelling the process of conceptual change, Learning and Instruction 1994b, 22,
(1994), 45-69.
[7] Italian earlier school levels have been poorly reformed after the organizationon on the lines laid down by Croce
and Gentile. Giovanni Gentiles reform was enacted in 1923, after that of Benedetto Croce in 1920.
[8] E.L. Deci and R.M. Ryan, The initiation and regulation of intrinsically motivated learning and achievement, in:
Achievement and motivation eds AK Boggiano and TS (Pittman Cambridge, Cambridge University Press),
(1992), 9-36.
[9] D.R. Olson and R. Campbell, Constructing representations in: Sistems of representation eds C Pratt and AF
Garton (Chichester, Wiley), (1993), 11-26.
[10] Berlyne DE 1960 Conflict, arousal and curiosity (New York Mc Graw Hill); Bijou SWExploratory behavior in
infancy and early childhood Revista-Mexicana-de-Analisis-de-la-Conducta 24, (1998), 215-223
[11] S. Carey and R. Gelman (eds), The epigenesis of mind. Essay on biology and cognition, Hillsdale (N.J.), (Erlbaum,
the Jean Piaget Symposium series), (1991).
[12] C. Pontecorvo, Narration and discursive thought in infancy in: Psychoanalysis and development: Representations
and narratives. Psychoanalytic crosscurrents, eds M Ammaniti and DN Stern, (New York University Press),
(1994), 131-146.
[13] R.S. Siegler and D. KlahrWhen do children learn? The relationships between existing knowledge and the
acquisition of new knowledge in: Advances in Instructional Psychology ed R Glaser, (Hillsdale, New Jersey, LEA
vol 2), (1982).
[14] M. Michelini and A. Mossenta, 2000 The EPC project Exploring Planning Communicating, Girep book on
Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000, Round Table (Barcellona)
[15] J. Lave, The practice of learning in: Understanding practice. Perspectives on activity and contex eds S Chaiklin and
JLave (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), (1993).
[16] GEI (Giochi Esperimenti e Idee, www.uniud.it/cird/GEI) is a collection of 120 simple experiments in many
different fields of physics, well described in literature [10])
[17] S. Bosio, V. Capocchiani, M. Michelini, S. Pugliese Jona C. Sartori, M.L. Scillia and A. Stefanel, Playing,
experimenting, thinking: exploring informal learning within an exhibit of simple experiments, in Girep book on
new way for teaching,, (Ljubljana), (1997); Bosio S, Ceccolin D, Michelini M, Sartori C and Stefanel A, Games
experiments Ideas from low cost materials to the computer on-line: 120 simple experiments to do and not only
to see, in Girep Book on Hands on experiments in physics education, eds G Born, H Harries, H Litschke and N
Treitz (for ICPE_GIREP Duisburg), (1998); Bosio S, Michelini M, Santi L, Sartori C and Stefanel A, A research
on conceptual change processes in the context of an informal educational exhibit, Wirescript, novembre
(www.wirescript.com) (1999). Other articles can be down-loaded from the site
www.fisica.uniud.it/GEI/GEIweb/ricerche/ricerche.htm.
[18] L. Cibin, A. Del Bianco, M. Michelini, G. Michelutti and A. Odorico Laboratorio di fisica per la didattica
Universit e scuola in press
[19] T.B. Rogers, Emotion, imagery and verbal codes: a closer look at an increasing by complex interaction in: J Yuille
Imagery, memory and cognition (Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New York)
[20] One child said: I took the object after my class mate and his hands had heated it up
THE DIDACTIC LABORATORY AS A PLACE TO EXPERIMENT MODELS FOR THE
INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
Margherita Fasano, University of Basilicata, Italy
Francesco Casella, IRRE Basilicata, Italy
1. Introduction
Beyond what adults can imagine, the exchange of messages and information using a special
spontaneous and impromptu code, is nowadays more frequent between children and adolescents.
In most of the cases, this code is organized at the moment and it is aimed at conveying instructions
in order to satisfy a practical need concerning an instrumental knowledge (e.g.: how you can
advance level in a computer game, how you can set in position the character movements, how a
particular game configuration can be determined...). The strong motivation and the need, in some
cases, of a written communication favour the utilization of a rapid symbolic and very effective
language from the point of view of the meanings to be conveyed.
The expression shown above is related to a communicative exchange between an 8-year-old child
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Dx Sx x2 x9 x x5
397
and a 12-year-old adolescent about the use of a CD-ROM for the Playstation videogame platform.
This expression may be variously interpreted by a mathematician or a computer scientist but to the
two children it acquires a precise meaning, which permits to solve the problem.
It can be pointed out that this language reflects most of the features of a more formal language: the
use of symbols, the relation among symbols, the assignments of meanings (in the expression
reported above the last but one x has been circled on purpose in order to give it a meaning which
is different from those of the other xs ), the conciseness and the uniqueness.
In Italy, researches in Mathematics Education (see Arzarello 1994, Malara 1996) have often
emphasized the difficulty in the teaching/learning process focused on the development of an
algebraic thinking. The passage from arithmetic to algebra presents several pitfalls, due mostly to
the need of reading an expression not only from a strictly algorithmic point of view (technical
execution of a calculation) but also as a mathematical structured object, which can be assigned a
meaning. Being able to gather relations and analogies between mathematical objects and being
able to recognize the structures and meanings are fundamental competence required to develop
the algebraic thinking, without which the application of rules and models to interpret the reality
would be extremely difficult.
The habit of devoting the most of teaching time to the procedural aspects, which are typical of
arithmetic, prevents from gathering and properly facing the relational aspects, which involve some
competence closer to the algebraic thinking.
We believe that, from a didactic point of view, the recover of the approach which takes into account
the motivation factors and the learning environment is of fundamental importance in mathematics
teaching. The motivation factors include not only the most pleasant and delightful situations but
also those elements relating to curiosity, game, individual and group experiences which may
become a source of discussion, of working hypothesis, of discovery, of reflection among students
and between the teacher and his/her students. The conditions of the learning environment derive
mainly from a planning carried out by the teacher considering, in a dimension of a dialectical and
in progress process, the work of both the student and the teacher and the didactic relationship
which is estabilshed each time.
2. The didactic laboratory as a research and learning environment
Generally, the concept of didactic laboratory is associated to a place where various kinds of
expriments (chemical, biological, physical...) are conducted. However, in the last few years, the idea
of a didactic practice based on a laboratory approach has been asserted. It does not necessarily
coincide with the common conception of a laboratory but it takes the form of a research and
learning environment whose focal point is making the most of the methodological aspects.
On the one hand, this characteristic, particularly important for the innovation process in the
training field, favours the development and the acquisition of the competence required to teachers
for the implementation, management and control of various teaching situations and on the other
hand it improves the motivation of the students in learning within a co-operative and research
environment.
This approach, mainly focused on the methodological aspects, permits to realize more easily a
didactic programme, indipendently of the contents chosen during the planning phase.
The laboratory approach takes the shape of a work organized into projects, from the formulation
of the project idea (on what we intend to work) to the definition of the objectives to achieve; to the
analysis of the available resources and those to be gathered; to the planning of the work stages and
of the deadlines; to the organization of the activities to research, collect and ultimately process the
data; to the final evaluation of what has been obtained.
The experimentation, being mainly cognitive because the student organizes and reorganizes his/her
knowledge in a continuous doing and being able to do, is also supported by the emotional
involvement, by the enjoyment and the curiosity of the individual and of the group about the
process of discovery which brings to the achievement of a shared objective.
3. The process of organization and of reorganization of knowledge
In the process of organization and reorganization of his/her knowledge and particularly in sight of
an objective to achieve, the student has to identify, select and use the information proceeding from
the situation to study. Moreover, the student has to connect and compare them with his/her
scientific knowledge and then look for a new arrangement in a structure that represents and
organizes both the concepts and the relations among these concepts.
During this activity, the oncoming difficulties are mainly due to the habit of behaving in a linear
sequence of actions related to the daily routine activities (reading, writing, talking, solving various
kinds of problems...). This procedural aspect is so strong that it often limits or, sometimes, even
forbids the recourse to the relational thinking that, even if present, does not find either the
possibility or the conditions to be carried on.
Consequently, from a didactic point of view, it is convenient to arrange in advance the learning
environments, aiming at the development of both procedural and relational processes, whose
osmosis permits the construction of knowledge.
The importance of the need of facing this problem is largely emphasized in the national and
international literature, which underlines the relapse, according to the learning sphere, of the
insufficient development of the relational aspect compared to the procedural one. This can be
expressed in the difficulty in acquiring disciplinary competence and in developing logical capacities
useful in identifying crossing competence also between different knowledge fields.
Among the most significant researches regarding this aspect, there are, for instance, those referring
to the development of the algebraic thinking (Sfard, Arzarello, Malara), which is fundamental for
modelling mathematically the reality and for estabilshing and representing the relations with
mathematical objects through symbols ( the recognition of laws and structures). In particular, as
Malara (1997) states: In teaching, algebra is introduced as an arithmetical generalization, using its
signs (the arithmetic operation signs and the equal sign) and its properties. However, while in
arithmetic the calculation algorithms are privileged and the algebraic expressions are conceived as
sequences of operations to execute in order to obtain a certain result, in algebra, on the contrary,
the study of the symbolic representations (expressions, equations, functions), conceived as a
mathematical object, prevails. This process-object passage, typical of the development of
mathematics (Sfard, 1991, 1994), is not enough emphasized in mathematics teaching.
Consequently, the teacher, aware of the necessity of not neglecting the interaction between the
procedural process and the relational one, must create ad hoc situations where the instrument
choice and the usage modality are extremely coherent and functional with the development and/or
the strengthening of cognitive structures facilitating the knowledge construction process, in strictly
disciplinary and crossing contexts.
The planning of a teaching activity in a multimedia environment may represent an excellent
reference in order to realize the above-mentioned situation.
For multimedia learning environment not only we do mean all the technological resources
(hardware and software) necessary for producing a hypermedia but also all that precedes the
implementation phase, usually conceived as the most important and meaningful in the whole
process. This situation creates the conditions for realizing a laboratory activity where a learning and
teaching model is experimented. This model is able to emphasize, at the same time, both the
cognitive situation of a subject in a certain moment and in a specific reality and the way in which
his/her information are organized and represented. The main interest in this psycho-pedagogical
statement is to stimulate a training process, starting from the student real (and not presumed)
experience that represents an unavoidable reference to obtain an effective didactic action.
How is it possible to leaven the subject cognitive and not cognitive experience? Which
instruments should be used?
4. The conceptual map as an interaction instrument between the subject and the object
It results from the researches and experiences carried on in the last few years that the conceptual
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map is the most suitable instrument to represent the logical project of a multimedia product
information network. Moreover, the researches that we have carried on (Fasano 1989) have shown
the importance of the construction of a conceptual map in order to promote and facilitate the
interaction between the cognitive processes of the subject and the learning object.
By the way, the teacher who wishes to take advantage of this instrument has to be able to manage
and control the methodology of the pertinent teaching activity.
Indeed, the construction process of a conceptual map involves specific phases:
a) choice of the object to study;
b) recall, identification and selection of the concepts considered relevant in order to explore the
object to study;
c) network organization and representation of the concepts by each student;
d) argumentation of the choices made in terms of link-words, connections between the nodes of
the map, comparison and discussion about the various points of view;
e) individual revision of the map, worked out on the basis of the stimulation induced by
comparison and discussion.
The choice of the object to study (point a) is conditioned by several factors, implicit and explicit as
regards the curriculum (course of studies), such as the disciplinary context, the interests related to
a topic shared by the whole class, a common project involving several classes, even belonging to
schools far from each other.
It is important that the students do not experience the choice of the object to study as a classwork
given by the teacher but, on the contrary, as a good opportunity to satisfy a curiosity or a need,
shared by all the students or rather by the students and their teachers.
The recall, identification and selection of the concepts (point b) has to appeal to both the school
internal and external resources (texts, films, interviews, network) and the subject internal
resources (his/her own information, experiences and competence).
The network organization and representation of the concepts (point c) can be also facilitated by a
game involving the use of small cardboard circles (as many as the concepts identified before), each
one provided with the transcription of all the concepts. The handling of the small circles and the
different attempts aimed at organizing them on a sheet of paper (an A3 format is preferred)
correspond to the activity of the cognitive organization and reorganization of the learner. It is
possible to have a visual idea of the activity thanks to the graphic representation.
The argumentation of the options which have been chosen (point d) bears two positive
consequences: the development of logical-linguistic capacities (pertinence, concordance,
correctness, conciseness) and the consideration of various points of view that can be found in the
classwork of the other classmates.
The comparison and the discussion on classwork help the students to find out mistakes and to
introduce some corrections. This fact assumes a pedagogical value apart from a didactic one.
The individual revision of the map, worked out on the basis of the stimulation induced by
comparison and discussion (point e), permits the self-regulation of ones own learning process. If
the production of a hypermedia has been planned, it would be advisable, because of the managerial
role that the teacher has to play, to aim for a conceptual map shared by the whole class.
Consequently, the maps which have been just produced will be revised again in order to make up
the various proposals into a new one.
5. A metacompetence for the interdisciplinary research
In the last few years, the school and the training industry have undertaken a project-oriented way
of working. The main objective is usually the achievement of competence which are often certified.
The methodologies are mainly heuristic aiming to involve all the students and one of the most
desired and required training objective is being able to move in a flexible way among various
disciplinary areas.
A very favourable place where to realize this new pedagogical and didactic trend is the multimedia
laboratory in which a metacompetence can be gradually developed. It is built up on the habit of
working on concepts whose meanings can be discovered and on the habit of making a proper use
of the cognitive, procedural and relational processes, defining the sequences of a research itinerary
and estabilishing connections between different kinds of objects to study.
This kind of metacompetence fulsils effectively several needs sensed by modern professionals who
often require certain skills such as beeing able to work in team, being able to periodically reconvert
ones own competence, following the continuous innovations, and being able to interact with other
contexts greatly influenced by technologies.
As far as the school field is concerned, a significant example of application of this metacompetence
is provided by the interaction between mathematics and physics: mathematics offers useful
theoretical models for physics in order to develop researches, inquires, checks on hypotheses that
favour a greater knowledge of world and universe phenomena (for instance, Riemanns geometry
of the sphere and Einsteins theory of relativity), while physics provides a context to favour
problem solving and to facilitate the construction of the meaning for the mathematical contents
(for instance, the motion and the laws that bind velocity, space and time).
Finally, we can deduce that the main problem is not the interaction, always possible, between
disciplines but the capacity of planning learning environments that make possible the
