Typical Limiting Values of Sub Station Electrical

Equipments.
1. Transformer / Reactor:
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A)
Transformer oil
a) !V
"At t#e time of first c#arging $%% &V '(ap ) *.+ mm) ) ,inimum-S ) 1.$$
"!uring /0, +% &V '(ap ) *.+ mm) ) ,inimum -S ) 1.$1
b) ,oisture content -S ) 1.$.
"At t#e time of first c#arging 1+ 22, ',a3.) -S ) 1.$4
"!uring /0, *+ 22, ',a3.) -S ) 1.1%
c) Resisti5ity at 4% 6egree 7 %.1"1%1* /#m"7, ',in.) -S ) 1.11
6) Aci6ity %.* mg 8/9/gm ',a3.) -S ) 1.1*
e) -:T at *1 6egree 7 %.%1. ;/, ',in.) -S ) 1.1<
f) Tan 6elta at 4% 6egree 7 %.*% ',a3.) -S ) 1.1=
g) :las# point 1*$ !eg. 7 ',in.) -S ) 1.1+
)
Vibration le5el for reactors *%% ,icrons '2ea& to 2ea&) -S ) 1.1$
$% ,icrons 'A5erage) -S ) 1.11
7) Tan 6elta for bus#ing at *% !eg. 7 %.%%1> -E7 ) 1<1
!) 7apacitance for bus#ing ? +@ 5ariation -E7 ) 1<.
E) -R 5alue for Ain6ing
1%%% ,"/#m y +.%/1%.% &V
,egger
-E7 ) 1<4
:)
Tan 6elta for Ain6ings at *% !eg.
7
%.%%1> -EEE/7+1.1*.4%.14.%
()
7ontact resistance of bus#ing
terminal connectors
1% ,. /#m / 7onnector
;(7.B8 Recommen6ations
9) Turret ;eutral 7T ratio errors <4 -S ) *1%+
*. 7ircuit rea&ers
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A) !eA point of S:$ gas
!eA point 5alues as per Anne3ure )
--
) !eA point of operating air "=+ !eg. 7 at AT,. 2ressure
7) 7 /perating timings =%% &V **%8V
a) 7losing time ',a3.) 1+% ,S *%%,S
b) Trip time ',a3.) *+ ,S <+,S
c) 7lose/trip timeC 2ole
6iscrepancy
) 2#ase to 2#ase ',a3.) <.<< ,S <.<<,S
"rea& to brea& ',a3.) of same
p#ase *.+ ,S *.+,S
!)
2-R time
9EL ma&e
1*"1$ ,S
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations

A ma&e
."1* ,S
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations
;(E: ma&e
."1* ,S
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations
,0( ma&e
."1* ,S
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations
TEL8 ma&e
."1* ,S
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations
A ma&e '9V!7)
."1* ,S
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations
E)
2-R opening time prior to opening
of main contacts 'AC 7(LC
;(E: ma&e 7s) + ,S ',in.) at rate6 pressure
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations
:)
2ir an6 main contacts o5erlap time
D9ELC ,0(C A 'importe6)
ma&e 7sE $ ,S ',in.) at rate6 pressure
,anufacturers
Recommen6ations
() Tan 6elta of gra6ing capacitors %.%%1 at *% !eg. 7
9) 7apacitance of gra6ing capacitors
Fit#in ? 1%@ / "+@ of t#e rate6
5alue -E7 <+4
-) 7ontact resistance of 7 1+% ,. /#m
G)
7ontact resistance of 7 terminal
connector 1% ,. /#m per connector ;(7C B8 recommen6ations
8)
-R 5alue:
1. 2#ase ) eart#
1%%% , /#m ',in.) by +.% / 1%.%
&V ,egger
*. Across open contacts
1%%% , /#m ',in.) by +.%/1%.% &V
,egger
<. 7ontrol cables
+% , /#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
L) 2ressure sAitc# settings
"S:$ gas pressure sAitc#es Fit#in ? %.1 ar of set 5alue
"/perating air pr. SAitc#es Fit#in ? %.1 ar of set 5alue
"/perating oil pr. SAitc#es Fit#in ? %.1 ar of set 5alue
,)
!V of oil use6 for ,/7
"At t#e time of filling =% &V at *.+ mm (ap ',in.) ,fgs. Recommen6ation
"!uring /0, *% &V at *.+ mm (ap. ',in.) ,fgs. Recommen6ation
<. 7urrent Transformer
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A)
-R 5alue
1. 2rimary ) eart#
1%%% , ) /#m ',in.) by +.%/1%.%
&V ,egger
*. Secon6ary ) eart#
+% , ) /#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
<. 7ontrol cables
+% ,"/#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
) Tan 6elta 5alue %.%%1> at *% !eg. 7
7) Terminal 7onnector 1% ,"/#m per connector ;(7C B8 Recommen6ations
!) 7T ratio errors ? <@ "2rotection cores -S ) *1%+
!) 7T ratio errors ? 1@ ",etering cores -S ) *1%$
=. 7apaciti5e Voltage
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A) Tan !elta %.%%1> at *% !eg. 7
) 7apacitance Fit#in ?1%@/"+@ of t#e rate6 5alue-E7 ) <+.
7
7ontact resistance of terminal
connector 1% ,"/#m per connector ;(7C B8 Recommen6ations
!)
-R Value -R Value
1. 2rimary ) eart#
1%%% , ) /#m ',in.) by +.%/1%.%
&V ,egger
*. Secon6ary ) eart#
+% , ) /#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
<. 7ontrol cables
+% ,"/#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
E) E,B tan& oil parameters E,B tan& oil parameters
a) !V ',in.) <% &V '(ap. )*.+ mm) -S ) 1.$$
b) ,oisture content ',a3.) <+ ppm "6o"
c) Resisti5ity at 4% !eg. 7 %.1 ) 1%1* /#m. ) 7, "6o"
6) Aci6ity %.+ mg &/9 /gm ',a3.) "6o"
e) -:T at *1 !eg. 7 %.%1. ;/, ',in.) "6o"
f) Tan 6elta at 4% !eg. 7 1.% ,a3. "6o"
g) :las# point 1*+ !eg. 7 ',in.) "6o"
:) 7VT 5oltage ratio errors ? +@ protection cores -EEE/74<.1.144%
:) 7VT 5oltage ratio errors ? %.+@ metering cores -E7 1.$
+. -solators
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A) 7ontact resistance <%% ,"/#m. ',a3.)
)
7ontact resistance of terminal
connector 1% , ) /#m per connector ;(7C B8 Recommen6ations
7)
-R 5alue
1. 2#ase ) eart#
1%%% , ) /#m ',in.) by +.%/1%.%
&V ,egger ;(7C B8 Recommen6ations
*. Across open contacts
1%%% , ) /#m ',in.) by +.%/1%.%
&V ,egger ;(7C B8 Recommen6ations
<. 7ontrol cables
+% ,"/#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
$. Surge Arrester
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A) Lea&age current +%% ,"Amp. 'Resisti5e) 9itac#iC Gapan Recom.
) -R 5alue 1%%% ,"/#m. ',in.) 9itac#iC Gapan Recom.
1. ,iscellaneous
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A) Station eart# resistance 1.% /#m ',a3.)
)
T#ermo 5ision scanning
Temp. up to 1+ !eg. 7 'abo5e
ambient) ;ormal
Temp. abo5e 1+"+% !eg. 7 'abo5e
ambient) Alert
Temp. abo5e +% !eg. 7 'abo5e
ambient) To be imme6iately atten6e6
7) Terminal connectors ) 7ontact 1% ,"/#m per connector 9(7C B8 Recommen6ations
resistance
!)
-R 5alues
1. All electrical motors
+% ,"/#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
*. 7ontrol cables
+% ,"/#m ',in) by %.+ &V
,egger
<. Lt. Transformers 1%% ,."/#m ',in.) by ,egger
=. Lt. SAitc#gears
1%% , ) /#m ',in.) by %.+ &V
,egger
.. atteries
Sr. No. Equipment / test data Permissible limits Reference
A) Terminal connector resistance 1% , ) /#m ? *%@ A;S-/-EEE ) =+% 14.4
) Specific gra5ity 1*%% ? + (,/L at *1 !eg. 7
Temperature 7orrection :actor for Tan !elta
,easurement
Sr. No. Oil temperature Deg. C Correction factor(K
1 1% %..
* 1+ %.4
< *% 1.%
= *+ 1.1*
+ <% 1.*+
$ <+ 1.=%
1 =% 1.++
. =+ 1.1+
4 +% 1.4+
1% ++ *.1.
11 $% *.=*
1* $+ *.1%
1< 1% <.%%
-f Tan !elta of bus#ing/Ain6ing/7VT/7T is measure6 at oil temperature T !eg. 7. T#en
Tan !elta at *% !eg. 7 s#all be as gi5en beloA:
Tan !elta at *% !eg. 7 H Tan !elta at Temp T !eg. 7 / :actor 8.
!eA 2oint Limits for S:$ (as in E9V 7ircuit rea&ers
Sr. No Make of C.B De! point at rated
Pr. Deg. C
Corresponding de! point
at "tmosp#eric .Pr. Remar$s
1 BHEL "1+ "<$ At t#e time of commissioning
"1 "*4 !uring /0,
"+ "*1 7ritical
2 M&G ) "<4 At t#e time of commissioning
"<* !uring /0,
3 CGL "1+ "<+ At t#e time of commissioning
"1% "<1 !uring /0,
4 ABB "1+ "<+ At t#e time of commissioning
"+ "*$ !uring /0,
5 NGEF "1+ "<$ At t#e time of commissioning
"1 "*4 !uring /0,
Note: Dew point of SF6 ga !a"ie wit# p"e$"e at w#i%# &ea$"e&ent i
%a""ie' o$t( So it i to )e en$"e' t#at if &ea$"e&ent i 'one at p"e$"e ot#e"
t#an at&op#e"i% p"e$"e* it nee' to )e %on!e"te' to t#e at&op#e"i%
p"e$"e(
Calculate Size of Capacitor Bank / Annual Saving &
Payback Period
April 1C *%1= $ 7omments
7alculate SiIe of 7apacitor an& Annual Sa5ing in ills an6 2aybac& 2erio6 for
7apacitor an&.
Electrical Loa6 of '1) * ;oJs of 1..+8FC=1+V motor C4%@ efficiencyC%..* 2oAer
:actor C'*) * ;oJs of 1.+8FC=1+V motor C4%@ efficiencyC%..* 2oAer :actorC'<)
1%8F C=1+V Lig#ting Loa6. T#e Targete6 2oAer :actor for System is %.4..
Electrical Loa6 is connecte6 *= 9oursC Electricity 7#arge is 1%%Rs/8VA an6
1%Rs/8F.
7alculate siIe of !isc#arge Resistor for 6isc#arging of capacitor an&. !isc#arge
rate of 7apacitor is +%5 in less t#an 1 minute.
Also 7alculate re6uction in 8VAR rating of 7apacitor if 7apacitor an& is
operate6 at frequency of =%9I instea6 of +%9I an6 -f /perating Voltage =%%V
instea6 of =1+V.
7apacitor is connecte6 in star 7onnectionC 7apacitor 5oltage =1+VC 7apacitor
7ost is $%Rs/85ar. Annual !eprecation 7ost of 7apacitor is 1*@.
7alculation:
:or 7onnection '1):
Total Loa6 8F for 7onnection'1) H8A / EfficiencyH'1..+K*) / 4%H=1.18F
Total Loa6 8VA 'ol6) for 7onnection'1)H 8F //l6 2oAer :actorH =1.1 /
%..*H+%.1 8VA
Total Loa6 8VA 'neA) for 7onnection'1)H 8F /;eA 2oAer :actorH =1.1 /%.4.H
=1.48VA
Total Loa6 8VARH 8FL'D'M1"'ol6 p.f)*) / ol6 p.fE" D'M1"';eA p.f)*) / ;eA p.fE)
Total Loa6 8VAR1H=1.13'D'M1"'%..*)*) / %..*E" D'M1"'%.4.)*) / %.4.E)
%otal &oad K'"R()*+.,- K'"R
/R
tanN1HArcos'%..*)H%.$4
tanN*HArcos'%.4.)H%.*%
Total Loa6 8VAR1H 8FL 'tanN1" tanN*) H=1.1'%.$4"%.*%)H*%.<+8VAR
:or 7onnection '*):
Total Loa6 8F for 7onnection'*) H8A / EfficiencyH'1.+K*) / 4%H1$.$$8F
Total Loa6 8VA 'ol6) for 7onnection'1)H 8F //l6 2oAer :actorH 1$.$$ /
%..<H*%.%. 8VA
Total Loa6 8VA 'neA) for 7onnection'1)H 8F /;eA 2oAer :actorH 1$.$$ /
%.4.H 11.%18VA
Total Loa6 8VAR*H 8FL'D'M1"'ol6 p.f)*) / ol6 p.fE" D'M1"';eA p.f)*) / ;eA
p.fE)
Total Loa6 8VAR*H*%.<+3'D'M1"'%..<)*) / %..<E" D'M1"'%.4.)*) / %.4.E)
%otal &oad K'"R*)../* K'"R
:or 7onnection '<):
Total Loa6 8F for 7onnection'*) H8A H1%8F
Total Loa6 8VA 'ol6) for 7onnection'1)H 8F //l6 2oAer :actorH
1%/%..+H11.1$ 8VA
Total Loa6 8VA 'neA) for 7onnection'1)H 8F /;eA 2oAer :actorH 1% /%.4.H
1%.*%8VA
Total Loa6 8VAR<H 8FL'D'M1"'ol6 p.f)*) / ol6 p.fE" D'M1"';eA p.f)*) / ;eA
p.fE)
Total Loa6 8VAR<H*%.<+3'D'M1"'%..+)*) / %..+E" D'M1"'%.4.)*) / %.4.E)
%otal &oad K'"R()0.(. K'"R
%otal K'"R)K'"R(1 K'"R*1K'"R,
Total 8VARH*%.<+?1..*?=.11
%otal K'"R),* K2ar
SiIe of 7apacitor an&:
Site of Capacitor 3an$),* K2ar.
&eading K'"R supplied b4 eac# P#ase) K2ar/No of P#ase
Lea6ing 8VAR supplie6 by eac# 2#ase H<*/<H1%..85ar/2#ase
Capacitor C#arging Current (5c) (K2ar/P#ase 6(+++/'olt
7apacitor 7#arging 7urrent '-c)H '1%..K1%%%)/'=1+/M<)
7apacitor 7#arging 7urrent '-c)H==.4Amp
Capacitance of Capacitor ) Capacitor C#arging Current (5c/ 7c
LcH*K<.1=3f35H*K<.1=3+%3'=1+/M<)H1+<$*
7apacitance of 7apacitorH==.4/1+<$*H +.4$O:
Required , No8s of (+./ K2ar Capacitors and
Total SiIe of 7apacitor an& is <*85ar

2rotection of 7apacitor an&
SiIe of 9R7 :use for 7apacitor an& 2rotection:
Si9e of t#e fuse )(:-; to *++; of Capacitor C#arging current.
