Lect ur e Not es in

Mat hemat i cs
Edited by A. Dold and B. Eckmann
460
Ottmar Loos
Jordan Pairs
Springer-Verlag
Ber l i n. Hei del berg 9 New York 1975
Dr. Ottmar Loos
Department of Mathematics
The University of British Columbia
2075 Wesbrook Place
Vancouver B. C. V6T l W 5
Canada
Li brary of Co ng r e s s Cat al ogi ng in Publ i c at i on Dat a
Tboos, O t t m a r .
J o r d a n p a i r s .
( L e c t u r e n o t e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s ; ~ 6 0 )
B i b l i o g r a p h y : p.
I n c l u d e s i n d e x .
i. J o r d a n a l g e b r a s . I, T i t l e . I I . S e r i e s : L e c -
t u r e n o t e s i n m a t h e m a t i c s ( B e r l i n ) ; 4 6 0 .
Q A 3 . 1 2 8 no, 4 6 0 [ Q ~ 2 5 2 . 5 ] 5 1 0 ' . 8 s [ 5 1 2 ' . 2 4 ] 7 5 - 9 8 5 1
AMS Subj ect Cl assi f i cat i ons (1970): 17C10, 17C20,
ISBN 3- 540- 07166- 0 Spri nger-Verl ag Berl i n 9 Hei del ber g" New York
ISBN 0- 387- 07166- 0 Spri nger-Verl ag New Yor k" Hei del berg - Berl i n
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I N T R O D U C T I O N
T h e t h e o r y o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s , c o m p a r e d t o t h a t o f a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a s ,
p r e s e n t s s o m e u n u s u a l f e a t u r e s . R e c a l l t h a t a u n i t a l q u a d r a t i c J o r d a n a l g e b r a
( i n t h e s e n s e o f M c C r i m m o n ) i s a t r i p l e ( J , U , l ) c o n s i s t i n g o f a m o d u l e J o v e r
s o m e c o m m u t a t i v e a s s o c i a t i v e r i n g k o f s c a l a r s , a q u a d r a t i c m a p U f r o m J i n -
t o t h e e n d o m o r p h i s m r i n g E n d k ( J ) o f J , a n d a n e l e m e n t i C J ( t h e u n i t e l e m e n t )
s u c h t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t i e s h o l d i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s .
(I) U I = I d ,
(2) { x , y , U x Z } = U x { Y X Z } ,
(3) U ( U x Y ) = U x U y U x
H e r e { x y z } = U x + z y - U x Y - U z y i s t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n o f U x Y . T h e s t a n d a r d e x a m -
p l e i s a n a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a w i t h U x Y = x y x . T h u s f o r o n e t h i n g , J o r d a n a l g e -
b r a s a r e n o t a l g e b r a s i n t h e u s u a l s e n s e s i n c e t h e y a r e n o t b a s e d o n a b i l i n e a r
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b u t r a t h e r o n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n U x Y w h i c h i s q u a d r a t i c i n x a n d
l i n e a r i n y . M o r e s e r i o u s i s t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e p l a y e d b y t h e n o t i o n o f i s o t o p e .
L e t v e J b e i n v e r t i b l e w i t h i n v e r s e v - I U - I U (v) = .v , a n d s e t = U U , f o r
V X XV
a l l x C J . T h e n ( J , u ( V ) , v - I ) i s a u n i t a l q u a d r a t i c J o r d a n a l g e b r a , c a l l e d t h e
v - i s o t o p e o f J , a n d d e n o t e d b y j ( v ) . I f v i s n o t i n v e r t i b l e t h e n o n e c a n
s t i l l d e f i n e a n o n - u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a j ( v ) , t h e v - h o m o t o p e o f J . W e w i l l
c a l l t w o J o r d a n a l g e b r a s J a n d J' i s o t o p i c i f t h e r e e x i s t s a n i s o t o p i s m b e -
t w e e n t h e m , i . e . , a n i s o m o r p h i s m f r o m J o n t o s o m e i s o t o p e o f J' . S e v e r a l i m -
p o r t a n t t h e o r e m s i n t h e t h e o r y o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s h o l d o n l y u p t o i s o t o p y ; i . e . ,
t h e y a r e o f t h e f o r m " J m a y n o t h a v e p r o p e r t y (P) b u t t h e r e e x i s t s a n i s o t o p e
iv
of J w h i c h d o e s " . C l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h i s is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a u t o t o p i s m g r o u p
of J , u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e s t r u c t u r e g r o u p a n d d e n o t e d b y Str(J) , p l a y s a m o r e
i m p o r t a n t r o l e t h a n t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m group. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e is n o n a t u r a l c o n -
c e p t of i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m f o r J o r d a n a l g e b r a s ( w h i c h w o u l d b e c o m p a r a b l e to t h e
-i
i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m s x ~ a x a in a n a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a ) b u t e v e r y i n v e r t i b l e
e l e m e n t a ~ J d e f i n e s a n i n n e r a u t o t o p i s m , n a m e l y U . A l l t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t
a
t h e r e o u g h t to b e s o m e a l g e b r a i c o b j e c t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h J w h i c h s o m e h o w i n c o r -
p o r a t e s a l l h o m o t o p e s of J a n d w h o s e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p is j u s t t h e s t r u c t u r e
g r o u p of J . T h i s o b j e c t is t h e J o r d a n p a i r ( J , J ) a s s o c i a t e d w i t h J .
H o m k ( V + , V- )
J P I
J P 2
JP3
L e t u s n o w d e s c r i b e t h i s c o n c e p t . A J o r d a n p a i r is a p a i r ~ = (~+,V-)
k - m o d u l e s t o g e t h e r w i t h q u a d r a t i c m a p s Q+: V + H O m k ( V - , V + ) a n d Q_: V-
w h i c h s a t i s f y t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t i e s i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s .
{ x , y , Q o ( x ) z } = Q o ( x ) { y x z } ,
{ Q o ( x ) y , y , z } = { x , Q _ o ( y ) x , z } ,
Q o ( Q ~ ( x ) y ) = Q o ( x ) Q _ o ( y ) Q o ( x ) 9
H e r e {xyz} = Q o ( x + z ) y - Q o ( x ) y - Q o ( z ) y is, s i m i l a r l y as b e f o r e , t h e l i n e a r i z a -
t i o n of Q ~ ( x ) y , a n d t h e i n d e x o t a k e s t h e v a l u e s + a n d - A s t a n d a r d
, V- = M q , p ( R ) r e c t a n g u l a r m a t r i c e s w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s e x a m p l e is ~ = M p , q ( R )
in an a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a R , w i t h Q o ( x ) y = x y x . B y a h o m o m o r p h i s m h: V W
b e t w e e n J o r d a n p a i r s w e m e a n a p a i r h = ( h + , h ) of l i n e a r maps, h : V ~ W ~
s u c h t h a t h o ( Q o ( x ) y ) = Q o ( h o ( x ) ) h _ o ( y ) . F r o m t h e w e l l - k n o w n i d e n t i t y
{ U x y , y , z } = { X , U y X , Z } w h i c h h o l d s in a n y J o r d a n a l g e b r a it is c l e a r t h a t w e o b -
t a i n a J o r d a n p a i r f r o m a J o r d a n a l g e b r a J b y s e t t i n g V + = V- = 7 a n d Q + =
Q = U . T h i s J o r d a n p a i r w i l l b e d e n o t e d b y (7,7) . A l s o , if g ~ Str(J) a n d
g# ~ Str(J) is d e f i n e d b y g# -i
= g U g ( l ) t h e n (g,(g#)-l)
t h e J o r d a n p a i r (7,7) , a n d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e m a p
of
is a n a u t o m o r p h i s m of
g ~ (g,(g#)-l) is a n i s o -
v
morphism between Str(J) and the automorphism group of ( J , J ) . Theorems which
for Jordan algebras only hold up to isotopy will then hold for the associated Jor-
dan pairs without this restriction.
In an arbitrary Jordan pair V = ( V + , V - ) we still have the concept of
homotope as follows. For every v 6 V- the module ~+ becomes a (in general non-
unital) Jordan algebra, denoted by V + with quadratic operators U = Q+(x)Q_(v)
v ~ x
2
and squaring operation x = Q+(x)v . Thus the space which parametrizes the homo-
topes (namely V- ) is different from the space in which the homotope lives (name-
ly V + ). By interchanging the roles of V + and V- we can also define a homo-
tope V- for every u C V + . The condition that a Jordan pair V be of the form
u
( J , J ) , where J is a unital Jordan algebrs, is now that V contains an inverti-
ble element; i.e., an element v such that Q_(v) is invertible. In this case,
( v ) - i v
J = V + is a unital Jordan algebra with unit element Q and V is iso-
v - P
morphic as a Jordan pair with ( J , J ) . Roughly speaking, therefore, Jordan pairs
containing invertible elements are the same as unital Jordan algebras "up to iso-
topy".
In general, however, a Jordan pair will not contain any invertible ele-
ments. To see what is happening in this case, let us first make some remarks on
Jordan algebras without unit element. There are two approaches to this: either a
non-unital Jordan algebra J is defined in terms of quadratic operators U and
x
a squaring operation x 2 (as for example V + above), or one dispenses with the
v
squaring altogether and retains only the quadratic operators. The first approach
leads right back to unital Jordan algebras since J can be imbedded into a unital
Jordan algebra k.l + J by adjoining a unit element 1 . The second approach
leads to the concept of Jordan triple system, defined as a k-module T together
with a quadratic map U: T Endk(T ) satisfying the following identities in all
scalar extensions.
v i
J T I { x , y , U x Z } = U x { Y X Z } ,
J T 2 { U x y , y , z } = { X , U y X , Z } ,
J T 3 U ( U x Y ) = U x U y U x .
( T h e t e r m i n o l o g y " t r i p l e s y s t e m " i s d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n c a s e 2 i s i n v e r t i b l e
i n k t h e t h e o r y c a n b e b a s e d o n t h e t r i l i n e a r c o m p o s i t i o n { x y z } = U x + z y - U x Y
- U z y ). I f w e c o m p a r e t h e s e i d e n t i t i e s w i t h t h o s e f o r a J o r d a n p a i r t h e n i t is
o b v i o u s t h a t T g i v e s r i s e t o a J o r d a n p a i r ( T , T ) b y s e t t i n g V + = V - = T a n d
Q + = Q _ = U . N o t e v e r y J o r d a n p a i r i s o f t h i s f o r m , h o w e v e r , s i n c e i t i s e a s y t o
c o n s t r u c t e x a m p l e s o f J o r d a n p a i r s f o r w h i c h V + a n d V - a r e n o t i s o m o r p h i c a s
k - m o d u l e s . T o o b t a i n a J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m f r o m a J o r d a n p a i r , w e m u s t h a v e s o m e
w a y o f i d e n t i f y i n g V + a n d V - . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , w e d e f i n e a n i n v o l u t i o n o f a
V + J o r d a n p a i r t o b e a m o d u l e i s o m o r p h i s m ~: V - s u c h t h a t Q _ ( ~ ( x ) ) = ~ Q + ( x ) ~
f o r a l l x C V + . T h e n a J o r d a n p a i r w i t h i n v o l u t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o a J o r d a n t r i p l e
s y s t e m b y s e t t i n g T = V + a n d U x Y = Q + ( x ) ~ ( y ) , a n d t h i s e s t a b l i s h e s a o n e - t o -
o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s a n d J o r d a n p a i r s w i t h i n v o l u t i o n .
S o f a r w e h a v e s h o w n t h a t J o r d a n p a i r s p r o v i d e a u n i f y i n g f r a m e w o r k f o r
b o t h t h e t h e o r y o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s . L e t u s n o w p o i n t o u t
s o m e o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s w h i c h t h e t h e J o r d a n p a i r c o n c e p t o f f e r s o v e r b o t h t h e s e
t h e o r i e s .
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e c a s e o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d t r i p l e s y s t e m s , t h e r e i s a
n a t u r a l w a y o f d e f i n i n g i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m s o f J o r d a n p a i r s . L e t V = ( V + , V - ) b e
a J o r d a n p a i r , a n d c o n s i d e r a p a i r ( x , y ) w h e r e x ~ V + a n d y C V - ( f o r w h i c h
w e s i m p l y w r i t e ( x , y ) ~ V ). W e s a y t h a t ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i f x i s
q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a V + ; i . e . , i f I - x i s i n v e r t i b l e i n t h e
Y
J o r d a n a l g e b r a o b t a i n e d f r o m V + b y a d j o i n i n g a u n i t e l e m e n t . I n t h i s c a s e , ( x , y )
Y
d e f i n e s a n i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m B ( x , y ) (cf. 3 . 9 ) . T h u s t h e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e p a i r s
vii
are analogous to the invertible elements in an associative algebra. It is irrele-
vant for this whether V contains invertible elements or not; in fact, for most
of the theory of Jordan pairs there is no difference between the two cases. These
inner automorphisms play an important role and can be used to give a computation-
free treatment of the Peirce decomposition (55).
Another reason why Jordan pairs are preferable to Jordan algebras or trip-
le systems is that they always contain sufficiently many idempotents. It may hap-
pen even in a finite-dimensional simple Jordan algebra that the unit element can-
not be written as the sum of orthogonal division idempotents (the algebra need not
have "capacity"). The situation is even worse for Jordan triple systems. Here an
idempotent is an element x such that U x = x . In general, there are no such
x
2
elements except zero; e.g., consider the real numbers with UxY = -x y . If V is
a Jordan pair we define an idempotent to be a pair (x,y) C V such that Q+(x)y
= x and Q_(y)x = y . Then it turns out that a Jordan pair with dcc on principal
inner ideals which is not radical always contains non-zero idempotents (w Of
course, pairs (x,y) with UxY = x and U x = y have been considered before in
Y
the theory of Jordan algebras but their natural place seems to be in the context
of Jordan pairs. The scarcity of idempotents in the Jordan triple case is also ex-
plained. Indeed, under the correspondence between Jordan triple systems and Jordan
pairs with involution, idempotents of the Jordan triple system correspond to idem-
potents (x,y) of the Jordan pair which are invariant under the involution in the
sense that y = ~(x) , and there may be none of these.
Finally, let us mention that Jordan pairs arise naturally in the Koecher-
Tits construction of Lie algebras and the associated algebraic groups, a topic not
touched upon in these notes. Indeed, it was in this context that they were first
introduced by K. Meyberg. For details, we refer to a forthcoming paper (Loos[7]).
v i i i
W e g i v e n o w a m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e s e n o t e s .
T h e r e a r e 17 s e c t i o n s w h o s e l o g i c a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e is s u m m a r i z e d i n t h e f o l l o w -
i n g d i a g r a m .
- - 3 - -
13 - - 14 - -
6
I
5 7
I
9
I
i 0 - - i i - - 1 2
I
15 - - 16 - - 17
H e r e j d e p e n d s o n i if it s t a n d s b e l o w a n d / o r to t h e r i g h t of i .
C h a p t e r I (w167 - 5) c o n t a i n s t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r y of J o r d a n p a i r s , b e g i n n i n g
w i t h t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d t r i p l e s y s t e m s as d i s c u s s e d above.
Just as in c a s e of J o r d a n a l g e b r a s , a l o n g l i s t of i d e n t i t i e s is r e q u i r e d , a n d
this is d e r i v e d in w A f t e r t h e q u a s i - i n v e r s e (w v a r i o u s r a d i c a l s a r e d i s -
c u s s e d in w T h e J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l o f a J o r d a n p a i r V is d i r e c t l y b a s e d o n t h e
q u a s i - i n v e r s e , b e i n g d e f i n e d b y R a d V = (Rad V + , R a d V-) w h e r e R a d V O is t h e
set of a l l p r o p e r l y q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s of V ~ (cf. 4.1). I n w w e i n t r o -
d u c e t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
V = V2(e) ~ Vl(e) ~ V0(e)
of a J o r d a n p a i r w i t h r e s p e c t to a n i d e m p o t e n t e = (e+,e -) (5.4). N o t e that w e
u s e t h e i n d i c e s 2 , 1 ~ 0 i n s t e a d of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 1 , 1 / 2 , 0 to l a b e l t h e P e i r c e
spaces. E a c h P e i r c e s p a c e V i ( e ) = (V~,Vi) is a s u b p a i r of V , a n d w e h a v e
R a d V i ( e ) = Vi(e) ~ R a d V (5.8). T h e r e is a l s o a P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h r e -
s p e c t to a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m of i d e m p o t e n t s (5.14).
ix
Chapter II (w167 - 9) is devoted to alternative pairs. An alternative pair
is a pair A = (A+,A -) of k-modules together with trilinear maps A + A- A + +
A + and A- A + A- + A- , written (x,y,z) ~ <xyz> , which satisfy the iden-
tities
API
AP2
AP3
~<uv<xyz>> + <xy<uvz>> = <<uvx>yz> + <x<vuy>z> ,
<uv<xyx>> = <<uvx>yx> ,
<xy<xyz>> = <<xyx>yz> .
In analogy with the Jordan case, alternative pairs containing invertible elements
correspond to isotopism classes of unital alternative algebras, and alternative
pairs with involution correspond to alternative triple systems. In contrast to
the situation for alternative algebras, there exist simple properly alternative
pairs of arbitrary (even infinite) dimension over their centroids. They can be
constructed from alternating bilinear forms (6.6). Just as an alternative algebra
gives rise to a Jordan algebra by setting UxY = xyx so we obtain a Jordan pair
A J from an alternative pair A by setting Qi(x)y = <xyx> . This relation is
exploited in w to prove results about alternative pairs by passing to the asso-
ciated Jordan pair. In w we study the Peirce decomposition of alternative pairs
which is the tool for their classification in w
The main reason why alternative pairs are of interest to us, however, is
that they arise naturally in the study of Jordan pairs without invertible elements.
To explain this connection, let e be an idempotent of a Jordan pair V with the
property that V0(e) = 0 . Then Vl(e) becomes an alternative pair by setting
<xyz> = {{xye~176 (8.2). Conversely, every alternative pair can be obtained in
this way by means of the standard imbedding (8.12). Consider now a simple and
semisimple Jordan pair with acc and dcc on principal inner ideals. Then we can
always find an idempotent e with V0(e) = 0 . If Vl(e) is also zero then V =
V2(e) contains invertible elements and is therefore essentially a unital Jordan
a l g e b r a up to i s o t o p y . In v i e w of t h e w o r k of N. J a c o b s o n a n d K. M c C r i m m o n , t h i s
c a s e m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d as w e l l k n o w n . If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , V l ( e ) # 0 t h e n V
is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g of Vl(e) (12.5).
In C h a p t e r I I I (w167 - 12) w e p r e s e n t t h e s t r u c t u r e t h e o r y o f a l t e r n a t i v e
a n d J o r d a n p a i r s w i t h c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s on p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s . I n n e r i d e a l s
a r e i n t r o d u c e d in w T h e t h e o r y f o l l o w s t h e o n e for J o r d a n a l g e b r a s b u t is
a c t u a l l y s i m p l e r s i n c e t h e m i n i m a l i n n e r i d e a l s of t y p e II h a v e n o a n a l o g u e for
J o r d a n p a i r s (10.5). In w w e c l a s s i f y s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s n c o n t a i n i n g
a n i d e m p o t e n t e w i t h A 0 0 ( e ) = 0 (ii.ii), a n d a l s o u n d e r v a r i o u s c h a i n c o n d i -
tions (11.16, 1 1 . 1 8 ) . F i n a l l y , w c o n t a i n s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s e m i s i m p l e
J o r d a n p a i r s w i t h d c c a n d a c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s (12.12), b a s e d o n t h e
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s as e x p l a i n e d above.
In C h a p t e r IV (w167 - 17) w e c o n s i d e r f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r
a field. A f t e r i n t r o d u c i n g u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a s in w ( w h i c h p r o p e r l y
b e l o n g s to w ) t h e m a i n r e s u l t of w is t h a t t h e r a d i c a l o f a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l
J o r d a n p a i r is n i l p o t e n t (14.11). It is a n o u t s t a n d i n g p r o b l e m to e x t e n d t h i s r e -
sult to J o r d a n p a i r s w i t h c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s o n i n n e r ideals. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e
s e e m s to b e l i t t l e h o p e to g e n e r a l i z e the p r e s e n t p r o o f s i n c e it u s e s t h e f i n i t e -
d i m e n s i o n a l i t y of t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p e a n d E n g e l ' s t h e o r e m (14.9). In w w e
s t u d y C a r t a n s u b p a i r s of J o r d a n p a i r s . T h e y a r e d e f i n e d as a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t
s u b p a i r s w h i c h a r e e q u a l to t h e i r o w n n o r m a l i z e r s . U s i n g t e c h n i q u e s s i m i l a r to
t h o s e in t h e t h e o r y of C a r t a n s u b g r o u p s of a l g e b r a i c g r o u p s , w e s h o w that a n y
f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r c o n t a i n s C a r t a n s u b p a i r s (15.20), a n d that a n y two
C a f t a n s u b p a i r s a r e c o n j u g a t e b y a n i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m , p r o v i d e d t h e b a s e f i e l d
is a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d (15.17). T h e p r o o f s d e p e n d o n t h e fact t h a t t h e o r b i t o f
a C a r t a n s u b p a i r u n d e r t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p is d e n s e in t h e Z a r i s k i t o p o -
l o g y (15.15). T h i s a l s o a l l o w s us to c o m p u t e t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l of a
J o r d a n p a i r b y i t s r e s t r i c t i o n to a C a r t a n s u b p a i r (16.15). T h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m
xi
polynomial is defined as the exact denominator of a suitable rational map (essen-
tially the quasi-inverse, cf. 16.2). In contrast to the case of Jordan algebras,
the degree of the generic minimum polynomial of a Jordan pair V does in general
not coincide with the degree of V . This is the case, however, if V contains
invertible elements or is separable. The generic trace of a separable Jordan pair
may be degenerate in characteristic two, a phenomenon familiar from the theory of
quadratic Jordan algebras. The generic norm, however, defined as the exact deno-
minator of the quasi-inverse, is always non-degenerate in a certain sense (16.13).
Finally, in ~17, we work out the classification of simple finite-dimensional Jor-
dan pairs over algebraically closed fields, using the results of w It turns
out that such a Jordan pair is uniquely determined by three numerical invariants,
dimension, rank, and genus, and also that the classification is independent of
the characteristic of the base field (17.12).
In the Notes at the end of each chapter I have tried to make some histori-
cal cormnents, give credit where it is due, and also point out some open problems.
I apologize in advance for any omissions or inaccuracies. In order to keep the
text at a reasonable length, I have assumed as known the theory of quadratic
Jordan algebras, to the extent of N. Jacobson's Tata Lecture Notes. In particular,
the classification of semisimple unital Jordan algebras with dcc on principal
inner ideals is not reproduced here from the Jordan pair point of view.
Most of the material was presented in a seminar at the University of
British Columbia during the academic year 1973/74, and I wish to thank C.T. Ander-
son and M. Slater for their patience as my audience, and for many valuable re-
marks and suggestions. I am also indebted to E. Goodaire for proofreading the
manuscript.
Vancouver, Summer 1974
O. Loos
T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S
I n t r o d u c t i o n
N o t a t i o n s and c o n v e n t i o n s
I. J O R D A N P A I R S
w I. D e f i n i t i o n s a n d r e l a t i o n s w i t h J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d t r i p l e s y s t e m s
w 2. I d e n t i t i e s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w 3. T h e q u a s i - i n v e r s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w 4. R a d i c a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w 5. P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N o t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. A L T E R N A T I V E P A I R S
w 6. B a s i c p r o p e r t i e s and r e l a t i o n s w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s . . . .
w 7. T h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r . . . . . .
w 8. I m b e d d i n g i n t o J o r d a n p a i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w 9. P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N o t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. A L T E R N A T I V E A N D J O R D A N P A I R S W I T H C H A I N C O N D I T I O N S
w I n n e r i d e a l s a n d c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of J o r d a n p a i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N o t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
x i v
i
12
22
30
42
55
57
68
74
92
i01
103
115
131
139
x i i i
IV. F I N I T E - D I M E N S I O N A L J O R D A N P A I R S
w U n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w S o l v a b i l i t y a n d n i l p o t e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w C a r t a n s u b p a i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w T h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w S i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w A p p e n d i x : P o l y n o m i a l and r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . .
N o t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141
1 5 0
160
176
191
202
212
B i b l i o g r a p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
N O T A T I O N S A N D C O N V E N T I O N S
0.i. ~ is the r i n g of i n t e g e r s and ~ d e n o t e s the set of n o n - n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r s .
T h e u n s p e c i f i e d t e r m " r i n g " or " a l g e b r a " a l w a y s m e a n s an a s s o c i a t i v e (but not n e -
c e s s a r i l y u n i t a l or c o m m u t a t i v e ) r i n g or a l g e b r a . T h e c o m m u t a t o r of two e l e m e n t s
a a n d b of a r i n g is d e n o t e d b y [a,b] = ab - b a . F i e l d s a r e a l w a y s c o m m u t a -
tive. J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a r e a l w a y s q u a d r a t i c (but n o t n e c e s s a r i l y u n i t a l ) J o r d a n
a l g e b r a s in the s e n s e of M c C r i m m o n .
0.2. T h r o u g h o u t , k d e n o t e s a c o m m u t a t i v e u n i t a l r i n g o f s c a l a r s . B y a n e x t e n -
s i o n of k w e m e a n a c o m m u t a t i v e u n i t a l k - a l g e b r a . If K is a n e x t e n s i o n of k
t h e n the n a t u r a l h o m o m o r p h i s m k - > K , a ~ - > a . l , n e e d n o t b e i n j e c t i v e (e.g., k
= ~ a n d K = Z_~p~ ). A n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d of k is a n e x t e n s i o n w h i c h is a field.
T h e c a t e g o r y o f c o m m u t a t i v e u n i t a l k - a l g e b r a s is d e n o t e d b y k - a l $ . T h e s y m b o l
T u s u a l l y s t a n d s for a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e . T h u s k[T] is the p o l y n o m i a l a l g e b r a in
o n e v a r i a b l e o v e r k . T h e t r u n c a t e d p o l y n o m i a l r i n g s k [ T ] / ( T n) a r e d e n o t e d b y
k(c), E n = 0 . F o r n = 2 t h i s is t h e a l g e b r a of d u a l n u m b e r s o v e r k .
0.3. A l l k - m o d u l e s a r e u n i t a l . T h e s y m b o l ~ s t a n d s f o r % . If V is a k -
m o d u l e a n d R is a n e x t e n s i o n of k t h e n t h e R - m o d u l e
V R = V|
is c a l l e d t h e m o d u l e o b t a i n e d f r o m V b y e x t e n d i n g t h e s c a l a r s to R , or s i m p l y
x v
a s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n of V . T h e i m a g e of a n e l e m e n t x of V u n d e r the m a p x
x ~ l f r o m V into V R is a l s o d e n o t e d b y x R or e v e n s i m p l y b y x , a l t h o u g h
this m a p is in g e n e r a l n o t i n j e c t i v e .
Let k' k b e a h o m o m o r p h i s m of c o m m u t a t i v e r i n g s w i t h u n i t y . T h e n t h e
k - m o d u l e V , c o n s i d e r e d as a m o d u l e o v e r k' is c a l l e d t h e m o d u l e o b t a i n e d
f r o m V b y r e s t r i c t i n g t h e s c a l a r s to k' , a n d is d e n o t e d b y k , V . In p a r t i c u -
lar, Z V is j u s t the u n d e r l y i n g a b e l i a n g r o u p of V .
If V a n d W a r e k - m o d u l e s t h e n H O m k ( V , W ) or s i m p l y H o m ( V , W ) is
the k - m o d u l e of k - l i n e a r m a p s f r o m V to W . A l s o , End(V) = H o m ( V , V ) is the
k - a l g e b r a o f k - l i n e a r e n d o m o r p h i s m s of V , a n d GL(V) is t h e g r o u p of i n v e r t i -
b l e e l e m e n t s of E n d ( V ) .
0.4. A m a p Q: V W b e t w e e n k - m o d u l e s is c a l l e d q u a d r a t i c if
f o r all % C k , and if
Q(x,y) = Q ( x + y ) - Q(x) - Q(y)
is a b i l i n e a r m a p f r o m V V i n t o W . For e v e r y e x t e n s i o n R
a u n i q u e q u a d r a t i c m a p QR: VR W R s u c h that Q R ( X R ) = Q(x) R
for a p r o o f ) . U s u a l l y , w e s i m p l y w r i t e Q i n s t e a d of
f r o m V into k is c a l l e d a q u a d r a t i c form. W e say
q(x) = q ( x , y ) = 0 for a l l y i m p l i e s x = 0 .
Q ( ~ x ) = ~ 2 Q ( x )
of k t h e r e is
(see J a c o b s o n [ 3 ]
Q R " A q u a d r a t i c m a p q
q is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e if
0.5. Let R b e a n o n - a s s o c i a t i v e (i.e., not n e c e s s a r i l y a s s o c i a t i v e ) k - a l g e b r a
W e d e n o t e b y R ~ t h e o p p o s i t e a l g e b r a , h a v i n g t h e s a m e u n d e r l y i n g k - m o d u l e and
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a'b = b a . T h e i d e n t i t y m a p s R R ~ a n d R ~ R a r e a n t i i s o -
m o r p h i s m s , u s u a l l y w r i t t e n a ~ a .
T h e set of p q m a t r i c e s w i t h e n t r i e s in R is d e n o t e d b y M p , q ( R ) .
x v i
I n s t e a d o f M p , p ( R ) w e s i m p l y w r i t e M p ( R ) . T h e t r a n s p o s e o f a m a t r i x x i n
M p , q ( R ) i s d e n o t e d b y t t ~ x ; it b e l o n g s t o M q , p ( R ) . W e d e n o t e b y x * = t h e
t r a n s p o s e w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s i n R ~ s o t h a t x * C M q , p ( R ~ . T h e n w e h a v e
( x * ) * = x a n d ( x y ) * = y ' x * .
( N o t e t h a t t ~ x y ) # t t x = x * ).
y x u n l e s s R i s c o m m u t a t i v e , a n d t h e n t
t
0 . 6 . A m a t r i x x = ( x i j ) C M n ( R ) i s c a l l e d a l t e r n a t i n g if x = - x a n d x i i
= 0 . T h e s e t o f a l t e r n a t i n g m a t r i c e s i n M (R) i s d e n o t e d b y A n ( R ) .
n
A s s u m e t h a t R i s a l t e r n a t i v e w i t h u n i t y , a n d t h a t i t h a s a n i n v o l u t i -
o n ; i . e . , a n a n t i a u t o m o r p h i s m o f p e r i o d 2 . If R 0 i s a n a m p l e s u b s p a c e o f R
(cf. J a c o b s o n [ 3 ] ) t h e n w e d e n o t e b y H n ( R , R 0) t h e s e t o f h e r m i t i a n m a t r i c e s i n
M n ( R ) w i t h d i a g o n a l e n t r i e s i n R 0 . I f n _~ 3 o r R i s a s s o c i a t i v e t h i s i s a
u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a .
0 . 7 . T h e n o t a t i o n a . b . c r e f e r s t o f o r m u l a (c) i n s e c t i o n a . b .
I . i
C H A P T E R I
J O R D A N P A I R S
w D e f i n i t i o n s a n d r e l a t i o n s w i t h J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d t r i p l e s y s t e m s
i . i . L e t V + a n d V - b e k - m o d u l e s , a n d l e t
V ~ Q o : H ~ 1 7 6 1 7 6
b e q u a d r a t i c m a p s ( h e r e a n d i n t h e s e q u e l , t h e i n d e x
+ a n d - ). W e d e f i n e t r i l i n e a r m a p s V ~ V - ~ V ~ V a ,
b i l i n e a r m a p s D : V ~ V - ~ E n d ( V a) , b y t h e f o r m u l a s
( 1 )
w h e r e Q o ( x , z ) = Q o
= { z y x } a n d
( 2 )
a l w a y s t a k e s t h e v a l u e s
( x , y , z ) ~ { x y z } , a n d
{ x y z } = D ( x , y ) z o = Q o ( x ' z ) y
( x + z ) - Q o ( x ) - Q o ( z ) ( c f . 0 . 4 ) . O b v i o u s l y , w e h a v e
{ x y x } = 2 Q o ( x ) y .
{ x y z }
1 . 2 . D E F I N I T I O N . A J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k i s a p a i r V = ( V + , V - ) o f k - m o d u l e s t o -
g e t h e r w i t h a p a i r ( Q + , Q _ ) o f q u a d r a t i c m a p s Q o : V ~ H ~ 1 7 6 s u c h t h a t ,
w i t h t h e n o t a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d a b o v e , t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t i e s h o l d i n a l l s c a l a r
2 1 . 2
e x t e n s i o n s V R of V :
J P I D o ( x , y ) Q o ( x ) = Q o ( x ) D - o (y'x) ,
J P 2 D (Qo(x)y,y) = D ( x , Q _ o ( y ) x ) ,
J F 3 Q o ( Q o ( x ) Y ) = Q o ( x ) Q - o ( Y ) Q o ( x ) 9
T h e v a l i d i t y of J P I - J P 3 i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s is e q u i v a l e n t w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n
t h a t a l l l i n e a r i z a t i o n s o f J P I - J P 3 h o l d i n V . F o r a n i d e n t i t y l i k e J P 2 w h i c h is
o f d e g r e e at m o s t two i n e a c h v a r i a b l e t h i s is a u t o m a t i c . F o r J P I it s u f f i c e s to
k n o w t h e v a l i d i t y for R = k(~) = k [ T ] / ( T 2 ) , t h e d u a l n u m b e r s , a n d f o r J P 3 s i m i l a r l y
R = k [ T ] / ( T 3) is s u f f i c i e n t . In a n y case, if J P I - J P 3 h o l d f o r a l l e x t e n s i o n s R
of k w h i c h a r e f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d a n d f r e e as k - m o d u l e s t h e n t h e y h o l d in a r b i -
t r a r y s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s . - F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n it is o b v i o u s t h a t V K is a J o r d a n
p a i r o v e r K , f o r e v e r y e x t e n s i o n K o f k . A l s o , if k' k is a r i n g h o m o m o r -
p h i s m t h e n k , V (cf. 0.3) is a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k' .
1.3. A h o m o m o r p h i s m h: V W of J o r d a n p a i r s is a p a i r h = (h+,h_) of k - l i n e a r
m a p s h : V ~ + W O s u c h that
o
(i) h o ( Q o ( x ) y ) = Q o ( h (x))h_o(y) ,
f o r a l l x ~ V O, y ~ V-~ ~ = B y l i n e a r i z a t i o n , t h i s i m p l i e s
(2) h ( { x y z } ) = { h o ( x ) , h _ O ( y ) , h O ( z ) } .
I s o m o r p h i s m s a n d a u t o m o r p h i s m s a r e d e f i n e d i n t h e o b v i o u s w a y . J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r k
f o r m a c a t e g o r y , d e n o t e d b y ~ . A p a i r U = (U+,U -) of s u b m o d u l e s of a J o r d a n
p a i r V is c a l l e d a s u b p a i r (resp. a n ideal) if Q o ( U ~ U O (resp. Q o ( U ~ - ~
+ Q o ( V ~ - ~ + { V ~ 0 } c U ~ If U is a n i d e a l t h e n V / U = ( V + / U + , V / U ) is a
J o r d a n p a i r i n t h e o b v i o u s way. W e s a y V is s i m p l e if it h a s o n l y t h e t r i v i a l
1 . 4
i d e a l s V a n d 0 a n d i f Q + a n d Q _ a r e n o t z e r o . A n o u t e r i d e a l i s a s u b p a i r
U s a t i s f y i n g Q o ( V ~ - ~ + { V ~ , V - o , U O } ~ U ~ . I f 1 / 2 G k t h e n a n o u t e r i d e a l i s
a n i d e a l , i n v i e w o f 1 . 1 . 2 .
1 . 4 . L e t A u t ( V ) d e n o t e t h e g r o u p o f a u t o m o r p h i s m s o f a J o r d a n p a i r V . C l e a r l y ,
t h i s i s a s u b g r o u p o f G L ( V + ) G L ( V - ) . N o t e t h a t w e h a v e a h o m o m o r p h i s m f r o m t h e
g r o u p k * o f i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s o f k i n t o t h e c e n t e r o f A u t ( V ) g i v e n b y
t ~ ( t . l d + , t - l . l d ) .
V V -
L e t k ( e ) b e t h e a l g e b r a o f d u a l n u m b e r s . A p a i r A = ( A + , A _ ) G E n d ( V + )
E n d ( V - ) i s c a l l e d a d e r i v a t i o n o f V i f I d + e g i s a n a u t o m o r p h i s m o f V k ( E ) .
A s i m p l e c o m p u t a t i o n s h o w s t h a t t h i s i s t h e c a s e i f a n d o n l y i f
(i) A ( Q o ( x ) y ) = { h ~ x ) , y , x } + Q o ( x ) A _ ~ ( y ) ,
f o r a l l x G V ~ , y G V - ~ . T h e d e r i v a t i o n s o f V f o r m a L i e s u b a l g e b r a o f
E n d ( V - ) , d e n o t e d b y D e r ( V ) .
E n d ( V + )
1 . 5 . T h e o p p o s i t e V ~ o f a J o r d a n p a i r V i s t h e J o r d a n p a i r
q u a d r a t i c m a p s ( Q _ , Q + ) . B y a n a n t i h o m o m o r p h i s m f r o m V t o W
p h i s m n : V ~ 9 T h u s N o : V ~ - ~ s a t i s f i e s
(i) n o Q (x) = Q _ ( ~ ( x ) ) ~ _ ~ .
A n a n t i a u t o m o r p h i s m n o f V i s c a l l e d a n i n v o l u t i o n i f
o n V ~ . T h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t o f t w o J o r d a n p a i r s V a n d W
V - x W - ) w i t h e o m p o n e n t w i s e o p e r a t i o n s . I n V x V ~ = (V + x V , V
h a v e t h e e x c h a n s e i n v o l u t i o n g i v e n b y ( x , y ) ~ ( y , x ) .
( V - , V + ) w i t h
w e m e a n a h o m o m o r -
n _ ~ ~ i s t h e i d e n t i t y
i s V W = ( V + W + ,
- - V + ) w e
4 1 . 6
1 . 6 . T h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a J o r d a n a l g e b r a . L e t J b e a q u a d r a t i c J o r d a n
a l g e b r a o v e r k ; i . e . , J i s a k - m o d u l e w i t h q u a d r a t i c m a p s U : J E n d ( J ) a n d
2 j J ( s q u a r i n g ) s a t i s f y i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t i e S i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s :
2
(i) V x , x Y = x Q y ,
(2) U x ( X = y ) = X O U x Y ,
(3) U x 2 = ( x 2 ) 2 ,
X
(4) U x U y X 2 = ( U x Y ) 2 ,
= U 2
(5) U 2 x '
X
(6) U U x Y = U x U U
y x
H e r e x = y = ( x + y ) 2 _ x 2 2
[ 6 ] ) . T h e n ( J , J ) i s a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k w i t h q u a d r a t i c m a p s
I n d e e d , J P 3 i s ( 6 ) , a n d i t i s w e l l k n o w n t h a t t h e i d e n t i t i e s
- y a n d V z
x , y = U x , z Y = U x + z Y - U x Y U z y ( c f . M c C r i m m o n
Q o ( x ) = u x .
(7) V U = U V ,
x , y x x y , x
=
(8) V U x y , y V x , U y x
h o l d i n a n y q u a d r a t i c J o r d a n a l g e b r a w h i c h p r o v e s J P I a n d J P 2 . W e c a l l ( 7 , 7 ) t h e
J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a J .
A h o m o m o r p h i s m f : J + J ' o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s i n d u c e s a h o m o m o r p h i s m ( f , f ) :
( 7 , 7 ) ( 7 ' , 7 ' ) o f J o r d a n p a i r s . A l s o n o t e t h a t ( 7 , 7 ) = ( V + , V - ) h a s a n a t u r a l
i n v o l u t i o n ~ g i v e n b y t h e i d e n t i t y m a p s I d : V ~ V - ~ . I f K i s a n i d e a l o f J
t h e n o b v i o u s l y ( K , K ) i s a n i d e a l o f ( 7 , 7 ) . C o n v e r s e l y , i f J i s u n i t a l a n d
( K + , K - ) i s a n i d e a l o f ( 7 , 7 ) t h e n ~ K + = K - i s a n i d e a l o f J . I n d e e d ,
K ~ U I K O C f - o , a n d i t f o l l o w s e a s i l y t h a t K + i s a n i d e a l o f J . T h e r e f o r e ,
i f J i s u n i t a l t h e n J i s s i m p l e i f a n d o n l y i f ( 7 , 7 ) i s s i m p l e .
1 . 7
1.7. L e t J b e a J o r d a n a l g e b r a , a n d l e t v G J . R e c a l l t h a t t h e v - h o m o t o p e of
J is t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a j(v) h a v i n g t h e s a m e u n d e r l y i n g k - m o d u l e a s J , b u t
s q u a r i n g a n d q u a d r a t i c o p e r a t o r s g i v e n b y
( i ) x ( 2 ' v ) = u v ,
x
( 2 ) u ( v ) = u u
x x v
If J is u n i t a l a n d v i s i n v e r t i b l e t h e n j(v) is c a l l e d a n i s o t o p e of J . In
t h i s case, v -I is t h e u n i t e l e m e n t of j(v) . A n i s o t o p y g: J + J' b e t w e e n
u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a s is a n i s o m o r p h i s m f r o m J o n t o a n i s o t o p e of J' . S i n c e
g(1) m u s t b e t h e u n i t e l e m e n t of t h i s i s o t o p e , t h i s m e a n s that g is a n i s o -
m o r p h i s m f r o m J o n t o j,(v) w h e r e v = g(1) -I. T h e s e t of a u t o t o p i e s of J
Str(J) of J . C l e a r l y g G GL(J) b e l o n g s to is a group, t h e s t r u c t u r e $ r o u p
t h e s t r u c t u r e g r o u p if a n d o n l y if
(3) U g ( x ) = g U x g # ,
f o r a l l x G J , w h e r e g# = g - l U g ( 1 ) .
1.8. P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t J a n d J' b e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l s e b r a s w i t h a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n
-I
p a i r s V a n d V' . T h e n t h e m a p g ~-~(g,Ug(1).g) is a b i j e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e set
of i s o t o p i e s f r o m J t__oo J' a n d t h e s e t of i s o m o r p h i s m s f r o m V t o V' . I n p a r -
t i c u l a r , V is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h V' if a n d o n l y if J is i s o t o p i c w i t h J' , a n d
t h e s t r u c t u r e s r o u p o f J is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m $ r o u p of V .
L e t h + = g: J - > J' b e a n i s o t o p i s m , l e t v = g(1) - I - - , a n d l e t h _ = U v "g: Proof.
J -~ J' . T h e n h = (h+,h_) : V--~ V' is a n i s o m o r p h i s m : indeed, h + ( Q + ( x ) y ) =
. ( v )
h + ( U x Y ) = U g ( x ) . g ( y ) = U g ( x ) U v . g ( y ) = Q + ( h + ( x ) ) h _ ( y ) , a n d h _ ( Q _ ( y ) x ) = h _ ( U y X )
1 . 9
= U v g ( U y X ) = U v U g ( y ) U v g ( X ) = U ( U v g ( y ) ) . g ( x ) = Q _ ( h _ ( y ) ) h + ( x ) . C o n v e r s e l y , i f
( h + , h _ ) i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n V a n d V' t h e n h + ( U x Y ) = h + ( U x U l Y )
= U h + ( x ) . U h _ ( 1 ) . h + ( y ) , a n d h e n c e h + i s a n i s o t o p i s m f r o m J t o J ' . I t i s
e a s i l y v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e t w o c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e i n v e r s e s o f e a c h o t h e r .
1 . 9 . T h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a s V + . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r , a n d l e t
v
k - m o d u l e V + w e d e f i n e a s q u a r i n g a n d q u a d r a t i c o p e r a t o r s b y
v G V - . O n t h e
2
( i ) x = x ( 2 , v ) = Q + ( x ) v ,
(2) g U (v)
x = x = Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) .