experimentation of the interactions at different levels: research of both the information and their
meanings, selection and conceptual organization and , in the end, representation and formalization.
References
Arzarello F., Bazzini L., Chiappini G., The process of naming in algebraic problem solving, atti PME XVIII, col. 2,
(1994), 40-47.
Cafaro F., Casella F., Coronato A., Fasano M., Pandolfi C., Multimedialit e progetto didattico. Unapplicazione sul
problema dei rifiuti, Zanichelli, Bologna, (2000).
Fasano M., Informatica come e perch, in M. Pellerey (edited by), SEI, Torino, (1989), 44-59.
Fasano M., (edited by), Concetti in rete. Dalla costruzione della mappa concettuale alla produzione di un ipermedia,
Masson - Zanichelli, Bologna, (2000).
Garito Amato, Antinucci F., Tecnologie e processi cognitivi. Insegnare ad apprendere con la multimedialit, Franco
Angeli, Milano, (1997).
Malara N.A., Il pensiero algebrico: come promuoverlo sin dalla scuola dellobbligo limitandone le difficolt?, in
LEducazione matematica, anno XVII, serie V, 1, (1996), 80-99.
Malara N.A., Problemi di insegnamento-apprendimento nel passaggio dallaritmetica allalgebra, in La matematica e
la sua didattica, N.2, (1997), 176-186.
Pellerey M., Lagire educativo. La pratica pedagogica tra modernit e postmodernit, Ed. LAS , Roma, (1998).
Polo M., Il ruolo dellinsegnante nella gestione delle attivit in classe: risonanza degli interventi degli alunni sul progetto
delle insegnanti, Atti Internuclei, Scuola dellobbligo, aprile 2001 (in course of publication by Pitagora Editrice).
Sfard A., On the Dual Nature of Mathematical Conceptions: Reflections on Processes and Object as Different Sides of
the Same Coin in Educational Studies in Mathematics, 22, (1991), 1-36.
Sfard A., The Gains and Pitfalls of retification: The case of Algebra in Educational Studies in Mathematics, 26, 191-
228.
A MODERN TEACHING FOR MODERN PHYSICS IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS
TRAINING
Marco, Giliberti, Dipartimento di Fisica Universit degli Studi di Milano, INFN sezione di
Milano, Italy
1. Introduction
Since many years the Research Unit in Physics Education of the Universit degli Studi di Milano has
been working in the field of Modern Physics Education. In the last two years the members of this
research group have been involvend in the SeCiF (Explaining and Understanding in Physics)
national Project together with other five Research groups, from the Universities of Napoli, Palermo,
Pavia, Torino and Udine with the aim of studying a coordinated approach to Mechanics,
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1
Also other two research unities involved in he SeCiF Project, those of Udine and Torino, are working on Modern
Physics Education[19]-[21] but with an approach slightly different from ours.
Thermodynamics, Optics and Quantum Physics Education, bringing their contribution especially on
the last topic
1
.
The starting points of our work are some conclusions of our (and others) previous studies about
Modern Physics Education [1]-[9] and may be roughly summarised as follows: High-School Students
have great difficulties in understanding some of the principal conceptual points of Modern Physics, i.
e. the meaning of quanta, the necessity of a statistical description of Nature, the structure of the World
around us (beginning from the structure of the atom) etc. mostly because of the inadequate
traditional teaching approach. In this situation is not surprising that even High-School teachers
have shown problems in constructing a coherent picture of Modern Physics and, especially, in
building a didactical framework that is appealing and has a real cultural meaning for Students and,
consequently, for all people.
To overcome these difficulties, the educational materials now available (text-books, CD roms and so
on) are, in general, not immediately useful because lacking of a sufficiently coherent framework and
because leading to didactical routs that, as it has been generally highlighted by many studies[3], [5],
[9], are clearly not effective.
For these reasons, in the context of the SeCiF project, we studied, and started to test, the new
approach to Modern Physics Education that is sketched in Appendix 1. Its too difficult for me to
explain in few words this scheme, nonetheless Ill try to give the principal starting points of our
approach and some very rough examples of its peculiarities, in the hope of stimulating interest.
2. Starting points of our Quantum Teaching Project
Our project has 5 starting points:
1. Physics is one and we should not create a gap constructing Modern Physics against Classical
Physics.
2. History is not our reference guide and thus we must construct a general coherent framework of
Quantum Physics independently of how it is grown.
3. Quantum Physics is not equivalent to Quantum Mechanics and its paradigm; the Quantum
Theory we have now is Quantum Field Theory and it well be our principal guide.
4. Physics does not end in the 30s and thus we should try (the best that we can) to have in mind the
whole last century and not only its first 30 years.
5. Popularisation is not our field of interest.
In fact our aim is to teach Quantum Physics and our teaching should be as effective as possible. We
believe that this goal may be achieved using the ideas of Quantum Field Theory. Whereas Quantum
Mechanics is the adaptation of the Newtonian world of point-like particles to quantum phenomena,
Quantum Field Theory is the evolution of Classical Field Theory to give reason of quantum
phenomena. In this framework: the primary object of the theory is the field, not the particles; while
the statistical and particle aspects of Quantum Physics are all embraced in the description of
interactions.
Our project is ambitious: starting from the preceding points and, merging some modern experiments
of the last decade with some classical experiments, as well as with some results of Quantum Field
Theory, it has the purpose to lead to a new vision of the Quantum World Teaching.
In my opinion it goes straight on to the main goal and gives a natural and unitary reference
framework.
3. Some peculiar Aspects
I give here, very shortly, just some rough examples of the differences among our and other more or
less standard strategies, while a scheme of our approach can be found in the Appendix 1.
The first peculiarity refers to the meaning of the word classic. We call classic every non quantised
field description of both force and matter. In this line of reasoning the well known Davisson-Germer
diffraction pattern is a classical effect, in which a matter pencil undergoes classical (that is
explainable without quanta) diffraction. With this sense of classic, a lot of beautiful example of
classical (or, in more standard words, high intensity) experiments on the wave behaviour of matter
can be seen in very recent works of Tonomura, Rauch, Zeilinger[10]-[12] and others. From this point
of view there is a strong similarity of behaviour between matter and radiation if we describe matter,
as we do, through a classic matter wave field.
Another peculiar aspect may be seen in the way in which we introduce particle-like interactions. We
know that Chemistry interactions may be well understood in terms of local and universal exchange
of Quanta (atoms). Its not surprising, therefore, that other similar interactions, for instance of
electromagnetic radiation impinging on a metal, may be well interpreted in terms of other Quanta
(photons) In such a way Photoelectric as well as Compton effect receive an explanation that is not
constructed against Classical Physics in the same sense in which Chemistry is not. The discovery of
Photons may be considered an important improvement to the already known Physics and theres no
need of a long and difficult discussion about the inadequacy of Classical Physics for explaining such
effectsThis is not a way of hiding the differences between the Classical and Quantum World but,
instead, its a way of putting it in the right place, that is in the (statistical) description of interactions.
Another typical example of the difference between our and traditional Modern Physics
Curriculum concerns the logical route towards the structure of the atom. We dont follow the usual
way of presenting the Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Sommerfeld, De Broglie and, last, the orbital
models (six models!). We just present first some fundamental experiments (the most important are
those of Geiger and Marsden) [13] and then, starting from the knowledge of the behaviour of a
quantised field enclosed in a box, we arrive immediately at the energy levels and the structure of the
atom.
4. Testing the Approach with Teachers (some numbers)
This approach has been tested for two years in the course Quantum Theories of the S.I.L.S.I.S.-MI
(Inter-University Lombard School of Specialisation for Secondary Teaching, section of Milan), that is
one of the Italian, regional, post-graduate, 2-Years, Schools of pre-service Teachers training. Both
years the duration of the course was of nearly 30 hour, 20 of which of disciplinary education and 10
(held with the help of Prof. L. Cazzaniga) of Educational Laboratory.
In the following some numbers about the course are given.
The first year we had 13 students of the overall 25 students attending Physics courses of the SILSIS-MI.
The Mathematicians were 4, the Physicists 8 and there was also 1 Engineer.
Every student of the first year, but one, passed the examination. The marks were between 26 and 30 cum
laude (In Italy sufficiency is 18 and the maximum is 30 cum laude) while the average mark was 29.
The second year we had 19 students of the overall 21 students attending Physics courses. The
Mathematicians were 8, the Physicists 10 and there was also 1 Engineer.
The examinations for the second years students have not yet started.
To the Students of the second year we proposed the anonymous questionnaire about the course that
can be seen in Appendix 2.
5. Few Final Considerations on the obtained Results
The answers given to the questionnaire and the colloquia we had during the examinations (as well as
the exchange of opinions during laboratory work) greatly encouraged us in carrying on our work on
Quantum Physics Teaching. In fact most of the students declared themselves very satisfied by our
approach and asked for a similar approach even in the University degree courses. Everyone was
favourably impressed by the educational content of the course and 3 of them (the only that were
already teaching, as supply teachers, in a final class of a Scientific HighSchool) spontaneously tried
our approach in their classes and discussed, during laboratory lessons, the results obtained with their
High-School students. They declared themselves very satisfied.
Nonetheless some problems appeared. The only Engineer of the first year course did not make the
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403
examination while the Engineer of this second year course explicitly declared himself uncomfortable
with the ideas of the course.
4 of the 8 Mathematicians had some problems because they felt uneasy with electromagnetism while
the others declared themselves greatly encouraged by our strategies.
During laboratory work, 40% of the students had problems in preparing lesson unities about the
atom without the usual route through Thomson, Bohr, De Broglie, Sommerfeld-Models and some
efforts had to be made to clarify our view.
Most of the students pointed out a difficulty in preparing the examination because there were (and,
that I know, there are yet) no textbooks with our line of reasoning. To this respective we hope that
the materials we are preparing for the SeCiF Project can be useful
2
.
In conclusion we believe we have reached some general important results and we have a clear way
to go through, but we have still a lot of work to do. First of all we have to improve our testing
strategies, experimenting with a larger number of Teachers and monitoring the High-School Students
responses. Some preliminary attempts, made in High-School classes in the last 6 years and already
presented in past Girep Conferences[14]-[17], give us confidence in good results in real classes but we
have never really monitored what our Teachers will teach when left alone. We do hope that this
well be done in the next years with the help of every Teacher and Researcher interested in our work.
Aknowledgments
Im very grateful to Professors L. Lanz and G. M. Prosperi for the helpful and deep discussions about
Foundations of Quantum Theories and Teaching. I address a lovely thought to memory of late Doctor
C. Marioni that with competence and helpfulness initiated me to Physics Education. And last, but not
least, Im very indebted Professor G. Vegni, under whose precious guide Im doing my research, and
to all the friends of the SeCiF Project. A special thank to all them.
References
[1] G., Rinaudo, Introduction , L.F.N.S. quaderno 7, 1, (1997).
[2] A., Hobson Teaching Quantum Theory in the Introductory Course The Phys. Teach. 34, (1996), 202-210
[3] D., Johnston K., Crawford P. R. Fletcher Student difficulties in learning quantum mechanics Int. J. Sci. Educ.,
vol. 20, no 4, (1998), 427-446.
[4] F. Hermann et al. Der Karlsruher Physikkurs par. 3. E. Taylor, S. Vokos
[5] H. Fischler, M. Lichtfeldt Modern Physics and Students Conceptions Int. J. Sci. Educ. 14 (2) 181-90.
[6] I. Lawrence, Quantum Physics in school Phys. Educ. 31, 278-87.
[7] J. OMeara Teaching Feynmans sum-over-paths quantum theory Computer Physics, vol. 12, no. 2,. (1998).
[8] M. Giliberti, C. Marioni The Introduction of Modern Physics at High-School Level. A new Approach based on
the Analysis of Students Conceptions; IFUM 529/FT, (1996).
[9] D. Gil, J. Solbes The introduction of modern Physics: overcoming a deformed vision of science Int. J. Sci. Educ,.
15, (3), 255-60.
[10] A. Tonomura The Quantum World Unveiled by electron Waves; World Scientific Publishing (1998).
[11] H. Rauch, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Symp. On Found. Of Q. M., (1990).
[12] A. Zerilnger Letter to Nature 401, (1999), 680.
[13] N. Bergomi, M. Giliberti, Modelling Rutherford Scattering: A Hypertext for High-School Teachers Net-
training; Proc. GIREP ICPE Physics Teacher Education Beyond 2000, Editions Scientifiques et Medical
Elsevier, (2001).
[14] M. Giliberti, C. Marioni, Revisiting the H-Atom and Electron Configurations in Atoms: a Case Study at High-
School Level; Proceedings of the GIREP ICPE International Conference: Teaching the Science of Condensed
Matter and new Materials, Udine 24-30 Agosto, (1995), 168-171.
[15] M. Giliberti, C. Marioni, The Introduction of Modern Physics at High-School Level. A new Approach based
on the Analysis of Students Conceptions; IFUM 529/FT, (1996).
[16] M. Giliberti Teaching about Heisenbergs Relations; Proceedings of the GIREP ICPE International
Conference: New Ways of Teaching Physics, Ljubljana 21-27 Agosto, (1996), 533-534.
[17] M. Giliberti. Popularisation or Teaching ? How much Math in Physics Courses?; Proceedings of the GIREP
ICPE International Conference: New Ways of Teaching Physics, Ljubljana 21-27 Agosto, (1996), 408-411.
[18] G. C. Ghirardi, R Grassi, M Michelini, A Fundamental Concept in Quantum Theory: The Superposition
Principle, in Thinking Physics for Teaching, Aster, Plenum Pub Corp, (1996).
2
They should be ready by the end of November 2001.
[19] Ghirardi G. C., Grassi R., Michelini M., The linear superposition principle and non classical features of
microphenomena, in GIREP-ICPE Book, Forum, (1996).
[20] A. Cuppari, G. Rinaudo, Robutti O., Violino p., Gradual introduction of some aspects of quantum mechanics
in a High School curriculum , Phys. Ed., 32 , 302-308 , ISSN 0031-9120, (1997).
[21] D. Allasia, C. Bottino, G. Rinaudo, A. Cuppari, I. Giraudo, A simple hands-on experiment to appreciate the
limits between Classical and Quantum Physics, Proceedings of GIREP Int. conference, Duisburg, (1998).
Appendix 1
404
GROUND STATE OF
THE HYDROGEN
ATOM
E. M. INT.:
E. M. QUANTA
MATTER
OPTICS
MATTER
WAVE EQ.
E. M.
WAVE EQ.
E. M.
OPTICS
MATTER AS A CONTINUUM CONTINUA OF FORCE FIELDS
(E. M. FIELD)
FROM CLASSICAL PHYSICS TO MODERN PHYSICS
CHEMISTRY:
MATTER QUANTA
INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION, ETC.
(DOUBLE SLIT)
STATISTICAL
INTERPRETATION
FIELD OF WHICH THE
PARTICLE IS THE QUANTUM
WAVE
PACKETS
STATIONARY
STATES
RADIOACTIVITY
RUTHERFORD
MODEL
HEISENBERGS
RELATIONS
SPECTRA FRANCK-HERTZ
EXPERIMENT
ENERGY
LEVELS
HYDROGEN
ATOM
ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
KEY
CONCEPT
405
Appendix 2
19 (all) Students answered.
Evaluation Questionnaire of the Course Quantum Theories
Please answer the following Questions giving a mark between 1 (worst) and 5 (best); 3 is sufficiency.
(In brackets and in Italics the average result for each question)
Im satisfied by the course (3.8)
The contents of the course have been
Pertinent (4.8)
Examined carefully (3.8)
The Teachers have been
Understandable (3.7)
Well-integrated (4.2)
The teaching methodology has been effective (3.6)
The organisation has been appropriate (3.5)
(In brackets and in Italics the most given answers)
* Please point out, among all the lessons and the laboratory works, the most interesting aspects
(Educational Aspects, New Experiments, Conceptual Revision)
* Please give indication about the aspects that should be improved
(Lecture notes and textbooks on the subject)
* Please list three topics you found particularly interesting for your disciplinary preparation
(Matter Waves, Analogy Matter Fields-Force Fields, Introduction of Radiation Quanta)
* Please list three topics you found particularly interesting for your class work
(Preparation of lesson unities, Analysis of classroom experimentations, Preparation of initial and final
tests for High-School students)
* Please list three topics you found particularly difficult
(Klein-Gordon Equation, Electromagnetic Field as a gauge Field)
* It should be useful that the teachers of the course.
(Gave reference Textbooks, Gave a better Bibliography, Used Multimedia)
The teaching rhythm has been. (In brackets and in Italics the number of answers received)
Too slow (0)
Adequate (14)
Too fast (5)
The participants to the course have been involved
Too much (0)
Adequately (19)
Too little (0)
The group work have been
Useless (0)
Useful (4)
Very useful (19)
Please give an overall judgment on the course (4)
TEACHING ENERGY IN HIGH SCHOOL: CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND PROPOSALS
J. Ll. Domnech, D. Gil-Prez, Universitat de Valncia, Spain
A. Gras-Mart, J. Martnez-Torregrosa, Universitat dAlacant, Spain
G. Guisasola, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Spain
J. Salinas, Universidad Nacional de Tucumn, Argentina
1. Introduction
The importance given to the study of energy both at high-school and University level has been
accompanied by a progressive understanding of the many difficulties encountered in teaching and