SiIe of t#e fuseH*K==.4Amp
SiIe of t#e fuseH4%Amp
SiIe of 7ircuit rea&er for 7apacitor 2rotection:
Si9e of t#e Circuit 3rea$er )(,-; to (-+; of Capacitor C#arging current.
SiIe of t#e 7ircuit rea&erH1.+K==.4Amp
SiIe of t#e 7ircuit rea&erH$1Amp
T#ermal relay setting betAeen 1.< an6 1.+of 7apacitor 7#arging current.
T#ermal relay setting of 7.H1.+K==.4 Amp
T#ermal relay setting of 7.H$1 Amp
,agnetic relay setting betAeen + an6 1% of 7apacitor 7#arging current.
,agnetic relay setting of 7.H1%K==.4Amp
,agnetic relay setting of 7.H==4Amp
SiIing of cables for capacitor 7onnection:
7apacitors can Ait#stan6 a permanent o5er current of <%@ ?tolerance of 1%@ on
capacitor 7urrent.
7ables siIe for 7apacitor 7onnectionH 1.< 31.1 3 nominal capacitor 7urrent
Cables si9e for Capacitor Connection ) (.0, 6 nominal capacitor Current
7ables siIe for 7apacitor 7onnectionH1.=<K==.4Amp
7ables siIe for 7apacitor 7onnectionH$= Amp
,a3imum siIe of 6isc#arge Resistor for 7apacitor:
7apacitors Aill be 6isc#arge by 6isc#arging resistors.
After t#e capacitor is 6isconnecte6 from t#e source of supplyC 6isc#arge resistors
are require6 for 6isc#arging eac# unit Ait#in < min to 1+ V or less from initial
nominal pea& 5oltage 'accor6ing -E7"stan6ar6 $%.<1).
!isc#arge resistors #a5e to be connecte6 6irectly to t#e capacitors. T#ere s#all be
no sAitc#C fuse cut"out or any ot#er isolating 6e5ice betAeen t#e capacitor unit
an6 t#e 6isc#arge resistors.
<a6. Disc#arge resistance 'alue (Star Connection ) Ct / Cn 6 &og (=n 6>*/
D2.
<a6. Disc#arge resistance 'alue (Delta Connection) Ct / (/,6Cn 6 &og (=n
6>*/ D2
F#ere 7t H7apacitor !isc#arge Time 'sec)
7nH7apacitance :ara6.
Bn H Line Voltage
!5H7apacitor !isc#arge 5oltage.
,a3imum !isc#arge resistance H$% / ''+.4$/1%%%%%%)3 log ' =1+3M* /+%)
<a6imum Disc#arge resistance)0+/. K?
Effect of Decreasing 'oltage @ Arequenc4 on Rating of CapacitorB
T#e &5ar of capacitor Aill not be same if 5oltage applie6 to t#e capacitor an6
frequency c#anges
Re6uce6 in 85ar siIe of 7apacitor A#en operating +% 9I unit at =% 9I
Actual 8VAR H Rate6 8VAR 3'/perating :requency / Rate6 :requency)
Actual 8VAR H Rate6 8VAR 3'=%/+%)
Actual 8VAR H .%@ of Rate6 8VAR
Cence ,* K2ar Capacitor !or$s as /+;6,*K2ar) *:.:K2ar
Re6uce6 in 85ar siIe of 7apacitor A#en operating =1+V unit at =%%V
Actual 8VAR H Rate6 8VAR 3'/perating 5oltage / Rate6 5oltage)P*
Actual 8VAR H Rate6 8VAR 3'=%%/=1+)P*
Actual 8VARH4<@ of Rate6 8VAR
Cence ,* K2ar Capacitor !or$s as D,;6,*K2ar) *,.+K2ar
Annual Sa5ing an6 2ay ac& 2erio6
efore 2oAer :actor 7orrection:
%otal electrical load K'" (old) K'"(1K'"*1K'",
Total electrical loa6H +%.1?*%.%.?11.1$
Total electrical loa6H.* 8VA
Total electrical Loa6 8FH&F1?8F*?8F<
Total electrical Loa6 8FH<1?1+?1%
Total electrical Loa6 8F H$*&A
Loa6 7urrentH8VA/VH.%K1%%%/'=1+/1.1<*)
Loa6 7urrentH11=.1 Amp
8VA !eman6 7#argeH8VA L 7#arge
8VA !eman6 7#argeH.*3$%Rs
8VA !eman6 7#argeH.14. Rs
Annual Bnit 7onsumptionH8F3 !aily uses3<$+
Annual Bnit 7onsumptionH$*3*=3<$+ H+=<1*% 8A#
Annual c#arges H+=<1*%K1%H+=<1*%% Rs
Total Annual 7ostH .14.?+=<1*%%
Total Annual 7ost before 2oAer :actor 7orrectionH +=<4<4. Rs
After 2oAer :actor 7orrection:
%otal electrical load K'" (ne!) K'"(1K'"*1K'",
Total electrical loa6H =1.4+?11.%1?1%.*%
Total electrical loa6H$4 8VA
Total electrical Loa6 8FH&F1?8F*?8F<
Total electrical Loa6 8FH<1?1+?1%
Total electrical Loa6 8F H$*&A
Loa6 7urrentH8VA/VH$4K1%%%/'=1+/1.1<*)
Loa6 7urrentH4$.* Amp
8VA !eman6 7#argeH8VA L 7#arge
8VA !eman6 7#argeH$43$%Rs H$41$ RsQQQQ"'1)
Annual Bnit 7onsumptionH8F3 !aily uses3<$+
Annual Bnit 7onsumptionH$*3*=3<$+ H+=<1*% 8A#
Annual c#arges H+=<1*%K1%H+=<1*%% RsQQQQQ)'*)
7apital 7ost of capacitorH 85ar 3 7apacitor cost/85ar H .* 3 $%H =414 RsQ'<)
Annual -nterest an6 !eprecation 7ost H=414 3 1*@H+4% RsQ)'=)
Total Annual 7ostH $41$?+=<1*%%?=414?+4%
Total Annual 7ost After 2oAer :actor 7orrection H+=<.1%$ Rs
2ay ac& 2erio6:
Total Annual 7ost before 2oAer :actor 7orrectionH +=<4<4. Rs
Total Annual 7ost After 2oAer :actor 7orrection H+=<.1%$ Rs
Annual Sa5ingH +=<4<4."+=<.1%$ Rs
Annual Sa5ingH $4* Rs
2aybac& 2erio6H 7apital 7ost of 7apacitor / Annual Sa5ing
2aybac& 2erio6H =41* / $4*
2aybac& 2erio6 H 1.1 Rears
Calculate Technical Losses of Transission /
!istribution Line"
,arc# 1C *%1= 4 7omments
5ntroductionB
T#ere are tAo types of Losses in transmission an6 6istribution Line.
'1) Tec#nical Losses an6
'*) 7ommercial Losses.
-t is necessary to calculate tec#nical an6 commercial losses.;ormally Tec#nical
Losses an6 7ommercial Losses are calculate6 separately .Transmission
'Tec#nical) Losses are 6irectly effecte6 on electrical tariff but 7ommercial
losses are not implemente6 to all consumers.
Tec#nical Losses of t#e !istribution line mostly 6epen6 upon Electrical Loa6C
type an6 siIe of con6uctorC lengt# of line etc.
LetJs try to calculate Tec#nical Losses of one of folloAing 11 8V !istribution
Line
E6ampleB
11 8V !istribution Line #a5e folloAing parameter.
,ain lengt# of 11 8V Line is $.1. 8ms.
Total nos. of !istribution Transformer on :ee6er *+ 8VAH < ;oC $< 8VA H<
;oC1%%8VAH1;o.
*+8VA Transformer -ron Losses H 1%% FC 7opper LossesH 1*% FC A5erage LT
Line LossH $<F.
$<8VA Transformer -ron Losses H *%% FC 7opper LossesH 1<%% FC A5erage LT
Line LossH *$%F.
1%%8VA Transformer -ron Losses H *4% FC 7opper LossesH 1.+% FC LT Line
LossH 1<.%F.
,a3imum Amp is1* Amps.
Bnit sent out 6uring to fee6er is =4%<<+ 8A#
Bnit sol6 out 6uring from :ee6er is <+<+4* 8A#
;ormati5e Loa6 6i5ersity :actor for Brban fee6er is 1.+ an6 for Rural :ee6er is
*.%
CalculationB
%otal Connected &oad)No8s of Connected %ransformer.
Total 7onnecte6 Loa6H '*+K<) ? '$<K<) ? '1%%K1).
Total 7onnecte6 Loa6H<$= 8VA.
Pea$ &oad ) (..,* 6 &ine 'oltage 6 <a6 "mp
2ea& Loa6 H 1.1<*31131*
2ea& Loa6 H**. 8VA.
Di2ersit4 Aactor (DA ) Connected &oad (5n K'" / Pea$ &oad.
!i5ersity :actor '!:) H <$= /**.
!i5ersity :actor '!:) H1.1+
&oad Aactor (&A) =nit Sent Out (5n K!# / (..,* 6 &ine 'oltage 6 <a6 "mp. 6
P.A. 6 /.:+
Loa6 :actor 'L:)H=4%<<+ / 1.1<*31131*3%..K.1$%
Loa6 :actor 'L:)H%.<%$%
&oss &oad Aactor (&&A) (+./ 6 &A6 &A1 (+.* 6 &A
Loss Loa6 :actor 'LL:)H ' %.. 3 %.<%$% 3 %.<%$% ) ? '%.* 3 %.<%$)
Loss Loa6 :actor 'LL:)H %.1<$1
Calculation of 5ron lossesB
%otal "nnual 5ron loss in K!# )5ron &oss in Eatts 7 Nos of %C on t#e
feeder 7/.:+ / (+++
Total Annual -ron loss '*+8VA T7)H1%%3<3.1$% /1%%% H*$*. 8A#
Total Annual -ron loss '$<8VA T7)H*%%3<3.1$% /1%%% H+*+$ 8A#
Total Annual -ron loss '1%%8VA T7)H*4%3<3.1$% /1%%% H*+=% 8A#
Total Annual -ron loss H*$*.?+*+$?*+=% H1%=*=8A#
Calculation of Copper lossesB
%otal "nnual Copper loss in K!# )Cu &oss in Eatts 7Nos of %C on t#e
feeder &A7 &A 7/.:+ / (+++
Total Annual 7opper loss '*+8VA T7)H1*%3<3%.<K%.<K.1$% /1%%% H1111 8A#
Total Annual 7opper loss '$<8VA T7)H1<%%3<3%.<K%.<K.1$% /1%%% H<144
8A#
Total Annual 7opper loss '1%%8VA T7)H1.+%313%.<K%.<K.1$% /1%%% H1=+.
8A#
Total Annual 7opper loss H1111?<144?1=+.H$=4%8A#
C% &ine &osses (K!#)+.(+- 6 (Conn. &oad 6 * 6 &engt# 6 Resistance 6 &&A /
( &DA 6 DA 6 DA 6 *
9T Line LossesH 1.%+ 3'*$+K*) 3 $.1. 3 %.+= 3 %.1<$1 /1.+ 3 1.1+ 31.1+ 3 *
9T Line Losses H .<1 8A#
Pea$ Po!er &osses) (, 6 %otal &% &ine &osses / (PP&6DA6DA6 (+++
2ea& 2oAer LossesH < 3 '<K$<?<K*$%?1K1<.%) /1.1+ 3 1.1+ 3 1%%%
2ea& 2oAer LossesH <.%
&% &ine &osses (K!#) (PP&. 6 (&&A 6 /.:+
LT Line Losses H < 3 %.1<$1 3 .1$%
LT Line Losses H <<1+ 8A#
%otal %ec#nical &osses) (C% &ine &osses 1 &% &ine &osses 1 "nnual Cu &osses 1
"nnual 5ron &osses
Total Tec#nical Losses H ' .<1? <<1+ ? 1%=*= ? $=4%)
%otal %ec#nical &osses ) *(+:( K!#
; %ec#nical &oss) (%otal &osses / (=nit Sent Out "nnuall4 6 (++
@ Tec#nical LossH '*1%$1/=4%<<+) 31%%H 0.,+;
; %ec#nical &oss)0.,+;
Calculate #!$T over Current %elay Setting &'(/')*
/ctober 11C *%1< 14 7omments
7alculate setting of -!,T o5er 7urrent Relay for folloAing :ee6er an6 7T
!etail
Aeeder Detail: :ee6er Loa6 7urrent <.= AmpC :ee6er :ault current ,in118A
an6 ,a3 **8A.
C% DetailB 7T installe6 on fee6er is $%%/1 Amp. Relay Error 1.+@C 7T Error
1%.%@C 7T o5er s#oot %.%+ SecC 7T interrupting Time is %.11 Sec an6 Safety is
%.<< Sec.
5D<% Rela4 DetailB
5D<% Rela4 &o! Current settingB /5er Loa6 7urrent setting is 1*+@C 2lug
setting of Relay is %.. Amp an6 Time !elay 'T,S) is %.1*+ SecC Relay 7ur5e is
selecte6 as ;ormal -n5erse Type.
5D<% Rela4 Cig# Current setting B2lug setting of Relay is *.+ Amp an6 Time
!elay 'T,S) is %.1%% SecC Relay 7ur5e is selecte6 as ;ormal -n5erse Type
Calculation of O2er Current Rela4 SettingB
(( &o! o2er Current SettingB (5F
O2er &oad Current (5n ) Aeeder &oad Current 7 Rela4 setting ) ,/0 7
(*-; )0/+ "mp
Required O2er &oad Rela4 Plug Setting) O2er &oad Current (5n / C%
Primar4 Current
Require6 /5er Loa6 Relay 2lug Setting H =.% / $%% H %..
Pic$ up Setting of O2er Current Rela4 (P<S (5F) C% Secondar4 Current
7 Rela4 Plug Setting
2ic& up Setting of /5er 7urrent Relay '2,S) '-S)H 1 L %.. H %.. Amp
Plug Setting <ultiplier (PS< ) <in. Aeeder Aault Current / (P<S 7 (C%
Pri. Current / C% Sec. Current
2lug Setting ,ultiplier '2S,) H 11%%% / '%.. L '$%% / 1)) H **.4*
/peration Time of Relay as per itJs 7ur5e
/perating Time of Relay for Very -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H1<.+ / ''2S,)"1).
/perating Time of Relay for E3treme -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H.%/ ''2S,)* "1).
/perating Time of Relay for Long Time -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H1*% / ''2S,) "1).
/perating Time of Relay for ;ormal -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H%.1= / ''2S,) %.%* "1).
/perating Time of Relay for ;ormal -n5erse 7ur5e 't)H%.1= / ' '**.4*)%.%*"1) H
*.11 Amp
9ere Time !elay of Relay 'T,S) is %.1*+ Sec so
"ctual operating %ime of Rela4 (tF ) Operating %ime of Rela4 7 %<S )*.(.