W i t h t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s , V + b e c o m e s a J o r d a n a l g e b r a w h i c h w i l l b e d e n o t e d b y
I n d e e d , b y d e f i n i t i o n w e h a v e x o y = { x v y } , a n d h e n c e
V x , x Y = { x , Q _ ( v ) x , y } = { Q + ( x ) v , v , y } = x 2 o y , b y J P 2 . A l s o , U x ( x O y )
= Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) ~ x v y } = Q + ( x ) { v , x , Q _ ( v ) y } = { x , v , Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) y } = X O U x Y b y J P I , a n d
U x . X 2 = Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) Q + ( x ) v = Q + ( Q + ( x ) v ) v = ( x 2 ) 2
f o l l o w f r o m J P 3 .
v +
V
b y J P 3 . S i m i l a r l y , (4) - (6) o f 1 . 6
I f h : V W i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m o f J o r d a n p a i r s t h e n i t i s r e a d i l y c h e c k e d
t h a t
(3) h + : V + +
v W h ( v )
i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s . A l s o , w e h a v e t h e f o r m u l a
(4) ( v $ ) (u) +
= V Q _ ( v ) u
f o r a l l u G V + . F i n a l l y , b y p a s s i n g t o t h e o p p o s i t e J o r d a n p a i r w e c a n a n a l o g o u s l y
d e f i n e J o r d a n a l g e b r a s V - f o r e v e r y w ~ V + .
W
i . i 0
i . i 0 . I n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s i n J o r d a n p a i r s . L e t V
u G V ~ i s c a l l e d i n v e r t i b l e i f Q o ( u ) : V - ~ V O
d e f i n e t h e i n v e r s e u - I G V - ~ b y
(1) u - 1 = Q o ( u ) - l ( u ) 9
F r o m J P 3 i t f o l l o w s e a s i l y t h a t
(2) Q o ( u ) - I = Q _ o ( u - I )
a n d a l s o
(3) ( u - l ) - I = u .
b e a J o r d a n p a i r . A n e l e m e n t
i s i n v e r t i b l e . I n t h i s c a s e , w e
I n g e n e r a l , a J o r d a n p a i r w i l l c o n t a i n n o i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s .
W e s a y V i s a J o r d a n d i v i s i o n p a i r i f V # 0 a n d i f e v e r y n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t
o f V i s i n v e r t i b l e . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , V i s c a l l e d l o c a l i f t h e n o n - i n v e r t i b l e
e l e m e n t s o f V f o r m a p r o p e r i d e a l , s a y N . T h e n V / N i s a d i v i s i o n p a i r .
I f J i s a u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a t h e n i n v e r t i b i l i t y i n J a n d i n t h e
a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r ( 7 , 7 ) a r e o b v i o u s l y e q u i v a l e n t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , J i s
l o c a l ( r e s p . a d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a ) i f a n d o n l y i f ( 7 , 7 ) i s l o c a l ( r e s p . a d i v i s i o n
p a i r ) .
i . i i . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r ~ l e t v G V - b e i n v e r t i b l e ~ a n d l e t
v - I V + = V + J ,
u = ~ . T h e n t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a s J v a n d = V-u a r e u n i t a l w i t h
u n i t e l e m e n t s u a n d v , r e s p e c t i v e l y ~ a n d Q _ ( u ) : J + J ' i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m w i t h
i n v e r s e Q + ( u ) : J ' J . M o r e o v e r , t h e m a p
( I d j , Q _ ( v ) ) : ( J , J ) ( V + , V - )
i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m o f J o r d a n p a i r s .
8 1 . 1 2
P r o o f . I n J w e h a v e U u = Q + ( u ) Q _ ( v ) = I d a n d U x ( U ) = Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) = Q + ( x ) v
2
= x b y i . i 0 , p r o v i n g t h a t u i s t h e u n i t e l e m e n t o f J . S i m i l a r l y , o n e s h o w s
t h a t v i s t h e u n i t e l e m e n t o f J ' . N o w Q _ ( v ) ( U x Y ) = Q _ ( v ) Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) y
= Q ( Q ( v ) x ) y = Q _ ( Q _ ( v ) x ) Q + ( u ) Q _ ( v ) y = U Q _ ( v ) x . ( Q _ ( v ) y ) s h o w s t h a t Q _ ( v ) : J + J '
i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m w h o s e i n v e r s e i s Q + ( u ) b y i . i 0 . F i n a l l y , I d ( U x Y ) = Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) y
a n d Q _ ( V ) U x Y = Q _ ( v ) Q + ( x ) Q _ ( v ) y = Q ( Q ( v ) x ) y , a n d h e n c e ( I d , Q _ ( v ) ) i s a n i s o -
m o r p h i s m .
1 . 1 2 . C O R O L L A R Y . T h e m a p J ( J , J ) i n d u c e s a b i j e c t i o n b e t w e e n i s o t o p i s m c l a s s e s
o f u n i t a l J o r d a n a l s e b r a s a n d i s o m o r p h i s m c l a s s e s o f J o r d a n p a i r s c o n t a i n i n g
i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s . T h e i n v e r s e m a p i s i n d u c e d b y V V + w h e r e v i s a n y i n v e r -
v
t i b l e e l e m e n t o f V -
T h i s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m 1 . 8 a n d i . i i .
1 . 1 3 . J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s a n d J o r d a n p a i r s w i t h i n v o l u t i o n . L e t T b e a J o r d a n
t r i p l e s y s t e m o v e r k , i . e . , T i s a k - m o d u l e w i t h a q u a d r a t i c m a p p : T
E n d ( T ) s u c h t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t i e s h o l d i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s :
( 1 )
( 2 )
( 3 )
L ( x , y ) P ( x ) = P ( x ) L ( y , x ) ,
L ( P ( x ) y , y ) = L ( x , P ( y ) x ) ,
P ( P ( x ) y ) = P ( x ) P ( y ) P ( x ) ,
w h e r e L ( x , y ) z = P ( x , z ) y = P ( x + z ) y - P ( x ) y - P ( z ) y ( c f . M e y b e r g [ 6 ] ) . A k - l i n e a r
m a p f b e t w e e n J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s T a n d T ' i s c a l l e d a h o m o m o r p h i s m i f
f ( P ( x ) y ) = P ( f ( x ) ) f ( y ) . C l e a r l y , e v e r y J o r d a n a l g e b r a c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a
J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s i m p l y b y " f o r g e t t i n g " t h e s q u a r i n g o p e r a t i o n a n d s e t t i n g
1.14 9
P(x) = U . From the definitions it also obvious that every Jordan triple system T
x
gives rise to a Jordan pair ( V + , V - ) = ( T , T ) with quadratic maps Q~(x) = P(x) ,
and that the identity map Id: V + ~ V- defines a canonical involution K of ( T , T ) .
Conversely, let V
module, and define
( 4 )
Then one checks readily that
be a Jordan pair with involution
P: T End(T) by
, let T = V + as a k-
P(x) = Q+(x) n+ 9
T is a Jordan triple system, that the map (Id,~+):
( T , T ) + ( V + , V - ) is an isomorphism of Jordan pairs, and that the canonical invo-
lution m of ( T , T ) corresponds to the given involution n 9 If f:T T' is a
homomorphism of Jordan triple systems then (f,f): ( T , T ) (T',T') is a homomor-
phism of Jordan pairs, commuting with the involutions ~ and K' . Conversely, if
h:(V,n) (V',~') is a homomorphism of Jordan pairs with involution (i.e.,
a homomorphism commuting with the involutions) then h+: V + + V '+ is a homomor-
phism of Jordan triple systems, where the Jordan triple structure is as in (4).
Thus we see that the category of Jordan triple systems is equivalent with the cate-
gory of Jordan pairs with involution.
1.14. Polarized Jordan triple systems. It is possible to imbed conversely the cate-
gory of Jordan pairs into the category of Jordan triple systems as follows. Let V
be a Jordan pair over k , and let n be the exchange involution in V V ~
(cf. 1.5). By 1.13, T = V + V- is a Jordan triple system with
(i) P(x)y = (Q+ (x+)y_, Q_ (x_)y+)
where x = (x+,x_) and y = (y+,y_) in T . Thus if we write the elements of T
as column vectors then we may identify P(x) with the 2 2-matrix
i0 1 . 1 5
a n d L ( x , y ) w i t h
Q _ (x_) 0 D _ ( x _ , y
M o r e o v e r , T = T + + T - w h e r e T + = V + 0 a n d T - = 0 V- , a n d b y (i) w e h a v e
( 2 ) P ( T ~ ~ = 0 , P ( T ~ T ~
T h i s l e a d s to t h e f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n : a p o l a r i z e d J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m is a J o r d a n
t r i p l e s y s t e m T w i t h a d i r e c t s u m d e c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o s u b m o d u l e s T = T + + T -
s u c h that (2) h o l d s . A h o m o m o r p h i s m of p o l a r i z e d J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s T a n d U
is a h o m o m o r p h i s m f r e s p e c t i n g t h e " p o l a r i z a t i o n " ~ i.e., s u c h t h a t f ( / ~ .
T h e n ( T + , T - ) is a J o r d a n p a i r w i t h Qo(x) = P(x) I T - O , a n d w e h a v e a n e q u i v a l e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e c a t e g o r y of J o r d a n p a i r s a n d t h e c a t e g o r y of p o l a r i z e d J o r d a n t r i p l e
s y s t e m s .
1.15. T h e c e n t r o i d Z(V) of a J o r d a n p a i r V o v e r k is d e f i n e d a s t h e s e t of
a l l a = (a+,a_) @ E n d ( V + ) x E n d ( V - ) s u c h that
(i) a Q o ( x ) = Q o ( x ) a _ o ,
(2) a o D o ( x , y ) = D o ( x , y ) a O ,
(3) Q o ( a o ( x ) ) = a ~ Q o ( x ) ,
+
f o r a l l x , y 6 V- . C l e a r l y , if I 6 k t h e n (lid ,lid ) b e l o n g s to Z(V) . W e s a y
V is c e n t r a l if e v e r y e l e m e n t o f Z(V) is of t h i s form. If V = (7,7) is t h e
J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a J o r d a n a l g e b r a J a n d if s is i n t h e e e n t r o i d o f J
(cf. M c C r i m m o n [ 3 ] ) t h e n (s,s) is i n t h e c e n t r o i d of V , a n d t h e c e n t r o i d s of J
a n d ( 7 , 7 ) m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d i n c a s e J is u n i t a l .
W e c o n s i d e r E n d ( V + ) E n d ( V - ) as a n a l g e b r a o v e r k w i t h c o m p o n e n t w i s e
o p e r a t i o n s . I n g e n e r a l , Z(V) w i l l b e n e i t h e r c o m m u t a t i v e n o r e v e n a s u b a l g e b r a . If
1 . 1 6 i i
i t i s , h o w e v e r , t h e n w e c a n c o n s i d e r V a s a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r Z ( V ) .
1 . 1 6 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t a , b G Z ( V ) . T h e n a b a G Z ( V ) , a n d [ a ~ , b o ] Q o ( x ) = 0 , f o r
a l l x ~ V O , a n d t h e i m a g e I o f [ a , b ] ( i . e . , I = ( [ a + , b + ] V + , [ a , b ] V - ) ) i s a
t r i v i a l i d e a l o f V . M o r e o v e r , a + b ~ Z ( V ) i f a n d o n l y i f [ a , b o ] Q o ( x ) = 0 , a n d
a b G Z ( V ) i f a n d o n l y i f a o [ a , b o ] b o Q o ( x ) = 0 , f o r a l l x G V ~ .
P r o o f . T o s h o w t h a t a b e ~ Z ( V ) i t s u f f i c e s t o v e r i f y 1 . 1 5 . 3 s i n c e (i) a n d (2)
o f 1 . 1 5 a r e l i n e a r i n a a n d h e n c e a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y s a t i s f i e d . N o w w e h a v e , d r o p p i n g
s u b s c r i p t s o f o r e a s i e r n o t a t i o n :
( a b a ) 2 Q ( x ) = a b a 2 b a Q ( x ) = a b a 2 Q ( x ) b a = a b Q ( a x ) b a = a b 2 Q ( a x ) a = a Q ( b a x ) a
= a 2 Q ( b a x ) = Q ( a b a x ) .
S i m i l a r l y , a 2 b Q ( x ) = a 2 Q ( x ) b = Q ( a x ) b = q Q ( a x ) = b a 2 Q ( x ) , a n d h e n c e
Q ( [ a , b ] x ) = Q ( a b x ) - Q ( a b x , b a x ) + Q ( b a x ) = a 2 Q ( b x ) - a Q ( b x , a x ) + b 2 Q ( a x )
= a 2 b 2 Q ( x ) - a 2 Q ( x , x ) b 2 + b 2 a 2 Q ( x ) = ( a 2 b 2 _ 2 a 2 b 2 + b 2 a 2 ) ( Q ( x )
= [ b ~ a 2 ] Q ( x ) = 0 ,
w h i c h p r o v e s Q o ( l ~ = 0 . F r o m (i) a n d (2) o f 1 . 1 5 i t i s c l e a r t h a t I
i d e a l , a n d h e n c e i t f o l l o w s t h a t I i s a t r i v i a l i d e a l o f V . F i n a l l y ,
( r e s p .
i s a n o u t e r
a + b
a b ) b e l o n g t o t h e c e n t r o i d i f a n d o n l y i f t h e y s a t i s f y 1 . 1 5 . 3 . N o w
Q ( ( a + b ) x ) = Q ( a x ) + Q ( a x , b x ) + Q ( b x ) = a 2 Q ( x ) + a b Q ( x , x ) + b 2 Q ( x )
= ( a 2 + 2 a b + b 2 ) Q ( x ) w h e r e a s (a + b ) 2 Q ( x ) = (a 2 + a b + b a + b 2 ) Q ( x ) .
S i m i l a r l y , Q ( a b x ) - ( a b ) 2 Q ( x ) = ( a 2 b 2 - ( a b ) 2 ) Q ( x ) = a [ a , b ] b Q ( x ) . T h i s c o m -
p l e t e s t h e p r o o f .
I n s p i t e o f t h e s o m e w h a t p a t h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c e n t r o i d ( w h i c h i s
d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a n o n - l i n e a r s t r u c t u r e ) w e h a v e
12 1 . 1 7
1.17. P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) If V c o n t a i n s no t r i v i a l i d e a l s t h e n Z(V)
k - a l g e b r a .
(b) I f V is s i m p l e t h e n Z(V) is a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d of k .
is a commutative
Proof. (a) T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m 1.16.
(b) A s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r c o n t a i n s n o t r i v i a l i d e a l s a n d h e n c e Z(V) is a c o m -
m u t a t i v e k - a l g e b r a b y (a). F r o m t h e d e f i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e c e n t r o i d it is
i m m e d i a t e that t h e i m a g e a V = ( a + V + , a V -) o f e v e r y a G Z(V) is a n i d e a l of V Q
T h e r e f o r e e i t h e r a V = 0 or a V = V . A l s o , K e r ( a ) = ( K e r ( a + ) , K e r ( a _ ) ) is a n
o u t e r i d e a l of V , a n d if a V = V t h e n it is a n i d e a l s i n c e a ( Q ~ ( x ) V -~)
= a o Q ~ ( x ) a _ V-~ = a ~ Q o ( x ) V - ~ = Q (a x ) V - ~ = 0 f o r x s K e r ( a ) . B y s i m p l i c i t y
of V it f o l l o w s that Z(V) is a field.
w I d e n t i t i e s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
2.0. N o t a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n . T o s i m p l i f y n o t a t i o n , t h e i n d e x i n e x p r e s s i o n s
l i k e D (x,y) , Q~(x) , Q q ( x , z ) , etc. w i l l b e s u p p r e s s e d , a n d w e s i m p l y w r i t e
D ( x , y ) , Q(x), Q ( x , z ) , o r e v e n D x , y ' Qx' Q x , z instead. T h i s c a u s e s n o c o n f u s i o n
a s l o n g a s c a r e is t a k e n that t h e e x p r e s s i o n s m a k e sense. T h u s D ( x , y ) Q ( x ) is
a d m i s s i b l e f o r x g V u a n d y G V - q b u t e x p r e s s i o n s l i k e D ( x , x ) , Q ( x ) x , Q ( x ) D ( x , y )
a r e n o t permitted. In a n y c a s e , t h e r e a d e r w i l l f i n d it e a s y to s u p p l y t h e m i s s i n g
i n d i c e s if n e c e s s a r y .
2 . 1 1 3
2 . 1 . B a s i c i d e n t i t i e s . T h e d e f i n i n g i d e n t i t i e s o f a J o r d a n p a i r a r e ( u s i n g t h e
c o n v e n t i o n i n t r o d u c e d a b o v e )
J P I D ( x , y ) Q ( x ) = Q ( x ) D ( y , x ) o r { x , y , Q ( x ) z } = Q ( x ) { y x z } ,
J P 2 D ( Q ( x ) y , y ) = D ( x , Q ( y ) x ) o r { Q ( x ) y , y , z } = { x , Q ( y ) x , z } ,
J P 3 Q ( Q ( x ) y ) = Q ( x ) Q ( y ) Q ( x ) .
S i n c e t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e o f J P I i s s y m m e t r i c i n y a n d z s o m u s t b e t h e l e f t
h a n d s i d e . T h i s i m p l i e s
(i) { x , y , Q ( x ) z } = { x , z , Q ( x ) y } = Q ( x ) { y x z } ,
o r , i n o p e r a t o r f o r m ,
J P 4 D ( x , y ) Q ( x ) = Q ( x , Q ( x ) y ) = Q ( x ) D ( y , x ) .
L e t k ( s ) b e t h e r i n g o f d u a l n u m b e r s . If w e r e p l a c e x b y x + e u i n (i),
e x p a n d , a n d c o m p a r e t h e t e r m s w i t h e w e o b t a i n
(2) { x y { x z u } } + { u , y , Q ( x ) z } = { x z { x y u } } + { u , z , Q ( x ) y }
= { x { y x z } u } + Q ( x ) { y u z } 9
( T h i s p r o c e d u r e i s j u s t i f i e d s i n c e b y d e f i n i t i o n t h e i d e n t i t i e s r e m a i n v a l i d i n
a n y s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n , a n d f u r t h e r m o r e k ( e ) = k . l ~ k . e i s f r e e o v e r k s o
t h a t V k ( e ) = V ~ e V ). A f t e r a c h a n g e o f n o t a t i o n , t h i s c a n b e w r i t t e n i n o p e r a t o r
f o r m a s f o l l o w s :
J P 5
J P 6
Q ( x , z ) D ( y , x ) + Q ( x ) D ( y , z ) = Q ( x , { x y z } ) + Q ( z , Q ( x ) y )
= D ( x , y ) Q ( x , z ) + D ( z , y ) Q ( x ) ,
D ( x , { y x z } ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y , z ) = D ( x , z ) D ( x , y ) + D ( Q ( x ) y , z )
= D ( x , y ) D ( x , z ) + D ( Q ( x ) z , y ) .
S i m i l a r l y w e l i n e a r i z e J P 2 a n d o b t a i n
14
(3) { { x y u } y z } = { u , Q ( y ) x , z } + { x , Q ( y ) u , z } ,
(4) { x { y x u } z } = { Q ( x ) y , u , z } + { Q ( x ) u , y , z } ,
w h i c h i n o p e r a t o r f o r m b e c o m e s
J P 7 D ( { x y z } , y ) = D ( z , Q ( y ) x ) + D ( x , Q ( y ) z ) ,
JP8 D ( x , { y x z } ) = D ( Q ( x ) y , z ) + D ( Q ( x ) z , y ) ,
J P 9 D ( x , y ) D ( z , y ) = Q ( x , z ) Q ( y ) + D ( x , Q ( y ) z ) ,
J P I 0 Q ( x , z ) D ( y , x ) = Q ( Q ( x ) y , z ) + D ( z , y ) Q ( x ) .
A d d i t i o n resp. s u b t r a c t i o n of J P 5 a n d J P I 0 g i v e s
J P I I D ( x , y ) Q ( x , z ) = Q ( Q ( x ) y , z ) + Q ( x ) D ( y , z ) ,
J P I 2 D ( x , y ) Q ( z ) + Q ( z ) D ( y , x ) = Q ( z , { x y z } ) ,
a n d a d d i t i o n of J P 6 a n d J P 8 r e s u l t s i n
J P I 3 D ( x , y ) D ( x , z ) = D ( Q ( x ) y , z ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y , z ) .
V + .
W e l i n e a r i z e J P I 2 a n d a p p l y it to a n e l e m e n t v 6 .
{ x { y z v } u } + { z y { x v u } } = { x v { u y z } } + { u v { x y z } } .
z a n d c o n v e r s e l y w e h a v e
{ x y { u v z } } - { u v { x y z } } = { { x y u } v z } - { u { y x v } z } ,
C h a n g i n g x to
J P I 4
or i n o p e r a t o r form,
J P I 5 [ D ( x , y ) , D ( u , v ) ] = D ( { x y u } , v ) - D ( u , { y x v } ) .
N o t e that a l l t h e i d e n t i t i e s d e r i v e d so far a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e of JPI a n d JP2.
2.1
2.2 15
2 . 2 . P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) If V h a s n o 2 - t o r s i o n t h e n J P 3 f o l l o w s f r o m J P I a n d JP2.
(b) If V h a s n o 6 - t o r s i o n t h e n J P I - J P 3 a l l f o l l o w f r o m JPI4.
P r o o f . (a) S i n c e the l e f t h a n d s i d e of J P I 4 c h a n g e s s i g n if w e i n t e r c h a n g e (x,y)
a n d (u,v) so d o e s the r i g h t h a n d side. T h i s i m p l i e s
J P I 6 ( { x y u } v z } - { u ( y x v } z } = ( x { v u y } z } - { { u v x } y z } .
N o w w e h a v e b y J P I 4 a n d 1 . 1 . 2 :
8 Q ( Q ( x ) y ) z = { { x y x } z { x y x } } = 2 { { { x y x } z x } y x } - { x { z { x y x } y } x } .
B y J P I 6 it f o l l o w s t h a t { z { x y x } y } = 2 { y x { z x y } } - { y { x z x } y } . H e n c e
{ { x y x } z { x y x } } = 2 { { { x y x } z x } y x } - 2 { x { y x { z x y } } x } + { x { y { x z x } y } x } =
= 8 Q ( x ) Q ( y ) Q ( x ) z , s i n c e
{ { { x y x } z x } y x } = 2 D ( x , y ) D ( x , z ) Q ( x ) y = 2 Q ( x ) D ( y , x ) D ( z , x ) y = { x { y x { z x y } } x } ,
b y JPI.
(b) U s i n g J P I 4 w e h a v e
2 D ( x , y ) Q ( x ) z = { x y { x z x } } = { { x y x } z x } - { x { y x z } x } + { x z { x y x } } = 2 { x z { x y x } }
- { x { y x z } x } = 2 { { x z x } y x } - 2 { x { z x y } x } + 2 { x y { x z x } } - { x { y x z } x } = 4 { x y { x z x } }
- 3 { x { z x y } x } = g D ( x , y ) Q ( x ) z - 6 Q ( x ) D ( y , x ) z .
T h i s p r o v e s JPI, a n d J P 2 f o l l o w s f r o m J P I 5 b y s e t t i n g u = x a n d v = y. F i n a l l y ,
J P 3 h o l d s b y (a).
2.3. R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . L e t A b e a n a s s o c i a t i v e k - a l g e b r a w i t h u n i t e l e m e n t 1 ,
a n d let e e + b e a n i d e m p o t e n t of A W e set e = i e + a n d A oT A e
= . -- -- = e T
(a,T = so that A = A + + ~ A + - ~ A - + ~ A -- is t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f A
w i t h r e S p e c t to e + a n d e_ L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k . A r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
(d,q) of V in n c o n s i s t s of b i l i n e a r m a p s d : V ~ V -~ A ~ a n d q u a d r a t i c
m a p s qa: Vo A o ' - o s u c h t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t i e s h o l d i n a l l s c a l a r
e x t e n s i o n s .
1 6 2 . 4
( 1 )
( 2 )
( 3 )
( 4 )
( 5 )
( h e r e
d o ( x , y ) q o ( x ) = q o ( x ) d _ o ( y , x ) = q o ( x , Q ( x ) y )
q o ( x ) d ( y , z ) + d ( z , y ) q o ( x ) = q o ( x , { x y z } ) ,
d ( x , y ) d ( x , z ) = d S Q ( x ) y , z ) + q o ( x ) q _ o ( y , z ) ,
d ( z , x ) d ~ , x ) = d ( z , Q ( x ) y ) + q o ( y , z ) q _ o ( x ) ,
q o ( Q ( x ) y ) = q o ( x ) q _ a ( y ) q o ( x ) .
q o ( x , z ) = q o ( x + z) - q o ( x ) - q o ( Z ) ) . W e w i l l o f t e n a p p l y t h e c o n v e n t i o n s
o f 2 . 0 t o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a s w e l l a n d s i m p l y w r i t e q ( x ) , d ( x , y ) , e t c . i f t h e r e i s
n o d a n g e r o f c o n f u s i o n .
L e t M = ( M + , M - ) b e a p a i r o f k - m o d u l e s , a n d l e t E = E n d ( M + M - ) .
W e w r i t e t h e e l e m e n t s o f M + x M - a s c o l u m n v e c t o r s a n d t h e e l e m e n t s o f E a s
2 x 2 - m a t r i c e s , a n d s e t e + = a n d e _ =
0 I d
M-
If ( d , q ) i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f V i n E t h e n w e a l s o s a y t h a t M i s a
V - m o d u l e , o r t h a t ( d , q ) i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f V o n M . W i t h a n y r e p r e s e n -
t a t i o n ( d , q ) o f V i n A w e c a n a s s o c i a t e a V - m o d u l e M i n a n a t u r a l w a y b y
s e t t i n g M + = A + + ~ A + - , M - = A - + ~ A - - , a n d c o m b i n i n g t h e g i v e n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
( d , q ) w i t h t h e l e f t r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f A .
2 . 4 . T h e r e s u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f V
q + ( x ) =
0
o n i t s e l f i s d e f i n e d b y
(i ~
, d _ ( y , x ) =
D _ ( y , x
q _ ( y ) =
2.5 17
B y the i d e n t i t i e s d e r i v e d i n 2.1, t h i s is i n d e e d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of V , a n d h e n c e
V is a V - m o d u l e . T h e s u b a l g e b r a of E n d ( V + V-) g e n e r a t e d b y the d o ( x , y ) ' s a n d
q o ( x ) ' s a n d e is c a l l e d t h e m u l t ~ l i c a t i o n a l g e b r a of V a n d d e n o t e d b y M ( V ) .
C l e a r l y , M ( V ) = M + + ~ M + - ~ M - + ~ M - - w h e r e t h e M ~ a r e t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s w i t h
r e s p e c t to e + a n d e _
2.5. T h e d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e . L e t (d,q) b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of V i n A . If A
h a s a n i n v o l u t i o n * s u c h that e~ = e _ o , d o ( x , y ) * = d _ o ( y , x ) , a n d q o ( x ) * = qo(x)
t h e n w e say t h a t (d,q) is a * - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . F r o m a g i v e n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (d,q)
of V in A w e c a n a l w a y s c o n s t r u c t a * - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (d,q) in A A ~ (with
the e x c h a n g e i n v o l u t i o n ) b y s e t t i n g
e o = (eo'e-~)' d o (x'y) = ( d o ( x ' y ) ' d - o ( Y ' X ) ) ' qo (x) = ( q ~ ( x ) , q ~ ( x ) ) .
T h e p r o o f c o n s i s t s i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d v e r i f i c a t i o n a n d is o m i t t e d . A s a c o n -
s e q u e n c e , w e g e t the f o l l o w i n g d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e : If F is a n y i d e n t i t y in d o ( x , y )
a n d qo(z) w h i c h is v a l i d for e v e r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a J o r d a n p a i r V t h e n its
d u a l F * , o b t a i n e d b y r e p l a c i n g d o ( x , y ) b y d _ o ( y , x ) a n d r e v e r s i n g the o r d e r of
t h e f a c t o r s , is a l s o v a l i d for e v e r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of V . Indeed, F h o l d s in
p a r t i c u l a r for t h e * - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of V in A A ~ . B y a p p l y i n g the i n v o l u t i o n
of A x A ~ a n d p r o j e c t i n g o n t o the f i r s t f a c t o r w e see t h a t F* h o l d s i n A .
2.6. L E M M A . F o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
t i t i e s h o l d (with
( i )
( 2 )
( 3 )
( 4 )
(d,q) of a J o r d a n p a i r V
o's o m i t t e d ; cf. 2.0).
d ( Q ( x ) y , y ) = d ( x , Q ( y ) x ) ,
q ( x , z ) d ( y , x ) = d ( z , y ) + q ( Q ( x ) y , z ) ,
t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n -
d ( x , y ) q ( x , z ) = q ( x ) d ( y , z ) + q ( Q ( x ) y , z ) ,
d ( Q ( x ) y , z ) q ( x ) = q ( x ) d ( y , Q ( x ) z ) ,
1 8 2 . 7
(5) q ( x ) q ( y ) d ( x , z ) + d ( x , Q ( y ) Q ( x ) z ) = d ( Q ( x ) y , z ) d ( x , y ) ,
(6) q ( Q ( x ) y , { x y z } ) = q ( x ) q ~ ) q ( x , z ) + q ( x , z ) q ( y ) q ( x ) ,
(7) q ( { x y z } ) + q ( Q ( x ) y , Q ( z ) y ) = q ( x ) q ( y ) q ( z ) + q ( z ) q ( y ) q ( x ) + q ( x , z ) q ( y ) q ( x , z ) .
P r o o f . W e s e t y = z i n 2 . 3 . 3 a n d 2 . 3 . 4 a n d s u b t r a c t . T h i s p r o v e s ( i ) .
L i n e a r i z e 2 . 3 . 1 :
q ( x ) d ( y , z ) + q ( x , z ) d ( y , x ) = q ( x , { x y z } ) + q ( z , Q ( x ) y )
a n d s u b t r a c t 2 . 3 . 2 w h i c h p r o v e s (2). N o w (3) f o l l o w s f r o m (2) b y t h e d u a l i t y p r i n -
c i p l e . B y (2) a n d (i) o f 2 . 3 a n d t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n o f (2) w e h a v e
q ( x ) d ( y , Q ( x ) z ) + d ( Q ( x ) z , y ) q ( x ) = q ( x , { x , y , Q ( x ) z } ) = q ( x , Q ( x ) { y x z } )
= d ( x , { y x z } ) q ( x ) = d ( Q ( x ) y , z ) q ( x ) + d ( Q ( x ) z , y ) q ( x )
w h i c h p r o v e s ( 4 ) . F o r (5) w e u s e (3) a n d 2 . 3 . 4 a n d h a v e
q ( x ) q ( y ) d ( x , z ) + d ( x , Q ( y ) Q ( x ) z ) = q ( x ) ( d ( y , x ) q ( y , z ) - q ( Q ( y ) x , z ) )
+ d ( x , y ) d ( Q ( x ) z , y ) - q ( x ) d ( z , x ) q ( y ) = d ( x , y ) d ( x , z ) d ( x , y ) - q ( x ) q ( Q ( y ) x , z )
- q ( x ) d ( z , x ) q ( y ) = d ( Q ( x ) y , z ) d ( x , y ) + q ( x ) ( q ( y , z ) d ( x , y ) - q ( Q ( y ) x , z ) - d ( z , x ) q ( y ) )
= d ( Q ( x ) y , z ) d ( x , z ) .
T o p r o v e t h e r e m a i n i n g f o r m u l a s , l e t R = k ( c ) w i t h e 3 = 0 , a n d r e p l a c e x b y
x + ~ z i n 2 . 3 . 5 , c o m p u t i n g i n t h e s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n V R o f V . B y e q u a t i n g t h e
2
c o e f f i c i e n t s o f e a n d E i n t h e r e s u l t i n g i d e n t i t y w e o b t a i n (6) a n d ( 7 ) .
2 . 7 . P R O P O S I T I O N . Le___~t M = ( M + , M - ) b_e a m o d u l e f o r t h e J o r d a n p a i r V . T h e n
V ~ M = ( V + ~ M + , V - ~ M - ) b e c o m e s a J o r d a n p a i r b y s e t t i n g
Q o ( x 9 m ) ( y 9 n ) = Q ~ ( x ) y ~ ( q o ( x ) n + d ( x , y ) m )
f o r ( x , y ) 6 V ~ V - ~ ( m , n ) 6 M ~ M - ~ c a l l e d t h e s p l i t n u l l e x t e n s i o n o f
by M .
T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m 2 . 6 . 1 - 2 . 6 . 7 b y a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d v e r i f i c a t i o n , u s i n g
2 . 8 1 9
t h e f a c t t h a t a n y p r o d u c t c o n t a i n i n g m o r e t h a n o n e e l e m e n t f r o m M i s z e r o . T h e
d e t a i l s a r e l e f t to t h e r e a d e r .
2.8. P R O P O S I T I O N . ( P e r m a n e n c e p r i n c i p l e ) I f F i s a n y i d e n t i t y i n D (x,y) a n d
Q o ( z ) w h i c h i s v a l i d f o r t h e r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a l l J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r k
t h e n t h e i d e n t i t y o b t a i n e d f r o m F b y r e p l a c i n g D o ' Q o w i t h d , q o is v a l i d
f o r a l l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r k .
I n d e e d , l e t (d,q) b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f V i n A, a n d l e t M = ( A + + ~ A q-',
A - + ~ A - - ) b e t h e a s s o c i a t e d V - m o d u l e ( c f . 2 . 3 ) . B y a s s u m p t i o n , F i s v a l i d f o r
t h e r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f tlhe s p l i t n u l l e x t e n s i o n V ~ M . If w e r e s t r i c t t o
M a n d a p p l y F to t h e u n i t e l e m e n t o f A t h e a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s .
C o m b i n i n g t h i s w i t h 2 . 5 w e o b t a i n t h e d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
f o r m :
2.9. P R O P O S I T I O N . I f F i s a n i d e n t i t ~ i n D o ( x , y ) a n d Q o ( z ) v a l i d f o r a l l
J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r k t h e n i t s d u a l F * , o b t a i n e d b y r e p l a c i n g D o ( x , y ) b y D _ o ( y , x )
a n d r e v e r s i n g , t h e o r d e r o f t h e f a c t o r s ~ i s a l s o v a l i d f o r a l l J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r k .
2 . 1 0 . M o r e i d e n t i t i e s . B y s p e c i a l i z i n g 2 . 6 . 4 - 2 . 6 . 7 to t h e r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n -
t a t i o n w e g e t
J P 1 7
J P l 8
J P l 9
J P 2 0
D ( ~ y , Z ) Q x = % D ( Y , Q x Z ) ,
D ( ~ y , z ) D ( x , y ) = Q x Q y D ( X , Z ) + D ( X , Q y Q x Z ) ,
Q ( Q x Y , { x y z } ) = Q x Q y Q ( X , Z ) + Q ( x , Z ) Q y Q x,
Q ( { x y z } ) + Q ( Q x y , Q z y ) = Q x Q y Q z + Q z Q y Q x + Q ( x , z ) Q y Q ( X , Z ) .
W e w i l l a l s o n e e d
2 0 2 . 1 1
J P 2 1 Q ( { x y z } ) + Q ( % Q y Z , Z ) = % Q y Q z + Q z Q y % + D ( x ' Y ) Q z D ( y ' x ) '
J P 2 2 Q ( Q x Q y Z , { x y z }) = ~ % Q z D (y,x) + D (x,y) Q z Q y Q x 9
P r o o f o f J P 2 1 : I f w e c o m p a r e w i t h J P 2 0 w e s e e t h a t w e h a v e t o s h o w
D ( x , y ) Q z D ( y , x ) = Q ( x , z ) Q y Q ( X , Z ) + Q ( % Q y Z , Z ) - Q ( Q x y , Q z y ) .
u s i n g J P l O , J P I 3 a n d a g a i n J P I 0 w e h a v e
D ( x , y ) Q z D ( y , x ) = Q ( z , x ) D ( y , z ) D ( y , x ) - Q ( Q z y , x ) D ( y , x )
= Q ( z , X ) Q y Q ( Z , X ) + Q ( z , x ) D ( Q y Z , X ) - Q ( Q z y , X ) D ( y , x )
= Q ( z , X ) Q y Q ( Z , X ) + Q ( ~ Q y Z , Z ) + D ( Z , Q y Z ) ~ - Q ( ~ y , Q z y) - D ( Q z y , y ) Q x ,
a n d t h e t h i r d a n d f i f t h t e r m c a n c e l b y J P 2 .
P r o o f o f J P 2 2 : W e l i n e a r i z e J P I 9 w i t h r e s p e c t t o y a n d g e t
Q ( ~ u , { x y z } ) + Q ( Q x Y , { X U Z } ) = % Q ( y , u ) Q ( x , z ) + Q ( x , z ) Q ( y , u ) Q x -
N e x t r e p l a c e u b y Q y Z a n d u s e J P I a n d J P 2 :
Q ( Q x Q y Z , { x y z } ) = Q x Q y D ( Z , y ) Q ( x , z ) + Q ( x , z ) D ( y , Z ) Q y Q x - Q ( Q x Y , { X , Q y Z , Z } )
(by u s i n g J P I I o n t h e f i r s t t e r m , J P I O o n t h e s e c o n d t e r m a n d J P 2 o n t h e t h i r d t e r m )
= Q x Q y ( Q z D ( y , x ) + Q ( Q z y , X ) ) + ( D ( x , y ) Q z + Q ( Q z y , X ) ) - Q ( Q x Y , { x , y , Q z y } ) ,
a n d t h i s p r o v e s J P 2 2 if w e o b s e r v e J P I 9 w i t h z r e p l a c e d b y Q z y .
2 . 1 1 . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s B ( x , y ) . F o r (x,y) G V ~ V - O x w e d e f i n e B o ( x , y ) 6
E n d ( V ~ b y
B ( x , y ) = Id
V ~
or, i n s i m p l i f i e d n o t a t i o n (cf 2 . 0 ) ,
- D o ( x , y ) + Q o ( x ) Q _ o ( y ) ,
T h e
h a v e
B ( x , y ) = I d v a - D ( x , y ) + ~ Q y .
B ( x , y ) p l a y a f u n d a m e n t a l r 6 1 e i n t h e t h e o r y o f J o r d a n p a i r s . O b v i o u s l y , w e
B ( % x , y ) = B ( x , l y ) f o r a l l % G k . N e x t w e p r o v e s o m e i d e n t i t i e s f o r t h e m .
2 . 1 2 2 1
J P 2 3
J P 2 4
J P 2 5
J P 2 6
J P 2 7
B ( x , y ) Q ( x ) = Q ( x ) B ( y , x ) = Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) ,
B ( Q ( x ) y , y ) = B ( x , Q ~ ) x ) = B ( x , y ) B ( x , - y ) ,
B ( x , y ) 2 = B ( 2 x - Q ( x ) y , y ) = B ( x , 2 y - Q ( y ) x ) ,
Q ( B ( x , y ) z ) = B ( x , y ) Q ( z ) B ( y , x ) ,
Q ( B ( x , y ) z , x - Q ( x ) y ) = B ( x , y ) ( Q ( x , z ) - D ( z , y ) Q ( x ) )
= ( Q ( x , z ) - Q ( x ) D ( y , z ) ) B ( y , x ) .
I d e n t i t y J P 2 3 i s a n i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e o f J P 3 a n d J P 4 , a n d J P 2 4 a n d J P 2 5 f o l l o w
e a s i l y f r o m J P 2 , J P 3 , a n d J P 1 3 ( o b s e r v e t h a t i t s u f f i c e s t o p r o v e o n e e q u a l i t y i n
e a c h o f t h e s e c a s e s ; t h e o t h e r e q u a l i t y f o l l o w s f r o m t h e d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e s i n c e
t h e d u a l o f B ( x , y ) i s B ( y , x ) ) . T h e p r o o f o f J P 2 6 c o n s i s t s i n e x p a n d i n g b o t h
s i d e s , c o m p a r i n g t e r m s o f e q u a l d e g r e e a n d u s i n g J P 3 , J P I 2 , J P 2 1 a n d J P 2 2 t o s e e
t h a t t h e y a r e e q u a l . F o r J P 2 7 w e h a v e
Q ( B ( x , y ) z , x - Q x y ) = Q ( x , z ) - Q ( { x y z } , x ) + Q ( ~ Q y Z , X ) - Q ( z , ~ y )
+ Q ( { x y z } , % y ) - Q ( ~ Q y Z , % y ) = ( b y J P 4 , J P 5 , J P l 9 a n d J e 3 )
= Q ( x , z ) - D ( x , y ) Q ( x , z ) - D ( z , y ) Q x + D ( X , Q y Z ) ~ + Q x Q y Q ( X , Z )
+ Q ( x , Z ) Q y Q x - Q x Q ( Q y Z , y ) % = B ( x , y ) Q ( x , z ) + ( D ( X , Q y Z ) - D ( z , y )
+ Q ( x , z ) Q y - Q x Q ( Q y Z , y ) ) ~ = ( b y J P 9 a n d J P 4 ) B ( x , y ) Q ( x , z )
+ ( D ( x , y ) D ( z , y ) - D ( z , y ) - Q x Q y D ( z , y ) ) Q x = B ( x , y ) ( Q ( x , z ) - D ( z , y ) % ) ,
a n d t h e s e c o n d e q u a l i t y f o l l o w s f r o m t h e d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e .
2 . 1 2 . A s s u m e t h a t
i n v e r t i b l e w e h a v e
( 1 )
I n d e e d ,
V h a s i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s ( c f . i . I 0 ) . T h e n f o r
B ( x , y ) = Q ( x ) Q ( x - I - y ) = Q ( x - y - l ) Q ( y ) .
Q ( x ) Q ( x - I - y ) = Q ( x ) ( Q ( x - I ) - Q ( x - l , y ) + Q ( y ) )
x ( r e s p . y )
2 2 3 . 1
= I d - Q ( x ) Q ( x - l , y ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y ) .
B y J P I 3 w e h a v e
Q ( x ) Q ( x - l , y ) = D ( x , x - l ) D ( x , y ) - D ( Q ( x ) x - l , y ) = 2 D ( x , y ) - D ( x , y ) = D ( x , y )
s i n c e D ( x , x - I ) = D ( x , x - l ) Q ( x ) Q ( x - I ) = Q ( x , Q ( x ) x - l ) Q ( x - I ) = Q ( x , x ) Q ( x - I )
= 2 Q ( x ) Q ( x - I ) = 2 1 d b y J P I . S i m i l a r l y o n e p r o v e s t h e s e c o n d f o r m u l a .
I f V = ( J , J ) i s t h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a J
t h e n f o r m u l a (i) r e a d s
(2) B ( x , y ) = U x U ( x - l - y) = U ( x - y - l ) u .
Y
w T h e u a s i - i n v e r s e
3 . 1 . D E F I N I T I O N . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r . I n s t e a d o f x G V + a n d y ~ V - w e
s i m p l y w r i t e ( x , y ) G V . A p a i r ( x , y ) ~ V i s c a l l e d q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i f x i s
q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a V + (cf. 1 . 9 ) ; i n o t h e r w o r d s , i f 1 - x
Y
i s i n v e r t i b l e i n t h e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a k . l ~ V + o b t a i n e d f r o m V + b y a d -
Y Y
j o i n i n g a u n i t e l e m e n t . I n t h i s c a s e , (i - x ) - I = i + z w h e r e z G V + , a n d w e
s e t z = x y a n d c a l l i t t h e q u a s i - i n v e r s e o f ( x , y ) .
R e c a l l t h a t a n e l e m e n t a o f a u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a J i s i n v e r t i b l e i f
a n d o n l y i f t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u i v a l e n t c o n d i t i o n s h o l d (cf. J a c o b s o n [ 3 ] ) .