learning this domain. Published studies range from specific research items to proposals for in-class
dealing with the subject. These works include: Duit (1981 and 1986), Black and Solomon (1983),
Solomon (1983 and 1985), Watts (1983), Driver and Warrington (1985), Trumper (1990), Nicholls
and Ogborn (1993), Koliopoulos and Ravanis (1998), and many others.
All the studies about the teaching and learning difficulties of energy, like those referred to above,
have addressed, in general, various specific aspects. However, we believe that the difficulties
pointed out in the literature are interrelated and demand a more global approach, which we have
undertaken.
2. A proper comprehension of energy
As a result of the analysis of the abundant research literature on the subject, plus a number of
interviews with teachers (Domnech, 2000), we have made an attempt to spell out in 26
propositions what we consider a proper understanding of energy and related issues by high-school
students. These propositions are divided into three groups: conceptual (18 propositions),
procedural and axiological (8 propositions). The propositions are mutually dependent and
interconnected, and should be discussed accordingly in the teaching process. We have only space
here to mention the general guidelines and a few propositions in each group.
The conceptual propositions are structured in five groups:
I) About the meaning of concepts. (Energy is not some kind of fluid, nor a kind of fuel which is
needed to produce transformations () The transformations that a system undergoes are due
to interactions with other systems or to interactions among its parts).
II) About the systemic and relative nature of energy. ( Speaking about the energy of an isolated
object lacks all meaning).
III) About the relations between energy, work and heat. (From the kinetic-molecular theory, heat
arises as a magnitude that encompasses mechanical work performed at a submicroscopic level.
Therefore heat, like macroscopic work, is not a form of energy but an exchange of energy).
IV) About transformation and conservation of energy. (The total energy of an isolated system
remains constant, but whenever such a system experiences changes there must necessarily be
energy transfers and/or transformations of energy in its interior).
V) About energy degradation. (When we talk about energy consumption or energy crisis, we
do not mean that energy disappears, but that it has become homogenized, i.e., that the
configuration of the system does not allow for macroscopic changes to occur).
A fair scientific knowledge cannot be limited to conceptual aspects; a correct conceptual
understanding by the students must also incorporate procedural and axiological aspects, which
are structured in three groups:
VI) About the origin and relevance of the concepts. (It is necessary to be aware of the problems
that led to the introduction of the concepts, if one wants to stress the rational character of
scientific knowledge).
VII) About the scientific approach. (Students must have the opportunity to use criteria and
strategies of elaboration and validation which are characteristic of scientific work -namely, to
make assumptions, to conceive experimental designs, etc.- in such a manner that they can
confront their tentative constructions with those of the scientific community. In our particular
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instance, students must know the scientific criteria that laid the foundations for the acceptance
of the theory of caloric, and its ulterior rejection, and they should understand that the
integration of mechanics and heat was a real revolution).
VIII)About a full understanding of this conceptual domain. (It is necessary to overcome the
tendency of students to disregard the use of the energetic approach in solving problems of
motion and to use instead, routinely, only the kinematics-dynamics approach).
With this set of propositions we have attempted to offer a global view of what we consider to be an
adequate comprehension of the energy concept and its implications. The set of conceptual,
procedural and axiological aspects has to be contemplated in its totality, in order to make the
understanding of this field of knowledge possible.
It is our assumption that the students difficulties pointed out by numerous researchers (Duit, 1981;
Pint 1991) may be due to the fact that usual teaching practice leaves out a good number of the
aspects that have been mentioned above. In order to check this assumption we have analyzed the
teaching of energy in high school and have also tested a modified teaching approach that
incorporates explicitly, and in various contexts, all the propositions enumerated above.
3. Textbook analysis
In order to test the assumption that the usual pattern followed to introduce the concepts of energy,
work and heat, is not in agreement with the propositions we have just outlined, thereby
contributing to students lack of comprehension, we have analysed 33 Spanish high-school
textbooks corresponding to the following levels: 13 textbooks for compulsory secondary education
(students aged 14 to 16), and 20 textbooks for the equivalent of A-levels (students aged 16 to 18).
We show in Table I some of the results obtained from this analysis.
Let us briefly comment upon these results, which have been reinforced with interviews addressed
to high-school teachers (Domnech, 2000). One observes the strikingly small percentage (always
below 20 %) of textbooks that incorporate any of the aspects considered in our analysis. So, in none
% (Sd)
1. Is the development of the topic presented as a strategy in order to solve problems
of interest? 0 (-)
2. Is the knowledge introduced in a meaningful way? In particular, do the operative
definitions proposed for the concepts respond to qualitative ideas?
2a. Work
2b. Kinetic energy
2c. Gravitational potential energy
18 (7)
15 (6)
12 (6)
3. Is the dynamic character of the process of construction of knowledge pointed out?
In particular, are the limitations or changes in the proposed definition of energy stated?
0 (-)
4. Are situations analyzed where a connection with students alternative conceptions
is possible?
4a. Is it stated explicitly that the absolute energy of a system cannot be defined?
4b. Is it pointed out that speaking about the energy of an isolated object is
meaningless?
4c. Are the differences between heat and internal energy spelled out?
4d. Is the apparent contradiction between energy conservation and depletion of its
resources dealt with?
12 (6)
0 (-)
3 (3)
18 (7)
5. When studying heat phenomena, is the integrating character of thermodynamics
emphasized? 0 (-)
6. Are the advantages and limitations of the energetic treatment pointed out, in
comparison with the dynamic-kinematic treatment, when studying the motion of
objects?
0 (-)
Table I: Analysis of how the concepts of energy, work and heat are introduced in textbooks
of the 33 books is the development of the subject matter associated with the treatment of problems
of interest that need to be solved by scientific means. All these textbooks proceed, with no link to
the problems stated at the onset of the chapter, to introduce the concepts of work and energy. This
way of introducing the concepts must appear quite arbitrary to students since they cannot even
guess the reason for this procedure, at this initial stage of the discussion.
In most cases, the operative definitions of the concepts are introduced ad hoc, as a starting point.
This conveys some arbitrariness: why do we define work the way we do, and not, for instance, as the
product of force and the time during which it acts?
If students should acquire a dynamic vision of science, in which the meaning of concepts is
constantly evolving, it is necessary that they perceive this characteristic in the manner in which the
scientific concepts are introduced in the classroom, and they must become acquainted with the
scientific criteria for acceptability or rejection (Gil, 1996). The energy concept is especially
adequate in this respect, because it has undergone substantial changes before reaching its present
status (Harman, 1982). None of this happens in any of the textbooks examined.
Within the constructivistic approach of learning, which we share, question 4 in Table I is essential.
Even though constructivistic models of knowledge have oriented different teaching strategies, all
of them coincide in the necessity, as a requisite to achieve a meaningful learning, that students
relate the new knowledge with their initial conceptions. The scarcity of arguments that textbooks
suggest with the purpose of clarifying the intricacies of energy, heat and work, do not facilitate that
students achieve an adequate comprehension of these concepts.
None of the textbooks point out that, historically, mechanics and the study of heat evolved
separately, and that it was the integration of both fields which allowed an adequate concept of heat
to develop, and to advance in the construction of a more general and powerful body of knowledge.
We have found also that none of the textbooks suggest any consideration of the advantages and
disadvantages of using the concepts of energy and work to study the problems that are usually
attacked with a kinematic-dynamic treatment. Neither do the textbooks discuss the use of the
expression W + Q = E to tackle the study of motion.
4. A new teaching approach
We have developed a new teaching approach that takes into account research in science education
and, in particular, the proposals of science teaching and learning as a guided research. We have
investigated the effects of reorganizing the teaching of energy by taking into account the
orientations synthesized in the 26 propositions mentioned above.
In this perspective, we have prepared programs of activities oriented towards students that learn,
as novel researchers, under the guidance of the teacher (Gil, 1996). Our aim is to facilitate the
attempts by students to tackle problematic situation of interest, related to transformations that
occur in Nature. We expect students to be able to (re)construct in a significant manner the
knowledge about energy, heat and work, that is usually delivered to them as a finished product.
We have prepared three working guides (programs of activities) with the following titles:
a) A deeper study of changes: introduction of the concepts of work and energy.
b) Heat as an agent of change.
c) Energy, work and heat: integration of two fields of knowledge.
37 class hours were spent in developing this program. The detailed research programs can be
found in (Domnech 2000). They have been tested both with high-school students and with in-
practice teachers.
We have compared the learning achieved by an experimental group of students with that
obtained by a control group. We have performed surprise tests a few weeks after completion of
this program, and we have also checked the long-term recall of both groups of students.
The results obtained are quite promising (Domnech 2000), in that students make noticeable
progress both in the quality and duration of their learning and in the abilities developed to address
new situations. In particular, those students that have worked through the program of activities
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take into account in their analyses the relevant aspects of the concepts of energy, work and heat,
and its mutual relationships. Also, the arguments they use are more elaborated than those used by
the students in the control group.
5. Conclusions and perspectives
The overall conclusions of our study of textbooks and student performance with the current
teaching materials and practices (Domnech 2000) are these:
1) Generally speaking, teachers do not introduce the concepts of energy, work and heat as
hypothesis put forward with the aim of solving problems.
2) A meaningful introduction to the concepts is seldom made. In particular, it is not shown that
the operative definitions of the concepts arise from certain qualitative ideas. Nor the limitations
encountered by the proposed definitions of the concepts are ordinarily exposed.
3) Situations that favor a connection of students alternative conceptions to questions being
studied are not frequently introduced.
4) The integrating and universal character of the energy concept is not stressed.
5) Students are not motivated to appreciate the advantages that the energetic treatment has, over
using exclusively the dynamics and kinematics treatment.
All these facts back up our initial assumption that the difficulties shown by students in the
comprehension of energy and related concepts may be due, at least partly, to deficiencies in the
orientation of their teaching, like the ones we have detected.
The development of new teaching materials, presented and worked out as guidelines for a guided
research towards development of the concepts needed for solving certain scientific problems, helps
to remedy this situation.
References
Black P. and Solomon J., Life-World And Science World- Pupils Ideas About Energy, Entropy In The School, 1,
Roland Eotvos Physical Society. Budapest, (1983).
Domnech J.L., Lensenyament De Lenergia, Leducaci Secundria. Anlisi De Les Dificultats I Una Proposta de
millora, PhD. Thesis. Universitat de Valncia, Spain, (2000).
Driver R. and Warrington L., Students Use Of The Principle Of Energy Conservation In Problem situations. Physics
Education, 20, (1985), 171-176.
Duit R., Understanding Energy As A Conserved Quantity. European Journal Of Science Education,. 3, (3), (1981),
291-301.
Duit R., In Search Of An Energy Concept. En Driver, R.And Millar, R. (Eds), Energy Matters. University Of Leeds,
(1986).
Gil D., New Trends In Science Education. International Journal Of Science Education, 18, (8), 1996, 889-901
Harman P.M., Energy, Force And Matter. The Conceptual Development Of Nineteenth-Century Physics, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press), (1982).
Koliopoulos D. and Ravanis K., Lensegnement De Lenergie Au Collge Vu Par Les Enseignants. Grille danalyse
de leurs conceptions. Aster 26, (1998), 165-182.
Nicholls G. and Ogborn J.,. Dimensions Of Childrens Conceptions Of Energy, International Journal Of Science
Education, 15, (1993), 73-81.
Pint R., Algunos Conceptos Implcitos En La Primera Y Segunda Leyes De La Termodinmica: Una Aportacin Al
estudio de las dificultades de su aprendizaje, PhD. Thesis. Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona. Spain, (1991).
Solomon J., Learning About Energy: How Pupils Think In Two Domains, European Journal Of Science Education, 5,
(1983), 49-59.
Solomon J., Teaching The Conservation Of Energy, Physics Education, 20, (1985), 165-170.
Trumper R., Being Constructive: An Alternative Approach To The Teaching Of The Energy Concept, Parts 1&2,
International Journal of Science Education, 12, (1990) 343-354, 13, (1990), 1-10.
Watts D.M., Some Alternative Views Of Energy, Physics Education, 18, (1983), 213-217.
OBSTACLES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING IN
OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY: THE CASE OF SPATIAL REASONING DIFFICULTIES
ENCOUNTERED BY PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS
Ch. Nicolaou, C. P. Constantinou, Learning in Physics Group, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
1. Introduction
Learning in Physics is a complex and multidimensional enterprise which can be analyzed into a
number of constituent components: the acquisition of experiences with natural phenomena
provides the basis for the subsequent development of concepts; the mental representation of the
structure of organization of scientific knowledge that is needed to avoid knowledge fragmentation
and meaningless use of jargon comes with the development of epistemological awareness; scientific
and reasoning skills provide the strategies and procedures for making operational use of ones
conceptual understanding in order to analyze and understand everyday phenomena but also to
undertake critical evaluation of evidence in decision making situations. Finally, positive attitudes
towards inquiry feed student motivation and safeguard sustainable engagement with the learning
process.
Traditionally, our educational systems fail to connect these components into a coherent learning
paradigm for physical science. The Learning in Physics Group at the University of Cyprus conducts
a coordinated program of research, curriculum development and teaching, which fundamentally
relies on the premise that real learning can only emerge when all these components are promoted
in unison.
This article is part of an on-going research program, through which we aim to investigate the
conceptual and reasoning difficulties that pre-service teachers encounter when guided to construct
a model for the relative motion of the sun and the earth, which is capable of offering detailed
explanation of the phenomenon of day and night. In this part of the project, we recorded the
prevalent initial ideas of undergraduate students on the day-night cycle and then exposed them to
the Astronomy by Sight module in Physics by Inquiry [1] We subsequently investigated weather the
students had developed an appropriate model of the sun-earth relative motion that could account
for the day-night cycle.
2. The day-night cycle
On a daily basis, we all observe and feel the consequences of the day-night cycle [2] However, only
a small percentage of us can explain in an appropriate manner how this happens, probably because
of the complexity of the phenomenon itself or of the inherent difficulty in the process of modeling
and understanding this phenomenon.
The apparent motion of the sun in the sky.
In this approach, we assume that an observation record of the apparent daily motion of the sun in
the sky is a pre-requisite to the construction of a model for the day-night cycle. Rise and set
times, the altitude and the direction of the sun in the sky are important data which need to be
included in the observation record. Such data can serve as a basis for eliciting students initial
ideas and supporting the process of model construction through negotiated reformulation and
evolution of those ideas. The same observational records can also serve as instruments for
evaluating the validity of competing models.
An observation record of the apparent motion of the sun in the sky.
Shadow plots can be used as convenient records of the apparent motion of the sun in the sky.
From this we can infer the direction of the sun in the sky at any one instant. In order to construct
a shadow plot we need a flat planar board with a nail to act as gnomon placed perpendicular to
the plain of the board. This is the shadow plotting board. We place a sheet of paper on the board
so that the nail sticks up roughly through the middle of the paper. We tape the paper onto the
board so that it cannot move and we note the height of the nail and the date on the paper. It is
also important to state on the paper the locations of several nearby landmarks so that we can