7 +.(*- )+.*.( Sec
Grading %ime of Rela4 ) H((*7Rela4 Error1C% Error7%<SI1 O2er
s#oot1 C3 5nterrupting %ime1 Safet4
Total (ra6ing Time of RelayHD''*L1.+)?1%)L%.1*+E?%.%+?%.11?%.<< H %.+. Sec
Operating %ime of Pre2ious upstream Rela4 ) "ctual operating %ime of
Rela41 %otal Grading %ime /perating Time of 2re5ious up Stream Relay H
%.*11 ? %.+. H %..+ Sec
(* Cig# o2er Current SettingB (5FF
Pic$ up Setting of O2er Current Rela4 (P<S (5FF) C% Secondar4 Current
7 Rela4 Plug Setting
2ic& up Setting of /5er 7urrent Relay '2,S) '-S)H 1 L *.+ H *.+ Amp
Plug Setting <ultiplier (PS< ) <in. Aeeder Aault Current / (P<S 7 (C%
Pri. Current / C% Sec. Current
2lug Setting ,ultiplier '2S,) H 11%%% / '*.+ L '$%% / 1)) H 1.<<
/peration Time of Relay as per itJs 7ur5e
/perating Time of Relay for Very -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H1<.+ / ''2S,)"1).
/perating Time of Relay for E3treme -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H.%/ ''2S,)* "1).
/perating Time of Relay for Long Time -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H1*% / ''2S,) "1).
/perating Time of Relay for ;ormal -n5erse 7ur5e 't) H%.1= / ''2S,) %.%* "1).
Operating %ime of Rela4 for Normal 5n2erse Cur2e (t)+.(0 / ( (..,,+.+*J(
) ,.00 "mp
9ere Time !elay of Relay 'T,S) is %.1%% Sec so
"ctual operating %ime of Rela4 (tF ) Operating %ime of Rela4 7 %<S ),.00
7 +.(++ )+.,0 Sec
Grading %ime of Rela4 ) H((*7Rela4 Error1C% Error7%<SI1 O2er
s#oot1 C3 5nterrupting %ime1 Safet4
Total (ra6ing Time of RelayHD''*L1.+)?1%)L%.1%%E?%.%+?%.11?%.<< H %.+. Sec
Operating %ime of Pre2ious upstream Rela4 ) "ctual operating %ime of
Rela41 %otal Grading %ime.
/perating Time of 2re5ious up Stream Relay H %.<= ? %.+. H %..+ Sec
Conclusion of CalculationB
2ic&up Setting of o5er current Relay '2,S) '-S) s#oul6 be satisfie6 folloAing
TAo 7on6ition.
(( 2ic&up Setting of o5er current Relay '2,S)'-S) SH /5er Loa6 7urrent '-n) /
7T 2rimary 7urrent
(* T,S TH ,inimum :ault 7urrent / 7T 2rimary 7urrent
:or 7on6ition '1) %.. S H'=.%/$%%) H %.. SH %..C F#ic# foun6 OK
:or 7on6ition '*) %.1*+ TH 11%%%/$%% H %.1*+ TH 1..<<C F#ic# foun6 OK
Cere Condition (( and (* are satisfied so
Pic$up Setting of O2er Current Rela4 ) OK
&o! O2er Current Rela4 SettingB (5F ) +./" 7 5n "mp
"ctual operating %ime of Rela4 (tF ) +.*.( Sec
Cig# O2er Current Rela4 SettingB (5FF ) *.-" 7 5n "mp
"ctual operating %ime of Rela4 (tFF ) +.,0 Sec
Economical 'oltage for Po!er %ransmissionB
Economic generation 5oltage is generally limite6 to folloAing 5alues '7-2
,anual).
Economic generation 2oltage (C35P <anual
%otal &oad Economical 'oltage
Bp to 1+% 8VA =1+ V
1+% 8VA to *+%% 8VA <.< 8V
*+%% 8VA to +%%% 8VA $.$ 8V
Abo5e +%%% 8VA 11 8V or 9ig#er
(enerally terminal 5oltage of large generators is 11 &V in -n6ia. Step up 5oltage
6epen6s upon Lengt# of transmission line for interconnection Ait# t#e poAer
system an6 2oAer to be transmitte6.
9ig# 5oltage increases cost of insulation an6 support structures for increase6
clearance for air insulation but 6ecreases siIe an6 #ence 7ost of con6uctors an6
line losses.
,any empirical relations #a5e been e5ol5e6 to appro3imately 6etermine
economic 5oltages for poAer e5acuation. An important component in
transmission lines is labor costs A#ic# are country specific.
An empirical relation is gi5en beloA.
'oltage in $' (line to line ) -.-6>+.:*& 1 $'"/(-+
A#ere &VA is total poAer to be transmitte6U
L is lengt# of transmission line in &m.
American practice for economic line to line 5oltage &V 'base6 on empirical
formulation) is
'oltage in $' line to line ) -.-6>+.:*& 1 ,P/(++
:or t#e purpose of stan6ar6iIation in -n6ia transmission lines may be classifie6
for operating at $$ &V an6 abo5e. << &V is sub transmissionC 11 &V an6 beloA
may be classifie6 as 6istribution.
9ig#er 5oltage system is use6 for transmitting #ig#er amounts of poAer an6
longer lengt#s an6 its protection is important for poAer system security an6
requires comple3 relay systems.
Required Po!er %ransfer (<E Distance (K< Economical 'oltage &e2el (K<
<+%% +%% 1$+
+%% =%% =%%
1*% 1+% **%
.% +% 1<*
Aactor affected on 'oltage &e2el of s4stemB
2oAer carrying capability of transmission lines increases roug#ly as t#e square of
t#e 5oltage. Accor6ingly 6isconnection of #ig#er 5oltage class equipment from
bus bars get increasingly less 6esirable Ait# increase in 5oltage le5els.
9ig# structures are not 6esirable in eart#qua&e prone areas. T#erefore in or6er to
obtain loAer structures an6 facilitate maintenance it is important to 6esign suc#
sub"stations preferably Ait# not more t#an tAo le5els of bus bars.
Si9e of Cable according to S#ort circuit (for
(($'K,.,$' onl4
S#ort circuit 5erification is performe6 by using folloAing formula:
Cross Section area of Cable (mm*S ) 5 6>t / K
F#ere:
t H fault 6uration 'S)
- H effecti5e s#ort circuit current '&A)
8 H %.%4= for aluminum con6uctor insulate6 Ait# LL2E
E6ampleB :ault 6uration't)H %.*+secC:ault 7urrent '-) H *$.*= &A
7ross Section area of 7able H *$.*= 3 M '%.*+) / %.%4=H 1<4.$ sq. mm
T#e selecte6 cross sectional area is (/- sq. mm.
Ground ClearanceB
Ground Clearance in <eter ) -./(* 1 +.,+- 7 K
E#ere K) ('oltJ,, / ,,
'oltage &e2el Ground Clearance
TH<<8V +.* ,eter
$$8V +.=4 ,eter
1<*8V $.1% ,eter
**%8V 1.% ,eter
=%%8V ...= ,eter
'oltage Rise in %ransformers due to Capacitor 3an$B
T#e 5oltage 6rop an6 rise on t#e poAer line an6 6rop in t#e transformers. E5ery
transformer Aill also e3perience a 5oltage rise from generating source to t#e
capacitors. T#is rise is in6epen6ent of loa6 or poAer factor an6 may be
6etermine6 as folloAs:
; 'oltage Rise in %ransformer)(K2ar / K2a6 L
85ar HApplie6 85ar
85a H 85a of t#e transformer
I H Transformer Reactance in @
E6ampleB <%% 85ar ban& gi5en to 1*%% 8VA transformer Ait# +.1+@ reactance.
@ Voltage Rise in TransformerH'<%%/1*%%)3 +.1+ H(.0,;
+lectrical Thub %ules,&Part )*-
Guly *1C *%1< <4 7omments
7able 7apacity:
Aor Cu Eire Current Capacit4 (=p to ,+ Sq.mm ) $L SiIe of Fire in Sq.mm
E3. :or *.+ Sq.mmH$K*.+H1+ AmpC :or 1 Sq.mmH$K1H$ AmpC :or 1.+
Sq.mmH$K1.+H4 Amp
Aor Cable Current Capacit4 ) =L SiIe of 7able in Sq.mm CE3. :or *.+
Sq.mmH=K*.+H4 Amp.
Nomenclature for cable Rating ) Bo/B
A#ere BoH2#ase"(roun6 VoltageC BH2#ase"2#ase VoltageC BmH9ig#est
2ermissible Voltage
7urrent 7apacity of Equipments:
( P#ase <otor dra!s Current)1Amp per 92.
, P#ase <otor dra!s Current)1.*+Amp per 92.
Aull &oad Current of , P#ase <otor)9231.+
Aull &oad Current of ( P#ase <otor)923$
No &oad Current of , P#ase <otor )<%@ of :L7
KE Rating of <otor)923%.1+
Aull &oad Current of equipment )1.<438VA 'for < 2#ase =1+Volt)
Aull &oad Current of equipment )1.1=38A 'for < 2#ase =1+Volt)
Eart#ing Resistance:
Eart#ing Resistance for Single Pit)+V CEart#ing (ri6H%.+V
"s per NEC (D/- Eart#ing Resistance s#oul6 be T+V.
'oltage bet!een Neutral and Eart# TH* Volts
Resistance bet!een Neutral and Eart# TH1V
Creepage Distance)1. to **mm/8V ',o6erate 2ollute6 Air) or
Creepage Distance)*+ to <<mm/8V '9ig#ly 2ollute6 Air)
<inimum 3ending RadiusB
<inimum 3ending Radius for &% Po!er Cable)1*3!ia of 7able.
<inimum 3ending Radius for C% Po!er Cable)*%3!ia of 7able.
<inimum 3ending Radius for Control Cable)1%3!ia of 7able.
5nsulation ResistanceB
5nsulation Resistance 'alue for Rotating <ac#ine) '8V?1) ,V.
5nsulation Resistance 'alue for <otor (5S .,* ) ''*%3Voltage 'L"L)) / '1%%%?
'*38F)).
5nsulation Resistance 'alue for Equipment (M(K' ) ,inimum 1 ,V.
5nsulation Resistance 'alue for Equipment (F(K' ) 8V 1 ,V per 18V.
5nsulation Resistance 'alue for Panel ) * 3 8V rating of t#e panel.
<in 5nsulation Resistance 'alue (Domestic ) +% ,V / ;o of 2oints. 'All
Electrical 2oints Ait# Electrical fitting 0 2lugs). S#oul6 be less t#an %.+ ,V
<in 5nsulation Resistance 'alue (Commercial ) 1%% ,V / ;o of 2oints. 'All
Electrical 2oints Ait#out fitting 0 2lugs).S#oul6 be less t#an %.+ ,V.
%est 'oltage (".C for <eggering ) '*L ;ame 2late Voltage) ?1%%%
%est 'oltage (D.C for <eggering ) (*L ;ame 2late Voltage).
Submersible Pump %a$e +.0 KEC of e6tra Energ4 at ( meter drop of Eater.
Lig#ting Arrestor:
"rrestor #a2e %!o Rating)
'1) ,7/VH,a3. 7ontinuous Line to (roun6 /perating Voltage.
'*) !uty 7ycle Voltage. '!uty 7ycle VoltageS,7/V).
Transformer:
Current Rating of %ransformerH8VA31.=
S#ort Circuit Current of %.C /Generator) 7urrent Rating / @ -mpe6ance
No &oad Current of %ransformer)T*@ of Transformer Rate6 current
Capacitor Current (5c)8VAR / 1.1<*3Volt '2#ase"2#ase)
Typically t#e local utility pro5i6es transformers rate6 up to -++$'" :or
ma3imum connecte6 loa6 of DD$EK
Typically t#e local utility pro5i6es transformers rate6 up to (*-+$'" :or
ma3imum connecte6 loa6 of (-+$E.
T#e 6i5ersity t#ey Aoul6 apply to apartments is aroun6 :+;
,a3imum 9T '11&V) connecte6 loa6 Aill be aroun6 0.-<'" per circuit.
=;o. eart# pits per transformer '*;o. for bo6y an6 *;o. for neutral eart#ing)C
7learancesC appro3.1%%%mm aroun6 T7 alloA for transformer mo5ement for
replacement.
Diesel GeneratorB
Diesel Generator Set Produces)<..1 Bnits '8F9) in 1 Litter of !iesel.
Requirement "rea of Diesel Generator ) for *+8F to =.8FH+$ Sq.meterC
1%%8FH$+ Sq.meter.
!( less t#an or equal to (+++$'" must be in a canop4.
!( greater (+++$'" can eit#er be in a canopy or s&i6 mounte6 in an acoustically
treate6 room
!( noise le5els to be less t#an .-d3" N (meter.
!( fuel storage tan&s s#oul6 be a ma3imum of DD+ &itter per unit Storage tan&s
abo5e t#is le5el Aill trigger more stringent e3plosion protection pro5ision.
7urrent Transformer:
Nomenclature of C%B
RatioB input / output current ratio
3urden ('"B total bur6en inclu6ing pilot Aires. '*.+C +C 1%C 1+ an6 <%VA.)
ClassB Accuracy require6 for operation ',etering: %.*C %.+C 1 or <C 2rotection: +C
1%C 1+C *%C <%).
"ccurac4 &imit AactorB
;omenclature of 7T: RatioC VA ur6enC Accuracy 7lassC Accuracy Limit
:actor.E6ampleB (:++/-K (-'" -P(+ 'Ratio: 1$%%/+C ur6en: 1+VAC Accuracy
7lass: +2C AL:: 1%)
"s per 5EEE <etering C%B %.<%.1 rate6 ,etering 7T is accurate to %.< percent
if t#e connecte6 secon6ary bur6en if impe6ance 6oes not e3cee6 %.1 o#ms.
"s per 5EEE Rela4ing (Protection C%B *.+71%% Relaying 7T is accurate
Ait#in *.+ percent if t#e secon6ary bur6en is less t#an 1.% o#m '1%% 5olts/1%%A).
Ouic$ Electrical Calculation
192H%.1=$8F
Star Connection
18FH1.<$92 Line VoltageHM< 2#ase Voltage
1FattH%..=$ 8la/9r Line 7urrentH2#ase 7urrent
1FattH<.=1 TB/9r
Delta Connection
18F9H<.$ ,G Line VoltageH2#ase Voltage
17alH=.1.$ G Line 7urrentHM< 2#ase 7urrent
1ToneH <+<% TB
.+ Sq.ft :loor AreaH1*%% TB
18calH=1.$ Goule
18F9H.$% 8cal
17alH=.1.< Goule
.ver Current %elay&Type,Application,Connection*"
Ganuary 1C *%1< 1< 7omments
%4pes of protectionB
2rotection sc#emes can be 6i5i6e6 into tAo maWor groupings:
1. Bnit sc#emes
*. ;on"unit sc#emes
( =nit %4pe Protection
Bnit type sc#emes protect a specific area of t#e systemC i.e.C a transformerC
transmission lineC generator or bus bar.