(i) T h e r e e x i s t s b G J s u c h t h a t
(ii) U is i n v e r t i b l e ;
a
( i i i ) U i s s u r j e c t i v e ;
a
(iv) 1 b e l o n g s t o t h e i m a g e o f U .
a
U b = a a n d U b 2 = i;
a a
3 . 2 2 3
F o r t h e q u a s i - i n v e r s e i n a J o r d a n p a i r , t h e a n a l o g o u s s t a t e m e n t i s
3 . 2 . P R O P O S I T I O N . F o r ( x , y ) G V t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
(i) ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e ;
(ii) t h e r e e x i s t s z 6 V + s u c h t h a t
(i) B ( x , y ) z = x - Q ( x ) y a n d B ( x , y ) Q ( z ) y = Q ( x ) y ;
( i i i ) B ( x , y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e ;
(iv) B (x,y) i s s u r ~ e c t i v e ;
(v) 2 x - Q ( x ) y b e l o n s s t o t h e i m a s e o f
I f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e s a t i s f i e d t h e n
B ( x , y ) .
(2) z = x y = B ( x , y ) - l ( x - Q ( x ) y )
i s t h e q u a s i - i n v e r s e o f ( x , y ) .
P r o o f I n k . l ~ V +
9 w e h a v e U l _ x . l = i - 2 x + Q ( x ) y a n d U l _ x . W = B ( x , y ) w
Y
f o r a l l w G V + . F r o m t h i s a n d 3 . 1 , (i) - (iv) i t f o l l o w s e a s i l y t h a t (i) - (v)
a r e e q u i v a l e n t , a n d (2) i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f (i).
3 . 3 . P R O P O S I T I O N . ( S y m m e t r y p r i n c i p l e ) L e t ( x , y ) G V . T h e n
i n v e r t i b l e i f a n d o n l y i f (y,x) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n V ~
x y = x + Q ( x ) y x.
P r o o f . L e t ( y , x ) b e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n V ~ , a n d s e t
s h o w t h a t z s a t i s f i e s 3 . 2 . 1 . B y 3 . 2 . 2 , J P 2 3 a n d J P 2 6 w e h a v e
B ( x , y ) z = B ( x , y ) ( x + Q ( x ) y x) = B ( x , y ) x + ~ B ( y , x ) y x
= x - ~ y x } + Q x Q y X + ~ ( y - Q y X ) = x - Q x y ,
(x,y) i s q u a s i -
, a n d i n t h i s c a s e ,
z = x + Q ( x ) y x . W e
2 4 3 . 4
a n d
B ( x , y ) Q z y = Q ( B ( x , y ) z ) B ( y , x ) - l y = Q ( x - % y ) B ( y , x ) - l y = Q x B ~ , x ) B ( y , x ) - l y = Q x y.
3 . 4 . L E M M A . (a) L e t (z,y) ~ V . T h e n
o f J o r d a n a l s e b r a s .
(b) L e t (u,v) G V a n d y 6 V- . T h e n
o f J o r d a n a l ~ e b r a s .
Q(y) : V + Q ( y ) z V-z i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m
+ V + i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m
B ( u , v ) : V B ( v , u ) y Y
T h i s f o l l o w s b y a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d c o m p u t a t i o n , u s i n g J P 3 a n d J P 2 6 .
3 . 5 . P R O P O S I T I O N . ( S h i f t i n g p r i n c i p l e ) (a) L e t x , z ~ V + a n d y @ V - . T h e n
( x , Q ( y ) z ) G V i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e if a n d o n l y i f ( Q ( y ) x , z ) 6 V ~ i s q u a s i -
i n v e r t i b l e ~ a n d i n t h i s c a s e
(i) Q ( y ) ( x Q ( y ) z ) = ( Q ( y ) x ) z.
(b) L e t (x,y) @ n d (u,v) b e i n V . T h e n ( x , B ( v , u ) y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e
i f a n d o n l y i f ( B ( u , v ) x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e ~ a n d i n t h i s c a s e
B ( u , v ) ( x B ( v ' u ) y ) = ( B ( u , v ) x ) y. (2)
P r o o f . (a) L e t ( x , Q ( y ) z ) b e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . S i n c e a h o m o m o r p h i s m o f J o r d a n
a l g e b r a s m a p s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s i n t o q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s i t f o l l o w s
f r o m 3 . 4 (a) t h a t ( Q ( y ) x , z ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e a n d t h a t (i) h o l d s . If c o n v e r s e l y
( Q ( y ) x , z ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e t h e n b y t h e s y m m e t r y p r i n c i p l e a n d w h a t w e j u s t
p r o v e d i t f o l l o w s t h a t ( x , Q ( y ) z ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e .
(b) T h i s f o l l o w s s i m i l a r l y f r o m 3 . 4 ( b ) .
3 . 6 2 5
3 . 6 . I d e n t i t i e s i n v o l v i n g t h e q u a s i - i n v e r s e . L e t ( x , y ) b e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n V .
F r o m ( i i ) o f 3 . 2 i t f o l l o w s t h a t ( x , y ) i s s t i l l q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n a n y J o r d a n
p a i r c o n t a i n i n g V a s a s u b p a i r . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i f ( d , q ) i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
V i n A a n d M i s t h e a s s o c i a t e d V - m o d u l e (cf. 2 . 3 ) t h e n t h e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b i l i t y
o f ( x , y ) i n t h e s p l i t n u l l e x t e n s i o n V ~ M (cf. 2 . 7 ) i m p l i e s t h a t b + ( x , y )
= e + - d + ( x , y ) + q + ( x ) q _ ( y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e i n A ~-~ a n d b _ ( y , x ) = e _ - d _ ( y , x )
+ q _ ( y ) q + ( x ) i s i n v e r t i b l e i n A F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e p e r m a n e n c e a n d d u a l i t y
p r i n c i p l e ( 2 . 8 , 2 . 9 ) m a y b e a p p l i e d t o i d e n t i t i e s l i k e t h e f o l l o w i n g w h o s e p r o o f
r e q u i r e s t h e c a n c e l l i n g o f a f a c t o r B ( x , y ) .
J P 2 8 B ( x , y ) Q ( x y ) = Q ( x y ) B ( y , x ) = Q ( x ) ,
J P 2 9 B ( x , y ) Q ( x Y , z ) + Q ( x ) D ( y , z ) = Q ( x Y , z ) B ( y , x ) + D ( z , y ) Q ( x ) = Q ( x , z ) ,
J P 3 0 B ( x , y ) D ( x Y , z ) = D ( x , z ) - Q ( x ) Q ( y , z ) ,
J P 3 1 D ( z , x Y ) B ( y , x ) = D ( z , x ) - Q ( y , z ) Q ( x ) ,
J P 3 2 D ( x Y , y - Q ( y ) x ) = D ( x - Q ( x ) y , y x ) = D ( x , y ) ,
J P 3 3 B ( x , y ) B ( x Y , z ) = B ( x , y + z ) ,
J P 3 4 B ( z , x Y ) B ( y , x ) = B ( y + z , x ) ,
J P 3 5 B ( x , y ) - I = B ( x Y , - y ) = B ( - x , y X ) .
P r o o f . B y a p p l y i n g Q t o 3 . 2 . 1 a n d o b s e r v i n g J P 2 3 a n d J P 2 6 w e g e t
B ( x , y ) Q ( x Y ) B ( y , x ) = B ( x , y ) Q ( x ) = Q ( x ) B ( y , x ) ,
a n d b y t h e i n v e r t i b i l i t y o f B ( x , y ) a n d B ( y , x ) w e h a v e J P 2 8 . B y J P 2 6 a n d J P 2 7
w e h a v e
B ( x , y ) Q ( x Y , z ) B ( y , x ) = Q ( B ( x , y ) x Y , B ( x , y ) z ) = Q ( x - Q ( x ) y , B ( x , y ) z )
= B ( x , y ) ( Q ( x , z ) - D ( z , y ) Q ( x ) ) = ( Q ( x , z ) - Q ( x ) D ( y , z ) ) B ( y , x )
w h i c h i m p l i e s J P 2 9 . A p p l y i n g J P 2 9 t o a n e l e m e n t u a n d r e a d i n g t h e r e s u l t a s a
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n z g i v e s J P 3 0 , a n d J P 3 1 f o l l o w s b y t h e d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e . F o r
J P 3 2 , s e t z = y - Q ( y ) x i n J P 3 0 a n d u s e J P 9 a n d J P 4 w h i c h y i e l d s
2 6 3 . 7
B ( x , y ) D ( x Y , y - Q ( y ) x ) = - Q ( x ) Q ( y , y ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y , Q ( y ) x ) + D ( x , y ) - D ( x , Q ( y ) x )
= D ( x , y ) - D ( x , y ) 2 + Q ( x ) Q ~ ) D ( x , y ) = B ( x , y ) D ( x , y ) .
I f w e c a n c e l B ( x , y ) w e g e t t h e f i r s t i d e n t i t y , a n d t h e o t h e r o n e f o l l o w s b y t h e
d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e . F o r J P 3 3 w e h a v e b y J P 2 8 a n d J P 3 0 ,
B ( x , y ) B ( x Y , z ) = ( B ( x , y ) ( I d - D ( x Y , z ) + Q ( x Y ) Q ( z ) )
= B ( x , y ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y , z ) - D ( x , z ) + Q ( x ) Q ( z )
= I d - D ( x , y + z ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y + z ) = B ( x , y + z ) .
N o w J P 3 4 f o l l o w s b y d u a l i t y a n d J P 3 5 b y s e t t i n g z = - y i n J P 3 3 a n d J P 3 4 .
3 . 7 . T H E O R E M . L e t ( x , y ) G V b e ~ u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e .
(a) F o r a l l z ~ V - w e h a v e ( x , y + z) ~ u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i f a n d o n l y i f ( x Y , z )
i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e ~ a n d i n t h i s c a s e ,
( 1 ) x ( y + z ) = ( x y ) Z .
(b) F o r a l l z G V + w e h a v e ( x + z , y ) q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i f a n d o n l y i f ( z , y x )
i s ~ u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e ~ a n d i n t h i s c a s e ~
(2) ( x + z ) y = x y + B ( x , y ) - I . z ( y x ) .
P r o o f . (a) T h e f i r s t s t a t e m e n t f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m J P 3 3 a n d ( i v ) o f 3 . 2 . F o r
(i) w e h a v e b y 3 . 2 . 2 , J P 3 3 a n d J P 2 8
x ( y + z ) = B ( x , y + z ) - l ( x - Q ( x ) ( y + z ) )
= B ( x Y , z ) - i B ( x , y ) - l ( x - Q ( x ) ( y + z ) )
= B ( x Y , z ) - l ( x y _ B ( x , y ) - i Q ( x ) z )
= B ( x Y , z ) - l ( x y - Q ( x Y ) z ) = ( x Y ) z .
(b) T h e f i r s t s t a t e m e n t f o l l o w s f r o m (a) a n d t h e s y m m e t r y p r i n c i p l e . T o p r o v e (2)
w e h a v e b y 3 . 2 . 2
3 . 8 2 7
a n d
( x + z ) y = B ( x + z , y ) - l ( x + z - Q ( x + z ) y )
x
x y + B ( x , y ) - l ( z ( y ) ) = B ( x , y ) - l ( x - Q ( x ) y + B ( z , y X ) - l ( z - Q ( z ) y X ) )
= B ( x , y ) - i B ( z , y X ) - l ( B ( z , y X ) ( x - Q ( x ) y ) + z - Q ( z ) y X ) .
B y J P 3 4 i t s u f f i c e s t h e r e f o r e t o s h o w t h a t
x + z - Q ( x ) y - { x y z } - Q ( z ) y = B ( z , y x ) ( x - Q ( x ) y ) + z - Q ( z ) y x .
T h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e i s
x + z - Q ( x ) y - D ( z , y X ) ( x - Q ( x ) y ) - Q ( z ) ( y x - Q ( y X ) ( x - Q ( x ) y ) ) .
B y J P 3 2 w e h a v e
D ( z , y X ) ( x - Q ( x ) y ) = D ( x - Q ( x ) y , y X ) z = D ( x , y ) z = { x y z } ,
a n d b y J P 2 8 a n d 3 . 3 w e h a v e
y X _ Q ( y X ) ( x - Q ( x ) y ) = y X - Q ( y ) B ( x , y ) - l ( x _ Q ( x ) y )
x =
= y - Q ( y ) x y y .
T h i s f i n i s h e s t h e p r o o f .
3 . 8 . P o w e r s a n d n i l p o t e n c e . L e t ( x , y ) G V . T h e n w e d e n o t e b y x ( n ' y ) t h e n - t h
power of x i n t he J or da n a l ge br a V + , and by y( n, x) t he n- t h power of y
Y
i n V - W e h a v e t h e f o r m u l a
x
( 1 ) x ( n + l ' y ) = Q ( x ) . y ( n ' x ) .
I n d e e d , f o r n = 1 t h i s i s t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f x ( 2 ' y ) ( e f . 1 . 9 ) , a n d f o r n = 2
w e h a v e x ( 3 ' y ) = U x = Q ( x ) Q ( y ) x = Q ( x ) . y ( 2 ' x ) . I f w e a s s u m e (i) t o b e t r u e f o r n
x
t h e n w e g e t x ( n + 3 ' y ) = U . x ( n + l ' y ) = Q ( x ) Q ( y ) Q ( x ) . y ( n ' x ) = Q ( x ) . y ( n + 2 ' x ) . H e r e w e
x
n n + 2
u s e t h e f a c t t h a t i n a J o r d a n a l g e b r a t h e f o r m u l a U . x = x h o l d s .
x
W e s a y t h a t a p a i r ( x , y ) G V i s n i l p o t e n t i f x i s n i l p o t e n t i n V + .
Y
F r o m ( i ) i t i s c l e a r t h a t ( x , y ) i s n i l p o t e n t i f a n d o n l y i f ( y , x ) ~ V ~ i s
2 8 3 . 9
n i l p o t e n t . A l s o , i f ( x , y ) i s n i l p o t e n t t h e n i t i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e , a n d t h e q u a s i -
i n v e r s e i s g i v e n b y
(2) x y = ~ x ( n ' y )
n = l
F o r t h e p r o o f , w e u s e t h e f a c t t h a t f o r a n i l p o t e n t e l e m e n t x o f a J o r d a n a l g e b r a
t h e o p e r a t o r s U a n d V (of. 1 . 6 ) a r e n i l p o t e n t a n d c o m m u t e . I n o u r c a s e ,
x x
V x = D ( x , y ) a n d U x = Q ( x ) Q ( y ) w h i c h i m p l i e s t h a t B ( x , y ) = I d - D ( x , y ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y )
is u n i p o t e n t a n d h e n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r i n v e r t i b l e . I n o r d e r t o p r o v e (2) w e a p p l y
= n
t o t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e a n d h a v e ( s e t t i n g x n x ( n ' y ) a n d u s i n g x o x B ( x , y )
= 2 x n + l )
co
(x n 2 x n + l + x n + 2 ) = x 2
- x + + . . . - 2 t ~ x 2 + x 3 + . . . ) + x 3 + . . .
n = l
2
= x - x = x - Q ( x ) y
w h i c h p r o v e s (2) i n v i e w o f 3 . 2 . 2 .
3 . 9 . I n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m s . L e t ( x , y ) G V b e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . T h e n B ( x , y ) a n d
B ( y , x ) a r e i n v e r t i b l e a n d i t f o l l o w s f r o m J P 2 6 t h a t
(i) ~ ( x , y ) = ( B ( x , y ) , B ( y , x ) - I )
i s a n a u t o m o r p h i s m o f V , c a l l e d t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m d e f i n e d b y ( x , y ) .
F r o m J P 3 3
( 2 )
( 3 )
( 4 )
- J P 3 5 w e g e t t h e f o r m u l a s
~ ( x , y ) B ( x Y , z ) = ~ ( x , y + z ) ,
~ ( z , y X ) ~ ( x , y ) = ~ ( x + z , y ) ,
~ ( x , y ) - 1 = ~ ( x Y , - y ) = ~ ( - x , y X ) .
I f h = ( h + , h _ ) i s a n a u t o m o r p h i s m o f V t h e n w e h a v e
3 . 1 0 2 9
( 5 )
T h u s w e h a v e p r o v e d
h ~ ( x , y ) h - I = ~ ( h + ( x ) , h _ ( y ) ) .
3 . 1 0 . P R O P O S I T I O N . T h e g r o u p I n n ( V ) g e n e r a t e d b y a l l B ( x , y ) , ( x , y ) G V q u a s i -
i n v e r t i b l e , i s a n o r m a l s u b g r o u p o f A u t ( V ) , c a l l e d t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r D h i s m g r o u p
o f V .
3 . 1 1 . I n n e r d e r i v a t i o n s . L e t k ( e ) b e t h e a l g e b r a o f d u a l n u m b e r s o v e r k . T h e n
(x, ey) i s n i l p o t e n t a n d h e n c e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n V k ( e ) f o r a l l ( x , y ) G V ,
a n d w e h a v e B ( x , ey) = I d - e D ( x , y ) a n d B ( e y , x ) - I = I d + e D ( y , x ) . T h u s B(x, cy)
= I d - e ~ ( x , y ) w h e r e
(I) ~ ( x , y ) = ( D ( x , y ) , - D ( y , x ) )
i s a d e r i v a t i o n o f V (cf. 1 . 4 ) , c a l l e d t h e i n n e r d e r i v a t i o n d e f i n e d b y ( x , y ) .
( T h e f a c t t h a t ~ ( x , y ) i s a d e r i v a t i o n i s a l s o a n i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e o f J P I 2 ) .
F r o m 3 . 8 . 5 i t f o l l o w s
(2) h 6 ( x , y ) h - I = ~ ( h + ( x ) , h _ ( y ) ) ,
f o r h G A u t ( V ) . L e t A = ( A + , ~ _ ) G D e r ( V ) . T h e n I d + e A G A u t ( V k ( ~ ) ) a n d f r o m
(2) w e g e t b y a s i m p l e c o m p u t a t i o n
( 3 ) [ A , ~ ( x , y ) ] = ~ ( ~ + ( x ) , y ) + ~ ( x , ~ _ ( y ) ) .
( N o t e t h a t f o r A = ~ ( u , v ) t h i s i s J u s t J P I S ) . W e h a v e p r o v e d
3 . 1 2 . P R O P O S I T I O N . T h e k - m o d u l e I n d e r ( V ) s p a n n e d b y a l l ~ ( x , y ) , ( x , y ) ~ V ,
i s a n i d e a l o f D e r ( V ) , s t a b l e u n d e r a l l a u t o m o r p h i s m s o f V .
30 3 . 1 3
W e c a l l I n d e r ( V ) t h e i n n e r d e r i v a t i o n a l $ e b r a of V . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d
t h a t I n d e r (V) is c o n t a i n e d in, b u t in g e n e r a l n o t e q u a l to, t h e set of a l l
~ D e r ( V ) s u c h t h a t Id + s& ~ I n n ( V k ( e ) ) , i n c o n t r a s t to t h e s i t u a t i o n f o r t h e
d e r i v a t i o n a l g e b r a D e r ( V ) (ef. 1.4).
3.13. T h e c a s e o f a J o r d a n a l ~ e b r a . L e t J b e a u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a a n d l e t
V = ( J , J ) b e t h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h J . A s s u m e t h a t (x,y) is q u a s i -
i n v e r t i b l e i n V a n d t h a t x is i n v e r t i b l e i n J . T h e n w e h a v e B(xjy) = U x U x _ l _ y
-i
b y 2 . 1 2 a n d h e n c e x - y is i n v e r t i b l e . W e c l a i m t h a t
(i) x y = (x-i _ y ) - i
I n d e e d , (x-i - y ) - i = U ( x - i _ y ) - l ( x - i _ y) = B ( x , y ) - i U x ( X - i - y)
= B ( x , y ) - l ( x - U x Y ) = x y .
w 4. R a d i c a l s
4.1. T h e J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k . A n e l e m e n t x ~ V +
is c a l l e d p r o p e r l y q u a s l - i n v e r t i b l e if (x~y) is q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e f o r a l l y ~ V-
S i m i l a r l y y G V- is c a l l e d p r o p e r l y q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e if (x,y) is q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e
for a l l x G V + . T h e J a e o b s o n r a d i c a l (or s i m p l y t h e r a d i c a l ) of V is R a d V
= (Rad V + ,Rad V-) w h e r e R a d V ~ is t h e set of p r o p e r l y q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s
of V ~ . F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s , it is o b v i o u s t h a t R a d V is i n v a r i a n t u n d e r a l l
4 . 2 3 1
a u t o m o r p h i s m s o f V , a n d t h a t R a d V ~ = ( R a d V - , R a d V + ) . A l s o , i f k' k i s a
r i n g h o m o m o r p h i s m a n d k , V i s t h e J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k' o b t a i n e d b y r e s t r i c t i n g t h e
s c a l a r s t o k' (cf. 1 . 2 ) t h e n R a d V = R a d ( k , V ) .
W e s a y V i s s e m i s i m p l e i f R a d V = 0, a n d V i s ~ u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e o r
r a d i c a l i f V = R a d V .
4 . 2 . T H E O R E M . T h e r a d i c a l o f V i s b o t h t h e l a r g e s t q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i d e a l o f V
a n d t h e s m a l l e s t a m o n g a l l i d e a l s I o f V s u c h t h a t V / I i s s e m i s i m p l e ; i_n_n
p a r t i c u l a r , R a d V is a n i d e a l o f V . I f I i s a n y i d e a l o f V t h e n R a d I
= I R a d V.
P r o o f . W e f i r s t s h o w t h a t R a d V i s a n i d e a l o f V . L e t R = R a d V + , a n d l e t
x , z 6 R + , % @ k . B y 3 . 7 ( b ) , (x + z , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e f o r a l l y , a n d
t h e r e f o r e x + z 6 R + . S i n c e B ( % x , y ) = B ( x , % y ) w e a l s o h a v e % x G R + . T h u s R +
i s a s u b m o d u l e o f V + . N o w l e t x 6 R + , y G V - a n d z G V +. T h e n ( x , Q ( y ) z )
i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e , a n d b y t h e s h i f t i n g p r i n c i p l e ( 3 . 5 ) w e h a v e ( Q ( y ) x , z ) q u a s i -
i n v e r t i b l e . S i n c e z w a s a r b i t r a r y t h i s s h o w s t h a t Q ( y ) x @ R - , a n d t h e r e f o r e
Q ( V - ) . R + ~ _ - R - . S i m i l a r l y , l e t ( u , v ) G V + V - , y @ V-, a n d x G R +. T h e n
( x , B ( v , u ) y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e , a n d b y 3 . 5 , ( B ( u , v ) x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e
w h i c h p r o v e s B ( u , v ) x ~ R +. N o w B ( u , v ) x = x - D ( u , v ) x + Q ( u ) Q ( v ) x a n d h e n c e w e
g e t D ( u , v ) x = { u v x } G R + i . e .
B y 3 . 7 ( a ) , x y G R +, a n d b y 3 . 2 . 2 ,
S i n c e a l l t h i s h o l d s w i t h + a n d
{ V + , V - ,R + } c R +. L e t x G R + a n d y @ V-.
_ R + + Q ( x ) y = x B ( x , y ) x y G . T h u s Q ( R + ) V - C R 9
- i n t e r c h a n g e d a s w e l l R a d V i s a n i d e a l .
I L e t I = ( I + , I - ) b e a q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i d e a l , l e t x 6 a n d y G V - .
T h e n B ( x , y ) B ( x , - y ) = B ( x , Q ( y ) x ) ( J P 2 4 ) i s i n v e r t i b l e s i n c e Q ( y ) x G I - . B y (iv)
o f 3 . 2 , ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . H e n c e I + ~ R + , a n d i t f o l l o w s t h a t R a d V
i s t h e l a r g e s t q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i d e a l o f V . F i n a l l y , i t i s c l e a r t h a t a s u r j e c t i v e
h o m o m o r p h i s m h: V W o f J o r d a n p a i r s m a p s R a d V i n t o R a d W . I t r e m a i n s t o b e
3 2 4 . 3
s h o w n t h a t V / R a d V i s s e m i s i m p l e w h i c h i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
4.13. L E M M A . L e t I b e a R u a s i - i n v g r t i b l e i d e a l o f V a n d l e t x ~ x d e n o t e t h e
c a n o n i c a l m a p V + V / I . I_ff ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n V / I t h e n ( x , y ) i s
q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n V .
P r o o f . 7 + i s a q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i d e a l i n t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a V + , a n d x ~
Y
a homomorphi sm V + + of J or da n a l ge br a s . Now t he lemraa f ol l ows f r om t he
y -
Y
c o r r e s p o n d i n g f a c t f o r J o r d a n a l g e b r a s ( J a c o b s e n [ 3 ] , I I I , L e m m a 5).
i s
T o c o m p l e t e t h e p r o o f o f 4 . 2 , l e t I b e a n y i d e a l o f V . T h e n I N R a d V
i s a q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i d e a l o f I a n d t h e r e f o r e c o n t a i n e d i n R a d I . C o n v e r s e l y ,
l e t x ~ R a d I + a n d y ~ V - . T h e n Q ( y ) x ~ I - a n d h e n c e ( x , Q ( y ) x ) i s q u a s i -
i n v e r t i b l e . S i n c e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b i l i t y i n 7 a n d i n V a r e e q u i v a l e n t it f o l l o w s
f r o m J P 2 4 a n d (iv) o f 3 . 2 t h a t ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . T h u s x ~ R a d V + ,
a n d a s i m i l a r p r o o f s h o w s t h a t R a d I - C R a d V -
4 . 4 . P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) l_~f V i s a l o c a l J o r d a n p a i r (cf. i. I 0 ) t h e n R a d V i s t h e
s e t o f n o n - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s o f V .
(b) C o n v e r s e l y ~ i f V i s a J o r d a n p a i r c o n t a i n i n g i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s a n d s u c h
t h a t V / R a d V i s a d i v i s i o n p a i r t h e n V i s l o c a l .
P r o o f . (a) L e t N b e t h e s e t o f n o n - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s o f V . B y d e f i n i t i o n ,
N = ( N + , N -) i s a p r o p e r i d e a l . S i n c e V / N i s a d i v i s i o n p a i r w e h a v e R a d V ~ N .
N o w l e t x G ~ + a n d l e t v 6 V - b e i n v e r t i b l e . T h e n x - v - I i s i n v e r t i b l e s i n c e
o t h e r w i s e x - (x - v - 1 ) = v - I 6 N + . B y 2 . 1 2 , B ( x , v ) = Q ( x - v - l ) Q ( v ) i s i n v e r -
t i b l e a n d t h e r e f o r e ( x , v ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . A l s o , x v G N + s i n c e ~ i s a n
i d e a l . I f y G N - t h e n y - v i s i n v e r t i b l e , a n d h e n c e ( x V , y - v ) i s q u a s i -
4 . 5 3 3
i n v e r t i b l e . B y 3 . 7 , ( ( x V ) - V , y ) = ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . T h e r e f o r e N i s a
q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i d e a l , a n d b y 4 . 2 i t i s c o n t a i n e d i n R a d V .
(b) W e s h o w t h a t P a d V i s t h e s e t N o f n o n - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s o f V . O b v i o u s -
l y R a d V + C _ N + . C o n v e r s e l y , l e t x n o t b e i n R a d V + , a n d l e t v G V - b e i n -
v e r t i b l e . S i n c e x i s i n v e r t i b l e m o d u l o t h e r a d i c a l t h e r e e x i s t s y ~ V - s u c h
t h a t v - I - Q ( x ) y = z G R a d V + . B y 2 . 1 2 , B ( z , v ) = Q ( z - v - l ) Q ( v ) , a n d t h i s i s
i n v e r t i b l e s i n c e z ~ R a d V + . H e n c e Q ( z - v - 1 ) = Q ( Q ( x ) y ) = Q ( x ) Q ( y ) Q ( x ) i s
i n v e r t i b l e w h i c h p r o v e s x i n v e r t i b l e . A s i m i l a r p r o o f a p p l i e s t o N -
4 . 5 . T h e s m a l l r a d i c a l . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r . A n e l e m e n t z 6 V i s c a l l e d
t r i v i a l ( o r a n a b s o l u t e z e r o d i v i s o r ) i f Q ( z ) = 0. W e s a y V i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e
(or s t r o n g l y s e m i p r i m e ) i f i t c o n t a i n s n o n o n - z e r o t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s .
A n i d e a l I o f V i s c a l l e d a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l i f V / I i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e ,
i n o t h e r w o r d s , i f Q ( z ) V - ~ I ~ i m p l i e s z G I ~ , f o r a l l z G V O. T h e i n t e r -
s e c t i o n S = ( S + , S - ) o f a l l s e m i p r i m e i d e a l s o f V i s i t s e l f a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l .
F o r i f Q ( z ) V - ~ S ~ t h e n Q ( z ) V - ~ i s c o n t a i n e d i n e v e r y s e m i p r i m e i d e a l a n d
h e n c e s o i s z w h i c h s h o w s z G S ~ . T h u s S i s t h e s m a l l e s t s e m i p r i m e i d e a l o f V ,
c a l l e d t h e s m a l l r a d i c a l ( o r l o w e r r a d i c a l , s t r o n g l y s e m i p r i m e r a d i c a l ) a n d d e -
n o t e d b y r a d V . I t i s o b v i o u s l y i n v a r i a n t u n d e r A u t ( V ) . N o t e t h a t t h e J a c o b s o n
r a d i c a l i s a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l a n d t h e r e f o r e c o n t a i n s r a d V w h i c h j u s t i f i e s t h e
t e r m i n o l o g y . I n d e e d , i f x i s t r i v i a l t h e n ( x , y ) i s n i l p o t e n t f o r a l l y a n d
b y 3 . 8 i t i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e w h i c h s h o w s t h a t x b e l o n g s t o t h e r a d i c a l .
A J o r d a n p a i r i s c a l l e d s - r a d i c a l i f i t i s i t s o w n s m a l l r a d i c a l ; i n o t h e r
w o r d s , i f e v e r y n o n - z e r o h o m o m o r p h i c i m a g e c o n t a i n s n o n - z e r o t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s . B e f o r e
w e c a n p r o v e t h a t t h e s m a l l r a d i c a l i s t h e l a r g e s t s - r a d i c a l i d e a l w e n e e d t h e
f o l l o w i n g
34 4.6
4.6. L E M M A . L e t B a n d C b e i d e a l s of V , a n d let T ~ b e t h e set of a l l
f i n i t e s u m s of e l e m e n t s z ~ V ~ s u c h t h a t Q ( z ) B - ~ ~ . T h e n T ( B , C ) = (T+(B,C),
T - ( B , C ) ) is a n i d e a l o f V c o n t a i n i n ~ C . I n p a r t i c u l a r , T ( V ) = T ( V , O ) is a n
i d e a l of V , c o n t a i n e d i n r a d V .
P r o o f . L e t T ~ = T O ( B , C ) . C l e a r l y T ~ is a s u b m o d u l e of V ~ . F r o m JP3 a n d J P 2 6
it f o l l o w s t h a t T ~ is i n v a r i a n t u n d e r a l l Q(y) a n d B ( x , y ) , a n d h e n c e Q ( V ~ - ~
Ci T ~ a n d { V ~ 1 7 6 1 7 6 C T ~ . N o w let z = z I + ... + Zn 6 T ~ w h e r e Q ( z i ) B - q
E
C- C O . T h e n Q ( z ) y = E Q ( z i ) y + i<j { z i Y z j } " B y JP3, Q ( Q ( z i ) Y ) B - ~ C ~ a n d
{ z i y z j } 6 T o b y w h a t w e p r o v e d b e f o r e . H e n c e Q ( z ) y 6 T ~ a n d (T + ,T-) is a n
ideal. T h e l a s t a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g
4.7. P R O P O S I T I O N . Le____tt TO(V) = 0 , a n d d e f i n e
(i) T (V) = ~ T ~
i f a is a l i m i t o r d i n a l ~ a n d
(2)
(v)
T e ( V ) = T ( V , T _ I ( V ) )
o t h e r w i s e . T h e n
(3) r ad V = l~m Ta(V) .
Pr oof . By 4. 6, t he T (V) f or m an i nc r e a s i ng s equence of i de a l s of V . Assume
t ha t T~(V) c r ad V f or a l l ~ < ~ . I f ~ i s a l i mi t or di na l t he n by ( 1) ,
T ( V) ~ r ad V . I f not t hen by (2)
T~(V) = T ( V , T _ I ( V ) ) ~ T(V, rad V) ~ rad V
s i n c e r a d V is a s e m i p r i m e ideal. L e t to b e t h e o r d i n a l a t w h i c h the s e q u e n c e
T (V) s t a b i l i z e s . T h e n T ( V ) ~ rad V a n d T0~_I(V) = T ( V , T (V)) = T (V) w h i c h
tO ~ s tO
4 . 8 3 5
m e a n s t h a t T (V) i s a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l . S i n c e r a d V
i d e a l t h e a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s .
i s t h e s m a l l e s t s u c h
4 . 8 . P R O P O S I T I O N . I f I i s a n i d e a l o f V t h e n I ~ T ( I , 0 ) C T 2 ( I ) .
P r o o f . L e t x G I + ~ T + ( I , 0 ) . T h e n x = ~ z i w h e r e Q ( z i ) l - = 0 . F o r
- ~ { z i y z j } , a n d f r o m J P 2 1 i t f o l l o w s t h a t I w e t h e n h a v e Q ( x ) y = i < j
Q ( { z i Y z j } ) l = 0 , i . e . , { z i y z j } G r (I) . H e n c e x G T (1) .
y G
4 . 9 . L E M M A . I f I i s a n i d e a l o f V a n d S i s a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l o f I t h e n
S i s a n i d e a l o f V 9
P r o o f . L e t ( x , y ) G S . T h e n z = Q ( x ) y G I + a n d Q ( z ) l - = ~ Q y Q x l - c
Q x Q y l + C Q x I - ~ S + i m p l i e s z G S + s i n c e S i s a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l o f I .
T h u s w e h a v e Q ( S + ) V - C S + .
N e x t w e s h o w t h a t Q ( V + ) S - C S + . L e t x G V + , y G S - , a n d d e f i n e
z = Q ( x ) y , z' = Q ( z ) u , z " = Q ( z ' ) v w h e r e u a n d v a r e a r b i t r a r y e l e m e n t s o f
I - 9 I t s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t Q ( z " ) l - ~ S + . I n d e e d , t h i s i m p l i e s z " G S +
b y s e m i p r i m e n e s s o f S i n I , a n d s i n c e v a n d u a r e a r b i t r a r y i n I - i t
f o l l o w s f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n t h a t z' G S + a n d z G S + . N o w w e h a v e , u s i n g J P 3
r e p e a t e d l y ,
Q ( z " ) l - = Q ( z ' ) Q ( v ) Q ( z ' ) l - = Q z Q u Q x Q y ( Q x Q v Q x ) Q y Q x Q u Q z l - ~ Q z ( Q u Q x Q y ) Q ( Q x V ) I -
a n d t h i s i s c o n t a i n e d i n Q z ( Q u Q x Q y ) l + . S i n c e I i s a n i d e a l o f V w e h a v e
z G I + . A l s o , i f s G S + t h e n b y J P 2 0 , Q u Q x Q y S = Q ( { u x y } ) s + { Q u X , S , Q y X }
- Q y Q x Q u s - { U , Q x { U S y } , y } G S - , u s i n g t h e f a c t t h a t I i s a n i d e a l o f V
a n d S i s a n i d e a l o f I 9 I t f o l l o w s t h a t Q ( z " ) l - ~ S + .
F i n a l l y w e p r o v e t h a t { V + , V - , S + } C S + . L e t x G V + , x' G V - a n d
36 4 . 1 0
y G S + . In o r d e r to s h o w that { x x ' y } G S + it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t
z = B ( x , x ' ) y G S + . L e t z' = Q ( z ) u , z" = Q ( z ' ) v w h e r e u , v G 7- . A r g u e i n g a s
a b o v e w e s e e that it s u f f i c e s to p r o v e Q ( z " ) 7 - C S + . B y J P 3 a n d J P 2 6 w e h a v e
Q ( z " ) I - = Q ( z ' ) Q ( v ) Q ( z ' ) I - = Q z Q u B ( X , X ' ) Q y ( B ( x ' , x ) Q v B ( x , x ' ) ) Q y B ( x ' , x ) Q u Q z 7-
Q z Q u B ( X , X ' ) Q y Q ( B ( x , x ' ) v ) S + ~ Q z Q u B ( X , X ' ) Q y S - . By w h a t w e a l r e a d y p r o v e d
a n d the d e f i n i t i o n of B ( x , x ' ) it s u f f i c e s to s h o w that D ( x , x ' ) Q S - ~ S +
Y
But for s 6 S - w e h a v e b y J P I 2 , D ( x , x ' ) Q y S = - Q y { X ' X S } + { y s { x x ' y } } G S + .
S i n c e a l l this h o l d s as w e l l w i t h + a n d - i n t e r c h a n g e d the L e m m a f o l l o w s .
4.10. C O R O L L A R Y . L e t 7 b e a n i d e a l of V and let 7' b e a n i d e a l of 7
t h a t 7 is the i d e a l of V g e n e r a t e d b y 7' . T h e n 7/7' is s - r a d i c a l .
Proof. L e t S b e the i n v e r s e i m a g e of r a d ( I / 7 ' ) u n d e r t h e c a n o n i c a l m a p
7 7/7' . T h e n S is a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l of 7 c o n t a i n i n g 7' . By 4.9, S
is a n i d e a l of V , a n d h e n c e S = I .
s u c h
4.11. T H E O R E M . T h e s m a l l r a d i c a l rad V is t h e l a r g e s t s - r a d i c a l i d e a l of V .
P r o o f . L e t 7 = r a d V and let S = rad 7 . By 4.9, S is a n i d e a l of V , a n d
Q ( x ) V - ~ S ~ i m p l i e s x G S ~ s i n c e S is s e m i p r i m e i n 7 and I is s e m i p r i m e
in V . H e n c e S is s e m i p r i m e in V a n d t h i s i m p l i e s S = I . It f o l l o w s t h a t
rad V is s - r a d i c a l . N o w let N be a n y s - r a d i c a l i d e a l of V . A f t e r d i v i d i n g b y
rad V w e m a y a s s u m e that V is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e a n d h a v e to s h o w t h a t N = 0 .
If N # 0 t h e r e e x i s t s a n o n - z e r o t r i v i a l e l e m e n t of N , s a y x G N + w i t h
Q ( x ) N - = 0 . S i n c e N is a n i d e a l w e h a v e for a l l y G V- that Q ( Q ( x ) y ) V -
= Q x Q y ~ V - ~ Qx N- = 0 w h i c h i m p l i e s Q x y = 0 and h e n c e x = 0 , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
4 . 1 2 37
4.12. P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) Le___t_t k' k b e a r i n g h o m o m o r p h i s m ~ a n d let k , W b e
the J o r d a n p a i r e v e r k' o b t a i n e d b y r e s t r i c t i o n of s c a l a r s .. T h e n w e h a v e
t a d k , V = rad V .
(b) L e t K b e a n e x t e n s i o n of k , and d e f i n e ~: V V K b y ~(x) = x ~ l .
T h e n ~ ( r a d V) C rad V K .
Proof. (a) S i n c e e v e r y s e m i p r i m e i d e a l of V is a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l of k , V
w e h a v e rad k , V G r a d V . C o n v e r s e l y , it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t S = rad k , V
is a k - s u b m o d u l e of V . If x G S ~ and ~ G k t h e n Q ( % x ) V - ~ = % 2 Q ( x ) W - ~
~ Q ( x ) V - ~ S ~ a n d t h i s i m p l i e s ~x G S ~ .
(b) By 4.9 w e a r e r e d u c e d to p r o v i n g t h a t V K is s - r a d i c a l p r o v i d e d V is.
L e t ~: V K W # 0 b e a s u r j e c t i o n . T h e n
m e n t z # 0 of U , and s i n c e U s p a n s
m e n t o f W .
~ ( ~ ( V ) ) = U c o n t a i n s a t r i v i a l c l e -
W as a K - m o d u l e z is a t r i v i a l e l e -
We r e m a r k that (b) is f a l s e for the J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l .
4.13. T H E O R E M . If I is a n i d e a l of V t h e n rad I = I N r a d V .
P r o o f . By 4.9, r a d I is a s - r a d i c a l i d e a l of V , and t h e r e f o r e is c o n t a i n e d
in rad V b y 4.11. F o r the c o n v e r s e it s u f f i c e s to s h o w that e v e r y i d e a l of a
s - r a d i c a l J o r d a n p a i r is i t s e l f s - r a d i c a l . T h u s let V b e s - r a d i c a l , and let I
b e a n i d e a l of V . B y 4.9, r a d I is a n i d e a l o f V . A f t e r d i v i d i n g b y
r a d I w e m a y a s s u m e that r a d I = 0 a n d h a v e to s h o w that I = 0 . A s s u m e to
the c o n t r a r y that I # 0 . By Z o r n ' s L e m m a t h e r e e x i s t s a n i d e a l M of V w h i c h
is m a x i m a l w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t I ~ M = 0 . A f t e r f a c t o r i n g M o u t
w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t I ~ K = 0 i m p l i e s K = 0 , for all i d e a l s K of V . L e t
z 6 V + b e a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t of V a n d let x @ I- . T h e n Q ( x ) z is a t r i v i a l
e l e m e n t c o n t a i n e d i n I- w h i c h i m p l i e s Q ( x ) z = 0 . F r o m t h i s w e c o n c l u d e that
Q ( x ) T + = 0 w h e r e T + = T+(V) is as in 4.6. N o w let z g I + ~ T + and x G I-
38 4 . 1 4
T h e n w e h a v e Q ( Q ( z ) x ) 7 - = Q ( z ) Q ( x ) Q ( z ) 7 - c Q ( z ) Q ( x ) 7 + = 0 , u s i n g the fact t h a t
T(V) is a n i d e a l (4.6). S i n c e 7 d o e s n o t c o n t a i n t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s w e get Q ( z ) x
= 0 a n d h e n c e z = 0 . T h e r e f o r e T + f q 7 + = 0 and in the s a m e w a y o n e p r o v e s
that T - ~ 7- = 0 . T h i s is a c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n c e V is s - r a d i c a l and t h e r e f o r e
T#O.
4.14. T h e n i l r a d i c a l . A J o r d a n p a i r V is c a l l e d n i l if all (x,y) G V a r e
n i l p o t e n t (cf. 3.8). If 7 is a n i d e a l of V t h e n V is n i l if and o n l y if
7 and V/7 a r e nil. H e n c e the u n i o n of a l l n i l i d e a l s of V is a n i l ideal,
c a l l e d the n i l r a d i c a l a n d d e n o t e d b y N i l V . C l e a r l y N i l V is the s m a l l e s t
a m o n g a l l i d e a l s 7 of V s u c h that N i l ( V / 7 ) = 0 .
N o t e t h a t N i l V c o n s i s t s of p r o p e r l ~ n i l p o t e n t e l e m e n t s in t h e f o l l o -
w i n g sense: if x 6 N i l V + t h e n (x,y) is n i l p o t e n t , for all y G V- ,
a n d if y G N i l V- t h e n (x,y) is n i l p o t e n t for all x G V + . Indeed, Q ( y ) x
b e l o n g s to N i l V- a n d h e n c e x (n'Q(y)x) = 0 for s o m e n . By 3 . 4 ( a ) ,
0 = Q ( y ) . x (n'Q(y)x) = (Q(y)x) (n'x) = ( y ( 2 , x ) ) ( n , x ) = y ( 2 n , x ) , a n d b y 3.8.i,
Q ( x ) y (2n'x) = x (2n+l'y) = 0 . It is n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r N i l V c o i n c i d e s w i t h the
set o f a l l p r o p e r l y n i l p o t e n t e l e m e n t s .
4.15. P R O P O S I T I O N . N i l V a n d R a d V a r e s e m i p r i m e i d e a l s of V a n d w e h a v e
r a d V C N i l V C R a d V .
P r o o f . W e h a v e n o t e d b e f o r e (cf. 4.5) that R a d V is a s e m i p r i m e ideal. To s h o w
that N i l V is a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t T(V) is a n i l i d e a l
s i n c e w e t h e n h a v e T ( V / N i l V) = 0 , p r o v i n g that N i l V is s e m i p r i m e . If z G V +
is t r i v i a l t h e n Q ( z ) y = Q ( z ) Q ( y ) = 0 for a l l y G V a n d h e n c e z is a t r i v i a l
e l e m e n t of a l l J o r d a n a l g e b r a s k.l @~ V + . It f o l l o w s t h a t T+(V) is c o n t a i n e d
Y
4.16 39
in the ideal generated by the trivial elements of k . l ( 9 V + . Since the latter
Y
is a nil ideal (cf. Jacobson[3],III, Th. 5) it follows that T+(V) consists of
properly nilpotent elements. The same arguments apply to T-(V) and therefore
T(V) is a nil ideal of V . To complete the proof, we have Nil V ~ R a d V
since Nil V consists of properly nilpotent and therefore properly quasi-inver-
tible elements.