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subsequently identify the orientation of the paper. During the day we record the shadow of the
tip of the nail at intervals of approximately half an hour. The locus of the shadows is directly
related to the apparent motion of the sun in the sky. Repeated daily observations of the
phenomenon provide important additional information as to the time variation of the apparent
motion of the sun.
Appropriate accounts of the relative motion of the sun-earth system (two alternative, equivalent
models)
The information that arises from analysis of the shadow plots and the direct observations of the
learner form the basis for the construction of two alternative, equivalent models, each of which
is acceptable as an explanatory account of the mechanism of formation of the day-night cycle.
In each model the system consists of two bodies: the sun and the earth.
Model 1
According to this model, the day-night cycle results from a possible spin of the earth around its
own axis at a rate of one complete revolution every 24 hours. In this model, the sun is stationary.
Any one point on the earths surface faces the sun for 12 hours, the time period needed for half
a revolution. During this time interval, this point has daylight. For the twelve hours remaining to
complete one revolution, this point on the earths surface does no see the sun and experiences
nighttime. At every instant in time, half the earths surface experiences day and the other
hemisphere experiences night. Also at any instant, all points on the earths surface that fall along
a great circle through the poles experience transition from light to dark or vise versa as they are
rotating into the dark or the light, respectively.
Model 2
According to this model, the day-night cycle is a result of the rotation of the sun around the
earth once every 24 hours. In this model the earth is stationary at the center of the suns circular
path. At any one instant in time, half of the earths spherical surface is oriented towards the sun
and experiences day. The rest of the surface, which does not face the sun, experiences night. A
point on the earths surface has 12 hours day and 12 hours night, the time periods that
correspond to one half of the suns rotation.
It is important to note that both models can be modified in order to introduce a slant to the
spinning axis in order to account for the deviation from equal 12 hour intervals for day and night.
It also important to note that based only on observations of the sun-earth system, both models 1
and 2 can explain all of the observations (such as those recorded on a shadow plot) and therefore
neither of can be rejected. The two models can also adequately explain all other the personal
observations related to the day-night cycle. The equivalence of the two models only breaks down
when a third (astronomical) object is entered into the system.
The equivalence of the two models (in the context of the two-body system) and as a consequence,
their equal validity in explaining shadow plot observations are major epistemological revelations
for students in typical astronomy classes. This happens for a number of reasons: students often tend
to judge the validity of a model with respect to its correspondence to what they or an expert knows
and not in relation to whether it can account for their observations or not. Students also fail to
differentiate between a model and a phenomenon; hence they find it difficult to accept that two
models can be valid at the same time.
Finally, students also encounter conceptual and reasoning difficulties (with respect to model
equivalence and reversibility in relative motion, respectively) in their effort to understand the
different mechanism underlying the two models.
3. Methodology
Population
The research was conducted at the University of Cyprus during the spring semester 2000. The
data was collected in the context of a course on Physical Science in the Elementary Grades
attended by 82 Students enrolled in the Primary Education Program at the University of Cyprus.
The course used the Greek version of Physics by Inquiry with special emphasis on the module
Observational Astronomy: The sun, the earth and the stars. Data was collected through a series of
pre-tests administrated throughout the semester at the beginning of every section in the
curriculum.
The pre-test
In one of the pre-tests, given roughly half way through the semester, the students were asked to
respond to the following question:
The sun rises roughly in the east and sets roughly in the west. Therefore, someone located inside
a spaceship hovering over the North Pole will observe the earth spinning counter-clockwise. Do
you agree or disagree with this statement? State clearly whether you think this statement is
correct or not and explain your reasoning. You will find it helpful to include a diagram in your
answer.
Only a small percentage of the students were able to identify that the statement is true and
explain their reasoning. A typical correct response might include the following:
Suppose that someone is positioned at location K on the earths surface. Consider also that s/he is
looking towards the North Pole. If s/he points her/his right arm towards her/his right parallel to the
ground, s/he will be pointing eastwards. On the other hand, if s/he points her/his left hand towards
her/his left parallel to the ground, s/he will be pointing westwards. If the earth is spinning around
its axis counterclockwise, when observed by another person over the North Pole, the person at
location K will see the sun rise from an easterly direction in the morning and set in a westerly
direction in the evening.
412
: The face of a person as
observed from the front
N.P.: North Pole
The drawing is not to scale
SUN
.K
earth
D
A
N.P.
Top view diagram
An alternative way to explain this phenomenon is the following. According to figure 1, country A
is located to the east of country D. Country D is located to the west of country K. So, if earth is
spinning around its axis counterclockwise, when observed over the North Pole, the sun will first
appear in the horizon of country A, then country K and then country D. Thus the sun is rising first
in the easternmost of the three countries, as it is observed in real life.
Since the pre-test was given prior to the intervention both of these responses were deemed
appropriate and where evaluated as correct.
4. Data analysis
Phenomenographic analysis was used to categorize the student responses. Subsequent qualitative
analysis of the responses in each category revealed the models which students used in their
attempts to respond to the question and the difficulties they encountered in the process. The
following 4 difficulties [3] were identified through phenomenographic analysis of the students
responses:
1. Many students interpret the geographical directions as absolute locations or points in space.
2. Many students fail to distinguish the concepts clockwise and anti-clockwise
1
.
Figure 1: The rotation of the earth around its axis as a mechanism for formation of the day-night cycle
1
In Greek language clockwise rotation is called a right sense rotation and anti-clockwise rotation a left sense rotation.
413
3. Many students orient the four directions erroneously with respect to each other.
4. Many students fail to appreciate the manual reversibility of the relative motion in the two
equivalent models.
Evidence for difficulty 3 usually appears in diagrammatic representations. One example is shown
in figure 2
We have evidence from other data that this difficulty is related
to spatial reasoning. However, for the sake of conciseness we
will not discuss it further.
According to the fourth category, pre-service teachers do not
have reversibility in their thinking when they present two
alternative models for the day-night cycle. They often mention
e.g. that it is the earth, and not the sun, that moves, and then, in
the same response, proceed to include a diagram indicating
motion of the sun around the earth. Other answers refer to
simultaneous motion of the sun and the earth. Other students
describe the day-night cycle as a result of the rotation of earth
around the sun. The ability to reverse two alternative models is
indirectly connected to spatial reasoning ability, mainly as far as spatial rotations in space are
concerned.
Category 1 and 2 will be analyzed in greater detail below.
Absolute interpretation of the four directions in space
Students tent to interpret the four directions (north, south, east, west) as absolute locations in space.
They believe that the directions north, south, east, west are permanent points, which are firmly located
on the earth or in space. They do not conceive them as directions that change in respect to the position
of the observer.
According to students answers, 59.5% (44/74) of pre-service teachers encounter this difficulty.
Figure 3 shows the diagram sketched by student 4. Student 4 clearly presents East and West as
points to the left and right side of North Pole respectively.
E
N
S
W
Figure 2: Erroneous representation
of the four geographical directions.
20% of the students in our sample
encountered this difficulty.
E
W
N
S
N
W
E
E: East
W: West
N: North Pole
S: South Pole
earth
Figure 3: Diagram sketched by student 4 to explain the rotation of earth around its axis.
Student 4 obviously does not consider the position of the observer (points 1 or 2 in figure 4) as
relevant to the model. So, if the observer is at point 1 or at point 2 and look towards the north pole,
east will be for observer 1 at her/his right hand side and for observer 2 at her/his left hand side.
Consequently, country X (figure 4), which is visible by both observers 1 and 2, is located to the east.
And, to take this thinking further, if for observer1 the sun rises at 6 a.m. from the east and moves
to the West, by noon, the sun will rise for observer 2 from the west!
According to student 15:
The earth is turning around itself during the day. The sun is eastward in the morning and westward
in the evening. So, someone in a spaceship, which hovers over the North Pole, will observe the earth
spinning counterclockwise.
414
E
W
N
S
X
1
2
B D A
earth
Figure 4: Predictions based on the response of student 4. The letters N, S indicate the North and South Pole
respectively. The letters E and W indicate easterly and westerly directions respectively.
Earth
East-morning
West-night
W
S
E
Figure 5: The diagram drawn by student 15 for the earths spin around its axis.
East-morning
C X
West-night
W
N
S
E
Figure 6: Predictions based on the answer of student 15.
The response of student 15 leads us to the following thinking: in figure 6 it is morning for Cyprus
(C). For another country X, or a point on the surface of the earth, which is positioned diametrically
opposite to Cyprus, the sun is in the East. Simultaneously, according to figure 6, it is local noon for
Cyprus and midnight for the other country (X). The diagram of the four directions (figure 5)
reinforces the idea that student 15 interprets the four directions as absolute locations or as points
in or out of the earth.
415
The fact that students tent to interpret the four directions as absolute locations or points on or out
of earth may occur because in Greek Language they are labeled as the four points of the horizon,
a devious term as it implies four points on the earth or in space. This notion is probably reinforced
by the educational system through the lack of distinction between the north and south directions
and the North and South Pole as points on earth!
The first conclusion of the study is that an understand that the four directions of the horizon are
not points on or out of the earth, but directions in space, is an important pre-requisite to developing
understanding of the day-night cycle.
The identification of the four points of the horizon as points inside the earth or in space is of
fundamental importance and its resolution should be considered as a prerequisite to the teaching
of simple astronomical phenomena, such as the cycle of the day and night.
Differentiation of clockwise and anticlockwise rotation
Students believe that the concepts clockwise and anticlockwise are absolute and are defined in respect
to right and left. Specifically, they cannot distinguish between rotational relations and relations due to
the perspective from the locations of two objects.
According to the answers of the students in the pre-test, 39.2% (29/74) of preservice teachers
encounter this difficulty.
In the Greek language, the clockwise rotation has the meaning of a right sense rotation and anti-
clockwise rotation the meaning of a left sense rotation.
According to student 15 (figure 5):
The earth is turning around itself during the day. The sun is eastward in the morning and westward
in the evening. So someone in a spaceship, which hovers over the North Pole, will observe the earth
spinning counterclockwise.
Student 15 draws an arrow, which describes a clockwise rotation. However, s/he mentions that the
rotation is anticlockwise.
Student 31 wrote:
The sun is stationary. I am standing on a point on the surface of the earth and I am moving to the
left (not me but earth), the sun will be on my right hand side, that is, westward from the place I am
standing. So, the sun rises in the east and sets in the west because of the earths anticlockwise rotation.
Student 31 believes that an anticlockwise rotation is one in which an object (in this case the earth)
moves towards left. According to this opinion and based on figure 7, moving towards the left is
caused both by a clockwise and an anticlockwise spinning of the earth.
Left Right (when I look at the sheet)
Earth
Figure 7: Predictions based on the response of student 31.
Student 48 states the following:
I agree with the above statement. The earth spins counterclockwise. This is clear from the following
diagram. The earth spins counterclockwise so that the sun sets due west.
Student 48 also drew the following sketch (figure 8).
The analysis of the explanation of student 48 showed that s/he encounters the two difficulties,
which are analyzed in the present article.
According to figure 8, the student believes that the position of the sun in space is east. So, s/he
thinks that east is a point in space. S/he does not state the position of the observer, for whom at this
specific moment, the sun is due east. Moreover, while in figure 8 the arrows indicate a clockwise
rotation, at her/his explanation, s/he refers to an anticlockwise rotation.
According to the data of pre-test 3 many students cannot distinguish between clockwise and
anticlockwise rotation. This happens probably because of the distinctiveness of Greek language.
Clockwise in Greek is and is a compound word. The word means right
and the word ______ means rotation. Similarly, anticlockwise in Greek is ______________
and is a compound word. The word ________ means left and the word ______ means
rotation. So in Greek the concepts clockwise and anticlockwise are conventional. Often, students
do not understand those concepts and even though they refer to a clockwise rotation they draw an
anticlockwise rotation and vise versa. There are also students who interpret clockwise rotation of a
body in an absolute way. They believe that a rotation is always only counterclockwise or only
clockwise despite of the position of the observer.The difficulty has to do with the fact that students
think that a body, which turns left is spinning counterclockwise and a second one, which turns right
is spinning clockwise. Moreover, students tent to define the two concepts in connection to front and
in confrontation to backwards. Someone spins clockwise or counterclockwise if he/she turns from
his/her nose to his/her right or left shoulder, respectively. They do not trace differences in
description of a motion for different positions of the observers and cannot accept the fact that a
clockwise rotation as it is seen when an observer is over a spinning body is counterclockwise as
viewed by an observer under the body.
5. Developmental and structural analysis of the curriculum material
The Learning in Physics Group at the University of Cyprus is revising the program Physics by
Inquiry so that it responds to the conditions and restrains of the Greek Educational System. The
underlying aim is to safeguard the development of conceptual understanding, thinking and other
abilities relative to the process of learning in physical science. Physics by Inquiry contains narrative,
experiments and exercises, and supplementary problems at the end of each module. Through in-
depth study of simple physical systems and their interactions, students gain direct experience with
the process of science. Starting from their own observations, they develop basic physical concepts,
use and interpret different forms of scientific representations, and construct explanatory models
with predictive capability. Physics by Inquiry is explicitly designed to develop scientific reasoning
skills and to provide practice in relating scientific concepts, representations, and models to real
world phenomena.
The aim of the module Astronomy by Sight, according to McDermott (1996) [4] is for students to
make observations of the motion of the sun, the moon, and the stars in the sky, to identify patterns
in the changes that occur during the course of a day and a month and to develop models that enable
them to determine the present, past and future appearance of the sky.
Physics by Inquiry: Astronomy by Sight is based on a sequence of activities which aim to guide
416
Sun is due east
Earth
E
N
S
W
Figure 8: Diagram of student 48 of the spinning of earth around itself.
ociootpou ociu
otpoq
upiotcpu otpoq
upiotcpootpou
417
students to overcome the difficulties identified through research, so that real conceptual
understanding is achieved for the majority of students. Below we will present a brief structural
analysis of the module Observational Astronomy (sections 1-5).
Section 1
Section 1 starts with the record of students observations for the apparent motion of the sun in the
sky during the day using newly constructed shadow plots [5]. Prior to their first shadow plot,
students make predictions of how it will look before they construct it. Then, they make and study
their plot in comparison with their predictions. Based on the shadow plot, they act out and
represent the apparent motion of the sun in the sky during the day. At the end students develop an
operational definition[6] of the concept local noon
p
Shadow Plot
Apparent Motion of the Sun
Measurements of the suns altitude
Consideration: the sun rays reach
earth parallel
The Shape of Earth
Estimation of the Circumference of the Earth-
Eratosthenis Method
Measurement of the suns azimuth
Scientific Model of the Motion of the Earth and the Sun
Section 1 Sun Shadows
Section 2 Observing Changes
in the Sky
Section 3 The Size and Shape of
the Earth
Section 4
Daily Motion of the Sun
Record of Moon Observations
Patterns of Moon Shapes