T#e unit protection sc#emes is base6 on 8erc#iefJs current laA ) t#e sum of t#e
currents entering an area of t#e system must be Iero. Any 6e5iation from t#is
must in6icate an abnormal current pat#. -n t#ese sc#emesC t#e effects of any
6isturbance or operating con6ition outsi6e t#e area of interest are totally ignore6
an6 t#e protection must be 6esigne6 to be stable abo5e t#e ma3imum possible
fault current t#at coul6 floA t#roug# t#e protecte6 area.
* Non unit t4pe protection
T#e non"unit sc#emesC A#ile also inten6e6 to protect specific areasC #a5e no fi3e6
boun6aries. As Aell as protecting t#eir oAn 6esignate6 areasC t#e protecti5e Iones
can o5erlap into ot#er areas. F#ile t#is can be 5ery beneficial for bac&up
purposesC t#ere can be a ten6ency for too great an area to be isolate6 if a fault is
6etecte6 by 6ifferent non unit sc#emes.
T#e most simple of t#ese sc#emes measures current an6 incorporates an in5erse
time c#aracteristic into t#e protection operation to alloA protection nearer to t#e
fault to operate first.
T#e non unit type protection system inclu6es folloAing sc#emes:
'A) Time gra6e6 o5er current protection
') 7urrent gra6e6 o5er current protection
'7) !istance or -mpe6ance 2rotection
(" O2er current protection
T#is is t#e simplest of t#e Aays to protect a line an6 t#erefore Ai6ely use6.
-t oAes its application from t#e fact t#at in t#e e5ent of fault t#e current Aoul6
increase to a 5alue se5eral times greater t#an ma3imum loa6 current.
-t #as a limitation t#at it can be applie6 only to simple an6 non costly equipments.
(3 Eart# fault protection
T#e general practice is to employ a set of tAo or t#ree o5er current relays an6 a
separate o5er current relay for single line to groun6 fault. Separate eart# fault
relay pro5i6e6 ma&es eart# fault protection faster an6 more sensiti5e.
Eart# fault current is alAays less t#an p#ase fault current in magnitu6e. T#ereforeC
relay connecte6 for eart# fault protection is 6ifferent from t#ose for p#ase to
p#ase fault protection.
'arious t4pes of &ine AaultsB
No %4pe of Aault Operation of Rela4
1 2#ase to (roun6 fault 'Eart# :ault) Eart# :ault Relay
* 2#ase to 2#ase fault ;ot Ait# (roun6 Relate6 2#ase /5er current relays
<
!ouble p#ase to (roun6 fault
Relate6 2#ase /5er current relays an6
Eart# :ault relays
O2er current Rela4B
A relay t#at operates or pic&s up A#en itJs current e3cee6s a pre6etermine6 5alue
'setting 5alue) is calle6 /5er 7urrent Relay.
/5er current protection protects electrical poAer systems against e3cessi5e
currents A#ic# are cause6 by s#ort circuitsC groun6 faultsC etc. /5er current relays
can be use6 to protect practically any poAer system elementsC i.e. transmission
linesC transformersC generatorsC or motors.
:or fee6er protectionC t#ere Aoul6 be more t#an one o5er current relay to protect
6ifferent sections of t#e fee6er. T#ese o5er current relays nee6 to coor6inate Ait#
eac# ot#er suc# t#at t#e relay nearest fault operates first. Bse timeC current an6 a
combination of bot# time an6 current are t#ree Aays to 6iscriminate a6Wacent o5er
current relays.
O2er Current Rela4 gi2es Protection againstB
1. /5er current inclu6es s#ort"circuit protection.
*. S#ort circuits can be
<. 2#ase faults
=. Eart# faults
+. Fin6ing faults
S#ort"circuit currents are generally se5eral times '+ to *%) full loa6 current. 9ence
fast fault clearance is alAays 6esirable on s#ort circuits.
Primar4 Requirement of O2er Current ProtectionB
T#e protection s#oul6 not operate for starting currentsC permissible o5er currentC
current surges. To ac#ie5e t#isC t#e time 6elay is pro5i6e6 'in case of in5erse
relays).
T#e protection s#oul6 be co"or6inate Ait# neig#boring o5er current protection.
/5er current relay is a basic element of o5er current protection.
Purpose of o2er current Protection
!etect abnormal con6itions
-solate faulty part of t#e system
Spee6 :ast operation to minimiIe 6amage an6 6anger
!iscrimination -solate only t#e faulty section
!epen6ability / reliability
Security / stability
7ost of protection / against cost of potential #aIar6s
O2er Current Rela4 RatingsB
-n or6er for an o5er current protecti5e 6e5ice to operate properlyC o5er current
protecti5e 6e5ice ratings must be properly selecte6. T#ese ratings inclu6e 5oltageC
ampere an6 interrupting rating.
-f t#e interrupting rating is not properly. Selecte6C a serious #aIar6 for equipment
an6 personnel Aill e3ist. 7urrent limiting can be consi6ere6 as anot#er o5er
current protecti5e 6e5ice ratingC alt#oug# not all o5er current protecti5e 6e5ices
are require6 to #a5e t#is c#aracteristic
'oltage RatingB T#e 5oltage rating of t#e o5er current protecti5e 6e5ice must be
at least equal to or greater t#an t#e circuit 5oltage. T#e o5er current protecti5e
6e5ice rating can be #ig#er t#an t#e system 5oltage but ne5er loAer.
"mpere RatingB T#e ampere rating of a o5er current protecting 6e5ice normally
s#oul6 not e3cee6 t#e current carrying capacity of t#e con6uctors As a general
ruleC t#e ampere rating of a o5er current protecting 6e5ice is selecte6 at 1*+@ of
t#e continuous loa6 current
Difference 3et!een O2er current Protection @ O2er
&oad ProtectionB
/5er current protection protects against e3cessi5e currents or currents beyon6 t#e
acceptable current ratingsC A#ic# are resulting from s#ort circuitsC groun6 faults
an6 o5erloa6 con6itions.
F#ileC t#e o5erloa6 protection protects against t#e situation A#ere o5erloa6
current causes o5er#eating of t#e protecte6 equipment.
T#e o5er current protection is a bigger concept So t#at t#e o5erloa6 protection can
be consi6ere6 as a subset of o5er current protection.
T#e o5er current relay can be use6 as o5erloa6 't#ermal) protection A#en protects
t#e resisti5e loa6sC etc.C #oAe5erC for motor loa6sC t#e o5er current relay cannot
ser5e as o5erloa6 protection /5erloa6 relays usually #a5e a longer time setting
t#an t#e o5er current relays.
%4pe of O2er Current Rela4B
'A) -nstantaneous /5er 7urrent '!efine 7urrent) Relay
') !efine Time /5er 7urrent Relay
'7) -n5erse Time /5er 7urrent Relay '-!,T Relay)
,o6erately -n5erse
Very -n5erse Time
E3tremely -n5erse
'!) !irectional o5er 7urrent Relay.
(" 5nstantaneous O2er Current Rela4 (Define
CurrentB
!efinite current relay operate instantaneously A#en t#e current reac#es a
pre6etermine6 5alue.
/perates in a 6efinite time A#en current e3cee6s its 2ic&"up 5alue.
-ts operation criterion is only current magnitu6e 'Ait#out time 6elay).
/perating time is constant.
T#ere is no intentional time 6elay.
7oor6ination of 6efinite"current relays is base6 on t#e fact t#at t#e fault current
5aries Ait# t#e position of t#e fault because of t#e 6ifference in t#e impe6ance
betAeen t#e fault an6 t#e source
T#e relay locate6 furt#est from t#e source operate for a loA current 5alue
T#e operating currents are progressi5ely increase6 for t#e ot#er relays A#en
mo5ing toAar6s t#e source.
-t operates in %.1s or less
"pplicationB T#is type is applie6 to t#e outgoing fee6ers
(3 Definite %ime O2er current Rela4sB
-n t#is typeC tAo con6itions must be satisfie6 for operation 'tripping)C current must
e3cee6 t#e setting 5alue an6 t#e fault must be continuous at least a time equal to
time setting of t#e relay. ,o6ern relays may contain more t#an one stage of
protection eac# stage inclu6es eac# oAn current an6 time setting.
:or /peration of !efinite Time /5er 7urrent Relay operating time is constant
-ts operation is in6epen6ent of t#e magnitu6e of current abo5e t#e pic&"up 5alue.
-t #as pic&"up an6 time 6ial settingsC 6esire6 time 6elay can be set Ait# t#e #elp of
an intentional time 6elay mec#anism.
Easy to coor6inate.
7onstant tripping time in6epen6ent of in fee6 5ariation an6 fault location.
Dra!bac$ of Rela4B
T#e continuity in t#e supply cannot be maintaine6 at t#e loa6 en6 in t#e e5ent of
fault.
Time lag is pro5i6e6 A#ic# is not 6esirable in on s#ort circuits.
-t is 6ifficult to co"or6inate an6 requires c#anges Ait# t#e a66ition of loa6.
-t is not suitable for long 6istance transmission lines A#ere rapi6 fault clearance is
necessary for stability.
Relay #a5e 6ifficulties in 6istinguis#ing betAeen :ault currents at one point or
anot#er A#en fault impe6ances betAeen t#ese points are smallC t#us poor
6iscrimination.
"pplicationB !efinite time o5er current relay is use6 as:
ac& up protection of 6istance relay of transmission line Ait# time 6elay.
ac& up protection to 6ifferential relay of poAer transformer Ait# time 6elay.
,ain protection to outgoing fee6ers an6 bus couplers Ait# a6Wustable time 6elay
setting.
(C 5n2erse %ime O2er current Rela4s (5D<% Rela4B
-n t#is type of relaysC operating time is in5ersely c#ange6 Ait# current. SoC #ig#
current Aill operate o5er current relay faster t#an loAer ones. T#ere are stan6ar6
in5erseC 5ery in5erse an6 e3tremely in5erse types.
!iscrimination by bot# XTimeJ an6 X7urrentJ. T#e relay operation time is
in5ersely proportional to t#e fault current.
-n5erse Time relays are also referre6 to as -n5erse !efinite ,inimum Time
'-!,T) relay
T#e operating time of an o5er current relay can be mo5e6 up 'ma6e sloAer) by
a6Wusting t#e Xtime 6ial settingJ. T#e loAest time 6ial setting 'fastest operating
time) is generally %.+ an6 t#e sloAest is 1%.
/perates A#en current e3cee6s its pic&"up 5alue.
/perating time 6epen6s on t#e magnitu6e of current.
-t gi5es in5erse time current c#aracteristics at loAer 5alues of fault current an6
6efinite time c#aracteristics at #ig#er 5alues
An in5erse c#aracteristic is obtaine6 if t#e 5alue of plug setting multiplier is
beloA 1%C for 5alues betAeen 1% an6 *% c#aracteristics ten6 toAar6s 6efinite time
c#aracteristics.
Fi6ely use6 for t#e protection of 6istribution lines.
ase6 on t#e in5erseness it #as t#ree 6ifferent types.
(( Normal 5n2erse %ime O2er current Rela4B
T#e accuracy of t#e operating time may range from + to 1.+@ of t#e nominal
operating time as specifie6 in t#e rele5ant norms.
T#e uncertainty of t#e operating time an6 t#e necessary operating time may
require a gra6ing margin of %.= to %.+ secon6s.
use6 A#en :ault 7urrent is 6epen6ent on generation of :ault not fault location
Relati5ely small c#ange in time per unit of c#ange of current.
"pplicationB
,ost frequently use6 in utility an6 in6ustrial circuits. especially applicable A#ere
t#e fault magnitu6e is mainly 6epen6ent on t#e system generating capacity at t#e
time of fault
(* 'er4 5n2erse %ime O2er current Rela4B
(i5es more in5erse c#aracteristics t#an t#at of -!,T.
Bse6 A#ere t#ere is a re6uction in fault currentC as t#e 6istance from source
increases.
2articularly effecti5e Ait# groun6 faults because of t#eir steep c#aracteristics.
Suitable if t#ere is a substantial re6uction of fault current as t#e fault 6istance
from t#e poAer source increases.
Very in5erse o5er current relays are particularly suitable if t#e s#ort"circuit
current 6rops rapi6ly Ait# t#e 6istance from t#e substation.
T#e gra6ing margin may be re6uce6 to a 5alue in t#e range from %.< to %.=
secon6s A#en o5er current relays Ait# 5ery in5erse c#aracteristics are use6.
Bse6 A#en :ault 7urrent is 6epen6ent on fault location.
Bse6 A#en :ault 7urrent in6epen6ent of normal c#anges in generating capacity.
(, E6tremel4 5n2erse %ime O2er current Rela4B
-t #as more in5erse c#aracteristics t#an t#at of -!,T an6 5ery in5erse o5er
current relay.
Suitable for t#e protection of mac#ines against o5er#eating.
T#e operating time of a time o5er current relay Ait# an e3tremely in5erse time"
current c#aracteristic is appro3imately in5ersely proportional to t#e square of t#e
current
T#e use of e3tremely in5erse o5er current relays ma&es it possible to use a s#ort
time 6elay in spite of #ig# sAitc#ing"in currents.
Bse6 A#en :ault current is 6epen6ent on fault location
Bse6 A#en :ault current in6epen6ent of normal c#anges in generating capacity.
"pplicationB
Suitable for protection of 6istribution fee6ers Ait# pea& currents on sAitc#ing in
'refrigeratorsC pumpsC Aater #eaters an6 so on).
2articular suitable for gra6ing an6 coor6inates Ait# fuses an6 re closes
:or t#e protection of alternatorsC transformers. E3pensi5e cablesC etc.
(0 &ong %ime 5n2erse o2er current Rela4B
T#e main application of long time o5er current relays is as bac&up eart# fault
protection.
(D Directional O2er current Rela4s
F#en t#e poAer system is not ra6ial 'source on one si6e of t#e line)C an o5er
current relay may not be able to pro5i6e a6equate protection. T#is type of relay
operates in on 6irection of current floA an6 bloc&s in t#e opposite 6irection.
T#ree con6itions must be satisfie6 for its operation: current magnitu6eC time 6elay
an6 6irectionality. T#e 6irectionality of current floA can be i6entifie6 using
5oltage as a reference of 6irection.
"pplication of O2er Current Rela4B
<otor ProtectionB
Bse6 against o5erloa6s an6 s#ort"circuits in stator Ain6ings of motor.
-n5erse time an6 instantaneous o5er current p#ase an6 groun6
/5er current relays use6 for motors abo5e 1%%%&F.
%ransformer ProtectionB
use6 only A#en t#e cost of o5er current relays are not Wustifie6
E3tensi5ely also at poAer"transformer locations for e3ternal"fault bac&"up
protection.
&ine ProtectionB
/n some sub transmission lines A#ere t#e cost of 6istance relaying cannot be
Wustifie6.
primary groun6"fault protection on most transmission lines A#ere 6istance relays
are use6 for p#ase faults
:or groun6 bac&"up protection on most lines #a5ing pilot relaying for primary
protection.