4.16. PROPOSITION. I f I is an ideal of V then Nil I = I /]Nil V .
Proof. By 4.15 and 4.9, Nil I is a nil ideal of V and therefore contained
in I ~ Nil V . The converse is trivial.
4.17. Relations with radicals of Jordan alsebras. Let J be a Jordan algebra
and let V = ( 7 , 7 ) be the associated Jordan pair. The Jacobson radical, Rad J ,
of 7 is the set of properly quasi-invertible elements of 7 ( c f . McCrimmon[4])
which shows that
( 1 ) Rad V = (Rad J,Rad J).
The small radical (=lower radical, cf. McCrimmon[l]) tad J is the smallest
ideal of 7 such that 7/rad 7 has no non-zero trivial elements. This implies
that (rad J,rad 7) is a semiprime ideal of V and therefore contains tad V
= ( S + , S - ) . Conversely it is clear that ( S - , S + ) is a semiprime ideal of V
which implies S- = S + = S . We claim that S is an ideal of 7 . Since U(S)J
+ U(J)S + { J J S } ~ S by the fact that (S,S) is an ideal of V it remains to
be shown that S 2 + S o7 C S . If x G S and y ~ J then U(x2)J = u(x)27 c S
implies x 2 @ S , and from the identity U(x oy) = U U + U U + U 2 - U(x2,y 2)
x y y x x,y
it follows that U ( x o y)J C S which implies x = y G S . Thus we have
4 0 4 . 1 8
(2) r a d V = ( r a d J , r a d J ) .
B e c a u s e o f (i) a n d (2), a l l t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e J a c o b s o n a n d t h e s m a l l r a d i c a l
w h i c h w e p r o v e d f o r J o r d a n p a i r s c a r r y o v e r t o J o r d a n a l g e b r a s .
T h e s i t u a t i o n i s l e s s s a t i f y i n g f o r t h e n i l r a d i c a l . A s s u m e t h a t J i s
u n i t a l a n d l e t N i l J b e t h e n i l r a d i c a l o f J , i . e . , t h e l a r g e s t n i l i d e a l
o f J . A l s o l e t N i l V = ( N + , N - ) b e t h e n i l r a d i c a l o f V . It i s e a s i l y s e e n
t h a t N + = N - = N i s a n i l i d e a l o f J a n d i s t h e r e f o r e c o n t a i n e d i n N i l J .
I n g e n e r a l , w e w i l l n o t h a v e e q u a l i t y . H o w e v e r , l e t u s c a l l a n i d e a l K o f J
p r o p e r l y n i l i f e v e r y x G K i s n i l p o t e n t i n a l l h o m o t o p e s 7 (y) o f 7 . T h e n
i t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t 7 c o n t a i n s a u n i q u e l a r g e s t p r o p e r l y n i l i d e a l P N 7
a n d t h a t N i l 7 = ( P N 7 , P N J) .
4 . 1 8 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r . T h e n
(i) R a d V + = { x G V + I V x i s r a d i c a l },
(2) R a d W + = { x G V + ] Q ( y ) x S R a d V - } ,
Y
(3) R a g V + = ~ _ R a d V + .
y G V Y
P r o o f . (i) i s o b v i o u s f r o m t h e s y m m e t r y p r i n c i p l e ( 3 . 3 ) a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f
t h e J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l . F o r (2) w e h a v e x ~ R a d V + i f a n d o n l y i f x i s q u a s i -
Y
i n v e r t i b l e i n a l l h o m o t o p e s (V~) (z) . B y 1 . 9 . 4 t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h ( X , Q y Z )
q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e , a n d , b y 3 . 5 , w i t h Q y X @ R a d V - . F i n a l l y , s i n c e R a d V i s a n
i d e a l i t i s c l e a r t h a t R a d V + i s c o n t a i n e d i n a l l R a d V + . C o n v e r s e l y , l e t
Y
x @ R a d V + f o r a l l y @ V - . T h e n b y (2), B ( x , Q ( y ) x ) i s i n v e r t i b l e f o r a l l
Y
y G V- , a n d b y J P 2 4 i t f o l l o w s t h a t x @ R a d V + .
4 . 1 9 . P R O P O S I T I O N . F o r v @ V - l e t J = ~ + a n d d e f i n e
v
K = { x @ J I Q ( v ) x = Q ( v ) Q ( x ) v = 0 }.
4 . 2 0 4 1
T h e n K i s a n i d e a l o f J s u c h t h a t U K K = 0 ; i n p a r t i c u l a r ~ K t- T a d J .
P r o o f . W e h a v e t o s h o w t h a t K 2 + K Q J + U ( K ) J + U ( J ) K + V ( J , J ) K c K , w h e r e
2
x = Q ( x ) v , x o y = { x v y } , U ( x ) = Q ( x ) Q ( v ) a n d V ( x , y ) = D ( x , Q ( v ) y ) (cf. 1 . 9 ) .
F i r s t l e t K' = K e r Q ( v ) . T h e n K C K' , a n d U ( J ) K ' = 0 a n d U ( K ' ) J + V ( J , J ) K '
c K' b y J P 3 . A l s o Q ( v ) ( J o K ' ) = Q ( v ) { J , v , K ' } C { v , J , Q ( v ) K ' } = 0 b y J p l a n d
h e n c e J = K ' C K' .
C l e a r l y K i s c l o s e d u n d e r s c a l a r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . L e t x , y G K . T h e n
Q ( v ) ( x + y) = 0 a n d Q ( v ) Q ( x + y ) v = Q ( v ) ( Q ( x ) v + Q ( x , y ) v + Q ( y ) v ) = Q ( v ) { x v y }
0 s i n c e { x v y } = x = y G K' . T h i s s h o w s t h a t K is a s u b m o d u l e o f J . A l s o ,
Q ( v ) x 2 = Q ( v ) Q ( x ) v = 0 a n d Q ( v ) Q ( x 2 ) v = Q v Q x Q v Q x v = 0 w h i c h i m p l i e s K 2 C K .
N o w l e t x ~ K a n d y G J . T h e n b y J P 2 0 w e h a v e Q v Q ( X o y ) v = Q v Q x Q v Q y V
+ ~ Q y Q v Q x v + ~ Q ( x , Y ) Q v ( X o y ) - Q v ( X 2 o y 2 ) . T h e f i r s t t e r m v a n i s h e s s i n c e
~ Q x Q v = Q ( Q v x ) = 0 , a n d t h e s e c o n d t e r m b y d e f i n i t i o n o f K . A l s o Q ( v ) (x ~ y)
= Q ( v ) ( x 2 a y 2 ) = 0 s i n c e K 2 C K a n d K ' ~ J C K ' . H e n c e K o J C K . F r o m t h e
d e f i n i t i o n o f K a n d J P 3 i t f o l l o w s e a s i l y t h a t U ( K ) J + U ( J ) K ~ K . F i n a l l y ,
l e t x @ K a n d y , z G J . T h e n b y J e 2 0 , Q ( v ) Q ( V x , y Z ) V = Q ( v ) Q ( { x , Q ( v ) y , z } ) v
= Q v Q x Q ( Q v y ) Q z v + Q v Q z Q ( ~ y ) Q x V + Q v Q ( X , z ) Q ( ~ y ) ( x o z) - ~ ( Q x y O Q z y ) = 0 ,
u s i n g J P 3 a n d w h a t w e a l r e a d y p r o v e d . T h u s w e h a v e s h o w n t h a t K i s a n i d e a l o f
J 9 O b v i o u s l y , U ( K ) K = Q ( K ) Q ( v ) K = O, T h e r e f o r e K i s a s - r a d i c a l i d e a l o f J
a n d h e n c e c o n t a i n e d i n T a d J .
4 . 2 0 . R e m a r k . If 2 i s i n v e r t i b l e i n k o r i f V is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e t h e n w e
h a v e K = K' = K e r Q ( v ) . I n d e e d , x ~ K i f a n d o n l y i f v ( 2 ' x ) = v ( 3 ' x ) = 0 .
If 2 i s i n v e r t i b l e i n k t h e n v ( 3 ' x ) = ( i / 2 ) v o v ( 2 ' x ) i n V - . I f V i s
x
n o n - d e g e n e r a t e t h e n Q ( Q v Q x v ) = ~ Q x Q v Q x Q v = Q ( Q v X ) Q x ~ a n d h e n c e x G K'
i m p l i e s x ~ K .
42 4 . 2 1
4.21. T h e e x t r e m e r a d i c a l E x t r ( V ) = ( E + , E - ) of a J o r d a n p a i r V is d e f i n e d a s
E ~ = { x ~ V a [ Q( x ) = D( x , V - ~ ) = D( V- ~ = 0 } .
I t i s a n e a s y e x e r c i s e t o v e r i f y t h a t E x t r ( V) i s a n i d e a l o f V , o b v i o u s l y
c o n t a i n e d i n r a d V . I f a a n d b a r e i n t h e c e n t r o i d o f V t h e n we c a n
s h a r p e n 1 . 1 6 t o s a y t h a t t h e i ma g e o f [ a , b ] i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e e x t r e me r a d i c a l .
T h e p r o o f is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and is t h e r e f o r e o m i t t e d . B y 1.16, t h e c e n t r o i d is
t h e n a c o m m u t a t i v e k - a l g e b r a , p r o v i d e d t h e e x t r e m e r a d i c a l is z e r o (cf. t h e
a n a l o g o u s s i t u a t i o n for J o r d a n a l g e b r a s i n M c C r i m m o n [ 3 ] ) .
w P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o ~
5.1. R e s u l a r e l e m e n t s a n d i d e m p o t e n t s . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k . A n
e l e m e n t x G V + is c a l l e d (von N e u m a n n ) r e g u l a r if t h e r e e x i s t s y G V- s u c h
t h a t x = Q ( x ) y . S i n c e Q ( x ) y = x (2'y) i n the J o r d a n a l g e b r a V + t h i s m e a n s
Y
t h a t x is a n i d e m p o t e n t of V + . R e g u l a r e l e m e n t s of V- a r e d e f i n e d a n a l o g o u s -
Y
ly. N o t e t h a t a n o n - z e r o r e g u l a r e l e m e n t d o e s n o t b e l o n g to Rad V . I n d e e d , if
x = Q ( x ) y t h e n J P 2 3 i m p l i e s B ( x , y ) Q ( x ) = 0 , a n d if (x,y)
t i b l e t h e n Q(x) = 0 a n d t h e r e f o r e x = 0 , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
w e r e q u a s i - i n v e r -
A p a i r (x,y) G V is c a l l e d a n i d e m p o t e n t if x = Q ( x ) y a n d y = Q ( y ) x ;
in o t h e r w o r d s , if x is a n i d e m p o t e n t in V + and y is a n i d e m p o t e n t in V- .
y x
C l e a r l y , if (x,y) is a n i d e m p o t e n t of V t h e n (y,x) is a n i d e m p o t e n t of
V ~ . It is a n e l e m e n t a r y b u t i m p o r t a n t f a c t t h a t e v e r y r e g u l a r e l e m e n t c a n b e
c o m p l e t e d to a n i d e m p o t e n t ; m o r e p r e c i s e l y :
5 . 2 4 3
5 . 2 . L E M M A . I f x i s r e g u l a r , x = Q x y , t h e n ( X , Q y X ) i s a n i d e m p o t e n t .
I n d e e d , b y J P 3 w e h a v e Q ( Q y X ) X = Q y Q x Q y X = Q y Q x Q y Q x Y = Q y Q ( Q x y ) y = Q y Q x y = Q y X
a n d Q x ( Q y X ) = Q x Q y ( Q x y ) = Q ( Q x y ) y = Q x y .
5 . 3 . L E M M A . L e t e = ( e + , e - ) b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f V . F o r a n y e x t e n s i o n R o f
k l e t R * b e t h e g r o u p o f i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s o f R , a n d l e t t @ R * . T h e n
+ ) e R ) ~ V R i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e w i t h q u a s i - i n v e r s e t - l e ~ , t h e p a i r ( e R , ( l - t
a n d t h e f o r m u l a
d e f i n e s a h o m o m o r p h i s m
+ ( t ) = B ( e ~ , ( 1 - t ) e ~ )
= ~ e : R * I n n ( V R ) f r o m
p h i s m g r o u p o f V R .
+ = V + ~ R , c f 0 . 3 ) ( H e r e e R = e + ~ l i n V R
R * i n t o t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r -
P r o o f . C l e a r l y , e R = ( e R , e R ) i s a n i d e m p o t e n t o f V R . T o s i m p l i f y n o t a t i o n ,
+ +
l e t u s w r i t e e - i n s t e a d o f e ~ . T h e n w e h a v e
B ( e + , ( l _ t ) e - ) . t - l e + t - i + - i = e - t ( l - t ) { e + e - e + } + t - l ( l - t ) 2 Q ( e + ) Q ( e - ) e +
- i + +
= t ( i - 2 ( l - t ) + ( l - t ) 2 ) e + = t e = e - Q ( e + ) ( l - t ) e - ,
a n d
B ( e + , ( l - t ) e - ) . Q ( t - l e + ) ( l - t ) e - = ( l - t ) e + = q ( e + ) ( l - t ) e - .
T h i s p r o v e s t h e f i r s t a s s e r t i o n i n v i e w o f 3 . 2 . B y 3 . 9 . 2 w e h a v e
~ ( s ) ~ ( t ) = B ( e + , ( l - s ) e - ) B ( e + , ( l - t ) e - ) = 8 ( e + , ( l - s ) e - ) B ( s - l e + , s ( l - t ) e - )
= B ( e + , ( l - s + s ( l - t ) ) e - ) = B ( e + , ( l - s t ) e - ) = ~ ( s t ) ,
a n d t h e L e ~ i s p r o v e d .
44 5 . 4
5.4. T H E O R E M . ( P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n )
d e f i n e E~ ~ End( V ~) by_
1
L e t e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f V , a n d
O ~ B ( e C ~ e - O )
o = Q ( e a ) Q ( e - a ) , E 1 =
E 2 = D ( e ~ e - ~ - 2 E 2 , E 0
s o t h a t
( 1 )
B ( e a, ( l - t ) e - ~ E 0
f o r a l l t G R , R a n e x t e n s i o n o f k .
(a) T h e E ? a r e o r t h o g o n a l p r o j e c t i o n s w h o s e s u m i s t h e i d e n t i t y , a n d h e n c e
l
(2) V a a o o
= V 2 ~ V 1 @ V 0
w h e r e V O" = E ~ ( V ~)
i
(b) W e h a v e
o o O K e r (Q ( e - O ) )
(3) W 2 = I m ( Q ( e ~ V 1 ~ V 0 = ,
o K e r ( I d - D ( e ~
(4) V 1 =
(7
(5) V 0 = K e r ( Q ( e - a ) ) r~ K e r ( D ( J , e - a ) ) ,
(6) V ? ~ { x 6 V ~ I a - ~ { e , e , x } = i x } .
1
(c) S e t V. a = 0 f o r
I
i # 0 , 1 , 2 . T h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s h o l d .
(7) a - a
Q ( V i ) V j C V 2 i _ j ,
(8) { V i , V j , V i _ j + s ,
- o V o } ~ - o a
(9) {V2,V 0 , = { V 0 , V 2 , V } = O.
P r o o f . (a) L e t R b e a n e x t e n s i o n o f k a n d l e t
~ ( t ) = B ( e O, ( l - t ) e - O ) ,
f o r a l l t G R * . T h e n ~ ( t ) = ( ~ + ( t ) , ~ _ ( t ) - I ) , a n d b y 5 . 3 , # : R * G L ( V ~ )
O + O o N o w l e t S a n d T
a h o m o m o r p h i s m . I n p a r t i c u l a r , I d = 4 o ( 1 ) = E 0 E 1 + E 2 .
i s
5 . 4 4 5
b e i n d e t e r m i n a t e s , a n d l e t R = k [ S , T , S - I , T - I ] . T h u s R i s a f r e e k - m o d u l e
9 ' , , o ~ S I T 3 V ~ a n d w i t h b a s i s S I T 3 ( i , j ) ~ Z Z w h i c h i m p l i e s V R =
i , j
E n d ( V ~ ) = ~ . , s i T J E n d ( V O) . H e n c e w e c a n c o m p a r e c o e f f i c i e n t s a t S i T j . W e
h a v e
2 2
i j O O
* a ( S T ) = [ ( N T ) i E ~ = * o ( S ) * a ( T ) = X S T E . E .
i = 0 i , j = 0 i 3
a n d t h e r e f o r e E . E . = B . . E . .
I 3 13 i
(b) W e h a v e I m ( Q ( e ~ I m ( E ~ ) = V 2 ~ I m ( E 2 Q ( e q ) ) = I m ( Q ( e ~ ) ) s i n c e E ~ Q ( e a)
= Q ( e ~ O ) = Q ( Q ( e ~ Q ( e a ) . S i m i l a r l y , K e r ( Q ( e - O ) ) C K e r ( E ~ )
= V l a ~ V0a C K e r ( Q ( e - ~ = K e r ( Q ( e - O ) ) . T h i s p r o v e s (3). N o w (5) f o l l o w s f r o m
(i) a n d ( 3 ) . F o r (6) l e t R = k ( e ) b e t h e a l g e b r a o f d u a l n u m b e r s . I f x . G V ~
1 1
t h e n w e h a v e
w h i c h p r o v e s (6).
{ e a e - ~ = 2 x 2
m e a n s x 2 = x 0
s e ) . x . = x . - { e ~ i }
~ a ( l _ e ) . x . = B ( e a, - o
l i I
= ( l - r i = ( I - i s i ,
N O W l e t x = x 2 + x I + x 0 G V ~ w h e r e x.1 ~ V?I " T h e n
+ x I = i x i m p l i e s ( i - 2 ) x 2 + ( i - l ) x I + i x 0 = 0 . F o r i = 1
= 0 , o r x = x I , a n d h e n c e w e h a v e (4).
t h i s
(c) L e t R = k [ T , T - I ] , a n d l e t x G V ~ V - ~ V ~
i , y G , z G ] s
= ( ~ + ( T ) , ~ _ ( T - I ) ) i s a n a u t o m o r p h i s m o f V R w e h a v e b y (i)
S i n c e r (T)
~ ( T ) Q ( x ) y = Q ( ~ ( T ) x ) . r ( T - l ) y = Q ( T i x ) T - J y
= T 2 i - J Q ( x ) y = E ~ ( Q ( x ) y ) + T E ~ ( Q ( x ) y ) + T 2 E ~ ( Q ( x ) y ) .
a
C o m p a r i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a t p o w e r s o f T w e g e t Q ( x ) y G V 2 i _ j . S i m i l a r l y ,
~ a ( T ) . { x y z } = { ~ o ( r ) x , ~ _ o ( T - l ) y , ~ o ( T ) z } = { T i x , T - J y , T % z } = T i - J + % . { x y z } i m p l i e s
{ x y z } @ V ~ a a n d y @ V O a i - j + s . T h i s p r o v e s (7) a n d (8). N o w l e t x ~ V 2
T h e n b y J P 7 , J P 8 , (3) a n d (5) w e h a v e
4 6 5 . 5
D ( y , e ~ ) = D ( y , Q ( e ~ - O ) = D ( { e - a e ~ O) - D ( e - q , Q ( e ~ ) y ) = 0
a n d h e n c e D ( x , y ) = D ( Q ( e ~ 1 7 6 = D ( e ~ 1 7 6 - D ( Q ( e ~
= 0 . S i m i l a r l y o n e p r o v e s D ( y , x ) = 0 .
5 . 5 . C O R O L L A R Y . Le___~t V i = ( V ~ , V i ) f o r i = 0 , 1 , 2 . T h e n V i = V i ( e ) i s a s u b -
+
p a i r o f Q , an___dd V 2 ( e ) c o n t a i n s i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s ; i n d e e d , e + G V 2 i s i n -
v e r t l b l e i n V 2 ( e ) w i t h i n v e r s e e -
T h i s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m 5 . 4 . B y a b u s e o f n o t a t i o n , w e w i l l o f t e n
w r i t e
( i )
i n s t e a d o f 5 . 4 . 2 .
V = V 2 ( e ) 9 V l ( e ) ~9 V 0 ( e )
5 . 6 . T h e c a s e o f a J o r d a n a l g e b r a .
2
a n i d e m p o t e n t o f J i n t h e u s u a l s e n s e ; i . e . , c = c . T h e n
p o t e n t o f t h e J o r d a n p a i r V = ( J , J ) , a n d w e h a v e
V
i = J i / 2 ' (i = 0 , 1 , 2 )
i f J = J l ~ J l / 2 ~ J O d e n o t e s t h e u s u a l P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f J w i t h r e -
+ a n d E ~ = I d - V ( c , c ) s p e c t t o c . I n d e e d , E ~ = U ( c ) 2 E ~ = V ( c , c ) - 2 U c
+ U a r e t h e f a m i l i a r P e i r c e p r o j e c t i o n s ( c f . J a c o b s o n [ 3 ] ) . I n t h e s e n o t e s ,
c
P e i r c e s p a c e s w i l l a l w a y s b e i n d e x e d w i t h 0 , 1 , 2 i n s t e a d o f 0 , 1 / 2 , 1 . T h u s t h e
P e i r c e - 2 - s p a c e ( r e s p . P e i r c e - l - s p a e e ) i n o u r s e n s e i s t h e P e i r c e - l - s p a c e ( r e s p .
L e t J b e a J o r d a n a l g e b r a , a n d l e t c b e
( c , c ) i s a n i d e m -
P e i r c e - i / 2 - s p a c e ) i n t h e u s u a l s e n s e .
5 . 7 4 7
5 . 7 . L E M M A . W i t h t h e n o t a t i o n s o f 5 . 4 ~ l e t x G V ~ , y G V j , a n d a s s u m e t h a t
i # j . T h e n ( x , y ) i s n i l p o t e n t ; i n f a c t , x ( n ' y ) = 0 f o r a l l n ~ 3 , a n d
e v e n f o r n m 2 i f i = 2 o r i = 0 .
I n d e e d , x ( n ' y ) b e l o n g s t o V +
( n - 1 ) ( i - j ) + i b y 5 . 4 ( c ) .
5 . 8 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t V. (i = 0 , 1 , 2 )
1
o f V and V. a r e r e l a t e d by
- - 1
b e a s i n 5 . 5 . T h e n t h e J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l s
(i) R a d V i = V i / ~ R a d V ,
(2) R a d V = R a d V 2 ~ R a d V I 9 R a d V 0 .
P r o o f . C l e a r l y V. ~ R a d V < R a d V. . C o n v e r s e l y l e t x . ~ P a d V ~ , a n d l e t
1 1 1 1
y G V - . D e c o m p o s e Y = Y 2 + Y l + Y 0 w h e r e y j ~ V j . T h e n ( x i , Y i ) i s q u a s i -
i n v e r t i b l e i n V.l a n d h e n c e i n V , a n d w e h a v e z i = ( x i ) Y i ~ R a d V~l " F o r
i = 2 i t f o l l o w s f r o m 5 . 7 , 3 . 7 . 1 , a n d 3 . 8 . 2 t h a t ( z 2 , Y l + Y o ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i -
b l e , a n d a g a i n b y 3 . 7 . 1 , ( x 2 , Y 2 + Y l + Y 0 ) = ( x 2 , Y )
o n e a r g u e s f o r i = 0 . I n c a s e i = 1 n o t e t h a t
i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . S i m i l a r l y
Q ( y 2 + Y 0 ) Z l = { Y 2 Z l Y 0 } ~ V 1
+
b y 5 . 4 ( c ) . S i n c e z I 6 R a d V I w e h a v e b y J P 2 4 t h a t B ( Z l , Q ( y 2 + Y 0 ))
= B ( z l , Y 2 + Y 0 ) B ( Z l , - y 2 - Y 0 ) i s i n v e r t i b l e a n d h e n c e ( z l , Y 2 + Y 0 ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r -
t i b l e . B y 3 . 7 . 1 , ( x l , Y 2 + Y l + Y 0 ) = ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . T h i s p r o v e s
R a d V ~ = V ~ R a d V + P a s s i n g t o V ~ w e a l s o g e t R a d V 7 = V 7 ~ R a m V -
1 1 1 1
a n d t h e r e f o r e (i). S i n c e e v e r y i d e a l o f V i s t h e s u m o f i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n s w i t h
t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s w e h a v e (2).
5 . 9 . L E M M A . __Let z i ~ V a n d z = z 2 + z I + z 0 . T h e n z i s a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t
i f a n d o n l y i f Q ( z 2 ) = Q ( z 0 ) = Q ( Z l , Z 2 ) = Q ( Z l , Z 0 ) = Q ( Z l ) + Q ( z 2 , Z o ) = 0 .
T h e p r o o f i s a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f 5 . 4 ( c ) a n d i s o m i t t e d .
4 8 5 . 1 0
5 . 1 0 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t V. ( i = 0 , 1 , 2 ) h e a s i n 5 . 5 . T h e n
(i) r a d V. = V . ~ r a d V , f o r i = 0 , 2 .
I 1
I f V 0 = 0 t h e n a l s o
(2) r e d V I = V I ~ r e d V .
P r o o f . L e t T (V) b e a s i n 4 . 7 . W e p r o v e b y t r a n s f i n i t e i n d u c t i o n t h a t
(3) T ( V i ) = V i ( ~ T (V)
f o r i = 0 , 2 , a n d f o r i = 1 i n c a s e V 0 = 0 . F o r ~ = 0 t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o
p r o v e . A s s u m e t h a t (3) h o l d s f o r a l l o r d i n a l s ~ < ~ . I f ~ i s a l i m i t o r d i n a l
t h e n (3) h o l d s f o r ~ b y d e f i n i t i o n ( o f . 4 . 7 . 1 ) . O t h e r w i s e , l e t z 6 V + s u c h
1
t h a t Q ( z ) V ~ " C T ~ - I ( V i + ) = V+i ~ T ~ - I ( V + ) , b y i n d u c t i o n h y p o t h e s i s . I f i = 2
( r a s p . i = 0) t h e n i t f o l l o w s f r o m 5 . 4 ( c ) t h a t Q ( z ) ( V 1 + V 0 ) = 0 ( r e a p .
+
Q ( z ) ( Q 2 + V l ) = 0 ) . I f i = 1 a n d V 0 = 0 t h e n Q ( z ) V 2 ~ ~ 0 = 0 . H e n c e i n a n y
c a s e , Q ( z ) Y - ~ T _ I ( V + ) a n d t h e r e f o r e z ~ T e ( U + ) . T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t s a p p l y
t o Y - a n d s o w e h a v e T ~ ( V i) C V i fq T (V) . F o r t h e o t h e r i n c l u s i o n , l e t
w G V i + ~ T (V) 9 T h u s w i s a f i n i t e s u m o f e l e m e n t s z G V + s u c h t h a t Q ( z ) V -
< T l ( ~ ) D e v o t e by z i the component of z in V ~ Sinoe w ~ V +~ we see
t h a t w i s t h e s u m o f t h e z i ' s . A l s o p s i n c e z i s a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t m o d u l o
T _ I ( V ) s o i s z i f o r i = 0 , 2 , a n d f o r i = 1 i n c a s e V 0 = 0 , b y 5 . 9 . I n
p a r t i c u l a r , z i 6 T e ( V + ) a n d h e n c e w G T ( V + ) . T h i s p r o v e s t h e o t h e r i n c l u s i o n .
N o w t h e P r o p o s i t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m 4 . 7 b y p a s s i n g t o t h e l i m i t .
5 . 1 1 . L E M M A . L e t e
a l s o e G V 0 ( f ) a n d
(1)
(2)
a n d f b e i d e m p o t e n t s o f V s u c h t h a t f ~ V 0 ( e ) . T h e n
e + f = (e + + f + , e - + f - ) i s a n i d e m p o t e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
D ( e + , f - ) = Q ( e + ) Q ( f - ) = 0 ,
D ( e + , e - ) Q ( f + ) = Q ( f + ) D ( e - , e + ) = 0 ,
5 . 1 2 4 9
(3) Q ( e + ) Q ( e - , f - ) = Q ( e + , f + ) Q ( e - ) = 0,
(4) Q ( e + , f + ) Q ( e " ,f ) = D ( e + , e - ) D ( f + , f - ) ,
(5) V 2 ( f ) C V o ( e ) ,
a n d t h e s a m e r e l a t i o n s h o l d w i t h e a n d f a n d / o r + a n d - i n t e r c h a n g e d .
P r o o f . B y 5 . 4 ( c ) , Q ( f - ~ ~ = { f ~ ~ } = 0 a n d h e n c e e ~ V 0 ( f ) b y 5 . 4 . 5 . N o w
(i) - (3) a n d t h e f a c t t h a t e + f i s a n i d e m p o t e n t f o l l o w e a s i l y f r o m 5 . 4 . F o r
f + + (4) w e s u b s t i t u t e x = , y = f - , v = e - , z = e i n J P I 6 a n d u s e ( i ) .
F i n a l l y , (5) f o l l o w s f r o m 5 . 4 . 3 , 5 . 4 . 5 , (i) a n d ( 2 ) . S i n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n s
f 6 V (e) a n d e G V 0 ( f ) i m p l y e a c h o t h e r (i) - (5) a l s o h o l d w i t h e a n d f
0
i n t e r c h a n g e d . T o s e e t h a t t h e y h o l d w i t h + a n d - i n t e r c h a n g e d o n e p a s s e s
t o V ~ .
5 . 1 2 . D E F I N I T I O N . T w o n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t s e a n d f a r e c a l l e d o r t h o g o n a l
i f f G V 0 ( e ) . I n v i e w o f 5 . 1 1 t h i s i s a s y m m e t r i c r e l a t i o n . B y a n o r t h o g o n a l
s _ y s t e m o f i d e m p o t @ n t s w e m e a n a n o r d e r e d s e t o f p a i r w i s e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s .
A f i n i t e o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f i d e m p o t e n t s i s u s u a l l y d e n o t e d b y ( e l , . . . , e r ) ,
t h e o r d e r b e i n g t h e o n e g i v e n b y t h e i n d e x i n g . I t f o l l o w s e a s i l y f r o m 5 . 1 1 t h a t
a f i n i t e s u m o f p a i r w i s e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s i s a g a i n a n i d e m p o t e n t .
A n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t e i s c a l l e d p r i m i t i v e i f i t c a n n o t b e w r i t t e n a s
t h e s u m o f t w o o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s . W e s a y e i s l o c a l ( r e s p . a d i v i s i o n i d e m -
p o t e n t ) i f V 2 ( e ) i s a l o c a l J o r d a n p a i r ( r e s p . a J o r d a n d i v i s i o n p a i r ) .
C l e a r l y , a d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t i s l o c a l , a n d a l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t i s p r i m i t i v e . I f
V i s s e m i s i m p l e t h e n a l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t i s a d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t , a s f o l l o w s
f r o m 4 . 4 a n d 5 . 8 . E v e n i n t h e s e m i s i m p l e c a s e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e m a y e x i s t p r i m i t i v e
i d e m p o t e n t s w h i c h a r e n o t d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t s . A s a n e x a m p l e , l e t k b e a f i e l d
o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t w o , a n d l e t V b e t h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e J o r d a n
5 0 5 . 1 3
a l g e b r a o f 2 2 s y m m e t r i c m a t r i c e s o v e r k . T h e n o n e c a n c h e c k t h a t
e = ( e + , e -) , w h e r e e - = , i s a p r i m i t i v e i d e m p o t e n t w h i c h i s n o t a
1 0
d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , p r i m i t i v e i d e m p o t e n t s a r e l e s s i m p o r t a n t
t h a n l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t s i n t h e t h e o r y o f J o r d a n p a i r s .
A n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m E o f i d e m p o t e n t s i s c a l l e d m a x i m a l i f i t i s n o t
p r o p e r l y c o n t a i n e d i n a n y l a r g e r o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f i d e m p o t e n t s . I f E = (e)
c o n s i s t s o f a s i n g l e e l e m e n t w e a l s o s a y t h a t e i s a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t . T h i s
o b v i o u l y m e a n s t h a t V 0 ( e ) c o n t a i n s n o n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t . I f E = ( e l , . . . , e r)
i s f i n i t e t h e n E i s m a x i m a l i f a n d o n l y i f e = e I + ... + e is m a x i m a l .
r
r
T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t V 0 ( e ) = ~ V 0 ( e i ) , t o b e p r o v e d i n 5 . 1 4 .
i = l
5 . 1 3 . L E M M A . Le__~t ( e l , . . . , e r ) b e a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f i d e m p o t e n t s . L e t R
b e a n e x t e n s i o n o f k , a n d f o r e a c h i = 1 , . . . , r l e t ~ i = ~ e . : R* ~ I n n ( VR)
1
b e t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m d e t e r m i n e d b y e. a s i n 5 . 3 .
l
( a )
( 1 )
T h e ~ i
c o m m u t e p a i r w i s e , a n d h e n c e
r
@ ( t I . . . . . t r) = H ~ i ( t i )
i = l
d e f i n e s a h o m o m o r p h i s m 0: (R*) r ~ I n n ( V R) .
R *
(b) L e t e = e I + ... + e r a n d l e t ~ = ~ e : + I n n ( V R )
d e f i n e d b y e . T h e n
b e t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m
r
(2) ~ ( t ) = O ( t . . . . . t) = ~ ~ i ( t ) .
i = l
P r o o f . B y i n d u c t i o n , i t s u f f i c e s t o p r o v e t h i s f o r r = 2. T h u s l e t e a n d f
b e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s . T h e n ~ e ( t ) . f = f , a n d h e n c e b y 3 . 9 . 5 ,
5 . 1 4 51
} e ( t ) ~ f ( S ) ~ e ( t ) - i = 8 ( ~ e ( t ) . ( f + , ( l - s ) f - ) ) = B ( f + , ( l - s ) f -) = %f(s),
f o r a l l s , t @ R * . T h i s p r o v e s ( a ) . N e x t , n o t e t h a t b y 5 . 1 1 . 1 w e h a v e
8 ( e + , % f -) = 8 ( f + , l e -) = Id , f o r a l l % @ R . H e n c e w e get, u s i n g 3.9,
9 e + f ( t ) = 8 ( e + + f + , ( ( 1 - t ) ( e + f )) = 8 ( e + + f +, ( l - t ) e - ) 8 ( ( e + + f + ) ( l - t ) e ~ ( l - t ) f - )
= ~ ( f + , ( ( l - t ) e - ) e ' ) . B ( e + , ( l - t ) e - ) . B ( f + + t - l e + , ( l - t ) f - )
_ f +
= ~ ( f + , t - l ( l - t ) e - ) . ~ e ( t ) . ~ ( t - l e + , ( ( l _ t ) f ) ) . B ( f + , ( l - t ) f -)
= ~ e ( t ) . B ( e + , t - 2 ( l - t ) f - ) . @ f ( t ) = ~ e ( t ) . ~ f ( t ) 9
+
H e r e w e u s e d t h a t ((l-t)e-) e = ( l - t ) e - + Q ( ( l - t ) e - ) t - l e + = t - l ( l - t ) e -, b y
- ( f + ) t - ~ 3 . 3 a n d 5.3, a n d (e++f+) ( l - t ) e t - I + e + B ( e +, (l_t)e-)-l. ( l - t ) e -
= t - l e + + f + b y 3.7, 3 . 8 a n d 5 . 7
5.14. T H E O R E M . L e t ( e l , . . . , e r) b e a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f i d e m p o t e n t s o f V .
(a) T h e r e i s a d e c o m p o s i t i o n
(i) V = ~ Vij
0 ~ i ~ j s r
= V - o f V i n t o s u b p a i r s Vij ( i j , V i j ) s u c h t h a t (if w e s e t
Vij = V j i )
(2) V2(ei) = V i i ' Vl(ei) = j ~ i Vij' V 0 ( e i) = I V j % ,
j , % # i
a n d h e n c e
i Wij = V l ( e i ) s V l ( e j ) f o r i # j,
( 3 ) r
(/iO = Vl(ei) {~ J ~ # i V0(ej) ' V00 = i=l~ V0(ei)
q
(b) M o r e s e n e r a l l y , i f I C { l , . . . , r } a n d e T = I e ~ t h e n t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s
i 6 I
o f e I a r e g i v e n b y
5 2 5 . 1 4
(4) V 2 ( e I ) = ~ Vii , V l ( e i ) = [ Vij , V o ( e i ) = ~ g...
i , j @ l i @ l i, ~ I 13
j ~
I n p a r t i c u l a r ~ i f e = e _ + ... + e t h e n
" i r
r
(5) V 2(e) = I Vij, V l ( e ) = ~ Vi0, V 0 ( e ) = W O O .
l_<i_<j_<r i = l
(e) C o n s i d e r t r i p l e s o f u n o r d e r e d p a i r s o f i n d i c e s o f t h e f o r m ( i j , m n , p q )
w h e r e i , j , .... q G { 0 , 1 ..... r } a n d ( i j , m n , p q ) i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h ( p q , m n , i j ) .
C a l l s u c h a t r i p l e c o n n e c t e d i f i t c a n b e w r i t t e n i n t h e f o r m ( i j , j m , m n ) . T h e n
w e h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s .
(6) { v ~ j v - ~ v ~ v ?
' j m ' m n ) C i n
I f ( i j , j m , i j ) i s c o n n e c t e d a n d ij = m n t h e n
i n
If ( i j , m n , p q ) r e s p . ( i j , m n , i j ) i s n o t c o n n e c t e d t h e n
{ < j < % q ) ~ 0
P r o o f . (a) F o r a n e x t e n s i o n R o f k a n d t 6 R * l e t
( 9 )
o 2 o
~ i ( t ) = B ( e l , ( l - t ) e i ~ = E 0 ( e I) + t E l ( e I ) + t E 2 ( e I)
w h e r e E ~ ( e l ) is t h e p r o j e c t i o n o n t o t h e P e i r c e s p a c e V ~ j (el) (cf. 5 . 4 ) . If I
u
= { i } w e s i m p l y w r i t e ~ i " T h e n w e h a v e ( w i t h t h e n o t a t i o n o f 5 . 1 3 ) ~ i ( t )
= ( ~ + ( t ) , ~ . ( t ) -I) a n d O ( t l , . . . , t r ) = ( O + ( t I ..... t r ) , @ _ ( t I ..... tr )-I) w h e r e
r
e u ( t I . . . . . t r) = 7[ ~ i ( t i ) 9
i = l
( 10)
W o r k i n g i n k [ S , T , S - I , T -I] a n d c o m p a r i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e e q u a t i o n
= ~ j ( T ) ~ i ( S ) (cf. 5 . 1 3 ) w e s e e t h a t t h e p r o j e c t i o n s
(9) a n d (i0) i t f o l l o w s t h a t
~ i ( s ) ~ j (T)
Ej (el) a l l c o m m u t e . F r o m
5 . 1 4 5 3
~ i ~ r . E o
( i i ) e = [ t I . . . t
o ( t l . . . . ' t r ) r
~ C N Z
r
w h e r e t h e E ~ = H E ~ (e i) , ~ . . . , ~ r ) s N j i = l ~ i = ( ~ I ' , a r e o r t h o g o n a l p r o j e c t i o n s
w h o s e s u m i s t h e i d e n t i t y ( w e s e t E ~ ( e i) = 0 f o r
+ e , a n d l e t E ? b e t h e p r o j e c t i o n o n t o t h e P e i r c e s p a c e
r 1
R = k [ T , T - I ] . T h e n w e h a v e b y ( i 0 ) , 5 . 1 3 . 2 , a n d 5 . 4 . 1 ,
j > 2 ) . L e t e = e I + ...
V ~ A l s o l e t
i
( 1 2 ) e ( T . . . . ,T) : [ T ~ l + ' ' ' + a r E O a + T . E ~ + T 2 . E ~ .
o " ~ = E O
~ 6 N J
T h i s s h o w s t h a t E~ = 0 u n l e s s ~ i + "'" + ~ r -< 2 . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i f w e d e n o t e
b y s i = ( 0 , . . . , i , . . . , 0 ) t h e i - t h s t a n d a r d b a s i s v e c t o r o f Z J a n d s e t s o
= ( 0 , . . . , 0 ) t h e n ~ i s o f t h e f o r m e. + r , w i t h i , j r a n g i n g f r o m 0 t o r .
i 3
o o E ~
L e t E . . = E = T h e n t h e E . , (0 < i < j < r ) a r e o r t h o g o n a l p r o j e c -
x 3 J i r " x 3 - - -
t i o n s w h o s e s u m i s t h e i d e n t i t y , a n d t h e r e f o r e w e h a v e t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n (I)
w i t h V'~ = E ~ j ( V ~) .
F o r m u l a ( i i ) r e a d s n o w
( 1 3 ) 8 o ( t 1 . . . . t r ) = I t i t j
0 s i s j ~ r " E i j '
i f w e s e t t O = I . N o w l e t I b e a s u b s e t o f { l , . . . , r } a n d s e t t i = T
i 6 1 a n d t i = i i f i ~ I . T h e n w e g e t b y ( 9 ) , ( i 0 ) , a n d 5 . 1 3 . 2 t h a t
i f
~ ( T ) = ~ ~ ( T ) = T 2 ( I E i j ) + T ( ~ E i j ) + (
i 6 1 i , j 6 1 i 6 1 i , 4 1 E i j )
i E j j 6 1 i s j
= T 2 . E ~ ( e l ) + T . E ~ ( e I) + E ~ ( e I) 9
C o m p a r i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s a t p o w e r s o f T t h i s p r o v e s (4) a n d (2) ( i n t h e s p e c i a l
c a s e w h e r e I = { i } ) , a n d (5) i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f (4).
5 4 5 . 1 4
o
N o w w e p r o v e (c). L e t R = k [ T 1 . . . . . T r ; T I I . . . . . T $ I] , a n d l e t x @ Vij ,
V-O V o Y @ j m ' z @ m n . T h e n w e h a v e , w r i t i n g T = ( T I , . . . , T r ) f o r s h o r t ,
0 o ( T ) { x y z } = { @ o ( ~ ) x , 0 _ o ( ~ - l ) y , 0 o ( T ) z }
= { T i T j x , T j l T m l y , T m T n z } = T i T n { X Y Z } 9
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , @ ( T ) { x y z } = Z T T E ~ { x y z }
o - 0 < p _<q_<r P q p q
~ v ? f o l l o w s t h a t { x y z } = E i n { X Y Z } @ . S i m i l a r l y ,
i n
b y ( 1 3 ) , a n d h e n c e i t
@ ( T ) Q ( x ) y = Q ( @ o ( T ) x ) @ _ o ( T j l ) y
= Q ( T i T j x ) T ~ I T ~ I y = 2 - i
T i T j T m Q ( x ) y = T i T n Q ( X ) y
s i n c e ij = m n
(6) a n d (7).
m e a n s T i T j = T m T n a n d t h e r e f o r e T T T . T - 1 1 j ? m = T.TI n . T h i s
p r o v e s
I t i s e a s i l y s e e n t h a t t h e o n l y t r i p l e s w h i c h a r e n o t c o n n e c t e d a r e o f
t h e f o r m ( i j , m n , p q ) w i t h { i , j } ~ {re,n} = ~ , o r ( i j , j m , j n ) w i t h m # i , j , n .