Relative positions of Sun-Moon according to
the Phase of the Moon.
Scientific Model of Motion of the motion in the
System of Earth-Moon-Sun.
Section 5
Phases of the Moon
Diagram of the epistemological structure of the curriculum material
Figure 9: Brief structural analysis of Physics by Inquiry: Observational Astronomy, which was designed to guide
students to overcome specific difficulties.
Section 2
Section 2 begins with directions for students to measure the altitude of an object with the fist-over-
fist process [7], they develop operational definitions of the concepts horizontal, vertical and
altitude of an object and they take measurements of the altitude for different objects. Then
students estimate the altitude of the sun for different moments in time during a day using their
shadow plots and they come to the conclusion that sunrays reach earth parallel. Finally, discuss
what they know about the moon distinguish between their observations, for which they have direct
evidence and those facts they know because they were told them or read them. This is done so that
they recognize the degree of confidence that our own observations give us and the critical attitude
we must have towards anything that is offered as given knowledge.
Section 3
The third section has to do with the shape of earth. Firstly, students discuss the disagreement
between the measurement of the altitude of a mountain peak by a person who assumes a flat earth
and the estimation of its altitude using data from a map. Then they try to explain why some celestial
bodies are visible from north and not from south regions of the earth. Based on these observations
and exercises, they come to the conclusion that earths surface is not flat, but curved. Then they
estimate the circumference of the earth with Eratosthenis Method and assuming a spherical earth.
Section 4
Section 4 starts with the comparison of two or more shadow plots (spanning a period of 3-4 weeks)
as far as the general characteristics are concerned with special emphasis on the shortest shadow.
Then students define the azimuth [8] and estimate the azimuth of several objects. The same
process is used for the estimation of the azimuth of the sun through a shadow plot for different
times. Then students construct a graph of the azimuth versus time of day, and they discuss the form
of the graph and how it represents the observations. Consequently, students construct the scientific
model of the motion of sun and the earth, based on which they explain their observations as
recorded by the first shadow plot. Finally, they use a compass [9] to find the magnetic declination
[10]. Students discover through an exercise two ways of geographical orientation (use of compass
and through a shadow plot).
Section 5
Before section 5, students observe the Moon for a month and they record their observations in a
relevant sheet. At the beginning section 5 students group and order chronologically their
observations on a Moon Observation Summary Chart (MOSC) [11]. Based on MOSC, students
look for patterns in the behavior of the moon, which repeat in a period of a day, week or month,
and record the phase/form of the moon for this pattern during the synodic period [12]. Then, based
on their observations, they trace the position of the moon in relation to the position of the sun, and
the direction of the moon for different moments. Consequently, they construct a scientific model
for the relevant motion of the bodies in the system sun-earth-moon, based on which they can
explain the cycle of moon phases. Students study the sun-moon angle during a synodic period of
the moon and estimate the time at which the moon rise and set for its different phases. Finally, they
discuss the relative distances between sun, moon and earth and the possible consequences which
derive when we alter them in the scientific model we constructed. At the end of the section,
students try to construct alternative model that explain their observations.
6. Discussion
A basic conclusion deriving from this research is the existence of reasoning difficulties, which
complicate students efforts to construct understanding in Astronomy and Physics. There are
certain common difficulties that many students encounter that should be made explicit and where
appropriate confronted in a learning environment so that conceptual understanding is achieved.
Very often reasoning difficulties are not identified either by the students or by the teachers and
therefore remain in the conceptual ecology of the learners and affect or even determine the
418
419
learning process. The design of curriculum should include the development of strategies and
activities that encourage students to express their opinion. Through the expression of students
opinion difficulties come up and enable learners and teachers to discuss them openly. Pre-tests like
the one presented in this article can contribute much as instruments of revealing thinking and other
difficulties.
On the other hand, the results of this research indicate the importance of integrated development
of conceptual understanding and scientific reasoning as well as other abilities closely connected to
learning in physical science. Moreover, in physical science there is a need to emphasize more the
development of connections between the formal information, the epistemological structure of the
subject, the means of representation of the information and the real phenomena. Physics by Inquiry
is a program in which students themselves make observations and use them in combination with
specific reasoning patterns and concepts that they formulate to construct conceptual models with
predictive capability. The models are gradually refined through application and further
observations of related but more complex systems. As a result of this process students emerge with
experientially developed intuitions of inquiry as the process of science, which is constructed
according to clear epistemological criteria. In contrast to traditional instruction, the method of
inquiry does not emphasize on the transmission of information, which if preoccupied, stay
functionally unutilized for the explanation of everyday phenomena and their application in
decision making.
References
[1] L. C. MacDermott and the Physics Education Group, Physics by Inquiry, J. Willey, New York, (1996).
[2] M. Summers, J. Mant, A survey of British primary school teachers understanding of the Earths place in the
universe, Educational Research, 37, (1), (1995), 3 19. A. Lightman, Ph. Sadler, The earth is round? Who are
you kidding?, Science and Children, (1988), 24 26. St. Vosniadou, Designing curricula for conceptual
restructuring: Lessons from the study of knowledge acquisition in astronomy, J. Curriculum Studies, 23, (3),
(1991), 219 237. St. Vosniadou, Mental models of the earth: a study of conceptual change in childhood,
Cognitive Psychology, 24, (1992), 535 585. J. G. Sharp, R. Bowker and J. Merrick, Primary astronomy:
conceptual change and learning in three 10 11 year olds, Research in Education, 57, (1997), 67 83.
[3] L. C. McDermott, Millikan Lecture 1990: What we teach and what is learned Closing the gap. American
Journal of Physics, 59 (4), (1991), 301-315.
[4] C. McDermott and the Physics Education Group, Physics by Inquiry, J. Wiley, New York, (1996).
[5] Shadow plot is the diagram, which is created by the changing of the track of the top of the shadow of an object
caused by the sun during the day.
[6] Operational definition is a set of instructions which allow anyone to measure the specific dimension, identify an
example of the concept or alter it for others. An operational definition cannot be misunderstood.
[7] Fist over fist process is a method of measuring angles in space. The method is based on counting of our fist in
degrees, having our arm stretched in front of us.
[8] Azimuth of an object is the angle measured clockwise from north, as viewed for above) to the object.
[9] Compass is the scientific instrument with which we orient, as it points always toward magnetic North.
[10] Magnetic declination is the angle between magnetic north and the true north.
[11] Moon Observation Summary Chart (MOSC) is a chart on which we record daily, for a specific period, moon
observations.
[12] Synodic period of the moon is the cycle from the new moon, through the full moon and back to the new moon
in about 30 days. Local noon is the time of the day for which the sun is located at its highest position in the sky.
e-mail c.p.constantinou @ucy.ac.cy
christiana78 @hotmail.com
A STUDY ON THE COMPETENCE AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
SCIENCE/PHYSICS TEACHERS IN ANTALYA PROVINCE OF TURKEY
Isik, S., Ustuner, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
Yasar, Ersoy, Middle East Tech. University, Ankara, Turkey
1. Introduction
The improvement of both science/physics education in schools, and of the professional
development of teachers has been points of interest and important issues in almost all developed
and developing countries [1-3]. In recent years, the findings in this particular area of studies have
gained impetus, enlightened several issues, and guided both decision-makers and educators [4-6].
Thus, for all countries, independent of the fact that they are developed or not, there have been
various contemporary problems waiting to be resolved and handled by the researchers and
science/physics educators. In the present study, we overview a group of science/physics teachers
views on their competence and needs for the professional development. Before introducing the
details of the study, we like to briefly give general information about the Turkish education system
and the initial training (pre-service education) teacher program.
The Turkish education system is based on a threetiered principle (primary, secondary and
tertiary/higher education). The primary level encompasses primary schools (lower primary stage)
and junior high schools (upper primary stage) and provides basic education for children from 6 to
13 years of age (Grades 18). School attendance at primary level is free of charge and compulsory
for all children. Secondary education is available for pupils aged 14 to 17 and is provided in
vocational, technical and general/academic high schools. These secondary schools qualify students
for entry into higher education[7,8]. Therefore, there are some differences within the curricula of
the initial or pre-service of science and physics teacher education and training (INSET) and within
the higher education institutions. In the present study, we consider a group of science/physics
teachers views and competence in the upper primary/middle school, i.e. the junior high schools in
a province of Turkey, namely Antalya.
The pre-service (initial training) education and INSET should be complementary, and
compromised by the designed programs. In Turkey, the organization, rules and the syllabi of the
initial teacher-training program have been revised for many times in the last fifty years. According
to the new rule, the secondary school physics teacher has four year study in the Science Faculty
(SF) at university. After graduation from the SF (Physics, Chemistry or Biology) they continue their
training in a post graduate program which is considered to be equivalent to master program or
follow a set of didactic courses (35 credit-hours) in three semesters. The science/physics teacher of
primary school has 4 years of studies in the Education Faculty (EF), where he/she gets
knowledge and skills in both discipline related and professional courses. Before 1982, the rules
were, however, different, and to become a science/physics teacher one had to get a diploma
from Egitim Enstitusu (EE), which was a three years higher education school for training
teachers. The EE is affiliated with the Ministry of National Education (MEB) and, following a
change of the law of higher education, each of them became EF in 1982. Now there are more
than 40 EFs in Turkey, and train prospective teachers and have the same syllabi in pre-service
education except the elective courses.
2. Methodology
Main and Sub-Problems: In Turkey, we have faced many issues and several problems related to
science/ physics education in general, and teacher education and training in particular. Therefore,
we search for science/physics teachers needs for the professional development, and attempt to
design more efficient and effective INSET for them. Therefore, we decided to find out the answers
to three main questions below and test the interrelated hypothesis.
P1: What is the professional experience of the science/physics teacher in the upper primary
school in Turkey and their needs for the professional development?
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421
P2: What is the professional (in)competence of the science/physics teacher in the upper primary
school in Turkey and their needs for the professional development?
P3: Do teachers personal characteristics affect professional experiences and (in)competence?
Hypothesis: The present study aims at to discuss the science/physics teachers views on preservice
education, and to present and exchange our experiences to improve the current situation with
respect to age, seniority, gender and type of diploma. In this respect, following two hypotheses
H0(1), H0(2) are considered and, will be tested.
H0(1): There is no significant difference between various personal characteristics (i.e. age,
seniority, gender, type of school graduated, etc.) and professional experience of teachers.
H0(2): There is no significant difference between various personal characteristics (i.e. age,
seniority, gender, type of school graduated, etc.) and physics competence of teachers.
Instrument: To reflect the practicing teachers needs, views and suggestions the data have been
gathered by using the Likert-type scale. The scale, i.e. the instrument for the study, was developed
in EUPEN Project [1], but translated and adapted to Turkey by the researchers. The questionnaire
was delivered to 392 science/ physics teachers who work in the upper primary/secondary schools in
Antalya, i.e. a province in the southern part of Turkey. The number of replies was 265, i.e 68% of
the teachers filled in the questionnaire and returned. The researchers received a great help from
the Directorate of the MEB in Antalya to collect the data and make the interviews. The gathered
data were then analyzed in PC-SPSS program, and some results and findings are presented below.
The reliability of the questionnaire, i.e. RK is relatively high, i.e = 0.96.
3. Analysis of data and results
Some information about the background of the sample, i.e. the group of science/physics teachers,
and the analysis of the gathered data is presented below.
3.1. Demographic Information
Graduation: Among the respondents to the administrated questionnaire, we found that 157 (59 %) of
the science teachers were male (M), 105 (40%) were female (F), and 4 of the respondents gender is
not stated. About half of the teachers 136 (51%) teach in the city of Antalya, and 129 (49%) teach in
the suburbs, i.e. the various towns of Antalya. About 60% graduated from EE, while 40% from EF/SF.
After the graduation or during their study in EF/SF the teachers took various didactic courses and had
the qualification in teaching science in the upper primary school or junior high school.
Age and Seniority: The average of the seniority/experience of the science teachers is about 17
years, most of the teachers age is between 40 and 49, and have less then 20 years experience. For
example, only 2% of the science/physics teachers are older than 50 years. This means that almost
all teachers more than 50 years old retire and do other jobs instead of working in public schools.
First Appointment and Status: Most teachers (70%) taught science/physics courses when they
started their first appointment. Remarkably 95% have permanent position, which is not obvious
from the seniority distribution. This means that almost all teachers work in public schools and get
their salary from the government, not from the owner of private schools. They have permanent
position of being teacher, and do not have an unemployment problem even though there is not a
vacant position.
3.2 Professional Experiences of Teachers and Use of Various Strategies
The summary of the gathered data is displayed in tables. Table 1 shows how the respondents use
Methodological strategies, Plan their teaching, Assess their students and Survival
techniques in case of difficulties. According to the analyzed data, two thirds of the teacher makes
use of experiments in teaching science, but the frequency is not mentioned here. We think that the
experiment is done by demonstration purpose and not done frequently. More teachers (%82) states
that they use A problem-base teaching approach and (80%) Lecture to class. However, the
meaning of a problem-based teaching approach here was not the same as the teacher perceived
it. Instead of a problem-based teaching they usually do drill and practice, and exercise basic skills
in solving closed-ended problems in the textbooks. The use of concept maps, Visual material
and Use of computer are mentioned less. This means that the teacher is not using modern
technologies, in particular information and communication technology and new methodological
strategies in teaching science. Moreover, about 43% of the respondents frequently plan their
Teaching strategy alone. About half of the respondents ask for help in the Class council and
their colleagues. Diagnostic assessment (23%) and Summative assessment (8%) of the
students performances is used less than Formative evaluation.
On an individual base there are, of course, some differences in certain items of Table 1 for the
groups of the teachers in Turkey and between teachers in Turkey and those in the countries
participated in the EUPEN Project. In Turkey, this difference appears when a teacher has
difficulty, he/she refers first of all to a book or journal (86%), and the interior resources (55%).
Only 7% refer to the headmaster and 11% to the experts (e.g. consultants at the Ministry of
Education). Unfortunately, there are lacks of resources for the professional development of
science/physics teachers in Turkey. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the periodicals and several
books for the professional developments of the science/physics teachers.
3.3 Subject-Knowledge Competence of Science/Physics Teachers
Table 2 lists the usefulness of disciplinary knowledge for teaching competence. The usefulness is
scored in an interval between 1 (less) and 5 (more). If the mean of scores (X) is more than 4.0, the
disciplinary knowledge is considered to be absolutely necessary and useful. In the second column
from the right of Table 2 one can find the average value of the point of view of the science/physics
teachers on the usefulness of the subject-knowledge.
422
Scoring: ( Frequently: 3 point; Seldom: 2 point; Never: 1 point)
Statements
N
e
v
e
r