Distribution ProtectionB
/5er 7urrent relaying is 5ery Aell suite6 to 6istribution system protection for t#e
folloAing reasons:
-t is basically simple an6 ine3pensi5e
Very often t#e relays 6o not nee6 to be 6irectional an6 #ence no 2T supply is
require6.
-t is possible to use a set of tAo //7 relays for protection against inter"p#ase
faults an6 a separate /5er 7urrent relay for groun6 faults.
Connection of o2er current and Eart# Aault Rela4B
(( , Nos O/C Rela4 for O2er Current and Eart# Aault ProtectionB
:or <"p#ase faults t#e o5er current relays in all t#e <"p#ases act.
:or p#ase to p#ase faults t#e relays in only t#e affecte6 p#ases operate.
:or single line to groun6 faults only t#e relay in t#e faulty p#ase gets t#e fault
current an6 operates.
E5en t#en Ait# < /5er current RelayC t#e sensiti5ity 6esire6 an6 obtainable Ait#
eart# lea&age o5er current relays cannot be obtaine6 in as muc# as t#e #ig#
current setting Aill #a5e to be necessarily a6opte6 for t#e /5er current Relay to
a5oi6 operation un6er ma3imum loa6 con6ition.
/5er current relays generally #a5e +%@ to *%%@ setting A#ile eart# lea&ages o5er
current relays #a5e eit#er 1%@ to =%@ or *%@ to .%@ current settings.
/ne important t#ing to be note6 #ere is t#at t#e connection of t#e star points of
bot# t#e 7.T. secon6aryJs an6 relay Ain6ings by a neutral con6uctor s#oul6 be
ma6e.
A sc#eme Ait#out t#e neutral con6uctor Aill be unable to ensure reliable relay
operation in t#e e5ent of single p#ase to eart# faults because t#e secon6ary current
in t#is case 'Ait#out star"point interconnection) completes its circuit t#roug# relay
an6 7.T. Ain6ings A#ic# present large impe6ance. T#is may lea6 to failure of
protection an6 s#arp 6ecrease in re6uction of secon6ary currents by 7Ts.
-t is not sufficient if t#e neutral of t#e 7Ts an6 neutral of t#e relays are separately
eart#e6. A con6uctor s#oul6 be run as state6 earlier.
(* , No O/C Rela41 ( No E/A Rela4 for O2er Current and Eart# Aault
ProtectionB
T#e sc#eme of connection for < ;os /5er current Relay 1 ;o Eart# :ault Relay is
s#oAn in figure.
Bn6er normal operating con6itions an6 t#ree p#ase fault con6itions t#e current in
t#e <"p#ase are equal an6 symmetrically 6isplace6 by 1* !eg. 9ence t#e sum of
t#ese t#ree currents is Iero. ;o current floA t#roug# t#e eart# fault relay.
-n case of p#ase to p#ase faults 'say a s#ort betAeen R an6 R p#ases) t#e current
floAs from R"p#ase up to t#e point of fault an6 return bac& t#roug# XRJ p#ase.
T#us only //L relays in R an6 R p#ases get t#e fault an6 operate.
/nly eart# faults cause currents to floA t#roug# E/L relay. A note of caution is
necessary #ere. /nly eit#er 7.T secon6ary star point of relay Ain6ing star point
s#oul6 be eart#e6.
Eart#ing of bot# Aill s#ort circuit t#e E/L relay an6 ma&e it inoperati5e for faults.
(, * No O/C Rela4 1 ( No E/A Rela4 for O2er Current and Eart# Aault
ProtectionB
T#e tAo o5er current relays in R0 p#ases Aill respon6 to p#ase faults. At least
one relay Aill operate for fault in5ol5ing tAo p#ase.

:or fault in5ol5ing groun6 reliance is place6 on eart# fault relay.
T#is is an economical 5ersion of <"//L an6 1"E/L type of protection as one
o5ercurrent relay is sa5e6. Fit# t#e protection sc#eme as s#oAn in :igure
complete protection against p#ase an6 groun6 fault is affor6e6
Current %ransformer Secondar4 ConnectionsB
:or protection of 5arious equipment of E3tra 9ig# Voltage classC t#e Star point on
secon6aryJs of 7T s#oul6 be ma6e as folloAs for ensuring correct 6irectional
sensiti5ity of t#e protection sc#eme
%ransmission &ine K 3us 3ar @ %ransformerB
:or Transmission Lines ) Line si6e
:or Transformers ) Transformer si6e
:or us bar ) us si6e
Generator ProtectionB
(enerator 2rotection ) (enerator Si6e
T#e abo5e met#o6 #as to be
folloAe6 irrespecti5e of polarity of 7TJs on primary si6e.
:or e3ampleC in line protectionC if X21J is toAar6s bus t#en XS*Js are to be s#orte6
an6 if X 2*J is toAar6s bus t#en XS1Js are to be s#orte6.
Standard o2er Current @ Eart# Aault ProtectionB
No Name of t#e Equipment Protection
1 11 8V :ee6ers
'A) * ;o /5er 7urrent an6 one no Eart# :ault -!,T relays
') * ;o -nstantaneous /5er current '#ig#est) an6 one no
-nstantaneous Eart# fault relay
*
. ,VA 7apacity /R TAo
Transformer in a Sub Station
' -rrespecti5e of 7apacity)

C' side B << 8V rea&er ' -n6i5i6ual or (roup 7ontrol Ait# <
/5er 7urrent an6 /ne Eart# :ault -!,T relays&' SideB
-n6i5i6ual 11 8V rea&ers Ait# < /5er 7urrent an6 /ne Eart#
:ault -!,T relays
< . ,VA 2oAer Transformer
!ifferential relays /R RE: relays on LV si6e
=
/nly one 2TR in a Sub
Station 'Less t#an . ,VA)
C' Side B 9( fuse&' Side B 11 8V rea&er Ait# < /5er
7urrent an6 one E/: -!,T relay
#pact of /loating 0eutral in Po1er !istribution
Guly *.C *%1* +1 7omments
-ntro6uction:
-f T#e ;eutral 7on6uctor opensC rea& or Loose at eit#er its source si6e
'!istribution TransformerC (enerator or at Loa6 si6e '!istribution 2anel of
7onsumer)C t#e 6istribution systemJs neutral con6uctor Aill YfloatZ or lose its
reference groun6 2oint. T#e floating neutral con6ition can cause 5oltages to float
to a ma3imum of its 2#ase 5olts R,S relati5e to groun6C subWecting to its
unbalancing loa6 7on6ition.
:loating ;eutral con6itions in t#e poAer netAor& #a5e 6ifferent impact
6epen6ing on t#e type of SupplyC Type of installation an6 Loa6 balancing in t#e
!istribution. ro&en ;eutral or Loose ;eutral Aoul6 6amage to t#e connecte6
Loa6 or 7reate #aIar6ous Touc# Voltage at equipment bo6y. Cere Ee are
tr4ing to understand t#e Aloating Neutral Condition in %J% distribution
S4stem.
F#at is :loating ;eutral[
-f t#e Star 2oint of Bnbalance6 Loa6 is not Woine6 to t#e Star 2oint of its 2oAer
Source '!istribution Transformer or (enerator) t#en 2#ase 5oltage 6o not remain
same across eac# p#ase but its 5ary accor6ing to t#e Bnbalance6 of t#e loa6.
As t#e 2otential of suc# an isolate6 Star 2oint or ;eutral 2oint is alAays c#anging
an6 not fi3e6 so itJs calle6 :loating ;eutral.
;ormal 2oAer 7on6ition 0 :loating ;eutral 7on6ition
Normal Po!er ConditionB
/n <"p#ase systems t#ere is a ten6ency for t#e star"point an6 2#ases to Aant to
Xbalance outJ base6 on t#e ratio of lea&age on eac# 2#ase to Eart#. T#e star"point
Aill remain close to %V 6epen6ing on t#e 6istribution of t#e loa6 an6 subsequent
lea&age '#ig#er loa6 on a p#ase usually means #ig#er lea&age).
T#ree p#ase systems may or may not #a5e a neutral Aire. A neutral Aire alloAs
t#e t#ree p#ase system to use a #ig#er 5oltage A#ile still supporting loAer 5oltage
single p#ase appliances. -n #ig# 5oltage 6istribution situations it is common not to
#a5e a neutral Aire as t#e loa6s can simply be connecte6 betAeen p#ases 'p#ase"
p#ase connection).
, P#ase , Eire S4stemB
T#ree p#ases #as properties t#at ma&e it 5ery 6esirable in electric poAer systems.
:irstly t#e p#ase currents ten6 to cancel one anot#er 'summing to Iero in t#e case
of a linear balance6 loa6). T#is ma&es it possible to eliminate t#e neutral
con6uctor on some lines. Secon6ly poAer transfer into a linear balance6 loa6 is
constant.
, P#ase 0 Eire S4stem for <i6 &oadB
,ost 6omestic loa6s are single p#ase. (enerally t#ree p#ase poAer eit#er 6oes
not enter 6omestic #ouses or it is split out at t#e main 6istribution boar6.
8irc##offJs 7urrent LaA states t#at t#e signe6 sum of t#e currents entering a no6e
is Iero. -f t#e neutral point is t#e no6eC t#enC in a balance6 systemC one p#ase
matc#es t#e ot#er tAo p#asesC resulting in no current t#roug# neutral. Any
imbalance of Loa6 Aill result in a current floA on neutralC so t#at t#e sum of Iero
is maintaine6.
:or instanceC in a balance6 systemC current entering t#e neutral no6e from one
2#ase si6e is consi6ere6 positi5eC an6 t#e current entering 'actually lea5ing) t#e
neutral no6e from t#e ot#er si6e is consi6ere6 negati5e.
T#is gets more complicate6 in t#ree p#ase poAerC because noA Ae #a5e to
consi6er p#ase angleC but t#e concept is e3actly t#e same. -f Ae are connecte6 in
Star connection Ait# a neutralC t#en t#e neutral con6uctor Aill #a5e Iero current
on it only if t#e t#ree p#ases #a5e t#e same current on eac#. -f Ae 6o 5ector
analysis on t#isC a66ing up sin'3)C sin'3?1*%)C an6 sin'3?*=%)C Ae get Iero.
T#e same t#ing #appens A#en Ae are 6elta connecte6C Ait#out a neutralC but t#en
t#e imbalance occurs out in t#e 6istribution systemC beyon6 t#e ser5ice
transformersC because t#e 6istribution system is generally a Star 7onnecte6.
T#e neutral s#oul6 ne5er be connecte6 to a groun6 e3cept at t#e point at t#e
ser5ice A#ere t#e neutral is initially groun6e6 'At !istribution Transformer). T#is
can set up t#e groun6 as a pat# for current to tra5el bac& to t#e ser5ice. Any brea&
in t#e groun6 pat# Aoul6 t#en e3pose a 5oltage potential. (roun6ing t#e neutral
in a < p#ase system #elps stabiliIe p#ase 5oltages. A non"groun6e6 neutral is
sometimes referre6 to as a Yfloating neutralZ an6 #as a feA limite6 applications.
:loating ;eutral 7on6ition:
2oAer floAs in an6 out of customersJ premises from t#e 6istribution netAor&C
entering 5ia t#e 2#ase an6 lea5ing 5ia t#e neutral. -f t#ere is a brea& in t#e neutral
return pat# electricity may t#en tra5el by a 6ifferent pat#. 2oAer floA entering in
one 2#ase returns t#roug# remaining tAo p#ases. ;eutral 2oint is not at groun6
Le5el but it :loat up to Line Voltage. T#is situation can be 5ery 6angerous an6
customers may suffer serious electric s#oc&s if t#ey touc# somet#ing A#ere
electricity is present.
ro&en neutrals can be 6ifficult to 6etect an6 in some instances may not be easily
i6entifie6. Sometimes bro&en neutrals can be in6icate6 by flic&ering lig#ts or
tingling taps. -f you #a5e flic&ering lig#ts or tingly taps in your #omeC you may be
at ris& of serious inWury or e5en 6eat#.
Voltage ,easurement betAeen ;eutral to (roun6:
A rule"of"t#umb use6 by many in t#e in6ustry is t#at ;eutral to groun6 5oltage of
*V or less at t#e receptacle is o&ayC A#ile a feA 5olts or more in6icates
o5erloa6ingU +V is seen as t#e upper limit.
&o! Reading: -f ;eutral to groun6 5oltage is loA at t#e receptacle t#an system is
#ealt#yC -f -t is #ig#C t#en you still #a5e to 6etermine if t#e problem is mainly at
t#e branc# circuit le5elC or mainly at t#e panel le5el.
;eutral to groun6 5oltage e3ists because of t#e -R 6rop of t#e current tra5eling
t#roug# t#e neutral bac& to t#e ;eutral to groun6 bon6. -f t#e system is correctly
Aire6C t#ere s#oul6 be no ;eutral to (roun6 bon6 e3cept at t#e source
transformer 'at A#at t#e ;E7 calls t#e source of t#e Separately !eri5e6 SystemC
or S!SC A#ic# is usually a transformer). Bn6er t#is situationC t#e groun6
con6uctor s#oul6 #a5e 5irtually no current an6 t#erefore no -R 6rop on it. -n
effectC t#e groun6 Aire is a5ailable as a long test lea6 bac& to t#e ;eutral to
groun6 bon6.
Cig# ReadingB A #ig# rea6ing coul6 in6icate a s#are6 branc# neutralC i.e.C a
neutral s#are6 betAeen more t#an one branc# circuits. T#is s#are6 neutral simply
increases t#e opportunities for o5erloa6ing as Aell as for one circuit to affect
anot#er.
Lero ReadingB A certain amount of ;eutral to groun6 5oltage is normal in a
loa6e6 circuit. -f t#e rea6ing is stable at close to %V. T#ere is a suspect an illegal
;eutral to groun6 bon6 in t#e receptacle 'often 6ue to lose stran6s of t#e neutral
touc#ing some groun6 point) or at t#e subpanel. Any ;eutral to groun6 bon6s
ot#er t#an t#ose at t#e transformer source 'an6/or main panel) s#oul6 be remo5e6
to pre5ent return currents floAing t#roug# t#e groun6 con6uctors.
Various :actors A#ic# cause ;eutral :loating:
T#ere are se5eral factors A#ic# are i6entifying as t#e cause of neutral floating.
T#e impact of :loating ;eutral is 6epen6 on t#e position A#ere ;eutral is bro&en
( "t %#e %#ree P#ase Distribution %ransformerB
;eutral failure at transformer is mostly failure of ;eutral bus#ing.
T#e use of Line Tap on transformer bus#ing is i6entifie6 as t#e main cause of
;eutral con6uctor failure at transformer bus#ing. T#e ;ut on Line Tap gets loose
Ait# time 6ue to 5ibration an6 temperature 6ifference resulting in #ot connection.
T#e con6uctor start melting an6 resulting bro&e off ;eutral.
2oor Aor&mans#ip of -nstallation an6 tec#nical staff also one of t#e reasons of
;eutral :ailure.