I n t h e f i r s t c a s e , e i t h e r i a n d j a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m z e r o o r m a n d n a r e
+ V~ V + d i f f e r e n t f r o m z e r o . L e t x @ V.. @ , z @ . I f i , j # 0 t h e n
1 3 ' Y n p q
+ + . - .
x @ V 2 ( e i e j ) a n d y @ V 0 ( e i + e j ) b y (4) I f m , n # 0 t h e n x @ V o ( e m + e n ) a n d
y @ V 2 ( e m + e n ) . H e n c e { x y z } = Q ( x ) y = 0 b y 5 . 4 . 9 . - I n t h e s e c o n d c a s e , l e t
x @ V + j V~. m V +
, y @ , z @ j n " T h e n a s i m i l a r c o m p u t a t i o n a s b e f o r e s h o w s t h a t
@ + ( T ) { x y z } = T . T . T T - l { x y z } a n d @ + ( T ) Q ( x ) y = T 2 T . T - I Q ( x ) y . S i n c e m # i , j , n
- - i j n m -- i j m
i t f o l l o w s t h a t T i T j T n T m I ( r e s p . T ~ T j T m I) i s n o t o f t h e f o r m T p T q , a n d b y
( 1 3 ) w e m u s t h a v e { x y z } = Q ( x ) y = 0 . T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t w o r k s w i t h + a n d
i n t e r c h a n g e d . T h i s f i n i s h e s t h e p r o o f .
55
N O T E S
I n [i] a n d [ 2 ] , K. M e y b e r g s t u d i e d t h e K o e c h e r - T i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n of L i e
a l g e b r a s f r o m J o r d a n a l g e b r a s i n a g e n e r a l s e t t i n g a n d w a s t h e r e b y l e d to i n t r o -
d u c e w h a t he c a l l e d " v e r b u n d e n e P a a r e " ( c o n n e c t e d p a i r s ) , a n d w h a t w e w o u l d c a l l
l i n e a r J o r d a n pairs. T h e s e w e r e p a i r s ( V + , V - ) of k - m o d u l e s w i t h t r i l i n e a r
m a p s V O V - ~ V ~ + V ~ (x,y,z) ~ {xyz} , s a t i s f y i n g
( 1 ) { x y z } = { z y x } ,
( 2 ) { u v { x y z } } - { x y { u v z } } = { { u v x } y z } - { x { v u y } z } .
If 2 is i n v e r t i b l e i n k a n d if V h a s n o 3 - t o r s i o n t h e n V = ( V + , V - ) is a
J o r d a n p a i r i n o u r s e n s e b y s e t t i n g Q ( x ) y = ( i / 2 ) { x y x } (cf. 2.2). H e a l s o d e -
fined l i n e a r J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s as m o d u l e s w i t h a t r i l i n e a r c o m p o s i t i o n {xyz}
(whence t h e n a m e ) s a t i s f y i n g (i) a n d (2). T h e r e s t r i c t i o n t h a t t h e r e b e n o 3 - t o r -
s i o n c a n b e r e m o v e d by a d d i n g t h e i d e n t i t y
( 3 ) { x y { x z x } } = { x { y x z } x } ,
w h i c h is o t h e r w i s e a c o n s e q u e n c e of (i) a n d (2) (cf. 2.2). T h i s is t h e p o i n t of
v i e w t a k e n in L o o s [ 2 ] a n d M e y b e r g [ 4 ] . F i n a l l y , M e y b e r g d e f i n e d q u a d r a t i c J o r d a n
t r i p l e s y s t e m s o v e r a n a r b i t r a r y r i n g of s c a l a r s in a n a l o g y to M c C r i m m o n ' s c o n c e p t
of q u a d r a t i c J o r d a n a l g e b r a s , b a s e d on t h e q u a d r a t i c o p e r a t o r s P(x) s a t i s f y i n g
(i) - (3) of 1 . 1 3 (cf. M e y b e r g [ 6 ] ) .
T h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a s V + (1.9) w e r e i n t r o d u c e d b y M e y b e r g [ l ] . T h e d e f i n i -
Y
t i o n of t h e c e n t r o i d of a J o r d a n p a i r is a n a l o g o u s to t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a c a s e (cf.
M c C r i m m o n [ 3 ] ) . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l i d e n t i t i e s (52) a r e a l l d u e to M e y b e r g ( [ 4 ] in t h e
l i n e a r case, [6] in t h e q u a d r a t i c case). R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s
w e r e s t u d i e d i n L o o s [ 2 ] [ 5 ] .
56
M o s t of t h e m a t e r i a l of w is, in o n e f o r m or a n o t h e r , d u e to K o e c h e r [ 2 -
4], M c C r i m m o n [ 4 ] , M e y b e r g [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] . T h e f o r m u l a s (i) a n d (2) of 3.7 a r e i m p o r t a n t
in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l g e b r a i c g r o u p s f r o m J o r d a n p a i r s resp. J o r d a n a l g e b r a s ,
s e e K o e c h e r [ 2 - 3 ] , L o o s [ 7 ] ; in p a r t i c u l a r , 3 . 7 . 2 is a s u b s t i t u t e of H u a ' s f o r m u l a
for J o r d a n a l g e b r a s . M e y b e r g d e v e l o p e d t h e t h e o r y of t h e J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l for
J o r d ~ t r i p l e s y s t e m s i n [4] a n d [6], f o l l o w i n g M c C r i m m o n ' s t h e o r y for J o r d a n
a l g e b r a s ( [ l ] , [ 4 ] ) . T h e s m a l l r a d i c a l (= l o w e r r a d i c a l ) f o r J o r d a n a l g e b r a s w a s
i n t r o d u c e d b y M c C r i m m o n [ l ] a n d s t u d i e d b y L e w a n d [ l ] ; 4 . 9 is d u e to h i m f o r J o r d a n
a l g e b r a s , a n d d u e to M e y b e r g f o r J o r d a n t r i p l e systems. T h e o r e m 4 . 1 3 w a s p r o v e d
b y S l i n ' k o [ l ] f o r l i n e a r J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d b y M c C r i m m o n f o r q u a d r a t i c J o r d a n
a l g e b r a s ( p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) . 4 . 1 8 is d u e to M e y b e r g [ 6 ] . It w o u l d b e i n t e r -
e s t i n g to e x t e n d t h i s to o t h e r r a d i c a l s . 4.10, d u e to M. S l a t e r , is a w e a k f o r m
of t h e A n d r u n a k i e v i c h Lemma. T h e r e a r e m a n y o p e n q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g r a d i c a l s ;
e.g., is t h e i d e a l g e n e r a t e d b y a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t n i l p o t e n t or s o l v a b l e in s o m e
sense, or d o e s it c o n t a i n a n o n - z e r o i d e a l c o n s i s t i n g of t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s ? T h e
a n s w e r is p o s i t i v e in t h e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a s e (514). It is e v e n u n k n o w n if
t h e r e e x i s t s i m p l e s - r a d i c a l J o r d a n p a i r s or J o r d a n a l g e b r a s .
T h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n (w is e s s e n t i a l l y a n a p p l i -
c a t i o n of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h e o r y of d i a g o n a l i z a b l e g r o u p f u n c t e r s ( D e m a z u r e &
G a b r i e l [ l ] ) in d i s g u i s e . A s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h w a s u s e d b y S p r i n g e r [ l ] f o r f i n i t e -
d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a s ; it h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e of r e d u c i n g c o m p u t a t i o n s to a
m i n i m u m . 5 . 8 is d u e to M e y b e r g [ 6 ] . I d o n ' t k n o w if 5 . 1 0 . 2 r e m a i n s t r u e w i t h o u t
t h e a s s u m p t i o n V 0 = 0 , or if 5 . 8 h o l d s f o r t h e n i l r a d i c a l .
6.1 57
c H A P T E R II
A L T E R N A T I V E P A I R S
w B a s i c p r o p e r t i e s and r e l a t i o n s w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s
L e t A = (A+,A -) b e a p a i r of k - m o d u l e s , e q u i p p e d w i t h t r i -
>: A ~ x A - ~ A ~ A ~ x , (x,y,z) ~ <xyz> . T h e n A is c a l l e d a n
6.1. D E F I N I T I O N .
l i n e a r m a p s <
a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r if t h e i d e n t i t i e s
(i) < u v < x y z > > = < u < y x v > z > = < < u v x > y z >
a r e s a t i s f i e d . A i s c a l l e d c o m m u t a t i v e if < x y z > = < z y x > . W e s a y A is a n
a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r if t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i t i e s hold.
A P I < u v < x y z > > + < x y < u v z > > = < < u v x > y z > + < x < v u y > z > ,
A P 2 < u v < x y x > > = < < u v x > y x > ,
A P 3 < x y < x y z > > = < < x y x > y z > .
S i n c e t h e s e i d e n t i t i e s a r e of d e g r e e at m o s t two in e a c h v a r i a b l e t h e y r e m a i n
v a l i d i n e v e r y s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n , a n d h e n c e A K is a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r o v e r K ,
f o r e v e r y e x t e n s i o n K of k . A l s o n o t e t h a t a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r s a r e a f o r t i o r i
a l t e r n a t i v e , as f o l l o w s e a s i l y f r o m the d e f i n i t i o n s . W e d e f i n e left, m i d d l e , and
r i g h t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s b y
(2) L o ( x , y ) z = M o ( x , z ) y = R ( z , y ) x = <xyz>,
5 8 6 . 2
s o t h a t L : A ~ x A - ~ * E n d ( A ~) , M : A ~ A a + H o m ( A - O , A ~ , a n d R : A ~ A - ~
E n d ( A o) a r e b i l i n e a r m a p s . T o s i m p l i f y n o t a t i o n , w e u s u a l l y w r i t e L ( x , y ) o r
L i n s t e a d o f L ( x , y ) , a n d s i m i l a r l y f o r t h e m i d d l e a n d r i g h t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n .
x , y
T h i s c a u s e s n o c o n f u s i o n i f o n e r e m e m b e r s t h a t i n L ( x , y ) a n d R ( x , y ) , x a n d
y h a v e t o b e i n d i f f e r e n t A a ' s (x G A +, y G A - o r c o n v e r s e l y ) w h e r e a s i n
M ( x , z ) , x a n d z a r e i n t h e s a m e A ~ . S e e a l s o 2 . 0 f o r t h e a n a l o g o u s s i t u a -
t i o n f o r J o r d a n p a i r s .
6 . 2 . A h o m o m o r p h i s m h: A + B o f a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s i s a p a i r h = ( h + , h _ ) o f
k - l i n e a r m a p s h : A ~ B ~ s u c h t h a t
(i) h ( < x y z > ) = < h ( x ) , h ( y ) , h (z)>,
f o r a l l
T h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p o f A
G L ( A ) .
A p a i r o f s u b m o d u l e s
i d e a l ) i f < B O , B - d , B O > ~ f - B ~
x , z G A ~ , y G A - a . I s o m o r p h i s m s a n d a u t o m o r p h i s m s a r e d e f i n e d a s u s u a l .
i s d e n o t e d b y A u t ( A ) ; i t i s a s u b g r o u p o f G L ( A + )
B = ( B + , B - ) o f A i s c a l l e d a s u b p a i r ( r e s p . a n
( r e s p . < A ~ 1 7 6 + < A q , B - ~ , A ~ + < B O , A - ~ C B ~
If B i s a n i d e a l t h e n A / B = ( A + / B + , A - / B - ) i s a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r i n t h e o b -
v i o u s w a y . A s u s u a l , A is c a l l e d s i m p l e i f i t h a s o n l y t h e t r i v i a l i d e a l s 0
a n d A a n d i f < A O , A - ~ # 0 .
A d e r i v a t i o n o f A i s a p a i r A = ( A + , A _ ) G E n d ( A + ) E n d ( A - ) s u c h
t h a t
( 2 ) A ( < x y z > ) = < A ( x ) , y , z > + O ~ < x , & _ o ( y ) , z > + < x , y , A ( z ) >
f o r a l l x , z 6 A ~ y 6 A - ~ T h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h I d + E A
k ( e ) i s t h e a l g e b r a o f d u a l n u m b e r s . T h e d e r i v a t i o n s o f A
D e r ( A ) o f E n d ( A + ) E n d ( A - ) .
@ A u t ( A k ( e ) ) w h e r e
f o r m a L i e s u b a l g e b r a
6.3 59
6.3. As in the Jordan case, the opposite of A is A ~ = (A-,A +) with compo-
sition <xyz> ~ = <xyz> , and an antihomomorphism from A to B is a homomor-
phism from A to B ~ . Note that the opposite of A is not defined by reversing
the order in the product <xyz> but merely by interchanging A + and A- . In
fact, our definition of alternative pairs is non-symmetric in the sense that if
we set
(i) <xyz>' = <zyx>
then <xyz>' will no longer satisfy API - AP3. Thus our alternative pairs should
perhaps be called left-alternative, and a "right-alternative pair" would satisfy
the "dual" identities
<<zyX>VN> + <<ZVU>yX> = <zy<xvu>> + <z<yuv>x>,
<<XyK>VB> = <xy<xvB>>,
<<zyx>yx> = <zy<xyx>>.
For associative pairs, there is no such distinction, and every associative pair
A gives rise to an associative pair A' having the same underlying modules and
the reversed multiplication (I). We call A' the reverse of A .
The direct product of alternative pairs A and B is A x B = ( A + x B + ,
A- x B-) with componentwise operations. In A x A ~ = (A + x A - , A - x A + ) we have
the exchange involution given By (x,y) ~ (y,x) .
6.4. The associative pairs A ( M , R , ~ ) . Let R be an associative (not necessari-
ly commutative) k-algebra, and let M = ( M + , M - ) be a pair of k-modules such that
M + is a left and M- is a right R-module. Consider a k-bilinear map @: M + x M-
+ R which is R-bilinear in the sense that
r = a~(x,y)b
60 6.5
for a l l a , b G R , x G M +, y 6 M- . W e say that ~ is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e if #(x,M-)
= 0 i m p l i e s x = 0 a n d ~ ( M + , y ) = 0 i m p l i e s y = 0 . I n o r d e r to d e s c r i b e t h i s
s i t u a t i o n i n a m o r e s y m m e t r i c a l f a s h i o n , let R + = R , R- = R ~ , a n d c o n s i d e r
M- a s a l e f t R - - m o d u l e i n the o b v i o u s w a y . A l s o let a ~ a d e n o t e t h e a n t i i s o -
m o r p h i s m R ~ R - 0
g i v e n b y the i d e n t i t y m a p , a n d d e f i n e ~+ = ~ , ~_: M- M +
R- b y ~_(y,x) = ~(x,y) . T h e n r : M 0 M - 0 R 0 is " h e r m i t i a n " i n the s e n s e
t h a t # (ax,y) = a ~ a ( x , y ) a n d ~ (x,y) = r (y,x) .
T h e p a i r of m o d u l e s ( M + , M - ) b e c o m e s a n a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r o v e r k , d e n o -
ted b y A = A ( M , R , ~ ) , w i t h
< x y z > = ~ (x,y)z,
for x , z 6 A ~ = M ~ , y 6 A - ~ = M - ~ . T h e s i m p l e v e r i f i c a t i o n is l e f t to the
r e a d e r . If R is s i m p l e w i t h u n i t y , M ~ ~ 0 , a n d ~ is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e , t h e n
A is simple. I n d e e d , ~ ( ~ + , M - ) = ~(~) is a n o n - z e r o i d e a l of R a n d t h e r e f o r e
is a l l of R . L e t B = ( B + , B - ) b e a n i d e a l of A . T h e n R B + = ~ ( M + , M ' ) B +
= < M + , M - , B + > C B + a n d h e n c e B + is a R - s u b m o d u l e of M + . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t
# ( B + , M - ) is a n i d e a l of R , and t h e r e f o r e e i t h e r B + = 0 or R = ~ ( B + , M - ) .
S i n c e i G R it f o l l o w s that M + = ~ ( B + , M - ) M + = < B + , M - , ~ + > C B + , a n d a s i m i l a r
p r o o f s h o w s t h a t B- = M- .
6.5. T h e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a . L e t R b e a n
op
alternative a l g e b r a o v e r k , a n d let x ~ x d e n o t e t h e a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m R R
a n d R ~ R g i v e n b y the i d e n t i t y map. T h e n (R,R ~ is a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r
w i t h
( i )
in o t h e r w o r d s ,
< x y z > = ( xy) z ,
if ( R , R O p ) = ( A + , A - ) t h a n < x y z > = (xy)z
for x , z 6 A + a n d y , v G A - w h e r e x y is t h e p r o d u c t i n
p r o o f of A P I w e u s e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e l a w a n d g e t
a n d < y x v > = v ( x y )
R . Indeed, for the
6 . 6 6 1
< u v < x y z > > + < x y < u v z > > = ( u v ) ( ( x y ) z ) + ( x y ) ( ( u v ) z )
= ( ( u v ) ( x y ) + ( x y ) ( u v ) ) z = ( ( ( u v ) x ) y + x ( y ( u v ) ) ) z
= ( ( ( u v ) x ) y ) z + ( x ( ( v ~ ) y ) ) z = < < u v x > y z > + < x < v u y > z > .
F o r A P 2 a n d A P 3 w e u s e t h e M o u f a n g i d e n t i t i e s :
< u v < x y x > > = ( u ~ ) ( x ~ x ) = ( ( ( u ~ ) x ) [ ) x = < < u w > y x > ,
< x y < x y z > > = ( ~ y ) ( ( x y ) z ) = ( ( x y ) ( x y ) ) z = ( ( x y x ) y ) z = < < x y x > y z > .
W e c a l l ( R , R ~ t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h R . O b v i o u s l y , i f f: R
R' i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s t h e n ( f , f ) : ( R , R ~
( R ' , R '~ i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m o f a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s . I f I i s a n i d e a l o f R
t h e n ( I , I ) i s a n i d e a l o f ( R , R ~ . C o n v e r s e l y , if R h a s a u n i t e l e m e n t a n d
( I + , I - ) i s a n i d e a l o f ( R , R ~ t h e n i t f o l l o w s e a s i l y t h a t I + i s a n i d e a l o f
R a n d I - = 7 + . T h e r e f o r e if R i s u n i t a l t h e n R i s s i m p l e i f a n d o n l y i f
( R , R ~ i s s i m p l e .
6 . 6 . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s A ( X , K , ~ ) . L e t K b e a n e x t e n s i o n o f k , a n d l e t X
b e a K - m o d u l e . S u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e i s g i v e n a n a l t e r n a t i n g K - b i l i n e a r f o r m
~: X X + K . L e t A + = A - = X a s K - m o d u l e s , a n d l e t J + : A - A + b e a n a r b i -
t r a r y K - l i n e a r i s o m o r p h i s m . D e f i n e J _ : A + + A - b y j _ = _ ( j + ) - i . A l s o s e t
= ~ + a n d d e f i n e ~ _ : A - x A - K b y ~ ( x , y ) = a + ( J + ( x ) , J + ( y ) ) , s o t h a t
(1) J J = - I d ~ ( J o ( X ) , J o ( y ) ) = ~ _ o ( x , y ) 9
- o A o '
T h e n A = ( A + , A - ) b e c o m e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r o v e r k (or o v e r K ), d e n o t e d b y
A = A ( X , K , ~ ) , w i t h
(2) < x y z > = x ~ o ( z , J o ( y ) ) + J o ( y ) ~ ( x , z ) ,
f o r x , z ~ A ~, y ~ A - ~ . T h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d v e r i f i c a t i o n o f A P I - A P 3 i s l e f t t o
62 6.7
t h e r e a d e r . W e r e m a r k t h a t d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e s of J + y i e l d i s o m o r p h i c a l t e r n a t i v e
p a i r s , a n d t h u s A ( X , K , ~ ) d e p e n d s up to i s o m o r p h i s m o n l y o n (X,K,~) . F o r in-
s t a n c e , w e c a n set J + = Id X . H o w e v e r , it is s o m e t i m e s c o n v e n i e n t to c h o o s e J +
d i f f e r e n t l y .
If K is a f i e l d , ~ is n o n d e g e n e r a t e , a n d d i m K X ~ 4 t h e n A is a
s i m p l e p r o p e r l y a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r (cf. i i . i i ) . T h u s , i n c o n t r a s t to t h e s i t u a t i o n
for a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s , t h e r e e x i s t s i m p l e p r o p e r l y a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s of a r b i -
t r a r y (even i n f i n i t e ) d i m e n s i o n .
6.7. B a s i c i d e n t i t i e s . W e set
A P 4
x = z i n A P I a n d o b s e r v e A P 2 w h i c h i m p l i e s
< x y < u v x > > = < x < v u y > x > .
S i n c e the left h a n d s i d e of A P I is s y m m e t r i c in
r i g h t h a n d side. T h i s y i e l d s
(u,v) and (x,y) so is the
A P 5 < < x y u > v z > + < u < y x v > z > = < < u v x > y z > + < x < v u y > z > .
< < x v x > y z > = < x < y x v > z > .
By l i n e a r i z i n g A P 3 w i t h r e s p e c t to x w e get
< u y < x y z > > + < x y < u y z > > = < < x y u > y z > + < < u y x > y z > ,
and f r o m A P I ,
< u y < x y z > > + < x y < u y z > > = < < u y x > y z > + < x < y u y > z >
A P 6
F r o m A P I w e get
< x y < x v z > > + < x v < x y z > > = < < x y x > v z > + < x < y x v > z > .
By l i n e a r i z i n g A P 3 w i t h r e s p e c t to y w e o b t a i n
< x y < x v z > > + < x v < x y z > > = < < x y x > v z > + < < x v x > y z > ,
a n d a c o m p a r i s o n of t h e s e two f o r m u l a s s h o w s
6 . 8 63
w h i c h i m p l i e s
A P T < < x y u > y z > = < x < y u y > z > .
T h i s a n d A P 3 i m p l y
A P 8 < x y < x y z > > = < x < y x y > z > = < < x y x > y z > .
F r o m A P 7 a n d A P 2 w e g e t
A P 9 < < z y x > y x > = < z < y x y > x > = < z y < x y x > > ,
a n d f r o m A P T a n d AP4,
A P 1 0 < x y < z y x > > = < x < y z y > x > = < < x y z > y x > .
I n o p e r a t o r form, A P 8 - A P I 0 r e a d
A P I I L ( x , y ) 2 = L ( < x y x > , y ) = L ( x , < y x y > ) ,
2
A P I 2 R ( x , y ) = R ( < x y x > , y ) = R ( x , < y x y > ) ,
A P I 3 L ( x , y ) R ( x , y ) = R ( x , y ) L ( x , y ) = M ( x , x ) M ( y , y ) 9
6.8. L e t R b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a a n d let v G R . R e c a ~ l that the (left)
v - h o m o t o p e of R is t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a R (v) h a v i n g t h e s a m e u n d e r l y i n g
m o d u l e a s R , a n d m u l t i p l i c a t i o n g i v e n b y
x 9 y = (xv)y
v
(see M c C r i m m o n [ 5 ] ) . If R h a s a u n i t e l e m e n t a n d v is i n v e r t i b l e i n R t h e n
R (v) is c a l l e d t h e v - i s o t o p e of R . In this c a s e , v - I is t h e u n i t e l e m e n t
of R (v) . L e t R a n d R' b e u n i t a l a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s . A n i s o t o p y f r o m
R to R' is a n i s o m o r p h i s m , s a y g , f r o m R o n t o a n i s o t o p e R ~(v) of R' .
T h e n n e c e s s a r i l y g(1) = v -I s i n c e g(1) m u s t b e t h e u n i t e l e m e n t of R '(v)
J u s t as i n t h e J o r d a n c a s e (1.8) w e h a v e
6 4 6 . 9
6 . 9 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t R a n d R' b e u n i t a l a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s w i t h a s s o c i a -
t e d a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s A a n d A' . T h e n t h e m a p g + (g,U-~g i') g) ( w h e r e U x Y
= x y x ) i s a b i s e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t o f i s o t o p i e s f r o m R t o R' a n d t h e
s e t o f i s o m o r p h i s m s f r o m A t o A' . I n p a r t i c u l a r , A a n d A' a r e i s o m o r p h i c
if a n d o n l y i f R a n d R' a r e i s o t o p i c .
T h e p r o o f i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d t h e r e f o r e o m i t t e d .
6 . 1 0 . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s A + .
v
a n d l e t v 6 A - 9 T h e n t h e k - m o d u l e
b y A + w i t h t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
v '
L e t A = ( A + , A -) b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r ,
A + b e c o m e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a , d e n o t e d
(i) x y = < x v y > .
2 2
I n d e e d , b y A P 2 w e h a v e x y = < x v < y v y > > = < < x v y > v y > = ( x y ) y , a n d b y A P 3 , x y
= < < x v x > v y > = < x v < x v y > > = x ( x y ) . If h = ( h + , h _ ) : A B i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m o f
a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s t h e n
(2) h+: A + +
v B h (v)
i s a h o m o m o r p h i s m o f a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s . If u 6 A + t h e n
(3) (Av+) (u) = A + v u v >
I n d e e d , t h e p r o d u c t i n t h e u - h o m o t o p e o f A + i s x 9 y = ( x u ) y = < < x v u > v y >
v u
= < x < v u v > y > , b y A P 7 . S i m i l a r l y , w e h a v e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s A- w i t h p r o d u c t
w
x y = < x w y > , f o r a l l w G A + .
6 . 1 1 . I n v e r s e s . L e t A b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r . A n e l e m e n t u G A ~ i s c a l l e d
i n v e r t i b l e i f t h e r e e x i s t s a n e l e m e n t v G A - ~ s u c h t h a t
6 . 1 2 6 5
(i) L ( u , v ) = R ( u , v ) = I d a n d L ( v , u ) = R ( v , u ) = I d .
I t f o l l o w s f r o m A P I 3 t h a t t h e n M ( u , u ) i s i n v e r t i b l e a n d
( 2 ) M ( u , u ) - I = M ( v , v ) .
A l s o , s i n c e u = < u v u > w e h a v e
( 3 ) v = M ( u , u ) - l ( u )
i s u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y u . W e c a l l v t h e i n v e r s e o f
- i - I
u . C l e a r l y , u i s i n v e r t i b l e w i t h i n v e r s e
p a i r w i l l h a v e n o i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s .
u a n d d e n o t e i t b y
u . I n g e n e r a l , a n a l t e r n a t i v e
6.12. P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t A b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r , l e t v G A b e i n v e r t i b l e ,
a n d l e t u = v - I 6 A + . T h e n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s R = A + a n d R ' = A - a r e
v u - -
u n i t a l w i t h u n i t e l e m e n t s u a n d v , r e s p e c t i v e l y , an__~d M ( v , v ) : R R ' i s a n
a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m w i t h i n v e r s e M ( u , u ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , ( I d , M ( v , v ) ) : ( R , R ~ ~ A
i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m o f a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s .
P r o o f . I n R w e h a v e u x = < u v x > = x = < x v u > = x u a n d h e n c e u i s t h e u n i t
e l e m e n t o f R . S i m i l a r l y , v i s t h e u n i t e l e m e n t o f R ' . N o w M ( v , v ) ( x y )
= M ( v , v ) ( < x v y > ) = < v < x v y > v > = < v y < v x v > > b y A P 4 , a n d ( M ( v , v ) y ) . ( M ( v , v ) x )
= < < v y v > u < v x v > > = < < < v y v > u v > x v > = < < v y v > x v > = < v y < v x v > > , u s i n g A P 2 t w i c e . F i n a l l y
w e h a v e I d ( ( x y ) z ) = < < x v y > v z > = < x < v y v > z > b y A P T , a n d M ( v , v ) ( z ( y x ) )
= < v < z v < y v x > > v > = < v < y v x > < v z v > > = < < v x v > y < v z v > > b y A P 4 a n d A P 6 w h i c h p r o v e s t h e
l a s t s t a t e m e n t .
6 . 1 3 . C O R O L L A R Y . T h e m a p R ~+ ( R , R ~ i n d u c e s a b i j e c t i o n b e t w e e n i s o t o p y
c l a s s e s o f u n i t a l a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a s a n d i s o m o r p h i s m c l a s s e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e
66 6.14
pairs containin$ invertible elements. The inverse map is induced by
where v is any invertible element of A
This follows immediately from 6.12 and 6.9.
A~A +
V
6.14. Remark. Let R be a unital alternative algebra. It is easily seen that
R is associative if and only if (R,R ~ is an associative pair. On the other
hand, the v-isotope R (v) of an associative algebra is isomorphic with R ; an
isomorphism being left multiplication with v . Hence we have a bijection between
isomorphism classes of unital associative algebras and associative pairs contai-
ning invertible elements. In the alternative case, it is known that simple iso-
topic alternative algebras are isomorphic (cf. McCrimmon[5]). Since R is simple
if and only (R,R ~ is simple (6.5) we get that simple unital alternative al-
gebras and simple alternative pairs containing invertible elements are "essen-
tially the same".
6.15. An alternative triple system is a k-module T with a trilinear composition
T T T ~ T , (x,y,z) + <xyz> , satisfying API - AP3 (cf. Loos[3], Meyberg[6]).
A homomorphism between alternative triple systems is a k-linear map f such
that f(<xyz>) = <f(x),f(y),f(z)> , for all x,y,z . From the definitions it is
clear that every alternative triple system T gives rise to an alternative pair
( T , T ) , and that the identity maps Id: A ~ = T + T = A -~ define a canonical in-
volution K of ( T , T ) . Conversely, let A be an alternative pair with involu-
tion q , let T A + = as a k-module, and define a trilinear composition on T
by
(4) <xyz> = <x,q+(y),z> .
Then it is easily verified that T is an alternative triple system, and that
6 . 1 6 67
( I d , ~ + ) : ( ( T , T ) ; < ) (A;~) is a n i s o m o r p h i s m of a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s w i t h i n v o l u -
t i o n (cf. t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i t u a t i o n for J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s i n 1.13). T h u s
w e g e t a n e q u i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c a t e g o r y of a l t e r n a t i v e t r i p l e s y s t e m s a n d t h e
c a t e g o r y of a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s w i t h i n v o l u t i o n . U n d e r t h i s e q u i v a l e n c e , a s s o c i a t i -
v e p a i r s w i t h i n v o l u t i o n c o r r e s p o n d to a s s o c i a t i v e t r i p l e s y s t e m s of t h e s e c o n d
k i n d (cf. L o o s [ 4 ] ) . F i n a l l y , w e m e n t i o n t h a t o n e c a n d e f i n e p o l a r i z e d a l t e r n a t i v e
t r i p l e s y s t e m s j u s t as i n the J o r d a n c a s e (1.14).
6.16. T h e c e n t r o i d Z(A) of a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A o v e r k is the set of a l l
(a+,a_) G E n d ( A + ) x E n d ( A - ) s a t i s f y i n g
a a < x y z > = < a o x , y , z > = < x , a _ o y , z > = < x , y , a z> ,
for a l l x , z @ A ~ y ~ A -~. C l e a r l y , Z(A) is a s u b a l g e b r a of E n d ( A + ) E n d ( A - )
c o n t a i n i n g t h e u n i t e l e m e n t 1 = (Id,ld) . W e s a y A is c e n t r a l if Z(A) = k . l .
L e t R b e a u n i t a l a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a w i t h c e n t e r Z(R) . T h e n t h e m a p
z ~ (Lz,Lz) (where L z d e n o t e s l e f t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n w i t h z in R ) is a n i s o -
m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n Z(R) a n d t h e c e n t r o i d Z ( R , R ~ of the a s s o c i a t e d a l t e r n a t i -
v e pair. T h e d e t a i l s a r e l e f t to the r e a d e r .
6.17. P R O P O S I T I O N . If A is s i m p l e t h e n Z(A) is a field.
Proof. F o r a , b G Z(A) w e h a v e a b < x y z > = a < x , y , b z> = < a o x , y , b z>
= b < a x , y , z > = b a < x y z > . S i n c e A ~ = < A ~ b y s i m p l i c i t y of A w e s e e
that Z(A) is c o m m u t a t i v e . Also, it is c l e a r t h a t b o t h K e r ( a ) = ( K e r ( a + ) , K e r ( a _ ) )
a n d Im(a) = ( a + ( A + ) , a _ ( A - ) ) a r e i d e a l s of A . S i n c e A is s i m p l e it f o l l o w s
that Z(A) is a field.
68 7.1
w T h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r
7.1. T H E O R E M . L e t A = (A+,A -) b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r o v e r
a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k , d e n o t e d b y A J , w i t h q u a d r a t i c m a p s
g i v e n b y
(1) Q ( x ) y = <xyx> = M ( x , x ) y .
Proof. W e h a v e to v e r i f y J P I - J P 3 in e v e r y s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n
A K is a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r o v e r K (cf. 6.1) w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t
and I.i w e h a v e
k . T h e n A b e c o m e s
A a Q : H o m ( A - O , A ~)
A K of A . S i n c e
K = k . By (i)
(2) {xyz} = < x y z > + < z y x > ,
so t h a t
(3) D ( x , y ) = L ( x , y ) + R ( x , y )
N o w { x , y , Q ( x ) z } = < x y < x z x > > + < < x z x > y x > = < x < z x y > x > + < x < y x z > x > = Q ( x ) { y x z } b y
A P 4 and AP6. A l s o { Q ( x ) y , y , z } = < < x y x > y z > + < z y < x y x > > = < x < y x y > z > + < z < y x y > x >
= { x , Q ( y ) x , z } b y A P 8 and AP9, and f i n a l l y Q ( x ) Q ( y ) Q ( x ) z = Q ( x ) L ( y , x ) R ( y , x ) z
= < x < y x < z x y > > x > = < < x < z x y > x > y x > = < < < x y x > z x > y x > = < < x y x > z < x y x > > = Q ( Q ( x ) y ) z ,
u s i n g A P I 3 , t w i c e A P 6 , a n d AP2.
W e r e m a r k t h a t a h o m o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s is a l s o a h o m o -
m o r p h i s m of the a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r s .
7.2. C o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h p r e v i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n s . (i) R e c a l l t h a t w i t h e v e r y a l t e r -
n a t i v e a l g e b r a , R w e c a n a s s o c i a t e a J o r d a n a l g e b r a R J h a v i n g the s a m e u n d e r -
l y i n g m o d u l e , s q u a r i n g g i v e n b y the s q u a r e i n R , and q u a d r a t i c o p e r a t o r s U x Y
7 . 2 6 9
= x y x . C l e a r l y w e h a v e R J = ( R ~ J . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e h a v e t h e a l t e r n a -
t i v e p a i r ( R , R ~ a s s o c i a t e d w i t h R ( 6 . 5 ) a n d t h e J o r d a n p a i r ( R J , R J) a s s o -
c i a t e d w i t h R J ( 1 . 6 ) . F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s i t f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t
(1) ( R J , R J) = ( R , R ~ J
b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r , a n d l e t v G A . T h e n t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a
A + ( c f . 6. 10) i s t he J or da n a l ge br a V +
v v
(ii) L e t A
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a
(cf. 1 . 9 ) w h e r e V A J = ~ i . e . ,
.A+)J J +
( 2 ) ( v = ( A ) v "
I n d e e d , x 2 = < x v x > = Q ( x ) v , a n d U x Y = x y x = < < x v y > v x > = < x < v y v > x > = Q ( x ) Q ( v ) y .
( i i i ) If v is i n v e r t i b l e i n A t h e n b y 6 . 1 1 a n d i . i 0 , v is i n v e r t i b l e i n
t h e J o r d a n p a i r A J . C o n v e r s e l y , a s s u m e t h a t v i s i n v e r t i b l e i n A J , i . e . ,
- i
Q ( v ) = M ( v , v ) i s i n v e r t i b l e , a n d l e t u = v . T h e n it f o l l o w s f r o m A P I I - A P I 3
t h a t u a n d v a r e i n v e r s e s o f e a c h o t h e r i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s e n s e a s w e l l , a n d
h e n c e i n v e r t i b i l i t y i n A a n d A J a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
( i v )
s y s t e m T J b y s e t t i n g
6 . 1 5 i t i s c l e a r t h a t
( 3 )
(v) T h e c e n t r o i d s o f
( 4 )
W i t h e v e r y a l t e r n a t i v e t r i p l e s y s t e m T w e c a n a s s o c i a t e a J o r d a n t r i p l e
Q ( x ) y = < x y x > (cf. L o o s [ 3 ] , M e y b e r g [ 6 ] ) . F r o m 1 . 1 3 a n d
A a n d
( T , T ) J = ( T J , T J ) .
A J (cf. 1 . 1 5 a n d 6 . 1 6 ) a r e r e l a t e d b y
z ( A ) ~ z ( A a ) .
(vi) L e t A b e a l t e r n a t i v e . W e s a y t h a t a p a i r ( x , y ) G A i s q u a s i - i n y e r t i b l e
i f x i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a A + ,- i . e . , if 1 - x i s
Y
i n v e r t i b l e i n t h e u n i t a l a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a k . l @ A + . B y (2) , t h i s i s e q u i -
Y
70 7 . 3
J +
v a l e n t w i t h x b e i n g q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n ( A ) v o r ( x , y ) b e i n g q u a s i - i n v e r -
t i b l e i n t h e J o r d a n p a i r A J . F r o m s t a n d a r d f a c t s o n i n v e r s e s i n a l t e r n a t i v e a l -
g e b r a s w e g e t e a s i l y
7 . 3 . P R O P O S I T I O N . F o r ( x , y ) G A , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
(i) ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e ;
( i i ) t h e r e e x i s t s z 6 A + s u c h t h a t
( i ) z - x = < x y z > = < z y x > .
( i i i ) I d - L ( x , y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e ;
( i v ) I d - R ( x , y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e .
I f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e s a t i s f i e d t h e n
( 2 ) z = x y = ( I d - L ( x , y ) ) - i x = ( I d - R ( x , y ) ) - l x .
7 . 4 . M o r e i d e n t i t i e s . F r o m 7 . 1 . 3 a n d A P I 3 w e g e t
A P I 4 B ( x , y ) = ( I d - L ( x , y ) ) ( I d - R ( x , y ) )
= ( I d - R ( x , y ) ) ( I d - L ( x , y ) ) .
B y A P 2 a n d A P 4 w e h a v e
< < x y z > u z > + < z u < x y z > > = < x y < z u z > > + < z < y x u > z >
w h i c h i m p l i e s
A P I 5
B y A P 4 ,
Q ( z , < x y z > ) = L ( x , y ) Q ( z ) + Q ( z ) L ( y , x ) .
< x y < z < y x u > z > > = < x y < z u < x y z > > > 9 U s i n g A P I , A P 4 , a n d A P 8 w e o b t a i n
< x y < z u < x y z > > > - < < x y z > u < x y z > > = < z < y x u > < x y z > > - < z u < x y < x y z > > >
= < z < y x < y x u > > z > - < g u < x < y x y > z > > = < z < < y x y > x u > z > < z < < y x y > x u > z > = 0 .
T h i s s h o w s
7 . 5 7 1
A P I 6 Q ( L ( x , y ) z ) = L ( x , y ) Q ( z ) L ( y , x ) ,
a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h A P I 5 w e g e t
A P I 7 Q ( ( I d - e ( x , y ) ) z ) = ( I d - e ( x , y ) ) Q ( z ) ( I d - L ( y , x ) ) .
T o d e r i v e a s i m i l a r f o r m u l a f o r R ( x , y ) , l e t k ( s ) = k [ T ] / ( T 3 ) s o t h a t 3 = 0 .
T h e n ( s x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t l b l e ( e v e n n i l p o t e n t ) i n A k ( ~ ) , a n d h e n c e
I d - g L ( x , y ) , I d - ~ R ( x , y ) , a n d B ( ~ x , y ) a r e a l l i n v e r t i b l e , a n d s o a r e
I d - s L ( y , x ) , I d - ~ R ( y , x ) , a n d B ( y , ~ x ) . B y J P 2 6 , A P I 4 , a n d A P I 7 w e h a v e
B ( c x , y ) Q ( z ) B ( y , E x ) = ( I d - E L x , y ) ( I d - ~ R x , y ) Q ( z ) ( I d - e R y , x ) ( I d - ~ L y , x )
= Q ( B ( ~ x , y ) z ) = Q ( ( I d - E e x , y ) ( I d - ~ R x , y ) z ) = ( I d - C L x , y ) Q ( ( I d - c R x , y ) Z ) ( I d - e L y , x ) ,
a n d c a n c e l l i n g g i v e s Q ( ( I d - e R x , y ) Z ) = ( I d - r - E R y , x ) . I f w e e x -
p a n d t h i s a n d c o m p a r e t h e t e r m s a t g a n d e 2 t h e r e s u l t i s
A P I 8 Q ( z , < z y x > ) = R ( x , y ) Q ( z ) + Q ( z ) R ( y , x ) ,
A P I 9 Q ( R ( x , y ) z ) = R ( x , y ) Q ( z ) R ( y , x ) .
C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
A P 2 0 Q ( ( I d - R ( x , y ) ) z ) = ( I d - R ( x , y ) ) Q ( z ) ( I d - R ( y , x ) ) .
F i n a l l y , i t f o l l o w s f r o m A P 4 , A P 6 , a n d A P I 9 t h a t
< x < z < y u x > z > y > = < x < z x < u y z > > y > = < < x < u y z > x > z y > = < < x z y > u < x z y > >
a n d t h e r e f o r e
A P 2 1 Q ( M ( x , y ) z ) = M ( x , y ) Q ( z ) M ( y , x ) .
7 . 5 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t A b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r .
( a ) I f ( x , y ) 6 A i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e t h e n X ( x , y ) = ( I d - L ( I d - L ) - i )
- - x , y ' y , x
a n d p ( x , y ) = ( I d - x R - , y ' ( I d - R ' x ) - I ) a r e c o m m u t i n $ a u t o m o r p h i s m s o f t h e a s s o -
Y
c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r A J , a n d w e h a v e B ( x , y ) = % ( x , y ) p ( x , y ) w h e r e B i s a s i n 3 . 9 .
7 2 7 . 6
(b) L e t ( x , y ) G A . T h e n ( L ( x , y ) , - L ( y , x ) ) a n d ( R ( x , y ) , - R ( y , x ) ) a r e d e r i -
v a t i o n s o f A J w h o s e s u m i s t h e i n n e r d e r i v a t i o n 6 ( x , y ) = ( D ( x , y ) , - D ( y , x ) )
o f A J (cf. 3 . 1 1 ) .
T h i s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m t h e i d e n t i t i e s d e r i v e d a b o v e .
7 . 6 . L E M M A . L e t u G A + a n d v , w G A - . T h e n
L(u,v) : A + A +
< V U W > W
M ( w , v ) : A + A -
< V B W > U
A + A + R ( u , v ) : ->
< W U V > W
a r e h o m o m o r p h i s m s o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s .
T h e p r o o f f o l l o w s b y a n e a s y c o m p u t a t i o n u s i n g A P I 6 , A P I g , a n A P 2 1 .
7 . 7 . P R O P O S I T I O N . ( S h i f t i n g p r i n c i p l e ) L e t x , z G A + , y , v G A - . T h e n q u a s i - i n -
v e r t i b i l i t y o f ( x , < y z v > ) , ( < z y x > , v ) , ( < v x y > , z ) , a n d ( < x v z > , y ) a r e a l l e q u i -
v a l e n t , a n d w e h a v e
(i) < z , y , x < Y Z V > > = < z y x > v ,
Z
(2) < V , x < Y Z V > , y > = < v x y > ,
(3) < x < Y Z V > , v , z > = < x v z > y.
T h e p r o o f i s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e o f 3 . 5 , u s i n g 7 . 6 a n d t h e s y m m e t r y p r i n -
c i p l e .
7 . 8 . P R O P O S I T I O N . I f B a n d C a r e i d e a l s o f A t h e n
4 . 6 ) i s a n i d e a l o f A .
T ( B , C ) ( d e f i n e d a s i n
7 . 9 7 3
T h i s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m A P l 6 , A P I 9 , a n d A P 2 1 .
7 . 9 . R a d i c a l s . (i) T h e J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l o f a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A i s d e f i n e d a s
R a d A = ( R a d A + , R a d A - ) w h e r e R a d A i s t h e s e t o f p r o p e r l y q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e
e l e m e n t s o f A (cf. 4 . 1 ) . H e n c e w e h a v e b y 7 . 2 ( v ) t h a t
(i) R a d A = R a d A J
(ii) A n e l e m e n t z G A i s c a l l e d t r i v i a l i f Q ( z ) = M ( z , z ) = 0 . A n i d e a l 7
o f A i s c a l l e d s e m i p r i m e i f A / 7 i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t h a s n o
n o n - z e r o t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s . T h e s m a l l r a d i c a l o f A i s t h e s m a l l e s t s e m i p r i m e
i d e a l o f A , d e n o t e d b y r a d A . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a n i d e a l i s p r o v e d a s i n
t h e J o r d a n c a s e ( 4 . 5 ) .