(
%
)

S
e
l
d
o
m

(
%
)

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
t
l
y

(
%
)
O
m
i
t
t
e
d

(
%
)

M
e
a
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,

X

S
t
d

D
e
v
.
,
S

1. Didactic strategies used by the teachers
1.1 Experiments in the school laboratory 3 28 66 3 2.7 0.50
1.2 Problem-based teaching 1 10 82 7 2.9 0.33
1.3. Concept maps (use and/ or construction) 28 33 11 29 1.9 0.70
1.4 Computers (PCs) 57 9 3.4 28 1.2 0.5
1.5 Demonstration 3 26 62 9 2.6 0.54
1.6 Lecturing to class 1 12 80 7 2.9 0.36
1.7 Visual material 6 40 37 17 2.4 0.61
2. Teaching strategy planed by the teachers
2.1 Alone 5 26 43 26 2.5 0.6
2.2 In a class council 2 33 59 6 2.6 0.5
2.3 With colleagues of your discipline 5 25 51 19 2.6 0.6
3. Assessments the teachers make use
3.1 Diagnostic 17 40 23 20 2.1 0.7
3.2 Formative 5 29 55 11 2.6 0.6
3.3 Summative 49 10 8 33 1.4 0.7
4. In difficult moments (pedagogic, disciplinary, etc) teachers address themselves to
4.1 Colleagues 2 43 43 12 2.5 0.5
4.2 Books and / or journals 0 9 86 5 2.9 0.3
4.3 Your own interior resources and reasoning 2 20 55 23 2.7 0.5
4.4 Experts 27 33 11 29 1.8 0.7
4.5 Headmaster 35 22 7 36 1.6 0.7
Table 1. Percentage (%) of Scores, Mean (X) and Standard Deviation (S) of Science/Physics Teachers Use of
Didactic and Teaching Strategies, Assessment, etc
423
The means of the scores assigned by the group of upper primary school science/physics teachers to the
different items are the following. They are Usefulness of basic physics (4.3); Modern and
contemporary physics (4.0); Relations between physics, technology and society (4.0), Problem
solving strategies (4.2) and Aspects of experimental research (4.5); Other science at the basic level
(4.0). It is noticeable here that the teachers gave more emphasis on several aspects of experimental
research (namely, Item 9.1-9.4). The same group of teachers, however, gave less emphasis and
considered uselessness and omitted answers to some items in the questionnaire. More specifically, the
percentages are the following: 4: Knowledge of the history of physics (14%); 5: Epistemology of
physics (25%); 3: Critical analysis of contents and conceptual structure (36%). The means of the
scores for these items are 2.9, 3.2 and 3. 9, respectively. The reason of the relatively lower usefulness of
subject-knowledge competence on these items might be the teachers unawareness of the aims and
contents of such courses. Indeed, there is no course related to these items in the pre-service education
of science/physics teachers in Turkey. Therefore, the in-service education program should be revised by
including new courses stated in Item 4 and giving more emphasis on Item 9. Moreover, as seen in items
7 (7.1-7.3), the teachers considered the usefulness of Good knowledge of mathematics at the rate
which is less than 4.0. The figures about the items 3, 4, 5, 7 possibly indicate that the teachers are
uncertain about what they mean and how much they are useful for teaching science to pupils.
4. Testing the hypothesis and results
In Table 3, and Tables 4a, 4b the results of some analysis of gathered data are displayed. The figures
in the tables show the significant differences in the professional experience and competence of the
various groups of the teachers, in particular the higher education institutes (HEI) from which they
graduated. Furthermore, hypotheses H0(1) and H0(2) were tested by using ANOVA, PC-SPSS in
the analysis. The analysis, i.e. mean (X), standard deviation (S), F-value, t-value, degree of freedom
(df) and level of significant (Sig.) are displayed in Table 3, the results are explained and interpreted
below very briefly.
Statements 1 2 3 4 5 Omit
ted
X S
1 Good knowledge of basic physics 5 5 3 27 54 6 4.3 1.09
2 Good comprehension of modern and contemporary physics 8 7 6 30 41 8 4.0 1.26
3 Critical analysis of the contents and the conceptual structure of physics 8 5 9 30 36 12 3.9 1.27
4 Knowledge of the history of physics 24 10 10 25 14 17 2.9 1.51
5 Knowledge of the epistemology of physics 22 5 7 25 25 16 3.3 1.57
6. Knowledge of the relations between physics, technology and society 12 3 5 21 45 14 4.0 1.42
7 Good knowledge of
7.1 Algebra and Euclidean geometry 15 5 5 26 40 9 3.8 1.47
7.2 Differential and integral calculus 16 5 8 30 29 13 3.6 1.47
7.3 Probability and statistics 16 7 3 26 37 11 3.7 1.50
8 Knowledge of strategies for selecting routes and solving
8.1 Qualitative physical problems 7 3 3 30 47 10 4.2 1.18
8.2 Quantitative physical problems 6 4 4 28 48 10 4.2 1.17
9 Understanding the following aspects of experimental research
9.1 Experiment designing 4 1 3 24 62 6 4.5 0.97
9.2 Measurement techniques and data gathering 3 1 3 30 53 10 4.5 0.84
9.3 Analysis and interpretation of data 5 3 5 24 51 12 4.3 1.09
9.4 Use of information technologies in the laboratory 5 1 1 18 66 9 4.5 1.00
10 Knowledge of the applications of physics in other sciences 7 2 5 26 48 12 4.2 1.19
11. Possess the additional knowledge of
1.1 Another science at the basic level 10 2 4 35 37 12 4.0 1.26
1.2 A foreign language 14 3 6 20 48 9 3.9 1.45
Table 2. Discipline Related Competencies of the Science/Physics Teachers
As seen in Table 3, the means of the scores of the group of science/physics teachers with respect to the
HEI they graduated, i.e. the higher education institutes, namely FS/E or EE are relatively close. This
seems very reasonable since they have more or less the same facilities in the schools in which they work
as well as similar background when they graduated from the higher education institute in which they
graduated. Indeed, although the name of EE changed to FE and new rules were in applications after
1983 the instructors were more or less the same as well as the resources, e.g. classrooms, laboratories,
library, etc. The mean and standard deviation of the scores of Summative assessments of students
performanceand of In difficult moments, help from expertsof both groups are more or less the same,
i.e. they are {(1.3 +/-0.57) or (1.4 +/-0.75) } and {(1.7 +/- 0.75) or (1.8 +/-0.67)}, respectively.
424
HEI N X S F t df Sig.
FS/E 92 2.5 0.62 -3.33 242 (1.1) Using experiments in the school laboratory
EE 152 2.8 0.43
37.17
-3.05 145
.00
FS/E 91 2.5 0.56 -2.12 228 (1.5) Using demonstration didactic strategies
EE 139 2.7 0.53
6.10
-2.10 185
.01
FS/E 93 2.9 0.28 2.03 232 (1.6) Using lecture didactic strategies to class
EE 141 2.8 0.41
18.23
2.18 231
.00
FS/E 81 2.3 0.69 -0.46 206 (1.7) Using visual material
EE 127 2.4 0.56
6.46
-0.44 146
.01
FS/E 90 2.5 0.54 -1.64 233 (2.2) Planning teaching strategy in a class council
EE 145 2.6 0.51
4.61
-1.61 179
.03
FS/E 72 1.3 0.57 -1.34 167 (3.3) Summative assessments of students
performance EE 97 1.4 0.75
9.06
-1.40 167
.00
FS/E 82 2.8 0.45 2.20 191 (4.4) Teacher own interior reasoning in difficulty
EE 111 2.6 0.57
17.23
2.29 191
.00
FS/E 78 1.7 0.75 -0.91 180 (4.5) In difficult moments, help from experts
EE 104 1.8 0.67
4.05
-0.89 156
.05
FS/E 84 3.8 1.30 2.11 217 (7.1) Good knowledge of algebra and Euclidean
geometry EE 135 3.4 1.57
15.30
2.20 200
.00
FS/E 86 3.9 1.27 1.40 222 (7.2) Good knowledge of differential and integral
calculus EE 138 3.6 1.63
19.48
1.49 211
.00
Age N X S F t df Sig.
30-39 58 4.3 1.07 2.78 209 (7.1) Good knowledge of algebra and Euclidean
geometry for science/physics competence 40-49 153 3.7 1.52
17.22
3.24 146
.00
30-39 57 4.1 1.09 3.39 197 (7.2) Good knowledge of analytical geometry for
science/physics competence 40-49 142 3.4 1.54
29.21
3.91 145
.00
30-39 60 4.2 1.06 2.91 204 (7.3) Good knowledge of the probability and statistics
for science/physics competence 40-49 146 3.6 1.61
30.22
3.44 164
.00
Gender N X S F t df Sig.
M 144 2.8 0.39 -2.54 241 (1/1.1) Using problem based teaching strategies for
professional experience F 99 2.9 0.22
29.53
-2.80 234
.00
M 139 2.5 0.63 -1.38 230 (1/3.2) Using formative assessment of students
performances F 93 2.6 0.53
6.93
-1.43 217
.01
M 141 3.9 1.35 -0.57 229 (2/3) Good knowledge of the conceptual structure of
physics for physics competence F 90 4.0 1.15
5.89
-0.59 211
.02
M 145 3.7 1.54 -1.38 237 (2/7.1) Good knowledge of algebra and Euclidean
geometry for science/physics competence F 94 3.9 1.34
5.57
-1.42 217
.02
M 138 3.5 1.54 -1.33 226 (2/7.2) Good knowledge of analytical geometry for
science/physics competence F 90 3.7 1.35
6.97
-1.37 208
.01
Table 3. The Analysis of Data wrt Higher Education Intuitions (HEI) Teachers Graduated and Various Items
Table 4a. Analysis of Data with respect to Age and Some Items
Table 4b. Analysis of Data with respect to Gender and Some Items in Table 1/ and Table 2/
425
The results of testing the hypothesis with respect to some items and either age or gender (M: male,
F: female) are displayed in Table 4a and 4b respectively. We discuss briefly if there are significant
differences between personal characteristics (i.e. gender, age, seniority, type of school graduated,
etc.,) and comment on some items they are stated explicitly and explained very briefly.
The analysis of Hypothesis H0(1) shows that:
There is a significant difference between gender and the following two items of the professional
experience category; (a) Using problem based teaching strategies; and (b) using formative
assessment of students performances
There is a significant difference between age and the following three items of the professional
experience;(a) Good knowledge of algebra and Euclidean geometry, (b) Good knowledge of
analytical geometry, (c) Good knowledge of the probability and statistics.
There is a significant difference between type of school graduated and the following eight items
of the professional experience: (a ) Using experiments in the school laboratory, (b Using
demonstration didactic strategies, (c) Using lecture didactic strategies to class, (d) Using visual
material, (e ) Planning teaching strategy in a class council, (f) Summative assessments of students
performance, (g) Teacher own interior reasoning in difficulty, (h) Help reached from experts in
difficult moments.
There is no significant difference between gender, age, type of school graduated, seniority
and the rest of the items of the professional experience listed in Table 2.
The analysis of H0(2) shows that:
There is a significant difference between gender and the means of the scores of three physics
competence: (a) Good knowledge of the conceptual structure of physics; (b) Good knowledge of
algebra and Euclidean geometry; (c) Good knowledge of analytical geometry.
There is a significant difference between the higher education institutions graduated and the
means of the scores of the physics competence: (a) Good knowledge of algebra and Euclidean
geometry, (b) Good knowledge of analytical geometry.
There is no significant difference between gender, higher education institutions graduated, age,
seniority and the rest of the items of the physics competence listed in Table 2.
Although it is generally accepted that there is no good school if there are no competent and
qualified teachers. Therefore the pre-service and INSET is a matter of primary concern in a
contemporary society in both developed and developing countries. In this respect, the quality of
science/physics teacher education is a current issue in most countries and there is a call for
curriculum reform to meet the needs of the information society. In the present study, we attempted
to reflect a group of science/physics teachers views on the usefulness of various strategies in
teaching science/physics in the upper elementary school in Turkey and perceptions of subject-
knowledge competence. The data were gathered by means of the questionnaire designed in the
EUPEN Project, but adapted to Turkey. The data were gathered from 265 upper primary school
science/physics teachers working in Antalya, a province in the southern part of Turkey, in 2000-
01school year.
The usefulness of various subject-knowledge for teaching science/physics in schools varies.
According to the teachers responses some have higher priority with respect to others. The analysis
of data showed that there are some significant differences in the professional experience and
subject-knowledge competence with respect to the groups related to gender, age, and the THI
teachers graduation, but no significant difference between seniority and all these items. Finally,
further research would be useful to answer many questions and find out why the teachers have
different views and subject-knowledge competence. Therefore, we continue doing research to find
out the reasons of incompetence and developing some instructional materials, in particular
understanding experimental research, use of technology in teaching/learning physics etc. We do
hope that our effort, namely research, seminar and workshop help the teachers to meet their needs
to become more competent science/physics teachers.
References
[1] H. Ferdinande, S.P. Jona, Latal, The Training Needs of Physics Teachers in Five European Countries: An Inquiry,
Proceedings of the third EUPEN General Forum 99 (EGF99) part II, 4, Universities Gent, London, (1999).
[2] Y. Ersoy, M. Ve Sancar, Okullarda Fen/ Fizik Eîrtimi : Boyutlar ve ^retmen Deîkeni, Fizik Dergisi 12, Aralk,
zel Say, (1988), 4-7 (in Turkish).
[3] Y. Ersoy, A study on the Education of School Mathematics and Science Teachers for Information Society, METU
Education Research Report, I ,ODTU Eîtim Fak. Yay, Ankara, (1992), 39-54.
[4] Y. Ersoy, & I.S stner, A Project for the Professional Development of Physics Teachers in the Antalya Region,
Int. Conference on Physics Teacher Education Beyond, (Aug 27-Sep 1, 2000, Barcelona-Spain).
[5] I. S.stner, M. Sancar, ^retmenlerin Fizik Dersinin Amalar ve ^rencilerin Bilimsel Dncelerini
Gelitirme Konusundaki Grleri Trk Fizik Derneî 18.Fizik Kongresi (TFDK-18), ukurova niversitesi,
Adana, (1999), 102-106 (in Turkish).
[6] A. Erdem, I.S. stner, M. Sancar, Edirne ve Krklareli Illerinde ^retmenlerin Fen-Fizik Eîtimi Konusundaki
Grleri, IV. Fen Bilimleri Eîtimi Kongresi 2000, Hacettepe niversitesi Eîtim Fakltesi, Ankara 6-8, (2000),
175 (in Turkish).
[7] http://www.deu.edu.tr/prospectus98/general_.htm
[8] http://www.turkembassy.dk/principles.htm
426
DEVELOPING FORMAL THINKING IN PHYSICS
University of Udine, 2-6 September 2001
M. Cobal, L. Santi, Physics Department of the University of Udine (Italy)
Seminar
In 1997 the GIREP Committee started to express the intention to organize intermediate Seminars
between the GIREP Conferences. They were thought of as minor Congresses between colleagues of
neighbouring countries. For several reasons, for long time it was not possible to realize this project.
The First International Seminar of the Group International de Recherche sur lEinsegnement de
la Physique (GIREP) was held in Udine in the period 2-6 September 2001, on the subject:
DEVELOPING FORMAL THINKING IN PHYSICS.
This first Seminar therefore, represents a dream come true.
The Seminar was organized by the University of Udine (through its Centro Interdipartimentale
della Didattica CIRD-), with the collaboration of the Conferenza Nazionale dei Centri
Universitari di Ricerca Educativa e Didattica (Concured).
The scientific responsibility was assigned to Ian Lawrence, of the Birmingham University and to
Marisa Michelini, of the Udine University. More details on the organizational aspects of the
Seminar can be found in appendix.
Subject of the Seminar: the development of the formal thinking
The subject of the first GIREP Seminar has been the development of the formal thinking. Why this
topic?
Physics offers us that knowledge of the world around, which allows us to describe and interpret it,
to appreciate the beauty of its organization and to foresee its evolution. It offers us views from
different perspectives: mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetic, optics, macroscopic, microscopic,
classical, quantum; ways that pre-suppose different kinds of formalization and use of mathematics. The
very language of physics uses mathematical
concepts and instruments so that we can describe,
interpret and predict.
The game of understanding in physics through
experiments and theorizing, which builds links
between equation and data, makes physics more
fascinating for us, but not many young people are
so enthusiastic about it anymore.
We can find many reasons for this: the
subordinate role assigned to physics in many
fields in which it has a great importance, the
scarce recognition in society its researchers and
workers receive, the lack of importance given