A bro&en ;eutral on T#ree p#ases Transformer Aill cause t#e 5oltage float up to
line 5oltage 6epen6ing upon t#e loa6 balancing of t#e system. T#is type of
;eutral :loating may 6amage t#e customer equipment connecte6 to t#e Supply.
Bn6er normal con6ition current floA from 2#ase to Loa6 to Loa6 to bac& to t#e
source '!istribution Transformer). F#en ;eutral is bro&en current from Re6
2#ase Aill go bac& to lue or RelloA p#ase resulting Line to Line 5oltage
betAeen Loa6s.
Some customer !ill e6perience o2er 2oltage !#ile some !ill e6perience &o!
2oltage.
* 3ro$en O2er#ead Neutral conductor in &' &ineB
T#e impact of bro&en o5er#ea6 ;eutral con6uctor at LV o5er#ea6 6istribution
Aill be similar to t#e bro&en at transformer.
Supply 5oltage floating up to Line 5oltage instea6 of p#ase Voltage. T#is type of
fault con6ition may 6amage customer equipment connecte6 to t#e supply.
, 3ro$en of Ser2ice Neutral ConductorB
A bro&en ;eutral of ser5ice con6uctor Aill only result of loss of supply at t#e
customer point. ;o any 6amages to customer equipments.
0 Cig# Eart#ing Resistance of Neutral at Distribution %ransformerB
(oo6 Eart#ing Resistance of Eart# 2it of ;eutral pro5i6e loA resistance pat# for
neutral current to 6rain in eart#. 9ig# Eart#ing Resistance may pro5i6e #ig#
resistance 2at# for groun6ing of ;eutral at !istribution Transformer.
Limit eart# resistance sufficiently loA to permit a6equate fault current for t#e
operation of protecti5e 6e5ices in time an6 to re6uce neutral s#ifting.
- O2er &oading @ &oad =nbalancingB
!istribution ;etAor& /5erloa6ing combine6 Ait# poor loa6 6istribution is one of
t#e most reason of ;eutral failure.
;eutral s#oul6 be properly 6esigne6 so t#at minimum current Aill be floA in to
neutral con6uctor. T#eoretically t#e current floA in t#e ;eutral is suppose6 to be
Iero because of cancellation 6ue to 1*% 6egree p#ase 6isplacement of p#ase
current.
5N) 5RM+ 1 5PM(*+ 1 53MJ(*+.
-n /5erloa6e6 Bnbalancing ;etAor& lot of current Aill floA in ;eutral A#ic#
brea& ;eutral at its Aea&est 2oint.
: S#ared neutrals
Some buil6ings are Aire6 so t#at tAo or t#ree p#ases s#are a single neutral. T#e
original i6ea Aas to 6uplicate on t#e branc# circuit le5el t#e four Aire 't#ree
p#ases an6 a neutral) Airing of panel boar6s. T#eoreticallyC only t#e unbalance6
current Aill return on t#e neutral. T#is alloAs one neutral to 6o t#e Aor& for t#ree
p#ases. T#is Airing s#ortcut quic&ly became a 6ea6"en6 Ait# t#e groAt# of
single"p#ase non"linear loa6s. T#e problem is t#at Iero sequence current
:rom nonlinear loa6sC primarily t#ir6 #armonicC Aill a66 up arit#metically an6
return on t#e neutral. -n a66ition to being a potential safety problem because of
o5er#eating of an un6ersiIe6 neutralC t#e e3tra neutral current creates a #ig#er
;eutral to groun6 5oltage. T#is ;eutral to groun6 5oltage subtracts from t#e Line
to ;eutral 5oltage a5ailable to t#e loa6. -f youJre starting to feel t#at s#are6
neutrals are one of t#e Aorst i6eas t#at e5er got translate6 to copper.
. Poor !or$mans#ip @ <aintenance B
;ormally LV netAor& are mostly not gi5en attention by t#e ,aintenance Staff.
Loose or ina6equate tig#tening of ;eutral con6uctor Aill effect on continuity of
;eutral A#ic# may cause floating of ;eutral.
9oA to 6etect :loating ;eutral 7on6ition in 2anel:
Let us Ta&e one E3ample to un6erstan6 ;eutral :loating 7on6ition.Fe #a5e a
Transformer A#ic# Secon6ary is star connecte6C 2#ase to neutral H *=%V an6
2#ase to p#ase H ==%V.
Condition ((B Neutral is not Aloating
F#et#er t#e ;eutral is groun6e6 t#e 5oltages remain t#e same *=%V betAeen
p#ase 0 ;eutral an6 ==%V betAeen p#ases. T#e ;eutral is not :loating.
Condition (*B Neutral is Aloating
"ll "ppliances are connectedB -f t#e ;eutral Aire for a circuit becomes
6isconnecte6 from t#e #ouse#ol6Js main poAer supply panel A#ile t#e 2#ase Aire
for t#e circuit still remains connecte6 to t#e panel an6 t#e circuit #as appliances
plugge6 into t#e soc&et outlets. -n t#at situationC if you put a 5oltage Tester Ait# a
neon lamp onto t#e ;eutral Aire it Aill gloA Wust as if it Aas Li5eC because it is
being fe6 Ait# a 5ery small current coming from t#e 2#ase supply 5ia t#e
plugge6"in appliance's) to t#e ;eutral Aire.
"ll "ppliances are DisconnectedB -f you unplug all appliancesC lig#ts an6
A#ate5er else may be connecte6 to t#e circuitC t#e ;eutral Aill no longer seem to
be Li5e because t#ere is no longer any pat# from it to t#e 2#ase supply.
P#ase to P#ase 'oltageB T#e meter in6icates ==%V A7. ';o any Effect on <
2#ase Loa6)
P#ase to Neutral 'oltageB T#e meter in6icates 11%V A7 to <<%V A7.
Neutral to Ground 'oltageB T#e meter in6icates 11%V.
P#ase to Ground 'oltageB T#e meter in6icates 1*%V.
T#is is because t#e neutral is YfloatsZ abo5e groun6 potential '11%V ? 1*%V H
*<%VA7). As a result t#e output is isolate6 from system groun6 an6 t#e full
output of *<%V is reference6 betAeen line an6 neutral Ait# no groun6 connection.
-f su66enly 6isconnect t#e ;eutral from t#e transformer ;eutral but &ept t#e
loa6ing circuits as t#ey areC T#en Loa6 si6e ;eutral becomes :loating since t#e
equipment t#at are connecte6 betAeen 2#ase to ;eutral Aill become betAeen
2#ase to 2#ase ' R to RCR to )C an6 since t#ey are not of t#e same ratingsC t#e
artificial resulting neutral Aill be floatingC suc# t#at t#e 5oltages present at t#e
6ifferent equipments Aill no longer be *=%V but someA#ere betAeen % 'not
e3actly) an6 t#e ==% V 'also not e3actly). ,eaning t#at on one line 2#ase to
2#aseC some Aill #a5e less t#an *=%V an6 some Aill #a5e #ig#er up to near =1+.
All 6epen6s on t#e impe6ance of eac# connecte6 item.
-n an unbalance systemC if t#e neutral is 6isconnecte6 from t#e sourceC t#e neutral
becomes floating neutral an6 it is s#ifte6 to a position so t#at it is closer to t#e
p#ase Ait# #ig#er loa6s an6 aAay from t#e p#ase Ait# smaller loa6. Let us
assume an unbalance < p#ase system #as < 8F loa6 in R"p#aseC * 8F loa6 in R"
p#ase an6 1 8F loa6 in "p#ase. -f t#e neutral of t#is system is 6isconnecte6
from t#e mainC t#e floating neutral Aill be closer to R"p#ase an6 aAay from "
p#ase. SoC t#e loa6s Ait# "p#ase Aill e3perience more 5oltage t#an usualC A#ile
t#e loa6s in R"p#ase Aill e3perience less 5oltage. Loa6s in R"p#ase Aill
e3perience almost same 5oltage. T#e neutral 6isconnect for an unbalance6 system
is 6angerous to t#e loa6s. ecause of t#e #ig#er or loAer 5oltagesC t#e equipment
is most li&ely to be 6amage6.
Cere !e obser2e t#at Neutral Aloating condition does not impact on , P#ase
&oad but 5t impacts onl4 ( P#ase &oad onl4
9oA to Eliminate ;eutral :loating:
T#ere are Some 2oint nee6s to be consi6er to pre5ent of ;eutral :loating.
a =se 0 Pole 3rea$er/E&C3/RC3O in Distribution PanelB
A floating neutral can be a serious problem. Suppose Ae #a5e a brea&er panel
Ait# < 2ole rea&er for T#ree 2#ase an6 us bar for ;eutral for < 2#ase inputs
an6 a neutral '9ere Ae #a5e not use6 = 2ole rea&er). T#e 5oltage betAeen eac#
2#ase is ==% an6 t#e 5oltage betAeen eac# 2#ase an6 t#e neutral is *<%. Fe #a5e
single brea&ers fee6ing loa6s t#at require *<%Volts. T#ese *<%Volt loa6s #a5e one
line fe6 by t#e brea&er an6 a neutral.
;oA suppose t#e ;eutral gets loose or o3i6iIe6 or some#oA 6isconnecte6 in t#e
panel or maybe e5en out A#ere t#e poAer comes from. T#e ==%Volt loa6s Aill be
unaffecte6 #oAe5er t#e *<%V loa6s can be in serious trouble. Fit# t#is :loating
neutral con6ition you Aill 6isco5er t#at one of t#e tAo lines Aill go from
*<%Volts up to <=% or <+% an6 t#e ot#er line Aill go 6oAn to 11% or 1*% 5olts.
9alf of your *<%Volt equipment Aill go up in #ig# 6ue to o5er5oltage an6 t#e
ot#er #alf Aill not function 6ue to a loA 5oltage con6ition. SoC be careful Ait#
floating neutrals.
Simply use EL7C R7/ or = 2ole 7ircuit rea&er as income in t#e <p# supply
system since if neutral opens it Aill trip t#e complete supply Ait#out 6amaging to
t#e system.
b =sing 'oltage Stabili9erB
F#ene5er neutral fails in t#ree p#ase systemC t#e connecte6 loa6s Aill get
connecte6 betAeen p#ases oAing to floating neutral. 9ence 6epen6ing on loa6
resistance across t#ese p#asesC t#e 5oltage &eeps 5arying betAeen *<%V to
=%%V.A suitable ser5o stabiliIer Ait# Ai6e input 5oltage range Ait# #ig# 0 loA
cutoff may #elp in protecting t#e equipments.
c Good !or$mans#ip @ <aintenance B
(i5e #ig#er 2riority on ,aintenance of LV netAor& . Tig#t or apply a6equate
Torque for tig#tening of ;eutral con6uctor in LV system
7onclusion:
A :loating ;eutral '!isconnecte6 ;eutral) fault con6ition is 'ERP =NS"AE
because -f Appliance is not Aor&ing an6 someone A#o 6oes not &noA about t#e
;eutral :loating coul6 easily touc# t#e ;eutral Aire to fin6 out A#y appliances
6oes not Aor& A#en t#ey are plugge6 into a circuit an6 get a ba6 s#oc&. Single
p#ase Appliances are 6esign to Aor& its normal 2#ase Voltage A#en t#ey get Line
Voltage Appliances may !amage .!isconnecte6 ;eutral fault is a 5ery unsafe
con6ition an6 s#oul6 be correcte6 at t#e earliest possible by troubles#ooting of t#e
e3act Aires to c#ec& an6 t#en connect properly.
Types of 0eutral +arthing in Po1er !istribution
Ganuary *1C *%1* 1= 7omments
Types of ;eutral Eart#ing in 2oAer !istribution:
-ntro6uction:
-n t#e early poAer systems Aere mainly ;eutral ungroun6e6 6ue to t#e fact t#at
t#e first groun6 fault 6i6 not require t#e tripping of t#e system. An unsc#e6ule6
s#ut6oAn on t#e first groun6 fault Aas particularly un6esirable for continuous
process in6ustries. T#ese poAer systems require6 groun6 6etection systemsC but
locating t#e fault often pro5e6 6ifficult. Alt#oug# ac#ie5ing t#e initial goalC t#e
ungroun6e6 system pro5i6e6 no control of transient o5er"5oltages.
A capaciti5e coupling e3ists betAeen t#e system con6uctors an6 groun6 in a
typical 6istribution system. As a resultC t#is series resonant L"7 circuit can create
o5er"5oltages Aell in e3cess of line"to"line 5oltage A#en subWecte6 to repetiti5e
re"stri&es of one p#ase to groun6. T#is in turnC re6uces insulation life resulting in
possible equipment failure.
;eutral groun6ing systems are similar to fuses in t#at t#ey 6o not#ing until
somet#ing in t#e system goes Arong. T#enC li&e fusesC t#ey protect personnel an6
equipment from 6amage. !amage comes from tAo factorsC #oA long t#e fault
lasts an6 #oA large t#e fault current is. (roun6 relays trip brea&ers an6 limit #oA
long a fault lasts an6 ;eutral groun6ing resistors limit #oA large t#e fault current
is.
-mportance of ;eutral (roun6ing:
T#ere are many neutral groun6ing options a5ailable for bot# LoA an6 ,e6ium
5oltage poAer systems. T#e neutral points of transformersC generators an6 rotating
mac#inery to t#e eart# groun6 netAor& pro5i6es a reference point of Iero 5olts.
T#is protecti5e measure offers many a65antages o5er an ungroun6e6 systemC li&eC
1. Re6uce6 magnitu6e of transient o5er 5oltages
*. Simplifie6 groun6 fault location
<. -mpro5e6 system an6 equipment fault protection
=. Re6uce6 maintenance time an6 e3pense
+. (reater safety for personnel
$. -mpro5e6 lig#tning protection
1. Re6uction in frequency of faults.
,et#o6 of ;eutral Eart#ing:
T#ere are fi5e met#o6s for ;eutral eart#ing.
1. Bneart#e6 ;eutral System
*. Soli6 ;eutral Eart#e6 System.
<. Resistance ;eutral Eart#ing System.Resonant ;eutral Eart#ing System.
1. LoA Resistance Eart#ing.
*. 9ig# Resistance Eart#ing.
=. Resonant Eart#ing System.
+. Eart#ing Transformer Eart#ing.
'1) Bngroun6e6 ;eutral Systems:
-n ungroun6e6 system t#ere is no internal connection betAeen t#e con6uctors an6
eart#. 9oAe5erC as systemC a capaciti5e coupling e3ists betAeen t#e system
con6uctors an6 t#e a6Wacent groun6e6 surfaces. 7onsequentlyC t#e Yungroun6e6
systemZ isC in realityC a Ycapaciti5e groun6e6 systemZ by 5irtue of t#e 6istribute6
capacitance.
Bn6er normal operating con6itionsC t#is 6istribute6 capacitance causes no
problems. -n factC it is beneficial because it establis#esC in effectC a neutral point
for t#e systemU As a resultC t#e p#ase con6uctors are stresse6 at only line"to"
neutral 5oltage abo5e groun6.
ut problems can rise in groun6 fault con6itions. A groun6 fault on one line
results in full line"to"line 5oltage appearing t#roug#out t#e system. T#usC a
5oltage 1.1< times t#e normal 5oltage is present on all insulation in t#e system.