( i i i ) F o r ( x , y ) G A w e d e n o t e b y x ( n ' y ) t h e n - t h p o w e r o f x i n t h e a l t e r -
n a t i v e a l g e b r a A + . S i n c e p o w e r s i n a n a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a a n d i n t h e a s s o c i a t e d
Y
J o r d a n a l g e b r a c o i n c i d e , t h e p o w e r s i n A a n d A J a r e t h e s a m e b y 7 . 2 . 2 . J u s t
a s f o r J o r d a n p a i r s (cf. 4 . 1 4 ) t h e r e i s a l a r g e s t n i l i d e a l N i l ( A ) o f A ,
c a l l e d t h e n i l r a d i c a l .
7 . 1 0 . L E M M A . E v e r y s e m i p r i m e i d e a l o f A J i s a n i d e a l o f A .
P r o o f . L e t I = ( I + , I -) b e a s e m i p r i m e i d e a l o f A J . W e h a v e t o s h o w t h a t I
i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r l e f t , r i g h t , a n d m i d d l e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s . L e t z ~ I + , x G A + ,
y , u G A - . T h e n b y A P I 5 a n d A P I 6 ,
(i) Q ( < x y z > ) u = L ( x , y ) Q ( z ) L ( y , x ) u = - Q ( z ) < y x < y x u > > + { z , < y x u > , < x y z > } ,
a n d t h i s b e l o n g s t o I + s i n c e 7 i s a J o r d a n i d e a l . B y s e m i p r i m e n e s s o f 7 , w e
h a v e < x y z > ~ 7 + . H e n c e a l s o < z y x > = { x y z } - < x y z > G 7 + . F i n a l l y , l e t y G 7 -
7 4 7 . 1 1
a n d x , z 9 A + a n d u G A - . A p p l y i n g w h a t w e j u s t p r o v e d t o A ~ i t f o l l o w s
t h a t < y x u > a n d < y x < y x u > > b e l o n g t o I , a n d f r o m (i) i t f o l l o w s t h a t
Q ( < x y z > ) u 9 I + , a g a i n s i n c e I i s a J o r d a n i d e a l . T h i s i m p l i e s < x y z > G I + b y
s e m i p r i m e n e s s o f I . S i n c e t h e s a m e p r o o f w o r k s w i t h + a n d i n t e r c h a n g e d
I i s a n i d e a l o f A
7 . 1 1 . T H E O R E M . L e t A b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r , a n d l e t r s t a n d f o r r a d , N i l ,
o r R a d . T h e n r ( A ) = r ( A J) , a n d i f I i s a n i d e a l o f A t h e n w e h a v e r ( 1 )
= I N r ( A ) .
I n d e e d , b y 7 . 1 0 , A a n d A J h a v e t h e s a m e s e m i p r i m e i d e a l s . N o w t h e
t h e o r e m f o l l o w s f r o m 4 . 2 , 4 . 1 3 , 4 . 1 5 , a n d 4 . 1 6 .
w I m b e d d i n g i n t o J o r d a n p a i r s
8 . 0 . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s t o s h o w t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y
P e i r c e - l - s p a c e s o f J o r d a n p a i r s w i t h r e s p e c t t o i d e m p o t e n t s w h o s e P e i r c e - 0 - s p a c e s
a r e z e r o ( 8 . 2 , 8 . 1 1 ) . L e t e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f a J o r d a n p a i r V a n d l e t V ~
= V ~ 2 EB V ~ 1 ~ V ~ 0 b e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n (cf. 5 . 4 ) . I n t h e J o r -
d a n a l g e b r a s V O (cf. 1 . 9 ) w e h a v e
e
U x Y = Q ( x ) Q ( e )y,
A l s o , V o V 0
2 i s a s u b a l g e b r a o f _
e
v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t o f t h e J o r d a n
x o y = { x , e - ~ x 2 = Q ( x ) e - O .
w i t h u n i t e l e m e n t e , s i n c e e i s a n i n -
p a i r V 2 ( e ) w i t h i n v e r s e e - ~ (ef. 5 . 5 a n d i . i i ) .
8 . 1 7 5
F o r x 6 V 1 w e h a v e e ~ = x , b y 5 . 4 . L e t a 6 V 2 , a n d d e f i n e a C N O b y
a = Q ( e ~ . T h e n b y i . i i , a a i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s , P 2 ->
, = . b = Q ( a ) b f o r a , b o a n d w e h a v e a = Q ( e ~ 1 7 6 = a N o t e a l s o t h a t U a
o
G V 2 .
8 . 1 . L E M M A . W i t h t h e a b o v e n o t a t i o n s , a s s u m e t h a t
x G P ~ , y C V4 ~ T h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a s h o l d .

( i )
( 2 )
( 3 )
( 4 )
( 5 )
( 6 )
( 7 )
( 8 )
( U a b ) ~
V 0 = 0, a n d l e t a , b ~ g 2 '
a o ( b o x ) = { a b x } ,
= ( Q ( a ) b ) o x = a o ( b o ( a O x ) ) ,
2
a o x = a o ( a o x ) ,
( a o b ) ~ = a ~ b o ( a o x ) ,
{ x y a } = { x , a o y , e ~
a o { x y e O } = { a o x , y , e O } + { x , a o y , e ~
{ x y e ~ } = { y x e - O } ,
{ x y e ~ 2 = { Q x y , y , e ~
P r o o f . B y J P 9 a n d 5 . 4 . 3 w e h a v e a o ( b o x ) = D ( a , e - ~ 1 7 6 = { b , Q ( e - ~ +
D ( a , Q ( e - ~ = { a b x } . T h i s i m p l i e s b y J P I I , a o ( b o ( a o x ) ) = { a b { a e - ~
= D ( a , b ) Q ( a , x ) e - O = { Q ( a ) b , e - ~ + Q ( a ) { b x e - O } = ( Q ( a ) b ) o x s i n c e { b x e - O } = 0
b y 5 . 4 ( c ) . F o r b = e ~ w e g e t ( 3 ) , a n d (4) f o l l o w s f r o m (3) b y l i n e a r i z i n g . B y
J P I 0 w e h a v e { x y a } = { x y a } = D ( x , y ) Q ( e - ~ = { x { y e ~ } e } { Q ( e ~
= { x , a o y , e ~ s i n c e Q ( e ~ = 0 b y 5 . 4 . 3 . F o r (6) w e u s e J P I 4 a n d (i) a n d ( 5 ) :
a o { x y e O } = { a o X , y , e O } - { x ( e - ~ + { x , y , a o e O } = { a o x , y , e O } - { x , a o y , e O }
+ 2 { x y a } = { a o x , y , e ~ } + { x , a o y , e ~ } . B y J P I 2 w e h a v e { y x e - ~ = { y , x , Q ( e - ~ ~
= - Q ( e - ~ { x y e ~ + { { y x e - ~ 1 7 6 - O } = - { x y e ~ + 2 { y x e - ~ s i n c e { y x e - ~ ~ V 2 ~
F i n a l l y , b y J P 2 0 , { x y e ~ 2 = Q ( { x y e ~ - a = Q x Q y e + Q ( e ~ e - ~
+ Q ( x , e ~ 1 7 6 1 7 6 - { Q x Y , e - ~ 1 7 6 = { X , Q y X , e O } = { Q x y , y , e O } s i n c e Q x e - o
76 8.2
V 0 = 0 b y 5.4(c).
a
N o t e t h a t b y ( 2 ) , V 1 i s a s p e c i a l J o r d a n mo d u l e f o r t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a
u
V 2 . Al s o , ( 1 ) - ( 7 ) h o l d wi t h o u t t h e a s s u mp t i o n t h a t Vo ( e ) = 0 .
8.2. T H E O R E M . Let e b e an i d e m p o t e n t of the J o r d a n p a i r V a n d a s s u m e t h a t
V0(e) = 0 . T h e n t h e p a i r of m o d u l e s Vl(e ) = (V~,V~) b e c o m e s an a l t e r n a t i v e
pair, d e n o t e d A , w i t h
(i) <xyz> = { { x y e ~
fo___~r x,z 6 A ~ o A - O V~O V 1 , y G = . T h e J o r d a n p a i r A J a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A i s
Vl(e) ( c o n s i d e r e d as a s u b p a i r of V , cf. 5.5); i.e., w e h a v e
(2) <xyx> = { { x y e ~ 1 7 6 = Q ( x ) y .
Proof. Let u @ A ~ A - ~ , v G , and set a = { u v e O} , a n d b = {xye O} . T h e n
< u v < x y z > > + < x y < u v z > > = a o ( b o z ) + b o ( a o z ) = (aob)oz = ( a o { x y e ~ = { a o x , y , e ~ 1 7 6
- o
+ { x , a o y , e }oz = < < u v x > y z > + < x < v u y > z > , b y (4),(6) and (7) of 8.1. T h i s p r o v e s
API. N e x t w e p r o v e (2), u s i n g J P I I a n d the fact that Q ( x ) e -~ G V 0 = 0 :
Q ( x ) y = Q ( x ) { e - ~ 1 7 6 = D ( x , e - ~ 1 7 6 - { Q ( x ) e - ~ O} = { x e - ~ 1 7 6 = <xyx> .
N o w w e have, w i t h a as b e f o r e , < x < v u y > x > = Q ( x ) ( a o y ) = Q ( x ) D ( y , e J ) a
= ( x a { e ~ - { e ~ = { { x y e ~ = { x y e ~ = < x y < u v x > > , b y JPI2,
o 0 T h i s p r o v e s AP4, and t o g e t h e r w i t h A P I i m p l i e s 8 . 1 . 1 , 8.1.6, and Q ( x ) a G V 0 = 9
AP2. F i n a l l y , A P 3 f o l l o w s f r o m 8 . 1 . 3 a n d 8.1.8: < x y < x y z > > = b o ( b o z ) = b 2 o z
= { Q ( x ) y , y , e O } o z = < < x y x > y z > .
8.3. W e s h a l l s h o w in 8 . 1 1 t h a t e v e r y a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r c a n b e o b t a i n e d in the w a y
d e s c r i b e d above. A s a f i r s t s t e p in t h i s d i r e c t i o n , w e c o n s t r u c t a J o r d a n a l g e b r a
J as f o l l o w s (the J o r d a n p a i r (7,7) w i l l l a t e r p l a y t h e r o l e of V2(e) , cf.
8.4 77
8.10). Let A b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e pair, and let E = E ( A ) b e the a s s o c i a t i v e al-
g e b r a E n d ( A + ) E n d ( A - ) ~ w i t h c o m p o n e n t w i s e o p e r a t i o n s ; i.e.,
ab = ( a + b + , b _ a _ )
for a = (a+,a_) and b = (b+,b_) in E . A s u s u a l , [a,b] = ab - b a is t h e
c o m m u t a t o r ~ n E . Let E J b e the J o r d a n a l g e b r a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h E so that
U b = a b a aob = ab + b a in E J For (x,y) 6 A w e set
a ~
ax = a+(x), ay = a_(y) .
N o t e that w e h a v e (ab)x = a(bx) but (ab)y = b ( a y ) .
Let J * = J * ( A ) b e the set o f all a @ E s u c h that
( i )
( 2 )
a < x y z > + < x , y , a z > = < a x , y , z > + < x , a y , z > ,
a < x y x > = < a x , y , x > ,
for all x,z @ A ~ y @ A -~ . N o t e t h a t (i) and (2) i m p l y (by s e t t i n g x = z)
( 3 )
< x , y , a x > = < x , a y , x > .
N o w w e d e f i n e
(4) 7 = 7 ( A ) = {a @ 7 * I a2 @ J*} '
(The fact t h a t J is i n d e e d a s u b a l g e b r a of E J is b y no m e a n s t r i v i a l ; it w i l l
b e p r o v e d in 8.8).
For (x,y) @ A w e d e f i n e %(x,y) and r(x,y) in E b y
~(x,y) = ( L ( x , y ) , L ( y , x ) ) , r(x,y) = ( R ( x , y ) , R ( y , x ) ) .
8.4. L E M M A . Let a ~ J a n d (x,y), (u,v) ~ A . T h e n
the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a s .
(i) %(x,y) 2 = % ( < x y x > , y ) ,
% ( x , y ) G 7 , a n d w e h a v e
78 8. 5
(2)
( 3 )
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
P r o o f .
g ( < x v x > , y ) = ~ ( x , < y x v > ) ,
s = g ( x , < y u y > ) ,
a o Z ( x , y ) = g(ax,y) + g ( x , a y ) ,
[ a , r ( x , y ) ] = r ( x , a y ) - r ( a x , y ) ,
a g ( x , y ) = s - [ a , r ( x , y ) ] ,
g ( x , y ) a = s + [ a , r ( x , y ) ] .
7 * B y A P I and A P 2 w e h a v e g(x,y) G , a n d f r o m A P I I w e get (i) w h i c h
s h o w s t h a t g(x,y) ~ 7 . F o r ~ m l a s (2) a n d (3) f o l l o w f r o m A P 6 and A P 7 , a n d (4)
and (5) are j u s t 8 . 3 . 1 in o p e r a t o r form. If w e l i n e a r i z e 8 . 3 . 2 a n d 8 . 3 . 3 t h e re-
sult is
( 8 )
( 9 )
a < x y z > + a < z y x > = < a x , y , z > + < a z , y , x > ,
< x , y , a z > + < z , y , a x > = < x , a y , z > + < z , a y , x > ,
w h i c h t o g e t h e r w i t h (5) i m p l i e s (6), and (7) f o l l o w s f r o m (4) and (6).
8.5. L E M M A .
(z)
(2)
(3)
Proof.
* @
L e t a,b ~ J . T h e n a o b G 7 , a n d for a l l (x,y) ~ A w e h a v e
a b g ( x , y ) + s = g ( a ( b x ) , y ) + % ( x , a ( b y ) ) ,
a Z ( x , y ) b + b g ( x , y ) a = g ( a x , b y ) + s
s = s = g ( x , < y , x , a y > ) .
W e f i r s t p r o v e (i) o By (5) - (7) of 8.4 w e h a v e
a b s + ~ ( x , y ) b a
= a ( g ( b x , y ) - [ b , r ( x , y ) ] ) + (g(x,by) + [ b , r ( x , y ) ] ) a
= % ( a ( b x ) , y ) - [a,r(bx,y)] - a [ b , r ( x , y ) ]
+ g ( x , a ( b y ) ) + [ a , r ( x , b y ) ] + [ b , r ( x , y ) ] a
= g ( a ( b x , y ) + g ( x , a ( b y ) ) + [ a , [ b , r ( x , y ) ] ] - [ a , [ b , r ( x , y ) ] ]
8.5 79
= ~ ( a ( b x ) , y ) + ~ ( x , a ( b y ) ) .
If w e add (i) a n d t h e i d e n t i t y o b t a i n e d f r o m it b y i n t e r c h a n g i n g a and b w e
see that aob s a t i s f i e s 8.4.4, and h e n c e 8 . 3 . 1 . To s h o w t h a t it a l s o s a t i s f i e s
8 . 3 . 2 , r e p l a c e x b y b x in 8 . 4 . 8 and set z = x . T h i s y i e l d s
(4) a < b x , y , x > + a < x , y , b x > = < a ( b x ) , y , x > + < a x , y , b x > .
F r o m 8 . 3 . 1 w e get
(5) b < a x , y , x > + < a x , y , b x > = < b ( a x ) , y , x > + < a x , b y , x > .
N o w add (4) a n d (5) a n d o b s e r v e that a < x , y , b x > = a < x , b y , x > = < a x , b y , x > b y
8 . 3 . 2 a n d 8 . 3 . 3 . T h e n it f o l l o w s t h a t ( a o b ) < x y x > = < ( a o b ) x , y , x > , and t h e r e f o r e
7 ' aob b e l o n g s to .
F o r (2) w e a g a i n u s e (5) - (7) o f 8.4:
a % ( x , y ) b + b % ( x , y )
(~(ax,y) - [ a , r ( x , y ) ] ) b + b ( % ( x , a y ) + [ a , r ( x , y ) ] )
= ~ ( a x , b y ) + [ b , r ( a x , y ) ] - [ a , r ( x , y ) ] b
+ ~ ( b x , a y ) - [b,r(x,ay)] + b [ a , r ( x , y ) ]
= ~ ( a x , b y ) + ~ ( b x , a y ) .
F i n a l l y , w e h a v e s i m i l a r l y , s i n c e %(x,y) @ J b y 8.4:
s = % ( % ( x , y ) a x , y ) = ~ ( x , y ) % ( a x , y ) + [ ~ ( x , y ) , r ( a x , y ) ]
= % ( x , y ) a s + % ( x , y ) [ a , r ( x , y ) ] + [ ~ ( x , y ) , r ( a x , y ) ]
= ~ ( x , y ) a ~ ( x , y ) + ~ ( x , y ) r ( x , a y ) - r ( a x , y ) % ( x , y ) .
T h u s w e h a v e to s h o w t h a t ~ ( x , y ) r ( x , a y ) = r ( a x , y ) s , or, e q u i v a l e n t l y ,
< x y < z , a y , x > > = < < x y g > , y , a x > . N o w < x y < z , a y , x > > = < x < a y , z , y > x > = < x , a < y z y > , x >
< x , < y z y > , a x > = < < x y z > , y , a x > , u s i n g A P 4 a n d AP7. T h i s p r o v e s the first e q u a l i -
ty of (3), and t h e s e c o n d o n e f o l l o w s f r o m % ( < x , y , a x > , y ) = % ( < x , a y , x > , y )
= % ( x , < y , x , a y > ) , b y 8.4.2.
80 8 . 6
8 . 6 . C O R O L L A R Y . (a) J ( A ) i s a k - s u b m o d u l e o f E . F o r e v e r y e x t e n s i o n R o_~f
k , t h e r e i s a n a t u r a l h o m e m o r p h i s m #: 7 ( A ) ~ R 7 ( A ~ R ) . If R is f r e e ( m o r e
g e n e r a l l y , p r o j e c t i v e ) a s a k - m o d u l e t h e n ~ i s i n j e c t i v e .
(b) I f 1 / 2 G k t h e n 7 7 * = i s a ( l i n e a r ) J o r d a n a l g e b r a .
P r o o f . (a) O b v i o u s l y , J i s c l o s e d u n d e r s c a l a r m u l t i p l e s . If a , b G J t h e n
2 b 2 *
(a+b) 2 = a 2 + a o b + b 2 . B y d e f i n i t i o n , a a n d b e l o n g t o 7 , a n d b y 8 . 5 ,
s o d o e s a o b . H e n c e J = 7 ( A ) i s a s u b m o d u l e o f E = E ( A ) . S i n c e J i s d e -
f i n e d b y l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s w e c l e a r l y h a v e a n a t u r a l h o m o m o r p h i s m J * ( A ) ~ R
J * ( A @ R ) . L e t a i @ J ( A ) a n d % . G R . T h e n ~ ( E a i ~ % i ) = E % i ( a i ) R w h e r e
i
(ai) R i s t h e R - l i n e a r e n d o m o r p h i s m o f A ~ R i n d u c e d b y a.1 . I t f o l l o w s t h a t
~ ( E a i ~ % i )2 2 2 * *
= E % i ( a i ) R + E % i % j ( a i o a j ) R @ J ( A | s i n c e a'~ j @ 7 (A) b y 8 . 5 .
H e n c e ~ m a p s 7 ( A ) ~ R i n t o 7 ( A ~ R ) . F i n a l l y , # m a y b e f a c t o r e d i n t h e o b -
v i o u s w a y a s
J ( A ) @ R E ( A ) ~ R E ( A @ R ) ,
a n d b o t h t h e s e m a p s a r e i n j e c t i v e i f R is a p r o j e c t i v e k - m o d u l e .
(b) T h i s i s o b v i o u s .
8 . 7 . L E M M A . L e t a G J a n d b ~ J . T h e n
( 1 )
( 2 )
a % ( x , y ) a = ~ ( a x , a y ) ,
Q ( a x ) y = a ( Q ( x ) ( a y ) ) ,
j ~
a n d U b = a b a b e l o n g s t o
a
P r o o f . B y 8 . 3 . 1 a n d (6) a n d (7) o f 8 . 4 w e h a v e
~ ( a x , a y ) = a s + % ( a x , y ) a - ~ ( a 2 x , y )
= a 2 s + a [ a , r ( x , y ) ] + a % ( x , y ) a + [ a , r ( x , y ) ] a
- a 2 % ( x , y ) - [ a 2 , r ( x , y ) ] = a % ( x , y ) a .
8.8 81
T h e s e c o n d f o r m u l a f o l l o w s f r o m 8 . 3 . 1 - 8.3.3:
a Q ( x ) a y = a < x , a y , x > = a < x , y , a x > = < a x , y , a x > + < x , a y , a x >
2
- < x , y , a x> = < a x , y , a x > = Q ( a x ) y .
To s h o w t h a t U b G J* w e first i n t e r c h a n g e a a n d b in 8 . 5 . 1 a n d m u l t i p l y
a
t h i s o n the l e f t (resp. o n the right) w i t h a a n d u s e (i) to o b t a i n
a b a s + ~ ( a x , a y ) b = a ~ ( b ( a x ) , y ) + a ~ ( x , b ( a y ) ) ,
b % ( a x , a y ) + Z ( x , y ) a b a = s + s
A d d i t i o n g i v e s
(aba) oZ(x,y) + b o s = a o Z ( b ( a x ) , y ) + a o s
a n d b y 8 . 4 . 4 w e get
( a b a ) o Z ( x , y ) = Z ( ( a b a ) x , y ) + % ( b ( a x ) , a y ) + Z ( a x , b ( a y ) )
+ % ( x , ( a b a ) y ) - Z ( b ( a x ) , y ) - Z ( a x , b ( a y ) )
= Z ( ( a b a ) x , y ) + Z ( x , ( a b a ) y ) ,
w h i c h s h o w s that a b a s a t i s f i e s 8 . 4 . 4 a n d h e n c e 8 . 3 . 1 . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
a b a < x y x > = a b < a x , y , x > = < a b a x , y , x > + < a x , a b y , x > - < a x , y , b a x >
b y 8 . 3 . 2 a n d 8 . 5 . 1 , and
< a x , y , b a x > = < a x , b y , a x > = a < x , a b y , x > = < a x , a b y , x > ,
b y (2), 8 . 3 . 3 , a n d 8 . 3 . 2 . T h i s p r o v e s a b a @ J
8.8. T H E O R E M . L e t A b e an a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r o v e r k , and let J = J(A) c E b e
d e f i n e d as in 8.3. T h e n J is a ( q u a d r a t i c ) J o r d a n s u b a l g e b r a of E c o n t a i n i n g
the u n i t e l e m e n t o f E , a n d t h e k - s u b m o d u l e F of E s p a n n e d b y a l l %(x,y) ,
( x , y ) G A , is a n i d e a l of J .
W e c a l l J t h e J o r d a n s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a of A and F the i n n e r s t r u c -
t u r e a l g e b r a .
82 8.9
P r o o f . O b v i o u s l y i = (Id,ld) @ J , a n d b y 8.6, J is a s u b m o d u l e of E 9 M o r e -
over, if a and b a r e in J t h e n a b a a n d b a 2 b a r e in J b y 8.7. H e n c e
a l s o (aba) 2 = a ( b a 2 b ) a b e l o n g to 7* a n d t h e r e f o r e a b a G 7 9 T h i s s h o w s
that J is a J o r d a n s u b a l g e b r a o f E 9 B y 8.4 w e h a v e F ~ J , a n d f r o m 8 . 5 . 3
and 8 . 7 . 1 it f o l l o w s that F is an i d e a l of 7 .
8.9. E x a m p l e s . (a) Let A = A ( M , R , ~ ) b e a s in 6.4. F o r a @ R let ( a + , a )
E n d ( M + ) E n d ( M - ) b e d e f i n e d b y a+(x) = ax, a_(y) = y a . T h e n it is i m m e d i a t e
f r o m the d e f i n i t i o n s that the m a p a is a h o m o m o r p h i s m f r o m t h e J o r d a n
a l g e b r a R J a s s o c i a t e d w i t h R i n t o J = J ( A ) , a n d t h a t ~ ( x , y ) is m a p p e d in-
to % ( x , y ) so t h a t t h e i d e a l ~(M) of R is m a p p e d o n t o F 9 If R is s i m p l e
w i t h u n i t y and ~(M) # 0 it f o l l o w s that F = 7 ~ R J .
(b) Let R b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a o v e r k w i t h u n i t e l e m e n t i , and let
(R,R ~ b e the c o r r e s p o n d i n g a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r (cf. 6.5). F o r a n e l e m e n t a = (a+,
a_) G J (R,R ~ let u = a+(1) G R . T h e n it f o l l o w s e a s i l y f r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s
that a = (Lu,Ru) w h e r e L u (resp. R u ) is t h e l e f t (resp. right) m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
* R J
w i t h u in R , and w e h a v e J = J = F ~ , t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h R .
(c) Let K b e an e x t e n s i o n f i e l d of k , a n d c o n s i d e r a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A =
A ( X , K , ~ ) as in 6.6. A s s u m e t h a t t h e a l t e r n a t i n g b i l i n e a r f o r m ~ is not zero.
*
T h e n it c a n b e s e e n t h a t a = (a+,a_) @ J = J if and o n l y if
( i )
a n d
( 2 )
T h u s J
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of
~ ( a + ( x ) , x ) = 0 f o r a l l x C X ,
J + a _ = a + J + .
is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h the J o r d a n a l g e b r a of s y m p l e c t i c s y m m e t r i c l i n e a r
X w i t h r e s p e c t to ~ ( i.e., t h o s e l i n e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
8 . 1 0 83
of X w h i c h s a t i s f y (i)). If e is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e t h e n F t u r n s out to b e the
set of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of f i n i t e r a n k in J . I n p a r t i c u l a r , if X is f i n i t e -
d i m e n s i o n a l o v e r K t h e n w e h a v e F = J . T h e d e t a i l s a r e l e f t to t h e r e a d e r as
an e x e r c i s e .
+ a' '
8.10. P R O P O S I T I O N . Let A = Vl(e ) b e as in 8.2. For a G V 2 d e f i n e = (a+,
a~) ~ E = E n d ( A + ) E n d ( A - ) b y aS(x) = a o x , a~(y) = a o y ( n o t a t i o n as in 8.0).
+ ( c o n s i d e r e d as a s u b a l g e b r a of V + T h e n f: a ~ a' is a h o m o m o r p h i s m f r o m V 2
e
as in 8.0) into t h e s t r u c t u r e J o r d a n a l g e b r a 7 o f A . F o r (x,y) G A w e h a v e
+ - +
f ( { x y e + } ) = %(x,y) and h e n c e f m a p s { V I , V I , e } o n t o the i n n e r s t r u c t u r e a l -
g e b r a o f A .
+ J is a h o m o m o r p h i s m of J o r d a n a l g e b r a s . By 8 . 2 . 1 a n d Proof. B y 8 . 1 . 2 , f: V 2
8 . 1 . 7 , w e have, for (x,y), (z,w) G A ,
{ x y e + } o z = { { x y e + } e - z } = <xyz> = L ( x , y ) z ,
{xye ~ } ow = { { y x e - } e + w } = <yxw> = L ( y , x ) w ,
w h i c h p r o v e s f ( { x y e + } ) = %(x,y) . A p p l y i n g f to 8 . 1 . 6 w e get a ' o % ( x , y )
= ~ ( a ' x , y ) + % ( x , a ' y ) , and h e n c e a' = f(a) s a t i s f i e s 8.3.1. A l s o , < x , a o y , x >
= Q ( x ) ( a o y ) = Q ( x ) D ( y - e + ) a = { x a { e + y x } } - { e + , y , Q ( x ) a } = { { x y e + } a x } = { x y e + } o ( a o x )
+
= < x , y , a o x > b y JPI2, 8 . 1 . 1 , and 8 . 1 . 6 s i n c e Q ( x ) a G V 0 = 0 . S i m i l a r l y ,
< y , a o x , y > = < y , x , a o y > , and h e n c e a' s a t i s f i e s 8.3.3. T o g e t h e r w i t h 8 . 3 . 1 t h i s
J * i m p l i e s 8 . 3 . 2 , and t h e r e f o r e a' G . S i n c e (a2) ' = (a') 2 w e a l s o h a v e (a') 2
J* a n d t h e r e f o r e a' C J .
8.11. W e k e e p the n o t a t i o n s of 8.8. W i t h the J o r d a n s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a J o f A
w e c a n a s s o c i a t e a J o r d a n p a i r (7,7) as u s u a l (1.6). For o u r p u r p o s e s , it w i l l
b e c o n v e n i e n t to r e a l i z e t h i s J o r d a n p a i r a s f o l l o w s . L e t E + = E = E n d ( A + )
84 8 . 1 1
= E n d ( A - ) E n d ( A + ) ~ . T h e n the e x c h a n g e m a p
E + to E- and c o n v e r -
= 7 + = { ( a _ , a + ) G E - I
and a ~ a i n d u c e s a n
End(A-) ~ as in 8.3, and let E-
a = (ao,a_o) ~ a = (a_o,ao) is an a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m f r o m
sely, and w e h a v e ~ = a . N o w let 7 + = 7 , and set J -
(a+,a_) G J }. T h e n 7 - is a J o r d a n s u b a l g e b r a of E- ,
i s o m o r p h i s m j o 7 - o of J o r d a n a l g e b r a s . E x p r e s s e d in a d i f f e r e n t w a y , 7 - is
the s t r u c t u r e J o r d a n a l g e b r a o f A ~ , and the i s o m o r p h i s m 7 + J - is i n d u c e d
b y the c a n o n i c a l a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m A A ~ . N o w (J+,J -) is a J o r d a n pair, i s o -
m o r p h i c w i t h (7,7) , b y d e f i n i n g q u a d r a t i c o p e r a t o r s b y
(i) Q ( a ) b : aba,
for a G jo j-o of is e = ( I d A o , I d A _ o ) a n d
, b G . T h e u n i t e l e m e n t e ~ 7 ~ o
h e n c e
(2) e = (e+,e -)
is a n i d e m p o t e n t of the J o r d a n p a i r (7+,7 -) . W e let j o act on A ~ b y p r o j e c -
t i o n o n t o the first factor; i.e. for a (ao,a_o) G j o and x G A ~ , = w e set
(3)
If y G A - ~ w e t h e r e f o r e h a v e
t ~
a x = a ~xJ.
o
a y = a o(y) . F u r t h e r m o r e , d e f i n e
(4) % ( x , y ) = ( L o ( x , y ) , L _ o ( y , x ) )
for (x,y) ~ A ~ A -~ and let F + F , F- F + F ~ , = = so t h a t is s p a n n e d b y all
(x,y) and ( F + , F -) is an i d e a l of the J o r d a n p a i r (7+,7 -) . B y (4), w e h a v e
0
(5) % o ( x , y ) z = <xyz>, ~o(x'Y) = % _ o ( y , x ) ,
w h i c h i m p l i e s
(6) <Aa,A-a,A~ = Fa.A ~.
8 . 1 2 8 5
8 . 1 2 . T H E O R E M . ( S t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g ) L e t A = ( A + , A -) b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e
p a i r o v e r k . W i t h t h e a b o v e n o t a t i o n s , l e t W ~ = J o ~ A ~ ( d i r e c t s u m o f
m o d u l e s ) , a n d d e f i n e q u a d r a t i c m a p s Q o : W ~ H ~ 1 7 6 1 7 6 b y
( 1 )
w h e r e
k -
Q o ( a ~ x ) ( b @ y ) = ( a b a + % o ( x , a y ) ) 9 ( a ( b x ) + < x y x > ) ,
a G j o , b @ 7 - o A ~ A - ~
, x ~ , y @ . T h e n W = ( W + , W - ) i s a J o r d a n p a i r ,
c a l l e d t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g o f
( a )
o f
(2)
n , w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s .
e = ( e + , e -) (as i n 8 . 1 1 . 2 ) i s a n i d e m p o t e n t o f ~ , a n d t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s
w i t h r e s p e c t t o e a r e
W 2 ( e ) = j o , W l ( e ) = A o , W 0 ( e ) = 0.
F o r x , z G A ~ A - ~ , y G w e h a v e
(3) < x y z > = { { x y e ~ 1 7 6
i . e . , n = W l ( e ) a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a s i n 8 . 2 .
(b) C o n v e r s e l y , l e t V = V 2 ~ V 1 b e a J o r d a n p a i r a n d A = V 1 t h e a s s o c i a t e d
a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a s i n 8 . 2 . D e f i n e fo: V2~ 7 ~ b y f + ( a ) = f ( a ) a s i n 8 . 1 0 ,
: V ~ W a b y h o ( a 9 x) = f (a) 9 x f (a) = f ( ~ ) , a n d e x t e n d f o t o a m a p h ~ _ _ o
(a ~ x C V 2 ~ VI). T h e n h = ( h + , h _ ) is a h o m o m o r p h i s m o f J o r d a n p a i r s w h i c h i s
t h e i d e n t i t y o n V 1 . I n g e n e r a l , h i s n e i t h e r i n j e c t i v e n o r s u r j e c t i v e .
(c) If A i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e ( r e s p . s e m i s i m p l e ) t h e n s o a r e t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d -
d i n g a n d t h e J o r d a n s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a o f A .
P r o o f . W e b e g i n b y s h o w i n g t h a t W i s a J o r d a n p a i r . S i n c e t h e p r o o f c o n s i s t s o f
a b r u t e f o r c e c o m p u t a t i o n w h i c h i s n ' t v e r y i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e r e a d e r m a y b e w e l l
a d v i s e d t o s k i p it a t f i r s t r e a d i n g . T h r o u g h o u t , l e t a , b , c , d d e n o t e e l e m e n t s o f
8 6 8 . 1 2
J a n d x , y , z , u , v e l e m e n t s o f n . F r o m (i) w e g e t t h e f o r m u l a s
(4) Q ( x ) a = Q ( a ) x = 0,
(5) { x y a } = { a y x } = % o ( x , a y ) ,
(6) { a b x } = { x b a } = a ( b x ) .
A l s o it i s c l e a r t h a t ( J + , i - ) a n d ( A + , A -) a r e s u b p a i r s o f W w h i c h b y 8 . 1 0
a n d 7 . 1 a r e J o r d a n p a i r s . W e h a v e t o v e r i f y J P I - J P 3 i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s
o f k . B y 1 . 2 , i t s u f f i c e s t o d o t h i s f o r e x t e n s i o n s R o f k w h i c h a r e f r e e
a s k - m o d u l e s . U s i n g t h e f a c t t h a t A R i s a g a i n a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a s w e l l a s
8 . 6 ( a ) w e s e e t h a t w e m a y a s s u m e R = k . F o r J P I w e h a v e to s h o w
{ a @ x , b @ y , Q ( a ~ x ) ( c ~ z ) } = Q ( a ~ x ) { b @ y , a ~ > x , c ~ z } .
E x p a n d i n g t h i s a n d u s i n g (I), (4), a n d 8 . 1 1 o n e s e e s t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i -
t i e s r e m a i n t o b e c h e c k e d .
( 7 )
( 8 )
( 9 )
( i O )
( i i )
{ a b { x z a } } = Q ( a ) { b x z } + { x { b a z } a } ,
{ x b { x z a } } + { a b < x z x > } = { a { b x z } x } + < x { b a z } x > ,
{ a y { a c x } } + { x , y , Q ( a ) c } = Q ( a ) { y x c } + { x { y a c } a } ,
{ a y < x z x > } + { x y { x z a } } = { x { y x z } a } ,
{ x y { a c x } } = { a { y x c } x } + < x { y a c } x > .
B y d e f i n i t i o n , (7) i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h
a b ~ ( x , a z ) + ~ o ( x , a z ) b a = a % _ ~ ( z , b x ) a + ~ o ( x , a b a z ) .
U s i n g 8 . 5 . 2 , 8 . 7 . 1 , a n d 8 . 1 1 w e s e e t h a t t h i s h o l d s . S i m i l a r l y , (8) f o l l o w s f r o m
8 . 3 . 2 a n d 8 . 3 . 3 , (9) f o l l o w s f r o m 8 . 7 . 1 , (i0) f r o m 8 . 4 . 2 a n d a l i n e a r i z a t i o n o f
8 . 3 . 2 . F i n a l l y , (ii) i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h
< x , y , a e x > + < a c x , y , x > = a < c x , y , x > + < x , ~ y , x > .
U s i n g 8 . 3 . 1 o n t h e f i r s t t e r m a n d 8 . 3 . 3 o n t h e s e c o n d t e r m o f t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e
a n d s e t t i n g u = c x t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t w i t h
< x , y , a u > + < u , y , a x > = < u , ~ y , x > + < x , ~ y , u >
8 . 1 2 87
w h i c h is a l i n e a r i z a t i o n of 8.3.3.
N e x t w e p r o v e JP2:
{Q(a@x) (b@y) , b ~ y , c @ z } = { a ~ x , Q ( b @ y ) ( a ~ ) ,e~z}.
P r o c e e d i n g as b e f o r e , w e e n d up w i t h the f o l l o w i n g cases:
(12)
( 1 3 )
(14)
( 1 5 )
(16)
{ { x y a } b c } + { { a b x } y c } = ( a { y x b } c } + { x { b a y } c } ,
{ { x y a } b z } + { { a b x } y z } = { a { y x b } z } + { x { b a y } z } ,
{ { x y a } y z } = { a < y x y > z } ,
{ < x y x > b c } = { x { y x b } c } ,
{ < x y x > y c } = { x < y x y > c } .
B y d e f i n i t i o n , (12) is e q u i v a l e n t w i t h
~ o ( x , a y ) b c + c b ~ o ( x , a y ) + ~ (abx,cy)
= a ~ a ( b x , y ) c + cs ( b x , y ) a + ~ (x,~bay)
w h i c h f o l l o w s e a s i l y f r o m 8 . 5 . 1 a n d 8.5.2. S i m i l a r l y , (13) is e q u i v a l e n t w i t h
< x , a y , b z > + < a b x , y , z > + < z , y , a b x >
= a < b x , y , z > + < x , b a y , z > + < z , b a y , x > .
W e u s e 8 . 3 . 1 o n t h e f i r s t t e r m a n d t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n of 8 . 3 . 3 o n t h e s e c o n d a n d
t h i r d t e r m of t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e to t r a n s f o r m t h i s i n t o t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n of
8.3.3. F i n a l l y , (14) - (16) f o l l o w i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s a n d 8 . 3 . 2
a n d 8.4.2.
T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n of J P 3 is c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l i f i e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g
8.13. LEMMA. L e t V = ( V + , V - ) b e a p a i r of k - m o d u l e s w i t h q u a d r a t i c m a p s
V ~ H o m ( V - ~ ~ s a t i s f y i n g JPI, JP2, a n d
JP3' Q ( Q ( x ) y ) y = Q ( x ) Q ( y ) Q ( x ) y
in a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s . T h e n V is a J o r d a n pair.
Q :
Proof. W e l i n e a r i z e JP3' a n d get
8 8 8 . 1 2
Q ( Q x y ) Z + Q ( Q x Y , Q x Z ) y = Q x Q y Q x Z + Q x Q ( y , Z ) Q x y .
N o w Q ( Q x Y , Q x Z ) y = { Q z } Q x { Q y X , X , Z } Q x { Y , Q x y , Z }
Q x y ' y ' x = { X ' Q y X ' Q x Z } = =
= Q x Q ( y , Z ) Q x y b y J P 2 a n d J P l , a n d t h e L e m m a f o l l o w s .
W e c o n t i n u e t h e p r o o f o f 8 . 1 2 a n d v e r i f y J P 3 . B y t h e L e m m a , w e o n l y h a v e t o s h o w :
Q ( Q ( a ~ > x ) ( b ~ y ) ) ( b ~ y ) = Q ( a @ x ) Q ( b ~ ) Q ( a ~ x ) ( b ~ y ) .
E x p a n d i n g t h i s i n t h e u s u a l w a y a n d u s i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n s , w e e n d u p w i t h
( 1 7 ) a b a b ~ o ( x , a y ) + ~ a ( x , a y ) b a b a + % a ( a b x , a b a y )
= a ~ a ( ~ a ~ x , y ) a + ~ o ( x , a b a b a y ) + a b ~ o ( x , a y ) b a ,
(18) ~ o ( x , a y ) b s + ~ a ( a b x , < a y , x , y > ) + ~ o ( < x y x > , a b a y )
= ~ a ( x , a < y , a b x , y > ) + a ~ a ( b < x y x > , y ) a + s
( 1 9 ) ~ ( < x y x > , < a y , x , y > ) = ~ o ( x , a < y < x z x > y > )
O
( 2 0 ) a b a b < x y x > + < x , a y , b a b x > + < a b x , y , a b x >
= a < b a b x , y , x > + < x , b a b a y , x > + a b < x , a y , b x > ,
( 2 1 ) < x , a y , b < x y x > > + < a b x , y , < x y x > > + < < x y x > , y , a b x >
= < x < y , a b x , y > x > + a < b < x y x > , y , x > + < x , b < a y , x , y > , x > .
T h e f i r s t f o u r i d e n t i t i e s a r e f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f 8 . 3 - 8 . 7 ,
s o w e o m i t t h e d e t a i l s . F o r t h e f i r s t t e r m o f ( 2 1 ) w e u s e 8 . 3 . 2 , A P 4 , a n d 8 . 3 . 3 :
< x , a y , b < x y x > > = ~ x , a y , < b x , y , x > > = < x < y , b x , a y > x > = < x < y , a b x , y > x > .
I f w e s e t u = b x , v = < y x y > a n d u s e 8 . 3 . 2 , 8 . 3 . 3 , A P 2 a n d A P 7 t h e n ( 2 1 ) r e d u c e s
t o
< a u , v , x > + < x , v , a u > = a < u v x > + < x , a v , u > .
B y 8 . 3 . 1 , a < u v x > = < a u , v , x > + < u , a v , x > - < u , v , a x > s o w e a r e l e f t w i t h
< x , v , a u > + < u , v , a x > = < x , a v , u > + < u , a v , x >
w h i c h i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f 8 . 3 . 3 . T h u s w e h a v e v e r i f i e d t h a t W i s a J o r d a n p a i r .
F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t e i s a n i d e m p o t e n t a n d t h a t (2)
8 . 1 4 89
holds. B y (5) and (6) a n d 8 . 1 1 . 5 ,
{ { x y e O } e - ~ = { ~ o ( x , y ) , e - ~ = ~ o ( x , y ) z = <xyz>,
w h i c h p r o v e s (3). N o w (b) f o l l o w s irmmediately f r o m the d e f i n i t i o n s and 8.8.
F i n a l l y , let r stand for Rad o r rad . By 5.8 a n d 5.10, it s u f f i c e s
to s h o w t h a t r ( W 2) = 0 p r o v i d e d r(A) = 0 . If a = (ao,a_o) G r(~2) t h e n
{ a e - ~ = a x = a (x) G r ( A ~ for all x G A O s i n c e r(W) is a n i d e a l of W .
H e n c e a O = 0 , a n d s i m i l a r l y {ae~ = a y = a_o(y) = 0 for a l l y G n - 0 i m p l i e s
a = 0 . T h e r e f o r e a = 0 and w e h a v e r(~O 2) = 0 . T h i s c o m p l e t e s t h e p r o o f .
- o
F o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n i d e a l s of A and W see ~12. H e r e w e c o m p u t e the
s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g s f o r the t h r e e t y p e s of a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s c o n s i d e r e d in 6.6 -
6.8.
8.14. L e t A = A ( M , R , ~ ) b e as in 6.4, a n d a s s u m e that R is s i m p l e w i t h u n i t y
and ~(M) # 0 so that w e c a n i d e n t i f y R J a n d 7 (cf. 8 . 9 ( a ) ) . T h e n o n e v e r i f i e s
i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t the s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g of A is t h e J o r d a n p a i r A(N,R,~) J
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r A ( N , ~ , ~ ) c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m t h e R - m o d u l e s
N + = R ~ M + a n d N- = R ~ M- ( w h e r e R is c o n s i d e r e d as a l e f t a n d r i g h t R -
m o d u l e in the c a n o n i c a l w a y ) and t h e b i l i n e a r f o r m ~: N + N- R g i v e n b y
~ ( a ~ x , b ~ y ) = ab + ~(x,y) .