to physics in education and the lack of
understanding of its educational value, the
large amount of hard work required to study it.
The new means of communication, with
meanings constructed through intuitive
association, languages through images and
4. The Seminar
4.1 First International Girep Seminar
Figure 1: The GIREP Committee: I. Lawrence, S.
Oblack, M. Michelini, M. Euler, C. Ucke.
verbal languages, seem to alienate students even more from the process of formalization of the
mathematical language of physics. The development of formal thinking in physics represents the
acquisition of a network of contacts which assign meaning to figurative elements and which allow
students to navigate around the land of physics.
If we dont want to loose this knowledge and if we still believe it to be important, we must make
an effort so that physics will become more familiar to all. We must work to have it introduced early
to young children in the primary school, we must work to make it more easily understood, in order
to connect the language of physics to everyday language.
The necessary prelude to a new way of approaching the teaching of science and especially of
physics, might well be an analysis of formalization processes at all educational levels and a
discussion of the connection between mathematics and physics.
Structure of the Seminar
The opening Ceremony took place in Udine, in the same room -Salone del Parlamento- of the
Udine castle, where, in 1995, the International GIREP-ICPE Conference on the teaching of the
condensed matter and new materials science was opened.
The Ceremony was held on September the 3rd, and saw the participation of:
Marisa Michelini, GIREP Vicepresident
Sergio Ceccotti, Udine Major
Furio Honsell, Rector of the Udine University
Manfred Euler, GIREP President
Marzio Strassoldo, President of Udine Provice
Carlo Del Papa, Director of the Physics Department at the Udine University
Sergio Focardi, SIF Committee
Giuliana Cavaggioni, AIF Committee
Carlo Rizzutto, Sincrotrone Trieste
Daniele Amati, SISSA, Trieste
Alessandro Borgnolo, LIS, Trieste
The structure of this Seminar was discussed at length: the initial idea to do a workshop to select papers
which would be useful for teachers on a certain topic, in order to contribute to the work which ICPE is
doing has been transformed by the way the participants interpreted our proposal.
A preliminary work of examining the various papers on a certain topic was supposed to be the basis of
the Seminar which, as one of its purposes, was supposed to collect papers to inform teachers about, and
also, possibly, to identify a standard protocol for drawing up articles which teachers could easily use.
This choice stimulated the interest of numerous colleagues all over the world, and they submitted
to the Seminar numerous specific contributions on the development o formal thinking in physics.
Thus a new and interesting working scenario came into being: an environment for discussion on
research and practice in didactics.
The task of selection and scientific organization has been hard, but the whole Advisory Committee
has carried it out in order to group together the contributions into thematic areas and to preserve
the two important dimensions of the Seminar: to have through scientific discussions in thematic
workshops and to produce shared results about the problem posed.
The Seminar has been organized in 8 General Talks (for invitation), 11 Sessions for the
presentation of the various contributions and 7 Workshops.
During the Seminar it was also possible to visit, in a room of Palazzo Antonini, a posters
exhibition, for those works related to the topics of interest.
The General Talks had the important task to offer an overview of the subjects that were then
discussed in detail in the various Workshops.
In the following, the titles of the presentations are given, with the respective authors
Imagery and formal thinking (M. Euler Germany)
Physics curriculum reform (R.G. Fuller, USA)
428
The Seminar
Jumping toys: a topic for interplay between theory
and experiment (C. Ucke, Germany)
Real-time approaches in the development of formal
thinking in physics (E. Sassi, Italy)
Differences between the use of mathematical entities
in mathematics and physics and the consequences
for an integrated math and science learning (T.
Ellermeeijer, Netherlands)
An epistemological framework for laboratory (M.
Vicentini, Italy)
Is formal thinking helpful in everyday situations (S.
Oblak, Slovenia)
The formal reasoning of quantum mechanics: can we
make it concrete? Should we? (D. Zollmann, USA)
In the Sessions dedicated to the presentation of the
various contributions, all the papers accepted for the
Seminar have been presented: more than a hundred. All
these Sessions were given in parallel during the first day.
This has been done with the purpose to allow a scientific
discussion of the papers presented in the next days.
The leaders of each Session have been acting as both
coordinators and chair-person reporteurs with respect to the responsible of each Workshop. This
double role appeared to be a functional arrangement, since it allowed plenty of time for the
workshops, it precluded presentations from the discussions, it offered outcomes which could be
seen from at least two points of view: that of the reporteurs and that of the Workshop leader.
The Workshops divided in 4 sessions, each one two hours long and divided in two consecutive
afternoons - have been the core of the Seminar, and have determined its outcomes. They have
benefited of the fundamental contribution of the General Talks and of the contributions of the
participants. Many goals have been fulfilled in the four sessions of each workshop:
To give a general view of the problems involved in the subject of the Workshop
To develop a discussion on these problems
To take a further and more detailed look at some specific aspects
To give a general summary of the conclusions reached
The subjects of the various Workshops, with the respective Workshop leaders, are given in the
following.
- Interplay of theory and experiment (A. De Ambrosis, G. Rinaudo)
The discussion was guided by the following
lines: a) What is the meaning of theory,
experiment and interaction between
the two b) definition of the goals to be
achieved c) kinds of experiment, and their
efficiency in helping the formalization
process. This Workshop was characterized
by the presentation of several
experiments, and by the attempt to
underline the aspects which are relevant
for the formalization process.
- Learning physics via model construction
(R.M. Sperandeo-Mineo)
Presentations and discussions have been
mainly connected to two themes of the
429
Figure 3: The poster exhibit.
Figure 2: Opening Ceremony - Marisa Michelini,
chair; Furio Honsell, Rector of the University of
Udine; Marzio Strassoldo, President of the Udine
Province, past Rector of the University of Udine.
Seminar: a) modelling the world and b) mathematics.
The discussion ended up with the analysis of the role
of developing models inside a curriculum.
- Modelling for younger learners (I. Lawrence)
Modelling has taken root in some undergraduate
courses. The models built here are often numerical,
with explicit use of algebra and /or arithmetic. This
Workshop concentrated on the possibility of using the
computer for engaging with the modelling process
lower down the age ranges.
- Toys for learning physics (C. Ucke)
The starting question was: which role has the formal
thinking when physics is learned through the use of
toys? Many toys allow the first step toward the goal of
developing the formal thinking. And their role does
not end even at the level of University studies.
However, teachers need books, publications, catalogs
and pointers to the available toys (this information is
not always easily available).
The idea to organize a seminar/workshop specialized
on toys, and to create a database of the existing toys
have been discussed as well.
- Early start in physics understanding (P. Guidoni)
Todays voiced problem in the transmission of the physics culture is however not one of early start
in schools teaching/learning sequences: rather one of systematic, coherent, carefully mediated rooting
of explaining/understanding dynamics into the extremely rich virtual field of childrens potentialities
Several approaches to this fascinating research theme have been developed in the last two decades.
Aim of the Workshop is to compare these approaches and to use them as a base to develop new
ideas. The works of this Workshop have been integrated with those of the Workshop devoted to the
modeling for younger learners (I. Lawrence)
- New technology and computers in physics learning (L. Rogers)
This Workshop has been finalized to compare different
approaches to the uses of Informatics Technologies (IT)
for teaching physics in different countries.
After a first discussion, the following questions have
been identified:
a) Why the IT use in the school is so limited, even if they
have been introduced already several years ago? b)
How can be teachers motivated in using IT? c) How
they can find time to learn the use of IT? d) Which
problems can arise in using IT? e) Which role should
have the teacher when pupils are using IT? f) What are
the components of training which teachers need to use
IT effectively?
- Textbooks as an image of philosophy of teaching (Z.
Golab-Meyer)
The main points of discussion have been the following:
a) How do textbooks reflect new trends in physics
education?
b) Who is the real target of the textbooks? Teachers or
students?
c) Do we know students preferences?
430
The Seminar
Figure 4: Professor C. Ucke during his
presentation.
Figure 5: Professor E. Sassi during her
presentation.
431
Figure 6: A moment of relax
d) Who is examining and evaluating the new textbooks?
e) Where are the possible mistakes which have to be absolutely avoided?
Social programme
The social programme included a visit to the Casa del Vino of Ersa, , situated in a 16
th
century
building with the possibility to taste typical wines of the Friuli Venezia Giulia (on 3
rd
September), a
concert of the Graz Capella Musicae in the Church of San Antonio (on 4
th
September), an informal
dinner at a typical restaurant of the Friuli land, offered by the Organizing Commette (on September
the 5
th
) , a guided trip to Cividale del Friuli and Gorizia, including some of the most beautiful historical
sights, and finally a scientific excursion to the Sincrotrone-Elettra in Trieste (on the 6
th
).
Participants and results
The Seminar put together scientists, researchers in the didactic of physics, school teachers and
university professors, into the common effort of discussing the formalization of the scientific
learning, considering the physics phenomena and their interpretation, the role of the technological
applications, the results in the didactical research, the educational strategies, the new curricula, the
teaching resources.
This first GIREP Seminar has provided an unique opportunity for working on defined themes for
experts on science teaching from all over the world, for starting research together and as a
preparatory activity for thematic sessions of subsequent GIREP Conferences. In spite of the fact
that the International Scientific Committee previously decided a selection of the participants
allowing a maximum numbers of 50-60 of them, the number of contributions that arrived brought
to the decision of doubling this quota.
About 125 experts of didactics took part to the Seminar (98 from Europe, 14 from America, 7 from
Asia and 1 from Africa). The papers that appear in this book have been selected after a careful
refereeing work. The other papers belonging to the hundred which have been selected by the
International Scientific Committee- will be published on the web.
The positive evaluation received on both the scientific and organizational grounds, has in addition
brought to the decision of having the next (2003) GIREP Seminar on the eaching formation, again in
Udine.
On the www.uniud.it/cird/ web page, one can find all the material related to the Seminar. s
4.2 Welcome of the Rector
Furio Honsell, University of Udine, Italy
Over the last decade, probably due to the acceleration of scientific and technologica innovation,
there has been growing interest on the part of the scientific community and higher education
institutions throughout the world on the problems concerning with the teaching of sciences, the
training of teachers and the development and spread of the scientific and technological culture. In
this respect the University of Udine has been very alert and receptive, and has considered it to be an
important part of its cultural mission and social responsibility to contribute meaningfully to the
education and training of teachers and the growth and dissemination of scientific and technology
awareness in the society at large. Udine University has therefore developed a number of important
research initiatives and projects in these areas, especially within the activities of the
Interdepartmental Center for Educational Research (CIRD), founded and directed by Professor
Marisa Michelini.
The University of Udine is therefore very pleased to host this important international conference,
which will gather in this beautiful and hospitable city, with is young and innovative University,
scholars, researchers, and teachers, working in physics, pedagogy, education, phychology and various
other cognitive sciences, all with the common purpose of addressing the crucial question in the
teaching of science: how does formal thinking arise and develop?
The cognitive process of formalization is indeed the cornerstone of modern western science and the
key to its success.
Looking at the conference programme I am very impressed and pleased to notice the extremely wide
range of different teaching levels at which this problematic issue is addressed. I am confident that this
Seminar will provide very stimulating pedagogical suggestions both to school and university teachers,
and it will contribute to our understanding of how scientific thought develops and hence how it can
be enhanced.
Finally, on behalf of the University of Udine I wish you all a very fruitful and pleasant week!
433
First GIREP Seminar, Udine 2001
It is a great honour for me to open a GIREP iniziative in Udine again. In 1995, in this same
Parliament Hall in the castle of Udine, we opened the GIREP-ICPE International Conference on
the teaching of the science of condensed matter and new materials.
At that time, Girep had not been in Italy for 20 years, and it was an important commitment for us.
Organizing the first Girep Seminar is perhaps even more important and demanding, because a new
initiative is starting for which there are great expectations: let us hope that it will be fruitfull as
expected fruit and become a regular initiative, starting from this first year of the new millennium.
A Seminar, not a Conference
We can sai without a shadow of a doubt that the GIREP Conferences, traditionally organized with
the International Commission on Physics Education (ICPE) of the International Union on Pure and
Applied Physics (IUPAP), are one of the main reference points for the international community
which deals with the teaching of physics. They offer a rich environment for the comparison and
exchange of research results and proposals based on practice. In fact, GIREP has specifically chosen
to bring together experts in didactic research and those who have professional experience in
didactics, leading to an explicit collaboration between research and teaching at all levels where
didactics are practised, from play school to university.
The GIREP Conference take place every two years, and are getting bigger all the time. In the few
days when they take place, it is hardly possible to make contact with our numerous colleagues, and
to keep up with their ever broader spectrum of papers.
We need to make time for discussion and new ways of comparing progress, in order to study specific
problems more deeply. This has led to a proposal for intermediate Seminars between two
Conferences for a limited number of researchers and teachers.
The GIREP Seminars have been conceived of to provide opportunities for working on defined
themes for experts of science teaching from all over the world, for starting research together and as
a preparatory activity for thematic sessions of subsequent Girep Conferences. They are also a
meeting place for the GIREP Thematic Discussion Groups: this is another recent initiative, still in the