T#is situation can often cause failures in ol6er motors an6 transformersC 6ue to
insulation brea&6oAn.
"d2antageB
1. After t#e first groun6 faultC assuming it remains as a single faultC t#e circuit may
continue in operationC permitting continue6 pro6uction until a con5enient s#ut
6oAn for maintenance can be sc#e6ule6.
Disad2antagesB
1. T#e interaction betAeen t#e faulte6 system an6 its 6istribute6 capacitance may
cause transient o5er"5oltages 'se5eral times normal) to appear from line to groun6
6uring normal sAitc#ing of a circuit #a5ing a line"to groun6 fault 's#ort). T#ese
o5er 5oltages may cause insulation failures at points ot#er t#an t#e original fault.
*. A secon6 fault on anot#er p#ase may occur before t#e first fault can be cleare6.
T#is can result in 5ery #ig# line"to"line fault currentsC equipment 6amage an6
6isruption of bot# circuits.
<. T#e cost of equipment 6amage.
=. 7omplicate for locating fault's)C in5ol5ing a te6ious process of trial an6 error:
first isolating t#e correct fee6erC t#en t#e branc#C an6 finallyC t#e equipment at
fault. T#e result is unnecessarily lengt#y an6 e3pensi5e 6oAn 6oAntime.
'*) Soli6ly ;eutral (roun6e6 Systems:
Soli6ly groun6e6 systems are usually use6 in loA 5oltage applications at $%% 5olts
or less.
-n soli6ly groun6e6 systemC t#e neutral point is connecte6 to eart#.
Soli6ly ;eutral (roun6ing slig#tly re6uces t#e problem of transient o5er 5oltages
foun6 on t#e ungroun6e6 system an6 pro5i6e6 pat# for t#e groun6 fault current is
in t#e range of 25 to 100% of the system three phase fault current. 9oAe5erC if
t#e reactance of t#e generator or transformer is too greatC t#e problem of transient
o5er 5oltages Aill not be sol5e6.
F#ile soli6ly groun6e6 systems are an impro5ement o5er ungroun6e6 systemsC
an6 spee6 up t#e location of faultsC t#ey lac& t#e current limiting ability of
resistance groun6ing an6 t#e e3tra protection t#is pro5i6es.
To maintain systems #ealt# an6 safeC Transformer neutral is groun6e6 an6
groun6ing con6uctor must be e3ten6 from t#e source to t#e furt#est point of t#e
system Ait#in t#e same raceAay or con6uit. -ts purpose is to maintain 5ery loA
impe6ance to groun6 faults so t#at a relati5ely #ig# fault current Aill floA t#us
insuring t#at circuit brea&ers or fuses Aill clear t#e fault quic&ly an6 t#erefore
minimiIe 6amage. -t also greatly re6uces t#e s#oc& #aIar6 to personnel
-f t#e system is not soli6ly groun6e6C t#e neutral point of t#e system Aoul6 YfloatZ
Ait# respect to groun6 as a function of loa6 subWecting t#e line"to"neutral loa6s to
5oltage unbalances an6 instability.
T#e single"p#ase eart# fault current in a soli6ly eart#e6 system may e3cee6 t#e
t#ree p#ase fault current. T#e magnitu6e of t#e current 6epen6s on t#e fault
location an6 t#e fault resistance. /ne Aay to re6uce t#e eart# fault current is to
lea5e some of t#e transformer neutrals uneart#e6.
"d2antageB
1. T#e main a65antage of soli6ly eart#e6 systems is loA o5er 5oltagesC A#ic# ma&es
t#e eart#ing 6esign common at #ig# 5oltage le5els '9V).
Disad2antageB
1. T#is system in5ol5es all t#e 6raAbac&s an6 #aIar6s of #ig# eart# fault current:
ma3imum 6amage an6 6isturbances.
*. T#ere is no ser5ice continuity on t#e faulty fee6er.
<. T#e 6anger for personnel is #ig# 6uring t#e fault since t#e touc# 5oltages create6
are #ig#.
"pplicationsB
1. !istribute6 neutral con6uctor.
*. <"p#ase ? neutral 6istribution.
<. Bse of t#e neutral con6uctor as a protecti5e con6uctor Ait# systematic eart#ing at
eac# transmission pole.
=. Bse6 A#en t#e s#ort"circuit poAer of t#e source is loA.
'<) Resistance eart#e6 systems:
Resistance groun6ing #as been use6 in t#ree"p#ase in6ustrial applications for
many years an6 it resol5es many of t#e problems associate6 Ait# soli6ly groun6e6
an6 ungroun6e6 systems.
Resistance (roun6ing Systems limits t#e p#ase"to"groun6 fault currents. T#e
reasons for limiting t#e 2#ase to groun6 :ault current by resistance groun6ing are:
1. To re6uce burning an6 melting effects in faulte6 electrical equipment li&e
sAitc#gearC transformersC cablesC an6 rotating mac#ines.
*. To re6uce mec#anical stresses in circuits/Equipments carrying fault currents.
<. To re6uce electrical"s#oc& #aIar6s to personnel cause6 by stray groun6 fault.
=. To re6uce t#e arc blast or flas# #aIar6.
+. To re6uce t#e momentary line"5oltage 6ip.
$. To secure control of t#e transient o5er"5oltages A#ile at t#e same time.
1. To impro5e t#e 6etection of t#e eart# fault in a poAer system.
(roun6ing Resistors are generally connecte6 betAeen groun6 an6 neutral of
transformersC generators an6 groun6ing transformers to limit maximum fault
current as per Ohms Law to a value which will not damage the equipment in t#e
poAer system an6 alloA sufficient floA of fault current to 6etect an6 operate
Eart# protecti5e relays to clear t#e fault. Alt#oug# it is possible to limit fault
currents Ait# #ig# resistance ;eutral groun6ing ResistorsC eart# s#ort circuit
currents can be e3tremely re6uce6. As a result of t#is factC protection 6e5ices may
not sense t#e fault.
T#ereforeC it is t#e most common application to limit single p#ase fault currents
Ait# loA resistance ;eutral (roun6ing Resistors to appro3imately rate6 current of
transformer an6 / or generator.
-n a66itionC limiting fault currents to pre6etermine6 ma3imum 5alues permits t#e
6esigner to selecti5ely coor6inate t#e operation of protecti5e 6e5icesC A#ic#
minimiIes system 6isruption an6 alloAs for quic& location of t#e fault.
T#ere are tAo categories of resistance groun6ing:
'1) LoA resistance (roun6ing.
'*) 9ig# resistance (roun6ing.
(roun6 fault current floAing t#roug# eit#er type of resistor A#en a single p#ase
faults to groun6 Aill increase t#e p#ase"to"groun6 5oltage of t#e remaining tAo
p#ases. As a resultC conductor insulation and surge arrestor ratings must e
ased on line!to!line voltage. T#is temporary increase in p#ase"to"groun6 5oltage
s#oul6 also be consi6ere6 A#en selecting tAo an6 t#ree pole brea&ers installe6 on
resistance groun6e6 loA 5oltage systems.
T#e increase in p#ase"to"groun6 5oltage associate6 Ait# groun6 fault currents also
preclu6es t#e connection of line"to"neutral loa6s 6irectly to t#e system. -f line"to
neutral loa6s 'suc# as *11V lig#ting) are presentC t#ey must be ser5e6 by a soli6ly
groun6e6 system. T#is can be ac#ie5e6 Ait# an isolation transformer t#at #as a
t#ree"p#ase 6elta primary an6 a t#ree"p#aseC four"AireC Aye secon6ary
;eit#er of t#ese groun6ing systems 'loA or #ig# resistance) re6uces arc"flas#
#aIar6s associate6 Ait# p#ase"to"p#ase faultsC but bot# systems significantly
re6uce or essentially eliminate t#e arc"flas# #aIar6s associate6 Ait# p#ase"to"
groun6 faults. ot# types of groun6ing systems limit mec#anical stresses an6
re6uce t#ermal 6amage to electrical equipmentC circuitsC an6 apparatus carrying
faulte6 current.
T#e 6ifference betAeen LoA Resistance (roun6ing an6 9ig# Resistance
(roun6ing is a matter of perception an6C t#ereforeC is not Aell 6efine6. "enerally
spea#ing high!resistance grounding refers to a system in which the $"% let!
through current is less than 50 to 100 &. Low resistance grounding indicates
that $"% current would e aove 100 &.
A better 6istinction betAeen t#e tAo le5els mig#t be alarm only an6 tripping. An
alarm"only system continues to operate Ait# a single groun6 fault on t#e system
for an unspecifie6 amount of time. -n a tripping system a groun6 fault is
automatically remo5e6 by protecti5e relaying an6 circuit interrupting 6e5ices.
Alarm"only systems usually limit ;(R current to 1% A or less.
Rating of %#e Neutral grounding resistorB
1. (. Voltage: Line"to"neutral 5oltage of t#e system to A#ic# it is connecte6.
*. *. -nitial 7urrent: T#e initial current A#ic# Aill floA t#roug# t#e resistor Ait#
rate6 5oltage applie6.
<. ,. Time: T#e Yon timeZ for A#ic# t#e resistor can operate Ait#out e3cee6ing t#e
alloAable temperature rise.
'A).LoA Resistance (roun6e6:
LoA Resistance (roun6ing is use6 for large electrical systems A#ere t#ere is a
#ig# in5estment in capital equipment or prolonge6 loss of ser5ice of equipment
#as a significant economic impact an6 it is not commonly use6 in loA 5oltage
systems because t#e limite6 groun6 fault current is too loA to reliably operate
brea&er trip units or fuses. T#is ma&es system selecti5ity #ar6 to ac#ie5e.
,oreo5erC loA resistance groun6e6 systems are not suitable for ="Aire loa6s an6
#ence #a5e not been use6 in commercial mar&et applications
A resistor is connecte6 from t#e system neutral point to groun6 an6 generally
siIe6 to permit only 200& to 1200 amps of groun6 fault current to floA. Enoug#
current must floA suc# t#at protecti5e 6e5ices can 6etect t#e faulte6 circuit an6
trip it off"line but not so muc# current as to create maWor 6amage at t#e fault point.
Since t#e groun6ing impe6ance is in t#e form of resistanceC any transient o5er
5oltages are quic&ly 6ampe6 out an6 t#e A#ole transient o5er5oltage p#enomena
is no longer applicable. Alt#oug# t#eoretically possible to be applie6 in loA
5oltage systems 'e.g. =.%V)Csignificant amount of t#e system 5oltage 6roppe6
across t#e groun6ing resistorC t#ere is not enoug# 5oltage across t#e arc forcing
current to floAC for t#e fault to be reliably 6etecte6. :or t#is reasonK lo!
resistance grounding is not used for lo! 2oltage s4stems 'un6er 1%%% 5olts line
to"line).
"d2antagesB
1. Limits p#ase"to"groun6 currents to *%%"=%%A.
*. Re6uces arcing current an6C to some e3tentC limits arc"flas# #aIar6s associate6
Ait# p#ase"to"groun6 arcing current con6itions only.
<. ,ay limit t#e mec#anical 6amage an6 t#ermal 6amage to s#orte6 transformer an6
rotating mac#inery Ain6ings.
Disad2antagesB
1. !oes not pre5ent operation of o5er current 6e5ices.
*. !oes not require a groun6 fault 6etection system.
<. ,ay be utiliIe6 on me6ium or #ig# 5oltage systems.
=. 7on6uctor insulation an6 surge arrestors must be rate6 base6 on t#e line to"line
5oltage. 2#ase"to"neutral loa6s must be ser5e6 t#roug# an isolation transformer.
=sedB Bp to =%% amps for 1% sec are commonly foun6 on me6ium 5oltage
systems.
').9ig# Resistance (roun6e6:
9ig# resistance groun6ing is almost i6entical to loA resistance groun6inge3cept
t#at t#e groun6 fault current magnitu6e is typically limite6 to 10 amperes or less.
9ig# resistance groun6ing accomplis#es tAo t#ings.
T#e first is t#at t#e ground fault current magnitude is sufficiently low enough
such t#at no appreciable 6amage is 6one at t#e fault point. T#is means t#at t#e
faulte6 circuit nee6 not be trippe6 off"line A#en t#e fault first occurs. ,eans t#at
once a fault 6oes occurC Ae 6o not &noA A#ere t#e fault is locate6. -n t#is respectC
it performs Wust li&e an ungroun6e6 system.
T#e secon6 point is it can control the transient overvoltage phenomenon present
on ungroun6e6 systems if engineere6 properly.
Bn6er eart# fault con6itionsC t#e resistance must 6ominate o5er t#e system
c#arging capacitance but not to t#e point of permitting e3cessi5e current to floA
an6 t#ereby e3clu6ing continuous operation
9ig# Resistance (roun6ing '9R() systems limit t#e fault current A#en one p#ase
of t#e system s#orts or arcs to groun6C but at loAer le5els t#an loA resistance
systems.
-n t#e e5ent t#at a groun6 fault con6ition e3istsC t#e 9R( typically limits t#e
current to +"1%A.
9R(Js are continuous current rate6C so t#e 6escription of a particular unit 6oes
not inclu6e a time rating. Bnli&e ;(RJsC groun6 fault current floAing t#roug# a
9R( is usually not of significant magnitu6e to result in t#e operation of an o5er
current 6e5ice. Since t#e groun6 fault current is not interrupte6C a groun6 fault
6etection system must be installe6.
T#ese systems inclu6e a bypass contactor tappe6 across a portion of t#e resistor
t#at pulses 'perio6ically opens an6 closes). F#en t#e contactor is openC groun6
fault current floAs t#roug# t#e entire resistor. F#en t#e contactor is close6 a
portion of t#e resistor is bypasse6 resulting in slig#tly loAer resistance an6
slig#tly #ig#er groun6 fault current.
%o a2oid transient o2erJ2oltagesK an CRG resistor must be si9ed so t#at t#e
amount of ground fault current t#e unit Aill alloA to floA e3cee6s t#e electrical
systemJs c#arging current. As a rule of t#umbC c#arging current is estimate6 at 1A
per *%%%8VA of system capacity for loA 5oltage systems an6 *A per *%%%8VA
of system capacity at =.1$&V.
T#ese estimate6 c#arging currents increase if surge suppressors are present. Eac#
set of suppressors installe6 on a loA 5oltage system results in appro3imately %.+A
of a66itional c#arging current an6 eac# set of suppressors installe6 on a =.1$&V
system a66s 1.+A of a66itional c#arging current.
A system Ait# <%%%8VA of capacity at =.% 5olts Aoul6 #a5e an estimate6
c#arging current of 1.+A.A66 one set of surge suppressors an6 t#e total c#arging
current increases by %.+A to *.%A. A stan6ar6 +A resistor coul6 be use6 on t#is
system. ,ost resistor manufacturers publis# 6etaile6 estimation tables t#at can be
use6 to more closely estimate an electrical systemJs c#arging current.