8.15. Let (R,~ ~ = (R+,R -) b e the a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a u n i t a l a l -
t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a R , let Lo(x) b e l e f t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n w i t h x in R ~ , and
d e n o t e b y x ~ x t h e c a n o n i c a l a n t i - i s o m o r p h i s m R + R- a n d c o n v e r s e l y . B y 8.9
(b) a n d 8 . 1 1 w e h a v e a o = ( L o ( u ) , L _ o G ) ) for a G 7 ~ w h e r e u = ao(1) . A l s o
- . (i) is a n i s o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n 7 ~ and
s = ( L o ( x y ) , L _ o ( y x ) ) T h e m a p a ~ a ~
(R~ J , the J o r d a n a l g e b r a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h R ~ , b y m e a n s of w h i c h w e w i l l i d e n t i -
fy t h e s e two a l g e b r a s . T h e n w e get for t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g b y 8.12.1:
90 8 . 1 6
( i ) Q ( u + x ) ( v + y ) = (uSu + x ( y u ) ) + (u(~x) + xyx).
If w e set X = (u,x) a n d Y = (v,y) t h e n w e m a y w r i t e t h i s in m a t r i x n o t a t i o n as
(2) Q ( X ) Y = X ( Y X)
* t ~
w h e r e Y = (cf. 0.5). T h u s t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g is W = ( M I , 2 ( R ) , M I , 2 ( R ~
w i t h p r o d u c t g i v e n b y (2).
8.16. L e t K b e an e x t e n s i o n f i e l d of k and c o n s i d e r a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A
= A ( X , K , ~ ) as in 6.6. A s s u m e t h a t X is f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l o v e r K a n d ~ is
n o n - d e g e n e r a t e . T h e n w e c a n c h o o s e a b a s i s b l , . . . , b 2 n of X o v e r K s u c h that
the m a t r i x of ~ w i t h r e s p e c t to this b a s i s is the s t a n d a r d s y m p l e c t i c m a t r i x
i n 0
w h e r e 1 is the n n u n i t m a t r i x . If w e i d e n t i f y X w i t h
n
w e w r i t e as c o l u m n v e c t o r s ) t h e n
K 2 n ( w h o s e e l e m e n t s
(i) ~(x,y) = txSy,
w h e r e t =
x is the t r a n s p o s e of x . Let n o w A + A - = X , a n d let J : A -~ A ~
and ca: A ~ x A ~ + K b e as in 6.6. C o n s i d e r t h e b a s i s C l , . . . C 2 n of A - g i v e n
b y c.l = - J - ( b n + i ) ' C n + i = J - ( b i ) , i = l , . . . , n . T h e n the m a t r i x o f ~ w i t h
r e s p e c t to C l , . . . , C 2 n is S , and if w e i d e n t i f y A ~ w i t h K 2n b y m e a n s of
t h e s e b a s e s t h e n J : A -~ A ~ is g i v e n b y m a t r i x m u l t i p l i c a t i o n w i t h -S o n t h e
left. For x,z G A ~ A -~ , y G w e o b t a i n , in m a t r i x n o t a t i o n ,
<xyz> = x ( t z S ( - S y ) ) - ( S y ) ( t x S z ) = x t y z + S y ( t x ) s - l z ,
so t h a t
8 . 1 6 9 1
(2) L ( x , y ) = x ( t y ) + S y ( t x ) S - I .
/a
h \
Let A be a 2 n x 2 n m a t r i x w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s i n k divided into
f o u r b l o c k s o f n x n m a t r i c e s . T h e n i t i s e a s i l y v e r i f i e d t h a t A i s s y m p l e c t i c
s y m m e t r i c , i . e . , s a t i s f i e s ~ ( A x , x ) = 0 f o r a l l x G K 2 n i f a n d o n l y i f b a n d
c a r e a l t e r n a t i n g a n d d = t a . T h i s i m p l i e s
(3) S A S - I = t A .
(If c h a r ( K ) # 2 t h e n (3) i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r A t o b e s y m p l e c t i c s y m m e t r i c ) . A c c o r -
d i n g t o 8 . 9 ( c ) , ( A + , A _ ) i s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e J o r d a n a l g e b r a J o f A i f a n d o n -
l y i f A = A + i s s y m p l e c t i c s y m m e t r i c a n d A = j ~ I A + j + = ( - S ) - I A ( - S ) = t A . I f
w e i d e n t i f y J A K 2 n
w i t h t h e s y m p l e c t i c s y m m e t r i c m a t r i c e s a n d w i t h t h e n ,
b y 8 . 1 2 , w e h a v e f o r t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g W o f A :
(4) Q ( A ~ x ) ( B ~ y ) = ( A t B A + x t y A + A t A y t x S - I ) 9 ( A t B x + x t y x ) .
( : ) C: t) N o w i f A = tab i s s y m p l e c t i c s y n ~ n e t r i c t h e n S A = _ i s a n a l t e r -
f r om W e i n-
n a t i n g 2 n x 2 n m a t r i x . C o n s i d e r t h e m a p ~ : A 9 x t x S
t o t h e s p a c e A 2 n + I ( K ) o f a l t e r n a t i n g ( 2 n + l ) x ( 2 n + l ) m a t r i c e s . C l e a r l y , # i s
a v e c t o r s p a c e i s o m o r p h i s m , a n d o n e c h e c k s t h a t ( ~ , ~ ) i s a c t u a l l y a n i s o m o r p h i s m
o f J o r d a n p a i r s , w h e r e t h e p a i r ( A 2 n + I ( K ) , A 2 n + I ( K ) ) i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a J o r d a n
p a i r w i t h
(5) Q ( X ) Y = x t y x .
9 2 9.1
~9. P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
9 . 1 . L e t R b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a , a n d l e t e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f
c a l l t h a t w e h a v e t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
R = R I I ~ R I O ~ R O I ~ R O 0
w h e r e
R . R e -
R . . : { x @ R I e x = i x , x e = j x }.
13
T h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n r u l e s f o r t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s a r e
(i) R i j R j m C R i m ,
(2) R . . R . . ~ R . . , f o r
l J l ~ ] 1
i # j ,
w h i l e a l l o t h e r p r o d u c t s a r e z e r o . F o r t h e p r o o f , s e e , e . g . , S c h a f e r [ l ] .
N o w l e t A = ( A + , A -) b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r . A n i d e m p o t e n t o f A
p a i r e = ( e + , e -) @ A s u c h t h a t
(3) < e O , e - ~ = e ~
T h u s e i s a l s o a n i d e m p o t e n t o f t h e J o r d a n p a i r A J a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A .
i s a
9 . 2 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A .
(a) T h e r e i s a P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
w h e r e
(1)
A = A l l ~ A I 0 e A 0 1 9 A 0 0
A i j = ( A + . - a n d
j ' A i j )
(~ A ~ - - o o
A . . = { x @ [ < e ~ e ~ = ix, < x e e > = j x }.
13
9 . 2 9 3
( b ) T h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e J o r d a n p a i r A J i s g i v e n b y
i . e . 9
J J J
A 2 = A l l , A 1 = A I 0 ~ A 0 1 , A 0 = A O 0 ,
A J = ~ A . . .
n i + j = n 13
- u
(c) L e t B ~ d e n o t e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a A ~ w i t h p r o d u c t x y = < x e y >
( c f . 6 . 1 0 ) . Th e n e c~ i s a n i d e mp o t e n t o f B cr , e a n d t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s o f B ~ wi t h
~ s ? a ? r e s p e c t t o e a r e . = . .
lj 13
- - ~ - ( 7 - o
( d ) T h e m a p a ~+ a = < e a e o > i s a n a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n B I I a n d B I I
s u c h t h a t a a . F o r x , y G A O A - ~
= , a ~ w e h a v e
i i
( 2 ) < x a y > = ( x a ) y .
P r o o f . L e t E = L ( e ~ - ~ a n d F = R ( e g , e - ~ ) B y A P I I - A P I 3 a n d 9 . 1 . 3 w e
a "
h a v e E 2 = E , F 2 = F o , E o F ~ = F E . T h u s E a n d F a r e c o m m u t i n g i d e m p o -
o (7 o (7 o
o o o
t e n t s o f E n d ( A ~ ) . T h i s p r o v e s ( a ) . T h e p r o j e c t i o n s o n t o A l l , A I 0 + A O I , A 0 0
- + E F F r o m A P I 3 a n d 7 . 1 . 3 a r e g i v e n b y E o F o , E ~ + F ~ 2 E o F o , I d - E ~ - F ~ o o
= Q ( e ~ 1 7 6 2 Q ( e g ) Q ( e - O ) w e g e t E o F ~ E + F - 2 E F = D ( e ~ - g ) - , a n d
I d - E - F + E F = B ( e ~ - ~ w h i c h p r o v e s ( b ) i n v i e w o f 5 . 4 . F r o m t h e d e f i n i -
(7 a o
t i o n s a n d 9 . 1 i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t (c) h o l d s . A l s o , e ~ i s a n i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t
o f t h e J o r d a n p a i r A 2 w i t h i n v e r s e e - ~ b y 5 . 5 . H e n c e a ~+ a m a p s A l l o n t o
=
A l l a n d w e h a v e a = a , b y i . i i . N e x t w e p r o v e ( 2 ) :
=
< x a y > = < x a y > < x < e - O - - o - o - - o
= a e > y > = < x e a > e y > = ( x a ) y ,
u s i n g A P 7 . N o w w e h a v e b y A P 4 :
a b = < e < a e b > e > = < e b < e a e > > = < e - ~ = ( e - O b ) a = b a .
T h i s p r o v e s t h a t a ~ a i s a n a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m .
9 4 9 . 3
9 . 3 . T H E O R E M . L e t A = A l l (~) A I 0 (~ A O I (~ A 0 0 b e t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
w i t h r e s p e c t t o e . T h e n w e h a v e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s
o - o o A o
(i) < A i j , A m j , A m n > C i n '
. o ~ - o A o A ~ f o r i # m ,
(2) < ~ i j ' ~ m j ' A i m > C m i '
o - o ~ C o
(3) < A i j , A j i , A i m > A j m , f o r i # j ,
(4) <Aolj - o o A o
. . , A j i , A j i > C i j ' f o r i # j .
P r o d u c t s w i t h i n d e x c o m b i n a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n (i) - (4) a r e z e r o .
, y , z @ . T h e n w e g e t f r o m A P I a n d 9 . 2 . 1 P r o o f . L e t x @ A~ji @ A - ~ A ~
m n p q
(5) < e e < x y z > > = ( i + m - p ) < x y z > .
F r o m t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n s o f A P 2 a n d A P 7 w e s e e t h a t
< < x y z > e e > + < < x y e > e z > = ( p + q ) < x y z > ,
o - ~
< < x y e > e z > + j < x y z > = ( m + n ) < x y z >
w h i c h i m p l i e s
(6) < < x y z > e - ~ 1 7 6 = ( p + q - m - n + j ) < x y z > .
N o w (i) - (4) f o l l o w i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m (5) a n d ( 6 ) . N e x t w e h a v e t o s h o w t h a t a l l
o t h e r i n d e x c o m b i n a t i o n s ( i j , m n , p q ) g i v e z e r o . A n e n u m e r a t i o n o f a l l p o s s i b i l i -
t i e s r e s u l t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t .
(7) ( i 0 , 1 1 , m n ) , ( i l , l l , O j ) f o r i # j ,
( 8 ) ( l l , i 0 , m n ) ,
( 9 ) ( O 0 , O l , i j ) ,
( i O ) ( l l , O i , l l ) ,
(ii) ( O l , O 0 , i j ) ,
( 1 2 ) ( O l , i O , l l ) ,
( m n , l l , 0 0 ) ,
9 . 4 9 5
( 1 3 ) ( O i , O j , l m ) ,
( 1 4 ) ( i O , l O , O j ) , f o r
( 1 5 ) ( l O , 0 1 , O 0 ) .
( i , j ) # ( 0 , i ) ,
F r o m 9 . 2 , (c) a n d ( d ) , a n d t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n r u l e s f o r t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s i n a n
a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a ( c f . 9 . 1 ) i t f o l l o w s t h a t a l l p r o d u c t s o f t y p e ( 7 ) a r e z e r o .
N o w l e t x G A l l , Al.; A ~ ~ - (7 y 6 , z 6 . T h e n b y A P 6 , < x y z > = < < e x e > y z > =
( 7 ( 7 - ( 7 -
< e < y e x > z > = 0 s i n c e < y e x > = 0 b y ( 7 ) . T h i s p r o v e s ( 8 ) . F o r ( 9 ) , l e t x ~ A 0 0
A 0 1 o -(7 o -(7 -(7 (7
a n d y 6 -(7 . T h e n b y A P I , < x y z > = < x < y e e > z > = < e y < x e z > > + < x e < e y z > >
( 7 - ( 7 ~ ( 7
- < < e y x > e z > . T h e f i r s t t w o t e r m s v a n i s h b y ( 7 ) , a n d s i n c e < e y x > @ A I 0 b y
( 7 - ( 7
(i) t h e l a s t t e r m a l s o v a n i s h e s b y ( 7 ) . N o w l e t x , z @ A l l , y 6 A 0 1 . T h e n
~ - - ( 7 ( 7 - 0 ( 7
< x y z > = < x y < e z e > > = < < x y e > z e > , a n d t h e r e f o r e i t s u f f i c e s t o p r o v e < x y e > = 0 .
B u t < x y e ( 7 > < < e ~ (7 (7 (7- o (7 (7 o (7 (7 -(7 o
= > y e > = < e x < e y e > > , a n d < e y e > = < e y < e e e > > =
( 7 - - ( 7 ( 7 ( 7
< e < e e y > e > = 0 . T h i s p r o v e s ( i 0 ) . F o r ( i i ) w e u s e A P 6 :
( 1 6 ) < x y z > = < < x e - ( 7 (7 (7 -(7 (7 -(7 (7 -(7
e > y z > = - < < e e x > y z > + < x < y e e > z > + < e < y x e > z > .
T h e f i r s t t w o t e r m s o n t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e v a n i s h s i n c e x G A ~ I ~ a n d y ~ A O ~
a n d t h e l a s t o n e i s z e r o b y ( 9 ) . S i m i l a r l y , ( 1 2 ) f o l l o w s f r o m ( 1 6 ) s i n c e i n t h i s
c a s e < y x e - ~ G A 0 ~ b y ( 3 ) , a n d h e n c e < e ~ 1 7 6 = 0 b y ( i 0 ) . N e x t w e p r o v e
( 1 3 ) , u s i n g A P 4 : < x y z > = < x y < e ~ - ~ o - o - o o
z > > = - < z y < e e x > > + < z < e e y > x > +
- O ( 7 - ( 7 ( 7 ( 7 - ( 7
< x < e e y > z > = 0 . F o r ( 1 4 ) w e u s e A P 7 : < x y z > = < x < e e y > z > = - < x < y e e > z >
+ < < x e - ~ + < < x y e ( 7 > e - ( T z > . T h e f i r s t t w o t e r m s a r e z e r o s i n c e x ~ A ~ O a n d
6 A~iu a n d t h e l a s t o n e v a n i s h e s b y (7) s i n c e < x y e ( 7 A?II
Y
, > G . F r o m t h e s a m e
f o r m u l a w e g e t ( 1 5 ) .
9 . 4 . C O R O L L A R Y . A i j = ( A j , A i j ) i s a s u b p a i r o f
T h i s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m 9 . 3 .
A .
9 6 9 . 5
9 . 5 . R e m a r k . T h e o r e m 9 . 3 s h o w s t h a t , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n ,
t h e p r o d u c t < x y z > i n a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r b e h a v e s e x a c t l y l i k e ( x y ) z i n a n a l -
t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a w i t h i n v o l u t i o n . T h i s i s h e l p f u l f o r m e m o r i z i n g t h e P e i r c e m u l -
t i p l i c a t i o n r u l e s .
+ + +
9 . 6 . L E M M A . W i t h t h e n o t a t i o n s o f 9 . 2 , l e t a , b G Al l , f , g , h G A10, u , v , w G AO1.
T h e n w e h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a s .
( i )
( 2 )
( 3 )
( 4 )
( 5 )
( 6 )
( 7 )
( 8 )
( 9 )
( i 0 )
( l l )
( 1 2 )
( 1 3 )
( 1 4 )
( 1 5 )
( 1 6 )
P r o o f .
a ( b f ) = ( a b ) f ,
(ua)b = u ( a b ) ,
< f g e ~ = < g f e - ~
a < f g b > = < a f , g , b > ,
< f g b > a = < f , g , b a > ,
< e O v u > = < e - ~ , u ~ v > ~
< b v u > a = < b , v , u a > ,
a < b v u > = < a b , v , u > ,
< f v a > = - < a v f > ,
< f v a > b = < f , v , a b > = < a f , v , b > = < f , v a , b > ,
u u = 0 ; a ( u v ) = ( u a ) v = < u a v > ,
< f g h > = < f g e ~
o
< u v w > = u < e v w > + < e , v , u w > ,
< u g v > = - < u v , g , e > ,
< u g f > = u < f g e q > ,
< f v u > = < f v e ~ > n . .
B y t h e a l t e r n a t i v e l a w i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a
- ( a b ) f = b ( f a ) - ( b f ) a , a n d
B y A P 4 ,
A ~
e
w e h a v e a ( b f )
f a = ( b f ) a = 0 b y 9 . 2 . S i m i l a r l y , o n e p r o v e s ( 2 ) .
9. 6 97
< f g e O > < e - O < f g e O > e - O > - o o - o - o
= = < e e < g f e > > = < g f e > .
T h e l i n e a r i z e d f o r m o f A P 2 g i v e s
a < f g b > + a < b g f > = < a f , g , b > + < a b , g , f > ,
a n d < b g f > = < a b , g , f > = 0 b y 9 . 3 . A l s o , b y A P 6 ,
< f g b > a + < b g f > a = < f < e b g > a > + < b < e f g > a > ,
w h i c h s h o w s < f g b > a = < f < e b g > a > = < f , b g , a > b y 9 . 2 . 2 . N o w w e g e t b y ( i ) :
< f g b > a = < f , b g , e ~ = < f , a ( b g ) , e ~
< f , ( a b ) g , e ~ = < f , ( b - ~ ) g , e ~ = < f , g , b a > ,
w h i c h p r o v e s ( 5 ) . N e x t , ( 6 ) f o l l o w s f r o m A P 4 , a n d f o r ( 7 ) w e h a v e b y A P 2 :
< b v u > a + < b v a > u = < b , v , u a > + < b , v , a u > ,
a n d a u = < b v a > = 0 b y 9 . 3 . A l s o , b y A P 2 ,
a < b v u > + a < u v b > = < a b , v , u > + < a u , v , b >
w h e r e < u v b > = < a u , v , b > = 0 b y 9 . 3 . T h i s p r o v e s ( 8 ) .
B y 9 . 3 , < f v a > a n d < a v f > b e l o n g t o A 0 1 . H e n c e w e g e t f r o m A P 6 t h a t
< f v a > + < a v f > = < < f v a > e e > + < < a v f > e e > = < f < e a v > e > + < a < e f v > e > = 0 ,
s i n c e < e - O a v > = < e - ~ = 0 b y 9 . 3 . N o w w e p r o v e ( i 0 ) . B y A P 7 a n d A P I , w e h a v e
< f v a > b + < f a , v , b > = < f < v a e - ~ + < f < e - ~
a < f v b > + < f , v , a b > = < a f , v , b > + < f < e a v > b > ,
a n d m o r e o v e r f a = < e - a a v > = a < f v b > = 0 . T h i s s h o w s < f v a > b = < f , v a , b > , a n d
< f , v , a b > = < a f , v , b > . N o w < f v a > b = ( < f v e ~ = < f v e ~ = < f , v , a b > b y ( 2 ) .
- ~ o - o - o o - o - o
N e x t , w e h a v e u u = < u e u > = < e e < u e u > > = < < e e u > e u > = 0 b y A P 2 . B y t h e
a l t e r n a t i v e l a w , a ( u v ) - ( a u ) v = - u ( a v ) + ( u a ) v , a n d a u = a v = 0 . F i n a l l y ,
( u a ) v = < u a v > b y 9 . 2 . 2 .
F o r ( 1 2 ) w e u s e A P 2 :
< f g h > = < f , g , < e ~ 1 7 6 = - < f g < h e - ~ 1 7 6 + < f g e ~ + < < f g h > e - ~ 1 7 6 = < f g e ~
9 8 9 . 7
. S i m i l a r l y , ( 1 3 ) f o l l o w s f r o m A P 2 : < u v w > s i n c e h a n d < f g h > a r e i n A I 0
= < < u e e > v w > = < u e < e v w > > + < u e < w v e > > - < < u e w > v e > = u < e v w > + < e , v , u w >
b y ( 9 ) a n d < me > 0 By AP7 a n d ( 9 ) we h a v e < u g v > + < u v , g , e > < < u g v > e - O o = . = e >
< < u e - ( T v > g e O > - o -(7 u +
= < u , < g v e > + < e v g > , e > = 0 . F r o m A P 2 w e g e t < u g f >
= < < u e e > g f > = - < < u e f > g e > + < u e < e ~ + < u e < f g e >> = u < f g e ~ s i n c e
< u e - ~ = < e ~ = 0 . A n d f i n a l l y , b y A P 4 a n d ( i i ) , < f v u > - < f v e ~
= < e e < f v u > > + < u e < f v e > > = < e ~ 1 7 6 + < u < v f e - ~ = 0 .
9 . 7 . L E M M A . W i t h t h e n o t a t i o n s o f 9 . 2 , w e h a v e
(a) A I 0 i s a n a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r ;
(7 (7 = 0 t h e n i s a n a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r .
(b) i f A 0 1 . A 0 1 A 0 1
P r o o f . ( a ) F o r c , d , f , g , h G A ~ 0 w e h a v e b y 9 . 6 . 1 2 , 9 . 6 . 1 , a n d 9 . 6 . 4 ,
< e d < f g h > > = < c d e ~ = ( < c d e ~ 1 7 6
= < < c d e > f , g , e > h = < < c d f > , g , e ( 7 > h = < < c d f > g h > .
F r o m t h i s a n d A P I i t f o l l o w s t h a t A I 0 i s a s s o c i a t i v e .
+
(b) L e t x , y , u , v , w G A ~ I . T h e n b y ( 1 3 ) , ( 7 ) a n d (2) o f 9 . 6 w e h a v e
< x y < u v w > > = x < e y < u v w > > = x < e , y , u < e v w > >
x ( < e O y u > < e ( T v w > ) o
= = ( x < e y u > ) < e v w > = < < x y u > V w > ,
a n d h e n c e A 0 1 i s a s s o c i a t i v e .
9 . 8 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t A = ~ A . . b e t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f A w i t h r e s p e c t
~ J
t o e . T h e n A i s a n a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r i f a n d o n l y i f A . . ( i = 0 , i ) i s a n a s -
- i i
s o c i a t i v e p a i r , a n d a l l p r o d u c t s 9 . 3 . 2 , 9 . 3 . 3 , 9 . 3 . 4 v a n i s h .
P r o o f . I f A i s a s s o c i a t i v e t h e n s o i s A..11 . A l s o , f o r x ~ A ~ j , y G A-(Tmn, a n d
9 . 8 99
s i n c e
~,
q or
H e n c e w e o n l y h a v e to c o n s i d e r t h e c a s e
l o w i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
z G A ~ w e h a v e < e ~ 1 7 6 = < < e O e - ~ e > =
x > y z > = i < x y z > a n d < < x y z > e - O o
P q
- o o . H e n c e a l l p r o d u c t s 9 3 . 2 - 9 3 . 4
< x y < z e e >> = q < x y z > w h i c h p r o v e s < x y z > ~ A ? 9 9
lq
a r e z e r o . F o r t h e c o n v e r s e , it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t < < x y z > u v > = < x < u z y > v > ,
f o l l o w s f r o m A P I . T h u s l e t xij G A ~ j , Y k z ~ < x y < z u v > > < < E y e > B Y > t h e n
v > = 0 if j # ~ o r k # m o r n #
e t c . . T h e n w e h a v e < < x i j Y k Z Z m n > U p q rs
p # r . B u t i n e a c h o f t h e s e c a s e s , < x i j < U p q Z m n Y k Z > V r s > is z e r o as w e l l .
< < x i j Y m j Z m n > U p n V p s > . T h e r e a r e t h e f o l -
1 ~ i # m o r n # j . T h e n w e h a v e b y A P 6 , o m i t t i n g i n d i c e s f o r e a s i e r n o t a t i o n ,
< < x y z > u v > + < < z y x > u v > = < X < U Z y > V > + < Z < U X y > V > ,
a n d t h e s e c o n d t e r m s o n e a c h s i d e v a n i s h .
2 ~ . p # m . B y A P 7 w e g e t
< < x y z > u v > + < < x u z > y v > = < x < u z y > v > + < x < y z u > v > ,
a n d a g a i n t h e s e c o n d t e r m s o n e a c h s i d e a r e z e r o .
3 ~ . i = m = p, n = j, s # j . F r o m A P 2 it f o l l o w s t h a t
< < x y z > u v > + < < x y v > u z > = < x y < z u v > > + < x y < v u z > > ,
a n d t h e s e c o n d t e r m s o n e a c h s i d e v a n i s h . S i n c e x , y , z , u a r e a l l in
l o w s f r o m A P I t h a t w e a l s o h a v e < < x y z > u v > = < x < u z y > v > .
+
AT. it f o l -
lJ
4 ~ . i = m = p, j = n = s, i # j . F o r i = 1 t h i s f o l l o w s f r o m 9 . 7 ( a ) . F o r i
~ . o - o o is a p r o d u c t o f t y p e 9 . 3 . 2 a n d h e n c e is
= 0 w e h a v e t h a t A 0 1 . A 0 1 < A 0 1 e A 0 1 >
z e r o b y h y p o t h e s i s . T h u s t h e a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m 9 . 7 ( b ) ~
5 ~ A l l i n d i c e s a r e e q u a l . T h e n t h e a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m o u r a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t
t h e A.. .
ii
i 0 0 9 . 9
9 . 9 . P R O P O S I T I O N . T h e J a c o b s o n r a d i c a l s o f A a n d A . .
13
(i) R a d A . . = A . . R a d A ,
13 13
(2) R a d A = ~ R a d A . , .
i,j 13
a r e r e l a t e d b y
P r o o f . S i n c e e v e r y i d e a l o f A i s t h e s u m o f i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n s w i t h t h e P e i r c e
s p a c e s it s u f f i c e s t o p r o v e (i). F o r i = j t h i s f o l l o w s f r o m 9 . 2 ( b ) a n d 5 . 8 .
N o w l e t i # j a n d l e t x G A ~ j ,
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b y 9 . 2 ( b ) a n d
Q ( x ) y = 0, a n d t h e r e f o r e x y = x
f o l l o w s t h a t ( x , y + z ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e , f o r a l l y + z G A ? . ~ A ? .
j l 13
J
t h a t x b e l o n g s t o t h e r a d i c a l o f A 1 . B y 5 . 8 , t h i s i s c o n t a i n e d i n
R a d A . H e n c e w e h a v e R a d A . . C R a d A . T h e c o n v e r s e i s t r i v i a l .
x3
y ~ A ? ? . T h e n b y 9 . 3 . 3 , Q ( x ) y = < x y x > G A . . .
3 1 3J
o o . H e n c e w e h a v e
5 . 4 ( c ) , Q( x ) y G A10 ~ A01
b y 3 . 8 . I f now x ~ Rad A~. t h e n b y 3 . 7 ( a ) i t
13
w h i c h s h o w s
R a d A J =
9 . 1 0 . L e t ( e l , . . . , e r ) b e a s y s t e m o f o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s o f A J (cf. 5 . 1 2 ) .
T h e n i t i s n o t h a r d t o s e e t h a t
0 - ~ R" 0 -Ox
(i) L ( e i , e j ) = ~ e i , e j ) = 0,
a n d t h a t w e h a v e t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
r
(2) A = q ) A .
i , j = 0 13
f o r i # j,
= = A . . @ , f o r i # J .
(3) ( A J ) i i A i i , ( A J ) i j m 3 A j i
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s a r e t h e s a m e a s i n c a s e o f a s i n g l e i d e m p o t e n t ( s e e 9 . 3 ) .
T h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r A J i s r e l a t e d t o (2) b y
w h e r e A i j + -
= (Aij , A i j ) a n d
A ~ = { x 6 A ~ I o - o o = ~j f o r ~ = i , . . , r } .
ij < e ~ e ~ x > = 6 i ~ x a n d < x e ~ ~ s 9
9.9 i 0 1
A l s o , the e x a c t a n a l o g u e h o l d s for (2). S i n c e t h e s e r e s u l t s w i l l n o t b e n e e d e d in
the s e q u e l w e l e a v e the p r o o f s as a n e x e r c i s e .
N O T E S
For a s s o c i a t i v e t r i p l e s y s t e m s ( t e r n a r y a l g e b r a s ) see H e s t e n e s [ l ] , L i s t e r
[i], L e e s [ 4 ] , S t e p h e n s o n [ l ] . A s s o c i a t i v e p a i r s a r e r e a l l y " a b s t r a c t o f f - d i a g o n a l
P e i r c e s p a c e s " of a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a s i n the f o l l o w i n g sense: L e t ~ b e a u n i t a l
a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a , and c o n s i d e r the P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n R = R I I ~ R I 2 ~ R 2 1
R 2 2 of R w i t h r e s p e c t to a n i d e m p o t e n t e . T h e n (RI2,R21) is a n a s s o c i a -
t i v e p a i r if w e d e f i n e < x y z > = x y z and < y z w > = w z y , for x , z C R I 2 and y , w
G R 2 1 . C o n v e r s e l y , e v e r y a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r A = ( A + , A - ) c a n b e o b t a i n e d in this
way. Indeed, let R I I b e the s u b a l g e b r a of E = E n d ( A + ) E n d ( A - ) ~ g e n e r a t e d
b y e I = (Id,Id) and a l l ~(x,y) = ( L ( x , y ) , L ( y , x ) ) , a n d R 2 2 t h e s u b a l g e b r a of
E Op g e n e r a t e d b y e 2 = (Id,Id) a n d a l l r((y,x)) = ( R ( x , y ) , R ( y , x ) ) w h e r e (x,y)
G A . For a = (a+,a_) ~ R I I , b = (b+,b_) C R 2 2 a n d (x,y) ~ A w e set
a x = a+(x), y a = a_(y), xb = b+(x), b y = b_(y).
T h e n A + is a R l l - l e f t and R 2 2 - r i g h t h i - m o d u l e , and A - is a R 2 2 - 1 e f t a n d
R l l - r i g h t b i - m o d u l e . L e t R I 2 = A +, R 2 1 = A-, a n d w r i t e the e l e m e n t s of R =
R I I ~ R I 2 9 R 2 1 ~ R 2 2 in m a t r i x form:
( a Y ~ I ' a ~ R I I ' (x'Y) ~ A' b ~ R 2 2 "
T h e n R b e c o m e s a n a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a w i t h the d e s i r e d p r o p e r t i e s b y d e f i n i n g
102
a aa' + %(x,y'), ax' + xb'
= ,
y b y' b' ya' + by' , r(y,x') + bb'
This construction is analogous to the one given in Loos[4]. We haven't used this
approach here since it does not work for alternative pairs, and also is not suit-
able for the structure theory with chain conditions on principal inner ideals (see
chapter III). In fact, even if A is semisimple and has acc and dcc on principal
inner ideals the algebra R constructed above is not necessarily Artinian. This
is so, h ~ e v e r , if A has dcc on all inner ideals. It seems possible to develop
a structure theory for associative pairs with chain conditions on left and right
ideals.
Alternative triple systems were introduced in Loos[3], over rings of sca-
lars containing 1/2. This restriction was later removed by Meyberg([6]).
i 0 . I 1 0 3
C H A P T E R I I I
A L T E R N A T I V E A N D J O R D A N P A I R S
W I T H C H A I N C O N D I T I O N S
w I n n e r i d e a l s a n d c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s
i 0 . i . I n n e r i d e a l s . L e t V = ( V + , V - ) b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r t h e r i n g k . A s u b m o -
d u l e m C V a i s c a l l e d a n i n n e r i d e a l if Q ( m ) V - ~ m . B y a n i n n e r i d e a l o f a n
a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r w e m e a n a n i n n e r i d e a l o f t h e a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r . W e n o w g i -
v e s o m e e x a m p l e s o f i n n e r i d e a l s .
(a) I f m C V ~ i s a n i n n e r i d e a l t h e n i t f o l l o w s f r o m J P 3 ( r e s p . J P 2 6 ) t h a t
Q ( x ) ~ ( r e s p . B ( x , y ) m ) i s a n i n n e r i d e a l , f o r a l l x G V - ~ G V ~
V - ~ ). I n p a r t i c u l a r , Q ( x ) V ~ i s a n i n n e r i d e a l , c a l l e d t h e p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e -
a l g e n e r a t e d b y x . N o t e t h a t x @ Q ( x ) V ~ i f a n d o n l y if x i s ( v o n N e u m a n n )
r e g u l a r (cf. 5 . 1 ) .
(b) L e t e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f V . F r o m 5 . 4 i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s
V ~ ( e ) a n d V ~ ( e ) a r e i n n e r i d e a l s ; i n f a c t , V ~ ( e ) i s t h e p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e -
a l generated by e ~ , a n d V ~ ( e ) = B ( e ~ 1 7 6 ~ . I f V o ( e ) = 0 t h e n V ~ ( e ) is
a l s o a n i n n e r i d e a l .
(c) I f x G V ~ i s a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t (cf. 4 . 5 ) t h e n o b v i o u s l y k . x i s a n i n n e r
1 0 4 1 0 . 2
i d e a l , c a l l e d a t r i v i a l i n n e r i d e a l .
1 0 . 2 . L E M M A . (a) I n v e r s e i m a g e s o f i n n e r i d e a l s u n d e r h o m o m o r p h i s m s a r e i n n e r
i d e a l s .
(b) I m a g e s o f i n n e r i d e a l s u n d e r s u r j e c t i v e h o m o m o r p h i s m s a r e i n n e r i d e a l s .
( c ) Le__~t e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f V . T h e n t h e i n n e r i d e a l s o f V 2 ( e ) ( r e s p .
V 0 ( e ) ) a r e p r e c i s e l y t h e i n n e r i d e a l s o f V c o n t a i n e d i n V 2 ( e ) ( r e s p . V 0 ( e ) ) ,
a n d e v e r y p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l o f V 2 ( e ) ( r e s p . V 0 ( e ) ) i s a l s o a p r i n c i p a l i n -
n e r i d e a l o f ~ . I f V 0 ( e ) = 0 t h e n t h e s a m e s t a t e m e n t s a r e t r u e f o r g l ( e ) .
T h i s i s i m m e d i a t e f r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s a n d t h e c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s f o r t h e
P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n ( 5 . 4 ( c ) ) .
1 0 . 3 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t X C V - b e a s u b s e t , a n d l e t A n n ( X ) b e t h e s e t o f a l l
a @ V + s u c h t h a t , f o r a l l x ~ X ,
(i) Q ( a ) x = Q ( x ) a = 0,
(2) Q ( a ) Q ( x ) = Q ( x ) Q ( a ) = 0,
(3) D ( a , x ) = D ( x , a ) = 0.
T h e n A n n ( X ) i s a n i n n e r i d e a l , c a l l e d t h e a n n i h i l a t o r o f X 9 W e h a v e
(4) X C A n n ( A n n ( X ) ) .
I f X = { x } c o n s i s t s o f a s i n g l e e l e m e n t t h e n
(5) A n n ( { x } ) C A n n (Q (x) V + ) ,
a n d e q u a l i t y h o l d s i n c a s e x i s r e g u l a r . I f e i s a n i d e m p o t e n t t h e n
(6) A n n ( { e - } ) = A n n ( V 2 ( e ) ) = V o ( e ) .
A n a l o g o u s s t a t e m e n t s h o l d f o r a s u b s e t X o f V + 9
1 0 . 4 1 0 5
Proof. C l e a r l y , m = A n n ( X ) is c l o s e d u n d e r s c a l a r m u l t i p l e s . L e t a , b C m .
T h e n , f o r a l l x C X, Q ( a + b ) x = { a x b } = 0, Q ( a + b ) Q ( x ) = Q ( a , b ) Q ( x ) = D ( a , x ) .
.D(b,x) - D ( a , Q ( x ) b ) = 0 b y JPg, a n d Q ( x ) Q ( a + b ) = Q ( x ) Q ( a , b ) = D ( x , a ) D ( x , b )
- D ( Q ( x ) a , b ) = 0 b y JPI3. H e n c e a + b C m , a n d m is a s u b m o d u l e of W +
N e x t l e t a g m a n d y C V- . T h e n it f o l l o w s f r o m J P 3 t h a t Q ( a ) y s a t i s f i e s (I)
a n d (2). F u r t h e r m o r e , D ( Q ( a ) y , x ) = D ( a , { y a x } ) - D ( Q ( a ) x , y ) = 0 b y JP8, a n d
D ( x , Q ( a ) y ) = D ( { y a x } , a ) - D ( y , Q ( a ) x ) = 0 b y JP7. H e n c e Q ( a ) y ~ m , a n d m is
a n i n n e r ideal. S i n c e (i) - (3) is s y m m e t r i c i n a a n d x w e h a v e (4). If a
b e l o n g s to t h e a n n i h i l a t o r of a s i n g l e e l e m e n t x t h e n it f o l l o w s f r o m JP3, JPT,
a n d J P 8 that it s a t i s f i e s (i) - (3) w i t h x r e p l a c e d b y Q ( x ) y , for a n a r b i t r a r y
y C V + . T h i s p r o v e s (5). F i n a l l y , (6) f o l l o w s f r o m 5.4 a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n s .
10.4. P R O P O S I T I O N . A J o r d a n p a i r is a d i v i s i o n p a i r if a n d o n l y if it h a s n o n - t r i -
v i a l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a n d n o p r o p e r i n n e r i d e a l s .
Proof. L e t V be a d i v i s i o n pair, l e t m C V + b e a n i n n e r ideal, a n d let x
b e a n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t of m . T h e n Q(x) is i n v e r t i b l e , and h e n c e V + = Q ( x ) V -
~ m . In t h e s a m e w a y o n e s h o w s that V- h a s n o p r o p e r i n n e r ideals.
C o n v e r s e l y , a s s u m e t h a t V h a s n o p r o p e r i n n e r i d e a l s , a n d let x b e a
n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t of V + . T h e n t h e p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l g e n e r a t e d b y x is
e i t h e r z e r o or a l l of V + . In t h e f i r s t case, x is a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t , a n d h e n -
c e k . x is a n i n n e r i d e a l (lO.l(c)) w h i c h m u s t b e a l l of V + . In p a r t i c u l a r ,
Q ( V + ) V - = 0 . If Q ( V - ) V + # 0 t h e n t h e r e e x i s t s y C V-
a n d s i n c e V h a s n o p r o p e r i n n e r i d e a l s , V- = Q ( y ) V +
f o r s o m e
= 0 , a n d
l o w s that
= Q ( x ) Q (z)Q(x)
s u c h that Q(y) V + # 0 ,
w h i c h i m p l i e s y = ~ Q ( y ) x
G k . But t h e n Q(y) = 0 , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . T h u s w e a l s o h a v e Q ( V - )
V h a s t r i v i a l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n w h i c h is r u l e d o u t b y h y p o t h e s i s . It f o l -
Q ( x ) V - = V + , a n d h e n c e x = Q ( x ) z for s o m e z e V- . By JP3, Q(x)
w h i c h i m p l i e s Q ( x ) Q ( z ) = Id b y s u r j e c t i v i t y of Q(x) . B u t
106 1 0 . 5
Q(z) is s u r j e c t i v e a s w e l l s i n c e w e c a n a p p l y e v e r y t h i n g w e p r o v e d so far to
V ~ . H e n c e x is i n v e r t i b l e , a n d the P r o p o s i t i o n f o l l o w s .
10.5. T H E O R E M . Le__~t M b e a set of i n n e r i d e a l s of a J o r d a n p a i r V , o r d e r e d b y
i n c l u s i o n . A s s u m e that for all m ~ M a n d for all n o n - t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s x G m ,
the p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l g e n e r a t e d b y x b e l o n g s to M . L e t m # 0 , m C V + ,
b e m i n i m a l in M . T h e n e i t h e r m c o n t a i n s a n o n - z e r o t r i v i a l e l e m e n t of V ,
o r m = V~(e) w h e r e e is a d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t . In the l a t t e r case, m is m i -
n i m a l a m o n g a l l n o n - z e r o i n n e r i d e a l s of V .
P r o o f . A s s u m e t h a t m c o n t a i n s no n o n - z e r o t r i v i a l e l e m e n t , a n d let x b e a n y
n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t of m . T h e n the p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l g e n e r a t e d b y x is n o n -
zero, c o n t a i n e d i n m , and b e l o n g s to M . By m i n i m a l i t y of m w e h a v e t h a t m
= Q(x) V- . In p a r t i c u l a r , x is r e g u l a r , and h e n c e b y 5.2 t h e r e e x i s t s y ~ V-
s u c h t h a t e = (e+,e -) = (x,y) is a n i d e m p o t e n t of V 9 B y 5.4, w e h a v e t h e n m
= V~(e) . L e t n C V ~ ( e ) b e a n i n n e r i d e a l of V2(e) . By 10.2, ~ is a n i n n e r
i d e a l of V . If u is a n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t of n t h e n 0 # Q ( u ) V - c - n c m , a n d
Q(u) V- 6 M w h i c h i m p l i e s n = m . H e n c e V~(e) c o n t a i n s n o p r o p e r i n n e r ideals.
If p C V2(e) is a n i n n e r i d e a l t h e n Q ( e + ) p C V~(e) is a n i n n e r ideal, a n d p =
Q ( e - ) Q ( e + ) p b y 5.4. T h i s shows that V2(e) c o n t a i n s n o p r o p e r i n n e r i d e a l s , a n d
V2(e) is a d i v i s i o n p a i r b y 10.4.
10.6. C h a i n c o n d i t i o n s . L e t M b e a set of i n n e r i d e a l s of V . W e say t h a t V
s a t i s f i e s t h e d e s c e n d i n g c h a i n c o n d i t i o n o n M if e v e r y d e s c e n d i n g c h a i n m l ~
m 2 ~ ... of i n n e r i d e a l s m i C M b e c o m e s s t a t i o n a r y . S i m i l a r l y , V s a t i s f i e s
the a s c e n d i n g c h a i n c o n d i t i o n o n M if e v e r y a s c e n d i n g c h a i n of i n n e r i d e a l s in
M b e c o m e s s t a t i o n a r y . D e s c e n d i n g (resp. a s c e n d i n g ) c h a i n c o n d i t i o n a r e u s u a l l y
a b b r e v i a t e d to d c c (resp. acc). W e s a y V s a t i s f i e s t h e c h m i n c o n d i t i o n o n i d e m -
10.7 107
potents (= cci) if there exist no infinite sets of pairwise orthogonal idempo-
tents. If V satisfies the cci then there obviously exist maximal idempotents;
i.e., idempotents e such that V0(e ) contains no non-zero idempotent (5.12).
10.7. The chain condition on idempotents is implied by either the acc on princi-
pal inner ideals or the dcc on all inner ideals. Indeed, if E ={el,e2,...} is an
a(e I) C o orthogonal set of idempotents then V 2 V2(el+e 2) C ... is an ascending
chain of principal inner ideals, and V0(el) ~ V0(el+e2) ~ ... is a descending
chain of inner ideals. If one of these chains becomes stationary then E is fi-
nite. Conversely, it will follow from the classification in w167 and 12 that for
a semisimple alternative or Jordan pair with dcc on principal inner ideals the
acc on principal inner ideals, the cci, and the existence of a maximal idempotent
are all equivalent. It would be desirable to have a direct proof of this fact.
Let J be a Jordan algebra and V = ( J , J ) the associated Jordan pair.
Then it is clear from the definitions that V satisfies the dcc or acc on (prin-
cipal) inner ideals if and only if J does. Indeed, (principal) inner ideals of
7 and V are the same.