start-up hase, intended to lay foundations for distance research collaboration, with the support of a
electrom forum.
The Seminars and the Thematic Discussion Groups were presented in the GIREP Newsletter n 43
in November 2000. They are a proposal for a new, deeper and more frequent method of interacting
between scholars of science teaching.
The subject of this Seminar: Developing formal thinking
Physics offers us that knowledge of the world around us which allows us to describe it and interpret
it, to appreciate the beauty of its organisation and to foresee its evolution. It offers us views from
different perspectives: mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetics, optics, macroscopic,
microscopic, classical, quantum, ways that pre-suppose different kinds of formalisation and use of
mathematics. The very language of physics uses mathematical concepts and instruments so that we
can describe, interpret and predict.
The game of understanding in phjysics through experiments and theorising, which builds links
between equations and data, makes plysics more fascinating for us, but not many young people are
so enthusiastic about in any more.
We can find many reasons for this: the subordinate role assigned to physics in many fields in which
it has a pivotal importance, the scarce recognition in society its researchers and workers receive, the
lack of importance given to physics in education and the lack of understanding of its educational
value, the large amount of hard work required to study it. The new means of communication, with
meanings constructed through intuitive association, languages through images and verbal languages,
4.3 Introduction to the Seminar
Marisa Michelini, Vicepresident of Girep, Director of CIRD, University of Udine (Italy)
434
The Seminar
seem to alinate students even more from the processes of formalization of the mathematical language
of physics.
The development of formal thinking in physics represents the acquisition of a network of contacts
which assign meaning to figurative elements and which allow students to navigate around the land of
physics.
If we do not want to lose this knowledge and if we still believe it to be important, we must make an
effort so that physics will become more familiar to all. We must work to have it introduced early to
young children in the primary school, we must work to make it more easily understood, in order to
connect the language of physics to everyday language.
The necessaryp relude to a new way of approaching the teaching of science and especially of physics
might well be an analysis of formalisation processes at all educational levels and a discussions of the
connection between mathematics and physics.
The Seminar will bring together scientists, researchers in education, teachers from schools and
universities in a common effort to discuss formalisation in science learning, considering physical
phenomena and their interpretations, the role of technological applications, the results of didactic
research, educational strategies, new curricula, teaching resources.
The subjects which the discussion will focus on are those of the Workshops, around which the
problems of the connection between theory and experiment, modelling, matematics and informal
learning are articulated. Let us consider some aspects.
I would like to say just a few words about them.
1) Interplay of theory and experiment
The role of practical work in physics education has been the subject of many debates. The impact
of ITC on the process and understanding of measurement has renewed many discussions under a
new guise, especially for new learning opportunities offered by real time measurements.
2) Modelling the world
In physics models are the way for interpreting the world around us. They are built organizing by
a formal representation of the phenomena in the reference frame of a theory. Their capabilities in
describing a whole class of phenomena and to give previsions on the evolution of the processes,
express the most fascinating aspects of physics and explicit the role of maths in physics.
3) Mathematics
Mathematics, in fact, has long been a useful language for developing physics in a way which is
understandable for students and young people.
4) Informal learning
Todays challenge is to build the links between common knowledge and science, between
spontaneous interpretative models and formal scientific models and finally to lead children and
youngsters to learn stimulated by curiosity through the informal and playful exploration of
phenomena. For the development of formal thinking it is also important to promote scientific
culture through the spreading of scientific knowledge. This implies diffusing the awareness that it
is actually possible to describe the world, that some physical quantities can enable us to forsee
what will happen, that different phenomena can be looked at in similar ways and that the same
mathematical concepts can be used to describe them.
Issues such as how to achieve these goals and how to activate the learning process will be introduced
by general talks and explored in parallel workshops.
A little history will clarify the nature and program of the Seminar
In 1997 the Girep Committee started to express the intention of organizing intermediate Seminars
between the Conferences. They were thought of as minor Congresses between colleagues of
neighbouring countries. For various reasons it was not possible to put these hypotheses into practice.
This first Seminar therefore represents a dream come true, and we hope it will meet the requirements
of the participants and will continue in the future.
I would like to thank Ian Lawrence for sharing the responsibility and commitment of this first
occasion. We have debated it a lot in the last few months, because the initial idea has been
transformed by the way the participants interpreted our proposals. The current organization is the
result of a process of interpretation and proposals, which has been carefully followed throughout its
evolution. The initial idea was to do a workshop to select papers which would be useful for teachers
on a certain topic, in order to contribute to the work which ICPE is doing, starting from the Girep
proocedings. A preliminary work of examining the various papers on a certain topic was supposed to
be the basis of the Seminar which, as one of its purposes, was supposed to collect papers to inform
teachers about, and also, possibly, to identify a standard protocol for drawing up articles which
teachers could easily use.
This choice stimulated the interest of numerous colleagues all over the world, and they submitted to
the Seminar numerous specific contributions on the development of formal thinking in physics. Thus
a new and interesting working scenario came into being: an environment for discussion on research
and on practice in didactics. The task of selection and scientific organization has been hard, but the
whole Advisory Committee has carried it out in order to group together the contributions into
thematic areas and to preserve the two important dimensions of the Seminar: to have thorough
scientific discussions in thematic workshops and to produce shared results about the problems posed.
Linking the Panel Talks (which present all the works in parallel on the first day) with the Chair-
persons who perform the function of reporteurs to the workshop leaders, appears to be a functional
arrangement, since it allows plenty of time for the workshops, it precludes presentations from the
discussion, it offers outcomes that can be seen from at least two points of view: that of the reporteur
and that of the workshop leader. The latter collect, for discussion in the workshops, both contributions
connected with the problems which they are intended to focus on, and also the reports from the
reporteurs.
The workshops are the heart of the Seminar, because they shape the outcomes.
They therefore make use of the contributions of the General Talks, which offere them an overview of
the problems being discussed.
The Seminar will last only a few days, the topic it deals with is broad and important: we hope it will
serve to lay the basis for a later work which will be effective in this sense, perhaps in the form of a
Girep Thematic Discussion Group. We hope, in any case, that every participant will be able to go
home having enriched his skills in this field, having established opportunities for collaboration and
having perfected proposals for the future.
Ian Lawrence and I have worked a great deal: many people have helped us and without them we
would never have succeeded in the task. The following peoples help has been fundamental: Manfred
Euler, Christian Ucke, Seta Oblack and Lorenzo Santi, members of the Advisory Committee and the
other committees published in this booklet. We would like to express to them our deepest gratitude.
Particular thanks go to our numerous Italian and Slovenian colleagues, who believed in and became
involved in the initiative.
I would personally like to take this opportunity to officially thank the many people from the
University of Udine who made the Seminar possible. There are so many, it is not possible to mention
them all, we have done that in the booklet. But allow me to mention 7 people only: the two Rectors
Marzio Strassoldo and Furio Honsell, who have followed and supported the initiative, Donatella
Ceccolin and Mauro Sabbadini of CIRD, Plioni De Zorzi of CESA and two little starlets: the students
Elisa Ius and Elizabeth Chamberlain, between whose competent hands the majority of work has
passed.
Certainly, some things could have been done better: we dide what we were able to do with the greatest
commitment.
We hope that the Seminar will be useful for all.
Welcome to Udine, I look forward to being able to learn toghether.
435
4.4 The organization of the Seminar
Marisa Michelini, Vicepresident of Girep, Director of CIRD, University of Udine (Italy)
Groupe International de Recherche sur lEnseignement de le Physique (GIREP)
University of Udine, Italy
Interdepartmental Centre for Research in Education (CIRD)
Department of Physics with the
National Italian Conference of the University Centre for Research in Education (CONCURED)
People in charge
Marisa Michelini (Udine University) and Ian Lawrence (University of Birmingham),
Vicepresidents of GIREP
International Advisory Board
Manfred Euler, Department of Physics Education, IPN (Institute ofr Science Education), Kiel, Germany
Marisa Michelini, Dipartimento di Fisica, Udine University
Ian Lawrence, Department of Education, University of Birmingham, UK
Seta Oblak, Board of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Christian Ucke, Physikdepartment E20, Tech, Universitt Mnchen, Germany
Giunio Luzzatto, President of CONCURED, Genoa University
Silvia Pugliese Jona, Vicepresident of AIF
Local Organizing Committee
Furio Honsell, Rector of Udine University
Marzio Strassoldo, President of Udine Province
Pier Luigi Rigo, Committee for Promotion of Scientific and Technological Studies, Udine University
Marisa Michelini, Director of CIRD, Udine University
Carlo del papa, DIrector of Physics Department of Udine University
Lorenzo G. Santi, Physics Department, Udine University
Collaborating Scientific Institutions
EUPEN, European Physics Education Network
CISM, International Centre For Mechanical Sciences
SIF, Italian Physical Society
AIF, Association for Physics Teaching
Coordinating Commission for Physics in Friuli Venezia Giulia
Sincrotrone-Elettra, Trieste
SISSA, High School for Advanced Studies
CLDF, Centre-Laboratory for Physics Education, University of Udine
Supporting Committee
M. Sestito, F. Giorgetti, E. Montiglio, School for Interpreters and Translators of Udine University
M. Cobal, A. Stefanel, Physics Department and CIRD, Udine University
M. Jarc, teacher at the Slovenian Language School, Gorizia
D. Ceccolin, M. Sabbadini, in charge of Services at CIRD, Udine University
G. Cabras, D. Cobai, A. Di Marzio, S. Zuccaro in charge of Services at the Physics Department, Udine
University
F. Caufin, M. De Anna, P. De Zorzi, S. Di Zanutto, S. Fabbris, A. Lucatello, A. Missana, D. Sillani, E.
Vecchio, in charge of Services at the Udine University
Maria Julia Passalenti, Peter Fersila, students of Diploma Course for Translators and Interpreter,
Udine University
Secretary and Technical Support of the Seminar
G. Cavasino, D. Ceccolin, E. Chamberlain, E. Ius, M. Sabbadini
The Seminar is under the patronage of the collaborating Scientific Institutions
SIF - Italian Physical Society
AIF - Association for Physics Teaching
Friuli-Venezia Giulia Region
Regional Direction of the Ministerium of Education for the Friuli-Venezia Giulia Region
IRRE - Regional Institute for Educational Research of the Ministerium of Education for the Friuli-
Venezia Giulia
Udine Province
Gorizia Province
Comune di Udine
Further support by
MURST - Ministero dellUniversit e della Ricerca Scientifica
UNESCO - Representative office in the Islamic Republic of Iran
CISM - International Centre for Mechanical Sciences, Udine
Sincrotrone-Elettra, Trieste
Regione Friuli-Venezia Giulia - Presidenza della Giunta - Assessorato alla Cultura e allIstruzione
IRRE del Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Istituto per leducazione della Repubblica di Slovenia
Eureka, CIRD of the University of Trieste
LIS - Laboratorio dellImmaginario Scientifico, Trieste
Scienza Viva, Associazione per la diffusione della cultura scientifica e tecnologica, Calitri (AV)
Comune di Udine
Consiglio di Amministrazione dellUniversit di Udine
Comitato per la Promozione degli Studi Tecnico Scientifici, Udine
Facolt di Agraria dellUniversit di Udine
Facolt di Scienze della Formazione dellUniversit di Udine
Facolt di Lettere e Filosofia dellUniversit di Udine
Facolt di Lingue e Letterature Straniere dellUniversit di Udine
School for Interpreters and Translators of Udine University
CIRF - Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca sulla cultura e la lingua del Friuli, University of Udine
Dipartimento di Scienze della Produzione Animale dellUniversit di Udine
Dipartimento di Economia Societ e Territorio dellUniversit di Udine
CLAV - Centro Linguistico e Audiovisivi dellUniversit di Udine
CORT - Centro Orientamento e Tutorato dellUniversit di Udine
CECA - Centro di Calcolo dellUniversit di Udine
ERDISU - Ente Regionale per il Diritto allo Studio Universitario di Udine
Convitto C. Mander, Udine
Fondazione CRUP, Udine
CRUP - Cassa di Risparmio di Udine e Pordenone
Sezione AIF, Pordenone
Sezione AIF, Udine
Sezione AIF, Venezia
CIDI - Centro di Iniziativa Democratica degli Insegnanti, Gemona del Friuli, Udine
GEI - Games Experiments Idea Exhibit, Udine University
Itineraria, Associazione Guide Turistiche Autorizzate per la Regione Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Estate in Citt 2001, del Comune di Udine
ELITALIA PASCO Scientific, Milano
Media Direct, Bassano del Grappa, Vicenza
ERSA, Casa del Vino, Udine
Consorzio Tutela Formaggio Montasio, Rivolto di Codroipo, Udine
Consorzio per la Tutela del Marchio Gubana di Cividale del Friuli
Nonino Distillatori spa, Percoto, Udine
Friul Service s.r.l., Fraz. Colugna, Udine
Osteria Al Vecchio Stallo dei F.lli Mancini, Udine
Azienda Regionale per la Promozione Turistica, Udine
Parco Naturale Prealpi Giulie, Prato di Resia, Udine
Nicastro Emilio snc, Fogliano Redipuglia, Gorizia
SALVIUS, Lavorazione artistica del vetro e della ceramica, Villa Vicentina, Udine
Hallo Sport, Modena
Litho Stampa srl, Pasian di Prato, Udine
The English Language Centre
437
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The Seminar
4.5 Structure of the seminar
439
Rapporteur
Each Workshop consists of four sessions, each one 2 hours long and divided in two successive
afternoons. These four sessions are meant to:
1) give a general view of the problems involved in the subject
2) develop a discussion on these problems
3) take a further and more detailed look at some specific aspects
4) make a general synthesis of the result
440
Background Aspects
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Background Aspects

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D

Maximum velocity of the head

6. Calculate the dimensionless speed (= Froude- number): =

v ( ) a friction force, anti-parallel to the velocity vector. In the case of dynamic

p and remembering that

Q on the arbitrary ket |q> are given by

N and the squared photon number

N are the most

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