"d2antagesB
1. Enables #ig# impe6ance fault 6etection in systems Ait# Aea& capaciti5e
connection to eart#
*. Some p#ase"to"eart# faults are self"cleare6.
<. T#e neutral point resistance can be c#osen to limit t#e possible o5er 5oltage
transients to *.+ times t#e fun6amental frequency ma3imum 5oltage.
=. Limits p#ase"to"groun6 currents to +"1%A.
+. Re6uces arcing current an6 essentially eliminates arc"flas# #aIar6s associate6
Ait# p#ase"to"groun6 arcing current con6itions only.
$. Fill eliminate t#e mec#anical 6amage an6 may limit t#ermal 6amage to s#orte6
transformer an6 rotating mac#inery Ain6ings.
1. 2re5ents operation of o5er current 6e5ices until t#e fault can be locate6 'A#en
only one p#ase faults to groun6).
.. ,ay be utiliIe6 on loA 5oltage systems or me6ium 5oltage systems up to +&V.
-EEE Stan6ar6 1=1"144< states t#at Y#ig# resistance groun6ing s#oul6 be
restricte6 to +&V class or loAer systems Ait# c#arging currents of about +.+A or
less an6 s#oul6 not be attempte6 on 1+&V systemsC unless proper groun6ing
relaying is employe6Z.
4. 7on6uctor insulation an6 surge arrestors must be rate6 base6 on t#e line to"line
5oltage. 2#ase"to"neutral loa6s must be ser5e6 t#roug# an isolation transformer.
Disad2antagesB
1. (enerates e3tensi5e eart# fault currents A#en combine6 Ait# strong or mo6erate
capaciti5e connection to eart# 7ost in5ol5e6.
*. Requires a groun6 fault 6etection system to notify t#e facility engineer t#at a
groun6 fault con6ition #as occurre6.
'=) Resonant eart#e6 system:
A66ing in6ucti5e reactance from t#e system neutral point to groun6 is an easy
met#o6 of limiting t#e a5ailable groun6 fault from somet#ing near t#e ma3imum
< p#ase s#ort circuit capacity 't#ousan6s of amperes) to a relati5ely loA 5alue
'*%% to .%% amperes).
To limit t#e reacti5e part of t#e eart# fault current in a poAer system a neutral
point reactor can be connecte6 betAeen t#e transformer neutral an6 t#e station
eart#ing system.
A system in A#ic# at least one of t#e neutrals is connecte6 to eart# t#roug# an
1. -n6ucti5e reactance.
*. 2etersen coil / Arc Suppression 7oil / Eart# :ault ;eutraliIer.
T#e current generate6 by t#e reactance 6uring an eart# fault appro3imately
compensates t#e capaciti5e component of t#e single p#ase eart# fault currentC is
calle6 a resonant eart#e6 system.
T#e system is #ar6ly e5er e3actly tune6C i.e. t#e reacti5e current 6oes not e3actly
equal t#e capaciti5e eart# fault current of t#e system.
A system in A#ic# t#e in6ucti5e current is slig#tly larger t#an t#e capaciti5e eart#
fault current is o5er compensate6. A system in A#ic# t#e in6uce6 eart# fault
current is slig#tly smaller t#an t#e capaciti5e eart# fault current is un6er
compensate6
9oAe5erC e3perience in6icate6 t#at t#is in6ucti5e reactance to groun6 resonates
Ait# t#e system s#unt capacitance to groun6 un6er arcing groun6 fault con6itions
an6 creates 5ery #ig# transient o5er 5oltages on t#e system.
To control t#e transient o5er 5oltagesC t#e 6esign must permit at least $%@ of t#e
< p#ase s#ort circuit current to floA un6ergroun6 fault con6itions.
E3ample. A $%%% amp groun6ing reactor for a system #a5ing 1%C%%% amps <
p#ase s#ort circuit capacity a5ailable. !ue to t#e #ig# magnitu6e of groun6 fault
current require6 to control transient o5er 5oltagesC in6uctance groun6ing is rarely
used within industry.
2etersen 7oils:
A 2etersen 7oil is connecte6 betAeen t#e neutral point of t#e system an6 eart#C
an6 is rate6 so t#at t#e capaciti5e current in t#e earth fault is compensated y an
inductive current passed y the 'etersen (oil. A small resi6ual current Aill
remainC but t#is is so small t#at any arc betAeen t#e faulte6 p#ase an6 eart# Aill
not be maintaine6 an6 t#e fault Aill e3tinguis#. ,inor eart# faults suc# as a
bro&en pin insulatorC coul6 be #el6 on t#e system Ait#out t#e supply being
interrupte6. Transient faults Aoul6 not result in supply interruptions.
Alt#oug# t#e stan6ar6 X2eterson coilJ 6oes not compensate t#e entire eart# fault
current in a netAor& 6ue to t#e presence of resisti5e losses in t#e lines an6 coilC it
is noA possible to apply Xresi6ual current compensationJ by inWecting an
a66itional 1.%\ out of p#ase current into t#e neutral 5ia t#e 2eterson coil. T#e
fault current is t#ereby re6uce6 to practically Iero. Suc# systems are &noAn as
XResonant eart#ing Ait# resi6ual compensationJC an6 can be consi6ere6 as a
special case of reacti5e eart#ing.
Resonant eart#ing can re6uce E2R to a safe le5el. T#is is because t#e 2etersen
coil can often effecti5ely act as a #ig# impe6ance ;ERC A#ic# Aill substantially
re6uce any eart# fault currentsC an6 #ence also any correspon6ing E2R #aIar6s
'e.g. touc# 5oltagesC step 5oltages an6 transferre6 5oltagesC inclu6ing any E2R
#aIar6s impresse6 onto nearby telecommunication netAor&s).
"d2antagesB
1. Small reacti5e eart# fault current in6epen6ent of t#e p#ase to eart# capacitance of
t#e system.
*. Enables #ig# impe6ance fault 6etection.
Disad2antagesB
1. Ris& of e3tensi5e acti5e eart# fault losses.
*. 9ig# costs associate6.
'+) Eart#ing Transformers:
:or cases A#ere t#ere is no neutral point a5ailable for ;eutral Eart#ing 'e.g. for a
6elta Ain6ing)C an eart#ing transformer may be use6 to pro5i6e a return pat# for
single p#ase fault currents
-n suc# cases t#e impe6ance of t#e eart#ing transformer may be sufficient to act
as effecti5e eart#ing impe6ance. A66itional impe6ance can be a66e6 in series if
require6. A special XIig"IagJ transformer is sometimes use6 for eart#ing 6elta
Ain6ings to pro5i6e a loA Iero"sequence impe6ance an6 #ig# positi5e an6
negati5e sequence impe6ance to fault currents.
7onclusion:
Resistance (roun6ing Systems #a5e many a65antages o5er soli6ly groun6e6
systems inclu6ing arc"flas# #aIar6 re6uctionC limiting mec#anical an6 t#ermal
6amage associate6 Ait# faultsC an6 controlling transient o5er 5oltages.
9ig# resistance groun6ing systems may also be employe6 to maintain ser5ice
continuity an6 assist Ait# locating t#e source of a fault.
F#en 6esigning a system Ait# resistorsC t#e 6esign/consulting engineer must
consi6er t#e specific requirements for con6uctor insulation ratingsC surge arrestor
ratingsC brea&er single"pole 6uty ratingsC an6 met#o6 of ser5ing p#ase"to"neutral
loa6s.
7omparison of ;eutral Eart#ing System:
Condition =n grounded
Solid
Grounded
&o! Resistance
Grounded
Cig# Resistance
Grounded
Reactance
Grounding
-mmunity to
Transient /5er
5oltages
Forse (oo6 (oo6 est est
1<@ -ncrease in
Voltage Stress Bn6er
Line"to"(roun6
:ault 7on6ition
2oor est (oo6 2oor
Equipment 2rotecte6 Forse 2oor etter est est
Safety to 2ersonnel Forse etter (oo6 est est
Ser5ice Reliability Forse (oo6 etter est est
,aintenance 7ost Forse (oo6 etter est est
Ease of Locating
:irst (roun6 :ault
Forse (oo6 etter est est
2ermits !esigner to
7oor6inate2rotecti5e
!e5ices
;ot 2ossible (oo6 etter est est
Re6uction in
:requency of :aults
Forse etter (oo6 est est
Lig#ting Arrestor
Bngroun6e6neutral
type
(roun6e6"
neutraltype
Bngroun6e6neutral
type
Bngroun6e6neutral
type
Bngroun6e6neutral
type
7urrent for p#ase"to
groun6 fault in
percent oft#ree"
p#ase fault current
Less t#an 1@
VariesC
may be
1%%@ or
greater
+ to *%@ Less t#an 1@ + to *+@
ReferenceB
y ,ic#ael !. SealC 2.E.C (E Senior Specification Engineer.
-EEE Stan6ar6 1=1"144<C YRecommen6e6 2ractice for Electrical 2oAer
!istribution for -n6ustrial 2lantsZ
!on Sel&ir&C 2.EngC Sas&atoonC Sas&atc#eAan 7ana6a
Abstract of 0ational +lectrical Code for
Transforer2s Protection
;o5ember <C *%11 4 7omments
Abstract of ;ational Electrical 7o6e for TransformerJs
2rotection:
;E7C 7o6e =+%.=: '7alculate o5er current 2rotection on t#e 2rimary)
Accor6ing to ;E7 =+%.=C Yeac# transformer $%% 5oltsC nominalC or less s#all be
protecte6 by an in6i5i6ual o5er current 6e5ice installe6 in series Ait# eac#
ungroun6e6 input con6uctor.
Suc# o5er current 6e5ice s#all be rate6 or set at not more t#an (*-; of t#e rate6
full"loa6 input current of t#e auto transformer.
:urt#erC accor6ing to ;E7 Table =+%.<')C if t#e primary current of t#e
transformer is less t#an 4 ampsC an o5er current 6e5ice rate6 or set at not more
t#an (:.; of t#e primary current s#all be permitte6. F#ere t#e primary current is
less t#an * ampsC an o5er current 6e5ice rate6 or set at not more t#an ,++; s#all
be permitte6.
E3ample: !eci6e SiIe of circuit brea&er 'o5er current protection 6e5ice) is
require6 on t#e primary si6e to protect a .-$2a ==%5"*<%5 <] transformer.
1+&5a 3 1C%%% H 1+C%%%5a
1+C%%%5a / '==%V 3 M<) H 4..=1 amps.
T#e current 'amps) is more t#an 4 amps so use 1*+@ rating.
4..=1 amps 3 1.*+ H 1*<amps
Bse (*-amp ,Jpole circuit brea$er 't#e ne3t #ig#est fuse/fi3e6"trip circuit
brea&er siIe per ;E7 *=%.$).
T#e o5er current 6e5ice on t#e primary si6e must be siIe6 base6 on t#e
transformer 8VA rating an6 not siIe6 base6 on t#e secon6ary loa6 to t#e
transformer.
;E7C 7o6e =+%.<:'7alculate o5er current 2rotection on t#e Secon6ary)
Accor6ing to ;E7 Table =+%.<')C A#ere t#e secon6ary current of a transformer
is 4 amps or more an6 (*-; of t#is current 6oes not correspon6 to a stan6ar6
rating of a fuse or circuit brea&erC t#e ne3t #ig#er stan6ar6 rating s#all be
require6. F#ere t#e secon6ary current is less t#an 4 ampsC an o5er current 6e5ice
rate6 or set at not more t#an (:.; of t#e secon6ary current s#all be permitte6.
E3ample: !eci6e SiIe of circuit brea&er 'o5er current protection 6e5ice) is
require6 on t#e secondary si6e to protect a .-$2a ==%5"*<%5 <] transformer.
Fe #a5e 7alculate t#e secon6ary o5er current protection base6 on t#e siIe of t#e
transformerC not t#e total connecte6 loa6.
1+&5a 3 1C%%% H 1+C%%%5a
1+C%%%5a / '*<%V 3 M<) H 1...*1 amps. ';ote: *<%V <] is calculate6)
T#e current 'amps) is more t#an 4 amps so use 1*+@ rating.
1...*1 amps 3 1.*+ H *<+.<= amps.
T#erefore: Bse ,++amp ,Jpole circuit brea$er 'per ;E7 *=%.$).
;E7C Section =+%"<'a):'Transformers o2er :++ 2oltsK Nominal
:or primary an6 secon6ary protection Ait# a transformer impe6ance of $@ or
lessC t#e primary fuse must not be larger t#an ,++; of primary :ull Loa6 Amps
':.L.A.) an6 t#e secon6ary fuse must not be larger t#an *-+; of secon6ary
:.L.A.
;E7C Section =+%"<'b):'Transformers o5er $%% 5oltsC ;ominal
:or primary protection onlyC t#e primary fuse must not be larger t#an (*-; of
primary :.L.A.
:or primary an6 secon6ary protection t#e primary fee6er fuse must not be larger
t#an *+%@ of primary :.L.A. if t#e secon6ary fuse is siIe6 at (*-; of secon6ary
:.L.A.
;E7C Section =+%"<'b):'2otential 'Voltage) Transformer
T#ese s#all be protecte6 Ait# primary fuses A#en installe6 in6oors or enclose6
;E7C Section *<%"4+'(roun6":ault 2rotection of Equipment).
T#is section s#oA t#at *11/=.% 5olt YAyeZ only connecte6 ser5icesC (+++
amperes an6 largerC must #a5e groun6 fault protection in a66ition to con5entional
o5er current protection.
T#e groun6 fault relay 'or sensor) must be set to pic& up groun6 faults A#ic# are
1*%% amperes or more an6 actuate t#e main sAitc# or circuit brea&er to
6isconnect all ungroun6e6 con6uctors of t#e faulte6 circuit.
;E7C Section 11%"4 ) -nterrupting 7apacity.
Any 6e5ice use6 to protect a loA 5oltage system s#oul6 be capable of opening all
fault currents up to t#e ma3imum current a5ailable at t#e terminal of t#e 6e5ice.
,any o5er current 6e5icesC to6ayC are use6 in circuits t#at are abo5e t#eir
interrupting rating.
y using properly siIe6 7urrent Limiting :uses a#ea6 of t#ese 6e5icesC t#e
current can usually be limite6 to a 5alue loAer t#an t#e interrupting capacity of
t#e o5er current 6e5ices.
;E7C Section 11%"1% ) 7ircuit -mpe6ance an6 /t#er 7#aracteristics.
T#e o5er current protecti5e 6e5icesC along Ait# t#e total impe6anceC t#e
component s#ort"circuit Ait#stan6 ratingsC an6 ot#er c#aracteristics of t#e circuit
to be protecte6 s#all be so selecte6 an6 coor6inate6 so t#at t#e circuit protecti5e
6e5ices use6 to clear a fault Aill 6o so Ait#out t#e occurrence of e3tensi5e
6amage to t#e electrical components of t#e circuit.
-n or6er to 6o t#is Ae must select t#e o5er current protecti5e 6e5ices so t#at t#ey
Aill open fast enoug# to pre5ent 6amage to t#e electrical components on t#eir
loa6 si6e.
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