10.8. THEOREM. Let V be a Jordan pair with dcc on principal inner ideals. Then
the Jacobson radical, the set of properly nilpotent elements, the nil radical,
and the small radical all coincide.
Proof. Since all these sets are contained in each other (4.14, 4.15) it suffices
to show that rad V = 0 implies Rad V = 0 . Assume this is not the case, and
let M be the set of all principal inner ideals generated by non-zero elements
x G R a d V . Let m be a minimal element of M , say m C V + . Then by 10.5, m
= V+(e) where e is a division idempotent; in particular, it contains a nonzero
2
regular element. This is a contradiction since Rad V contains no such elements.
108 1 0 . 9
10.9. L E M M A . Le_~t N b e a n i l i d e a l of a J o r d a n a l g e b r a 7 (resp. a J o r d a n p a i r
V ), and let x ~ x d e n o t e t h e c a n o n i c a l m a p J J / N (resp. V + V / N ). If
{ d l , d 2 , . . . } is a n at m o s t c o u n t a b l e o r t h o g o n a l set of i d e m p o t e n t s of J / N (resp.
V / N ) t h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a n o r t h o g o n a l set { e l , e 2 , . . . } of i d e m p o t e n t s of J
(resp. V ) s u c h that e. = d. , i = 1,2 . . . . .
1 l
P r o o f . C o n s i d e r f i r s t the c a s e of a s i n g l e i d e m p o t e n t d of ~ = J / N , a n d let
x ~ J b e s u c h that x = d . T h e n x 2 (x 2 = - x ~ N and t h e r e f o r e - x) n 0 for
s o m e n . In the p o l y n o m i a l a l g e b r a k[T] t h e r e e x i s t p o l y n o m i a l s f(T) and
g(T) s u c h that
(i) f ( T ) T 2 n + l - g ( T ) ( T - I ) 2 n + l = i.
L e t k [ T ] + b e the i d e a l of k[T] g e n e r a t e d b y T . T h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a u n i q u e
h o m o m o r p h i s m k i T ] + + J of J o r d a n a l g e b r a s s e n d i n g T into x w h i c h w e d e n o t e
as u s u a l b y h(T) ~ h(x) . L e t in p a r t i c u l a r h(T) = f ( T ) T 2 n + l , a n d let e = h(x)
C J . If h(T) = E ~ . T i t h e n it f o l l o w s f r o m (i) that h(1) = E ~. = 1 . H e n c e
1 i
e = h(x) = ~ ~.~il = E ~ . d i m = (~ e i ) d = d . A l s o b y (i), h(T) - 1 = g ( T ) ( T - I ) 2n+l,
and m u l t i p l y i n g t h i s w i t h h(T) w e get
h ( T ) 2 _ h ( T ) = f ( T ) g ( T ) T 2 n + l ( T - 1 ) 2 n + l = ( T 2 _ T ) n p ( T ) ( T 2 _ T ) n = U T 2 _ T . P ( T ) ,
w h e r e p(T) = f ( T ) g ( T ) ( T 2 - T ) . S i n c e T x is a J o r d a n h o m o m o r p h i s m it f o l l o w s
2 n
that e - e = U 2 .p(x) = U ( ( x 2 - x ) n ) . p ( x ) = 0 .
x - x
9 a r e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s of J s u c h that
N o w a s s u m e that el, .~e r
e . m = d.1 . L e t e = e I + .~ + er ' a n d let 7 = J2 ~ Jl ~ 7 0 b e the P e i r c e d e -
c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to e (cf. 5.6). T h e n the P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n of
w i t h r e s p e c t to e = d I + ... + d is 7 = J ~ 71 ~ 7 0 and d r + 1 G 7 0 If w e
r 2 ' "
a p p l y w h a t w e f i r s t p r o v e d to J 0 7 0 w e f i n d a n i d e m p o t e n t e r + 1 C J o s u c h
= , . By c o n t i n u i n g in
that e r + 1 d r + 1 and e r + 1 is o r t h o g o n a l to e l , . . . , e r
i 0 . i 0 1 0 9
t h i s w a y w e o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d s e t o f i d e m p o t e n t s .
N e x t c o n s i d e r t h e c a s e o f a J o r d a n p a i r V , a n d l e t d = ( d + , d -) b e a n
i d e m p o t e n t o f ~ = V / N . I f y ~ V- i s s u c h t h a t ~ = d - t h e n t h e c a n o n i c a l m a p
V ~ i n d u c e s a J o r d a n a l g e b r a h o m o m o r p h i s m J = V + = Y w i t h k e r n e l N +
Y d -
a n d t h i s i s a n i l i d e a l o f V + . M o r e o v e r , d + i s a n i d e m p o t e n t o f ~ . B y w h a t
Y
+ d + w e p r o v e d b e f o r e , t h e r e e x i s t s a n i d e m p o t e n t e + G J s u c h t h a t e = . T h u s
+
w e h a v e (e+) 2 = Q ( e + ) y = e + , i . e . , e i s a r e g u l a r e l e m e n t . B y 5 . 2 , ( e + , e -)
w h e r e e - = Q ( y ) e + i s a n i d e m p o t e n t o f V , a n d w e h a v e e - = Q ( y ) e -=F = Q ( d - ) d +
= d - . T h i s s h o w s t h a t w e c a n l i f t i d e m p o t e n t s f r o m V / N t o V . T h e p r o o f f o r
o r t h o g o n a l s e t s o f i d e m p o t e n t s i s v e r b a t i m t h e s a m e a s i n t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a c a s e .
1 0 . 1 0 . T H E O R E M . If a J o r d a n p a i r V s a t i s f i e s t h e d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s
a n d i f R a d V # V t h e n V c o n t a i n s a l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t .
P r o o f . B y 1 0 . 2 , ~ = V / R a d V h a s d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s , a n d b y 1 0 . 5 ,
c o n t a i n s a d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t d . B y 1 0 . 8 , t h e r a d i c a l i s a n i l i d e a l , a n d b y
1 0 . 9 , d l i f t s t o a n i d e m p o t e n t e o f V . W e h a v e R a d V 2 ( e ) = V 2 ( e ) ~ R a d V
b y 5 . 8 , a n d V 2 ( e ) / R a d V 2 ( e ) = V 2 ( d ) i s a d i v i s i o n p a i r . H e n c e b y 4 . 4 ( b ) ,
V 2 ( e ) i s l o c a l , a n d e i s a l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t .
i 0 . I i . C O R O L L A R Y . L e t V h a v e d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s , a n d l e t e b e a n
i d e m p o t e n t o f V . T h e n e i s m a x i m a l i f a n d o n l y i f V 0 ( e ) C R a d V .
P r o o f . I f e i s m a x i m a l t h e n V 0 ( e ) c o n t a i n s n o n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t s , a n d b y
1 0 . 2 h a s d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s . H e n c e b y i 0 . i 0 , V 0 ( e ) i s r a d i c a l , a n d
b y 5 . 8 i t i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e r a d i c a l o f V . C o n v e r s e l y , i f V 0 ( e ) i s r a d i c a l
t h e n i t c o n t a i n s n o n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t s b y 5 . 1 , a n d t h e r e f o r e e i s m a x i m a l .
ii0 1 0 . 1 2
10.12. F r a m e s . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r s a t i s f y i n g the d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r
i d e a l s and t h e c h a i n c o n d i t i o n o n i d e m p o t e n t s . A f r a m e of V is a m a x i m a l o r t h o -
g o n a l s y s t e m of l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t s of V ; i.e., a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m of l o c a l
i d e m p o t e n t s n o t p r o p e r l y c o n t a i n e d in any o t h e r o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m of l o c a l i d e m -
p o t e n t s . F r a m e s o b v i o u s l y e x i s t and, b y t h e cci, a r e f i n i t e b u t p o s s i b l y empty.
L e t E = ( e l , . . . , e r ) b e a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m of l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t s and let e =
e I + ... + er 9 T h e n E is a f r a m e if and o n l y if e is a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t .
T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m i 0 . i 0 and i0. ii. In p a r t i c u l a r , the e m p t y set is a f r a m e if a n d
o n l y if e = 0 , w h i c h m e a n s V = R a d V b y I0.ii. A l s o , a f r a m e is m a x i m a l a m o n g
o r t h o g o n a i s y s t e m s of (not n e c e s s a r i l y l o c a l ) i d e m p o t e n t s .
It is n o t t r u e that e v e r y m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t e is of t h e f o r m e I + ...
+ e r w h e r e ( e l , . . . , e r ) is a frame; cf. the e x a m p l e g i v e n in 5.12.
10.13. LEMMA. L e t V be a J o r d a n pair, and let e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t of V s u c h
that V0(e) = 0 . A s s u m e t h a t V is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e and that V2(e) is simple.
T h e n V is simple.
P r o o f . L e t B b e a n i d e a l of V . T h e n B = B 2 9 B 1 w h e r e B.I = B N V i ( e ) is a n
i d e a l of Vi(e) . S i n c e V2(e) is s i m p l e w e h a v e B 2 = V 2 ( e ) or B 2 = 0 . I n
the f i r s t case, e ~ B 2 a n d h e n c e B ~ {e e V I} = V 1 w h i c h s h o w s B = V . In
t h e s e c o n d case, { x y e ~ ~ V 2 = 0 for all x e V 1 , y e B and b y 8 . 2 . 2 w e get
Q ( x ) y = { { x y e ~ 1 7 6 = 0 . T h u s x is a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t of V 1 . B y 5.10, Vl(e)
is n o n d e g e n e r a t e , and h e n c e x = 0 .
10.14. T H E O R E M . (a) L e t V b e a s e m i s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i p a l in-
n e r i d e a l s a n d c o n t a i n i n g a m a x i m a l i d e m D o t e n t e . T h e n
( 1 ) v = v C 1 ) ~ . . . ~ v ~n)
1 0 . 1 4 i i i
is a f i n i t e d i r e c t s u m of s i m p l e i d e a l s w i t h t h e s a m e p r o p e r t i e s . T h e d e c o m p o s i -
t i o n (i) is u n i q u e up to order, a n d e v e r y i d e a l of V is t h e s u m of s o m e of t h e
V (i) . T h e m a p I ~ I N V 2 ( e ) is a b i J e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l s of V a n d t h e
i d e a l s of V2(e ) . In p a r t i c u l a r , V is s i m p l e if a n d o n l y if V2(e) is simple.
(b) C o n v e r s e l y , a f i n i t e d i r e c t p r o d u c t of s i m p l e a n d s e m i s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r s
w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r ideals a n d m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t is s e m i s i m p l e a n d h a s
dcc o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s a n d a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t .
(c) L e t A b e a s e m i s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s
a n d m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t . T h e n A an__~d A J h a v e t h e s a m e ideals, and h e n c e (a) an__dd
(b) h o l d ( m u t a t i s m u t a n d i s ) f o r A as well.
Proof. (a) By i 0 . i i w e h a v e V0(e) = 0 . By 5.5, e + is i n v e r t i b l e in V2(e)
w i t h i n v e r s e e . L e t J be t h e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a ( ) _ . T h e n w e m a y
e
i d e n t i f y V2(e) a n d ( 7 , 7 ) b y i.ii. A l s o J is s e m i s i m p l e s i n c e V2(e) is a n d
h a s d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r ideals (10.7). By the f i r s t s t r u c t u r e t h e o r e m for s u c h
J o r d a n a l g e b r a s ( J a o o b s o n [ 3 ] ) , J = Jl ~ "'" ~ J n is a d i r e c t s u m of s i m p l e ide-
a l s w i t h t h e s a m e p r o p e r t i e s . H e n c e V2(e ) = (J1,J1) + ... + (Jn,Jn) is a d i r e c t
s u m of s i m p l e ideals. L e t c.i b e t h e u n i t e l e m e n t of J i , a n d let e i = (ci,c i)
6 W2(e) . T h e n t h e e. are o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s w h o s e s u m is e . F o r t h e c o r -
i
r e s p o n d i n g P e i r o e d e c o m p o s i t i o n V = ~ Vij ( c f . 5.14) w e h a v e V2(ei) = Vii
0 5 i S j S n
= (Ji,Ji) , Vii = 0 for 0 < i < j < n , VO0 = V0(e) = 0 . F r o m t h e c o m p o s i t i o n
r u l e s for t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s it f o l l o w s e a s i l y that V (i) = Vii 9 Vi0 (i = i,...,
n) is a n i d e a l of V , a n d h e n c e w e h a v e (i). A l s o , V (i) is s e m i s i m p l e , h a s
d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s , a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t ( n a m e l y e i ), a n d is s i m p l e
b y 10.13. A s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t s h o w s that t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n (i) is u n i q u e u p to o r -
der, a n d t h a t e v e r y i d e a l of V is a s u m of s o m e of the V (i) . T h i s a l s o i m p l i e s
t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l s of V a n d V2(e) .
1 1 2 1 0 . 1 5
(b) T h i s i s o b v i o u s .
(c) C l e a r l y t h e J o r d a n p a i r n J s a t i s f i e s t h e h y p o t h e s e s o f (a). I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
e v e r y i d e a l o f A J i s s e m i p r i m e a n d i s t h e r e f o r e a n i d e a l o f A ( 7 . 1 0 ) . A l s o ,
A l l ( e ) i s t h e P e i r c e - 2 - s p a c e o f n J b y 9 . 2 . T h i s i m p l i e s (c).
It i s u n k n o w n w h e t h e r a s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r
i d e a l s i s s e m i s i m p l e , e x c e p t i n t h e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a s e ( s e e 1 4 . 1 2 ) .
O u r n e x t a i m i s t o p r o v e t h a t s e m i s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r s w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i -
p a l i n n e r i d e a l s a r e y o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r .
1 0 . 1 5 . L E M M A . ( M c C o y ' s L e m m a ) L e t
N e u m a n n r e g u l a r . T h e n x i s v o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r .
P r o o f . B y a s s u m p t i o n , t h e r e e x i s t s a n e l e m e n t z 6 V -
T h i s i m p l i e s b y J P 2 3 t h a t
( x , y ) ~ V a n d a s s u m e t h a t x - Q ( x ) y i s y o n
x - Q ( x ) y = Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) z .
x = Q ( x ) y + Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) z
= Q ( x ) y + Q ( x ) B ( y , x ) z
= Q ( x ) ( y + B ( y , x ) z ) ,
a n d h e n c e x i s v o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r .
s u c h t h a t
1 0 . 1 6 . L E M M A . ( x , y ) C V i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i f a n d o n l y i f t h e p r i n c i p a l i n n e r
i d e a l s g e n e r a t e d b y x a n d b y x - Q ( x ) y c o i n c i d e ; i . e . ,
Q ( x ) V- = Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) V -
1 0 . 1 7 113
P r o o f . If (x,y) is q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e t h e n B ( x , y ) a n d B(y,x) a r e i n v e r t i b l e
(3.2 a n d 3.3), a n d s i n c e Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) = Q ( x ) B ( y , x ) b y J P 2 3 w e h a v e t h a t Q ( x ) V -
= Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) V - . C o n v e r s e l y , a s s u m e t h i s to b e the case. B y 3 . 2 ( v ) , it s u f f i c e s
to s h o w t h a t 2 x - Q ( x ) y b e l o n g s to the i m a g e of B ( x , y ) . N o w Q ( x ) y ~ Q ( x ) V - ,
a n d h y a s s u m p t i o n t h e r e e x i s t s a n e l e m e n t z C V- s u c h t h a t Q ( x ) y = Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) z .
B y J P 2 3 it f o l l o w s t h a t
F u r t h e r m o r e ,
w h i c h i m p l i e s
N o w w e h a v e
w h i c h s h o w s that x
Q ( x ) y = B ( x , y ) Q ( x ) z ~ I m B ( x , y ) .
B ( x , y ) x = x - {xyx} + Q ( x ) Q ( y ) x
= x - 2 Q ( x ) y + Q ( x ) Q ( y ) x
= x + Q ( x ) ( - 2 y + Q ( y ) x ) ,
x = B ( x , y ) x + Q ( x ) ( 2 y - Q(y)x) .
Q ( x ) ( 2 y - Q(y)x) e I m Q(x) = I m Q ( x - Q ( x ) y )
= I m B ( x , y ) Q ( x ) C I m B ( x , y ) ,
b e l o n g s to t h e i m a g e o5 B ( x , y ) . T h i s c o m p l e t e s t h e proof.
10.17. T H E O R E M . T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s o n a J o r d a n p a i r
pal i n n e r i d e a l s are e q u i v a l e n t .
(i) V is y o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r ;
(ii) V is s e m i s i m p l e ;
V w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i -
1 1 4 1 0 . 1 7
( i i i ) V i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
P r o o f . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n (i) (ii) f o l l o w s f r o m 5 . 1 , a n d t h e e q u i v a l e n c e o f (ii)
a n d ( i i i ) i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f 1 0 . 8 . T h u s a s s u m e V t o b e s e m i s i m p l e , a n d l e t x
b e a n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t o f V + . B y s e m i s i m p l i c i t y , t h e r e e x i s t s y ~ V - s u c h t h a t
( x , y ) i s n o t q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . B y 1 0 . 1 6 a n d J P 2 3 t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t Q ( x - Q ( x ) y ) V -
i s p r o p e r l y c o n t a i n e d i n Q ( x ) V - . I f x I = x - Q ( x ) y i s n o t z e r o w e c a n f i n d Y l
s u c h t h a t ( x l , Y l ) i s n o t q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e , a n d t h e r e f o r e Q ( X l ) V - ~ Q ( x 2 ) V -
w h e r e x 2 = x I - Q ( X l ) Y I . I n t h i s w a y , w e o b t a i n a s t r i c t l y d e c r e a s i n g c h a i n
Q(x)V-~ Q(xl)V- ~Q(x2)V- ~ . . .
o f p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s s u c h t h a t x i + I = x i - Q ( x i ) Y i . B y t h e d c c , w e h a v e
Q ( X n ) V - = 0 f o r s o m e n , a n d s i n c e V i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e t h i s i m p l i e s x = 0 .
n
T h i s m e a n s t h a t X n _ I = Q ( X n _ l ) Y n _ I i s v o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r . S i n c e X n _ I = X n _ 2
- Q ( X n _ 2 ) Y n _ 2 i t f o l l o w s f r o m 1 0 . 1 5 t h a t X n _ 2 i s y o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r , a n d c o n -
t i n u i n g i n t h i s w a y , w e s e e t h a t x i s v o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r . H e n c e V + c o n s i s t s
o f v o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s . B y p a s s i n g t o V ~ t h e s a m e f o l l o w s f o r V -
i i , 0 1 1 5
w C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s
ii.0. T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s s e c t i o n is to c l a s s i f y s e m i s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s
A (over a r i n g k) w i t h d o c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s a n d c o n t a i n i n g a m a x i m a l
e . B y i0.ii, w e h a v e A~(e) = A00(e) = 0 . B y 10.14, w e m a y a s s u m e i d e m p o t e n t
that A is simple. It t u r n s out that a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e u n d e r t h e w e a -
k e r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t A b e s i m p l e a n d c o n t a i n a n i d e m p o t e n t e w i t h A 0 0 ( e ) = 0,
b u t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s a t i s f y a n y c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s is c a r r i e d out in
I i . i - ii.ii. T h e n w e s t u d y i n n e r i d e a l s a n d o b t a i n s t r u c t u r e t h e o r e m s u n d e r v a -
r i o u s c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s .
ii.i. L e t A b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e pair, and let e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t of A w i t h
Ao0(e) = 0 (this a s s u m p t i o n w i l l b e in f o r c e t h r o u g h o u t ) . T h e n w e h a v e t h e P e i r c e
d e c o m p o s i t i o n
A = A I I ~ 9 A I 0 ~ A 0 1 ,
a n d f r o m 9.3 it f o l l o w s t h a t of t h e 27 p o s s i b l e p r o d u c t s < A i j , A m n , A p q > at m o s t
t h e f o l l o w i n g 13 a r e n o n - z e r o (we u s e < i j , m n , p q > C r s as a n a b b r e v i a t i o n for
< A ? . , A - a , A a > C A d ).
13 m n pq rs
(i) < i i , i i , i i > C I I , (8) < 0 1 , i i , 0 1 > C I0,
(2) < i i , i i , i 0 > ~ - I 0 , (9) < i i , 0 1 , i 0 > C 0 1 ,
(3) < 0 1 , i i , i i > C 01, (i0) < I O , O I , I I > c 01,
(4) < i 0 , i 0 , i i > C I I , (ii) < 0 1 , i 0 , 0 1 > C II,
(5) < l l , 0 1 , 0 1 > C II, (12) < 0 1 , i 0 , I 0 > < 01,
(6) < i 0 , i 0 , i 0 > C ]0, (13) < i 0 , 0 1 , 0 1 > C i0.
(7) < 0 1 , 0 1 , 0 1 > C 0 1 ,
116 1 1 . 2
H e r e (i) - (7) a r e of t y p e 9 . 3 . 1 w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r s a r e of t y p e 9 . 3 . 2 - 9.3.4.
W e s h a l l d e n o t e b y x y = < x e - O y > the p r o d u c t in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a A ~
+ A + L e t R = R + b e the s u b a l g e b r a All of _
e
l y let R- = All . R e c a l l hat
w i t h u n i t e l e m e n t
e
+
e a n d s i m i l a r -
a ~ a = < e - ~
is a n a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n R ~ a n d R -~ w i t h ~ = a , and t h a t
<xay> = (xa)y
for all x , y C A ~ a G R - ~ (cf. 9.2). W e w i l l o f t e n i d e n t i f y R ~ and R-. T h e n
a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r All = (AII,AII) is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h (R,R ~ , and A l l is a s -
s o c i a t i v e (resp. simple) if and o n l y if R h a s t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s (cf. 6.12).
11.2. W i t h the a b o v e n o t a t i o n s , l e t Z(R) b e the c e n t e r of the a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e -
b r a R . F o r c ~ Z(R) d e f i n e ~ = ( c + , c ) G E n d ( A + ) End(A-) b y c + ( X l l + x l O
+ xOl) = C X l l + C X l 0 + x o l C a n d c - ( Y l l + Y l O + YOI ) = C Y l l + C Y l o + Y O I c w h e r e
(xij,Yij) e Aij . T h e n it f o l l o w s f r o m 9.6 that ~ b e l o n g s t o ' t h e c e n t r o i d Z(A)
of A . C o n v e r s e l y , if a = (a+,a_) ~ Z(A) t h e n a + ( e +) e Z(R) , and the m a p
e ~ c is a n i s o m o r p h i s m f r o m Z(R) o n t o Z(A) w h o s e i n v e r s e is g i v e n b y a
+
a + ( e ) .
11.3. W i t h A
@ BIO ~ BOI 9
All , a n d
( i )
( 2 )
( 3 )
( 4 )
as above, let Bij ~ Aij b e p a i r s of s u b m o d u l e s , and let B = BII
T h e n B is a n i d e a l of A if a n d o n l y if BII is a n i d e a l of
~ ~ C ~
B I I ' A I o + A I I ' B I o Blo,
A o I ' B I I + B o I ' A I I C BOI,
< m l O , a l o , e > <e , A o I , B o I > c
< O l o , ~ O l , e > < A l o , B o l , e ~ C BOI,
1 1 . 4 1 1 7
(5) ~ ~
A 0 1 . B 0 1 C B I 0 .
O b v i o u s l y , t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y . T h e s u f f i c i e n c y f o l l o w s b y c h e c k i n g
< ~ A - ~ B ~ > + < A ~ , B - ~ , A ~ > + ~ ~ - ~ " ~ B ~
t h a t - i j ' m n ' p q lj m n p q < B i j ' ~ m n ' ~ p q > ~ r s ' f o r a l l p o s s i b l e c a -
s e s ( 1 ) - ( 1 3 ) o f i i . i , u s i n g 9 . 6 e x t e n s i v e l y . W e o m i t t h e d e t a i l s .
J + + +
1 1 . 4 . L E M M A . L e _ ~ t B I I b e a n i d e a l o f A l l , a n d l e t B I 0 = B I I . A I o , a n d
B O 1 + +
= A O I . B I I . T h e n B = B I I @ B Z 0 B O I i s a n i d e a l o f A . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
i f A i s s i m p l e t h e n s o a r e A l l a n d R .
T h e p r o o f c o n s i s t s i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d v e r i f i c a t i o n o f (i) - (5) o f 1 1 . 3 ,
u s i n g 9 . 6 a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f B .
1 1 . 5 . L E M M A . I f A i s s i m p l e t h e n A a n d t h e A . . a r e s e m i s i m p l e .
- - i j
I n d e e d , s i n c e A c o n t a i n s a n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t , R a d A i s a p r o p e r i d e -
a l a n d t h e r e f o r e z e r o . N o w t h e a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m 9 . 9 .
+
1 1 . 6 . A s s u m e t h a t A l l a n d t h e r e f o r e R a r e a s s o c i a t i v e . T h e n b y 9 . 6 . 1 , A I O
i s a l e f t R - m o d u l e , a n d A I 0 i s a r i g h t R - m o d u l e b y s e t t i n g y a = ~ y , f o r
+ - + -
@ R = A l l , y @ A I O . D e f i n e ~ : A I O x A I 0 R b y
+
~ ( x , y ) = < x y e >.
-- +
T h e n ~( a x, y) = a ~( x, y) a nd ~( x, ya ) = <x, a y, e > = <a y, x, e > = a <y, x, e - >
= ~ ( x , y ) a b y 9 . 6 . 3 a n d 9 . 6 . 4 . T h u s ~ i s a R - b i l i n e a r f o r m o n t h e p a i r o f m o d u -
l e s A I O a s i n 6 . 4 . U s u a l l y i t w i l l b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o c o n s i d e r A ~ O a s a
- o R ~ l e f t - R ~ ( r e m e m b e r t h a t R + = R , R- = R ~ ) a n d d e f i n e ~ : A I O A I O
b y ~ o ( x , y ) = < x y e ~ s o t h a t ~ - o ( y ' x ) = @ o ( X ' Y ) ' @ o ( a x ' y ) = a ~ o ( x , y ) a n d
@ o ( x , a y ) = a ~ o ( x , y ) ; i . e . , ~ i s " h e r m i t i a n " .
118 11.7
S i m i l a r l y , A ~ i s a r i g h t R ~ b y 9 . 6 . 2 , a n d w e h a v e " h e r m i t i a n "
0 1
f o r m s ~ : A ~ I A 0 ~ R O g i v e n b y ~ o ( x , y ) = < e O o y x > , w h i c h b y 9 . 6 . 6 a n d 9 . 6 . 7
s a t i s f y P o ( y ' x ) = ~ - o ( x ' y ) ' $ o ( x a ' y ) = P o ( x ' y ) a ' ~ o ( X ' y a ) = a ~ o ( x , y ) . W e
s e t ~ = P + . N o n - d e g e n e r a c y o f ~ a n d ~ i s d e f i n e d a s i n 6 . 4 .
1 1 . 7 . L ~ . Le___~t A b e s i m p l e . I f A I 0 @ 0 o_~r A 0 1 @ 0 t h e n R ( a n d t h e r e -
f o r e A l l ) i s a s s o c i a t i v e . T h e b i l i n e a r f o r m s ~ a n d ~ a r e n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
+
P r o o f . B y 9 . 6 . 1 , t h e m a p F : R E n d ( A 1 0 ) d e f i n e d b y F ( a ) ( x ) = a x i s a n a l g e -
b r a h o m o m o r p h i s m , a n d b y d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s , F ( 1 ) i s t h e i d e n t i t y
+ +
o n A I 0 . T h u s i f A I 0 ~ 0 t h e n t h e k e r n e l o f F i s a p r o p e r i d e a l o f R . B y
1 1 . 4 , R i s s i m p l e a n d h e n c e F i s i n j e c t i v e . T h e r e f o r e R , b e i n g i s o m o r p h i c
w i t h a s u b a l g e b r a o f t h e a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a E n d ( n ~ 0 ) , i s a s s o c i a t i v e . A s i m i -
A ~ 0 o a n d a s s u m e t h a t + i s n o n - z e r o . N o w l e t x C A I 0 l a r p r o o f a p p l i e s i f o r A ~ I
~ ( X , A l ~ ) = 0 . T h e n b y 9 . 6 . 1 2 , Q ( x ) ( A I ~ ) = 0 , i . e . , x i s a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t
o f A I O . B y 1 1 . 5 , t h i s i m p l i e s x = 0 . H e n c e ~ i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e . S i m i l a r l y ,
i f ~ o ( u , A o ) = 0 t h e n i t f o l l o w s f r o m ( i i ) a n d ( 1 3 ) o f 9 . 6 t h a t Q ( u ) ( A ) ~ 0
w h i c h i m p l i e s u = 0 a s b e f o r e .
1 1 . 8 . L E M M A . Le__~t A b e s i m p l e . T h e n A i s a s s o c i a t i v e i f a n d o n l y i f A l l i s
a s s o c i a t i v e a n d e i t h e r A I 0 = 0 o r A O I = 0 .
P r o o f . I f A i s a s s o c i a t i v e t h e n s o i s A l l . A l s o , ~ ( A I 0 ) a n d ~ ( n O l ) a r e
i d e a l s o f R w h i c h a n n i h i l a t e e a c h o t h e r . I n d e e d , f o r a l l ( x , y ) @ A I 0 , ( u , v )
G A 0 1 w e h a v e ~ ( x , y ) ~ ( u , v ) < x y e + > < e + + + = v u > = < < x y e > v u > = < x < v e y > u > , u s i n g
+
9 . 6 . 8 a n d a s s o c i a t i v i t y , a n d < v e y > ~ A 0 0 = 0 . S i n c e A i s s i m p l e b y 1 1 . 4 w e
h a v e ~ ( A I o ) = 0 o r ~ ( A 0 1 ) = 0 , a n d b y 1 1 . 7 t h i s i m p l i e s A I O = 0 o r A 0 1 = 0.
C o n v e r s e l y , i f A I O = 0 o r A 0 1 = 0 t h e n a l l p r o d u c t s (8) - ( 1 3 ) o f i i , i v a n i s h ,
1 1 . 9 1 1 9
a n d b y 9 . 8 , A i s a s s o c i a t i v e p r o v i d e d A l l is.
1 1 . 9 . L E M M A . L e t A b e s i m p l e a n d l e t A I 0 a n d n 0 1 b e b o t h n o n - z e r o . T h e n
i s c o m m u t a t i v e a n d , b e i n g a s s o c i a t i v e a n d s i m p l e , i s t h e r e f o r e a n e x t e n s i o n
f i e l d o f t h e b a s e r i n $ k .
P r o o f . L e t U ~ ~ o o
= A o I - A 0 1 c A I 0 . W e c l a i m t h a t U + a n d U - c a n n o t b o t h b e z e r o .
I n d e e d , i f U + = U - = 0 t h e n w e g e t b y ( i i ) , ( 1 4 ) , a n d (16) o f 9 . 6 t h a t t h e p r o -
A 1 1 A 0 1 o
d u c t s (8), ( i i ) , a n d (13) o f i i . i v a n i s h . F o r a e o , u , v C - o , f G A I 0
w e h a v e b y A P I 6 ,
Q ( < a u f > ) v = < < a u f > v < a u f > > = < a u < f < u a v > f > > = 0
s i n c e < u a v > = 0 . H e n c e b y i i . 5 , < a u f > = 0 , a n d b y 9 . 6 . 9 , t h e p r o d u c t s (9) a n d
- o t h e n Q ( < u f g > ) = < u f < g < f u v > g > > = 0 (i0) o f I i . i v a n i s h . S i m i l a r l y , i f g C A I 0
s i n c e < f u v > = 0 w h i c h i m p l i e s < u f g > = 0 . T h u s a l s o t h e p r o d u c t s (13) o f i i . i
a r e z e r o . B y 1 1 . 7 , A l l i s a s s o c i a t i v e , a n d b y 9 . 8 , i t f o l l o w s t h a t A i s a s s o -
c i a t i v e , c o n t r a d i c t i n g 1 1 . 8 .
W e t h e r e f o r e h a v e U + o r U - d i f f e r e n t f r o m z e r o , a n d , p o s s i b l y a f t e r
p a s s i n g t o A ~ , w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t A + ~ 0 . B y 9 . 6 . 1 1 , U + i s a R - s u b m o d u l e
o f A ~ O A ; I
, a n d f o r a , b C R , u , v ~ w e h a v e
( a b ) ( u v ) = a ( b ( u v ) ) = a ( ( u b ) v ) = ( ( u b ) a ) v = ( u ( b @ ) v = ( b a ) ( u v ) .
S i n c e R i s s i m p l e t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t R i s c o m m u t a t i v e , a n d t h e r e f o r e a n e x t e n -
s i o n f i e l d o f t h e b a s e r i n g k .
I n t h e a b o v e s i t u a t i o n , w e w i l l i d e n t i f y R a n d R ~ = R - v i a a ~ a ,
+ +
a n d w r i t e K i n s t e a d o f R . C l e a r l y , A ~ 0 a n d A ~ I a r e v e c t o r s p a c e s o v e r K
+
a n d ~ a n d ~ (cf. 1 1 . 6 ) a r e n o n - d e g e n e r a t e b i l i n e a r f o r m s o n A I 0 A I 0 a n d
+
A O I A O I w i t h v a l u e s i n K . A l s o , ~ ( y , x ) = ~ + ( x , y ) = ~ ( x , y ) , a n d s i m i l a r l y
f o r ~ .
1 2 0 i i . i 0
A be as i n 11. 9, and f or any f e AIO d e f i n e J f : AO1 AO1
i i . i 0 . L E M M A . L e t
b y J f ( u ) = < e O u f > . Le__~t ( f + , f - ) C n l O . T h e n
(i) J o J = - ~ ( f + , f - ) . I d + a n d J o J = - ~ ( f + , f - ) I d
f + f - A 0 1 f - f + " _
A 0 1
+
M o r e o v e r , A ~ 0 i s o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l o v e r K .
+ - _ +
P r o o f . F r o m A P I w e g e t u ~ ( f + , f - ) = < u e - < f + f - e + > > = < < u e - f + > f - e + > + < f < e u f > e >
- < f + f - < u e - e + > > , a n d < u e - f + > = < f + f - u > = 0 b y t h e c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s f o r t h e
P e i r c e s p a c e s . B y 9 . 6 . 9 , w e h a v e < f + < e - u f - > e + > = - < e + < e - u f - > f + > = - J f + ( J f ( u ) ) .
T h i s p r o v e s t h e f i r s t p a r t o f (i) a n d t h e s e c o n d f o l l o w s b y p a s s i n g t o A ~ .
N o w c h o o s e ( f + , f - ) s u c h t h a t ~ ( f + , f - ) = 1 w h i c h i s p o s s i b l e s i n c e @ i s n o n -
+
d e g e n e r a t e . L e t H = { h ~ A I 0 I ~ ( h , f ) = 0 } . T h e n H h a s c o d i m e n s i o n o n e i n
+
A I 0 . I f h 6 H t h e n J h O J _ = 0 a n d J _ ~ + = - I d b y (i) s o t h a t J h O J f _ o J f +
f f f
= - J h = 0 w h i c h i m p l i e s h = 0 . I n d e e d , o t h e r w i s e w e c o u l d f i n d h' ~ A I O s u c h
t h a t ~ ( h , h ' ) = 1 b y n o n - d e g e n e r a c y o f ~ , a n d t h e n - J h O J h , i s t h e i d e n t i t y
+ +
o n A I 0 , a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . T h u s H = 0 a n d A I 0 i s o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l . A g a i n b y
n o n - d e g e n e r a c y o f ~ s o i s A I 0 .
i i . i i . T H E O R E M . T h e s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s n o v e r k c o n t a i n i n g a n i d e m p o -
t e n t e w i t h A 0 0 ( e ) = 0 a r e u p t o i s o m o r p h i s m p r e c i s e l y t h e f o l l o w i n g .
(A) A s s o c i a t i v e p a i r s A ( M , R , ~ ) ( a s i n 6 . 4 ) w h e r e R i s a s i m p l e a s s o c i a t i v e k -
a l g e b r a w i t h u n i t y , ~ i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e , a n d t h e r e e x i s t s ( e + , e - ) ~ M s u c h
t h a t ~ ( e + , e - ) = 1 .
( A ' ) T h e r e v e r s e A' o f a n a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r A o f t y p e (A) (cf. 6 . 3 ) .
(B) A l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s ( C , C ~ ( a s i n 6 . 5 ) w h e r e C i s a C a y l e y a l g e b r a o v e r a n
e x t e n s i o n f i e l d K o f k .
i i . i i 1 2 1
(C) A l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s A ( X , K , ~ ) (as i n 6 . 6 ) w h e r e X is a v e c t o r s p a c e o f d i m e n -
s i o n > 4 o v e r a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d K o f k a n d e i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
T h e p a i r s o f t y p e (A) a n d (A') a r e a s s o c i a t i v e , t h e o t h e r s a r e p r o p e r l y a l t e r n a -
t i v e .
P r o o f . L e t A a n d e b e a s i n t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e T h e o r e m , a n d f i r s t a s s u m e
+
t h a t A i s a s s o c i a t i v e . T h e n R = A l l i s a s i m p l e a s s o c i a t i v e k - a l g e b r a w i t h
u n i t y ( 1 1 . 4 ) . B y 1 1 . 8 , e i t h e r A I 0 = 0 o r A 0 1 = 0 . S u p p o s e t h a t A 0 1 = 0 . B y
o o - ~ R o
1 1 . 6 , A i 0 is a l e f t - R ~ a n d G o : A I 0 A I 0 is a h e r m i t i a n f o r m
w h i c h i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e ( t h e c a s e A I 0 = 0 i s n o t e x c l u d e d ) . W e e x t e n d G ~ t o a
h e r m i t i a n f o r m o n A ~ A - O w i t h v a l u e s i n R ~ b y s e t t i n g
G o ( a + x , b + y ) = a ~ + G o ( x , y )
o - o o - o O n e c h e c k s i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t G i s
f o r ( a , b ) C A l l A l l , ( x , y ) G A I O A I O . o
n o n - d e g e n e r a t e . W e h a v e ( f o r c ~ A l l , z A I 0 )
< a + x , b + y , c + z > = < a b c > + < x y c > + < a b z > + < x y z > ,
t h e o t h e r p r o d u c t s b e i n g z e r o b y 9.3. N o w < a b c > = a~)c , < x y c > = < x y e ~ =
G ( x , y ) c , < a b z > = a b z , < x y z > = G ( x , y ) z b y 9 . 6 . H e n c e
< a + x , b + y , c + z > = G ( a + x , b + y ) ( c + z )
a n d A i s i n d e e d o f t y p e (A). N e x t a s s u m e t h a t A I 0 = 0 a n d A i s s t i l l a s s o c i -
! = =
a t i v e . T h e n t h e r e v e r s e A' o f A s a t i s f i e s A 0 1 A I 0 0 , a n d h e n c e A' i s
o f t y p e (A) w h i c h i m p l i e s t h a t A " = A i s o f t y p e ( A ~ ) .
N o w l e t A b e p r o p e r l y a l t e r n a t i v e . B y 1 1 . 8 , A I O a n d A O I a r e e i t h e r
b o t h z e r o o r b o t h n o n - z e r o . I n t h e f i r s t c a s e , A = A l l = ( R , R ~ w h e r e R i s a
s i m p l e u n i t a l p r o p e r l y a l t e r n a t i v e a l g e b r a . B y K l e i n f e l d [ l ] , R i s a C a y l e y a l -
g e b r a o v e r i t s c e n t e r K w h i c h i s a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d o f k , a n d s o A i s o f
t y p e (B) . I n t h e s e c o n d c a s e , l e t R = K a s i n 1 1 . 9 , a n d p i c k ( f + , f - ) e A I 0
o = K. ~ K . f ~
s u c h t h a t G ( f + , f -) = 1 . T h e n A I O = K . f ~ b y i i . i 0 s o t h a t A ~ e ~
1 2 2 i i . i i
o . D e f i n e J : A - ~ A ~
A 0 1 o. b y
j (e-o.) = f o , j (fo) = _ e - O j
I A 0 1 = Jf-o.
w h e r e J i s a s i n i i . i 0 . T h e n w e h a v e J oJ
f - o o. - ~
a l t e r n a t i n g b i l i n e a r f o r m s ~ : n 0" x A 0" K b y
o.
= - I d b y i i . i 0 . A l s o d e f i n e
o. e . ~
( e O , f 0") = i, ~ ( u , v ) . f 0" = u v f o r u , v C A 0 1 , e o ( K . @ K . f , A 0 1 ) = 0.
W e c l a i m t h a t
~ o ( J o x , J o y ) = ~ _ o ( x , y ) ,
f o r a l l x , y G n - ~ . I f x , y C K . e -0" ~ K . f -0" t h i s i s c l e a r f r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s .
Let , v G . T h e n b y A P 2 ,
< < e v u > e f > + <<eo'vfo'>e-~u> = <eo',v,<ue-o'fo'>+<fo'e-o'u>> = 0
s i n c e <ue-o'fo'> = <fo'e-o"
u > = 0 b y 9.3. T h i s m e a n s t h a t
~0. ( u ' v ) ' f o + Jo.(v)'u = ( ~ o ( u , v ) + ~ o ( J o v , u ) ) . f o " = 0,
a n d t h e r e f o r e w e h a v e
( i ) ~ o ( u , v ) = ~ o ( u , J v ) .
N o w i f w e A 0 1 t h e n ~ (J w , J o v ) = ~o.(Jow,v) = p _ o . ( v , J o w ) = e _ o ( v , J _ o J w )
= ~ _ a ( v , - w ) = ~ _ o ( w , v ) . U s i n g (i) a n d 9 . 6 i t i s n o w e a s y t o v e r i f y t h a t i n e a c h
o f t h e 1 3 c a s e s l i s t e d i n i . i i < x y z > i s g i v e n b y
< x y z > = x . ~ o ( z , J o . ( y ) ) + Jo.(y)~o.(x,z).
T h u s i f w e s e t X = A + , ~ = ~ + t h e n A = A ( X , K , ~ ) a s i n 6.6. F r o m (i) a n d t h e
n o n - d e g e n e r a c y o f ~ i t f o l l o w s t h a t ~ i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e . H e n c e d i m K X i s
e v e n a n d t h e r e f o r e ~ 4 w h i c h i m p l i e s t h a t A i s o f t y p e (C).
N e x t w e s h o w t h a t t h e p a i r s l i s t e d a r e s i m p l e a n d c o n t a i n i d e m p o t e n t s e
w i t h A 0 0 ( e ) = 0 . T h e p a i r s o f t y p e (A), ( A ' ) , a n d (B) a r e s i m p l e b y 6 . 4 a n d 6 . 5 .
1 1 . 1 2 1 2 3
If A i s o f t y p e (A) t h e n ( e + , e -) i s a n i d e m p o t e n t w i t h A 0 0 ( e ) = 0 , a n d i n
c a s e (B), ( i , i ) i s s u c h a n i d e m p o t e n t ( w h e r e 1 i s t h e u n i t e l e m e n t o f C ).
L e t A = A ( X , K , ~ ) b e o f t y p e (C). C h o o s e a , b e X = A + s u c h t h a t ~ ( a , b ) = 1 .
L e t ( e + , e -) = ( a , - J _ ( b ) ) . T h e n ~ o ( e O , J o e - ~ = 1 a n d e = ( e + , e -) i s a n i d e m -
p o t e n t o f A . L e t f o = j ( e - O ) . T h e n w e h a v e f o r x ~ A a :
(2) < e ~ 1 7 6 e O ( x , f ~ + f ~ ( e O , x ) ,
(3) < x e - O e O > = x + f ~ ( x , e ~ .
i s a l - N o w i f x C A o o ( e ) t h e n x i s a m u l t i p l e o f f o b y (3) a n d s i n c e ~
t e r n a t i n g , (2) i m p l i e s ~ ( e ~ = 0 a n d h e n c e x = 0 . F r o m (2) a n d (3) w e a l s o
O
O O
s e e t h a t A I O = K . f ~ a n d A l l = K . e ~ . N o w l e t B b e a n o n - t r i v i a l i d e a l o f A .
T h e n w e m a y c h o o s e e = ( e + , e -) ~ B a s a b o v e , a n d b y d e f i n i t i o n of t h e P e i r c e
s p a c e s a n d t h e f a c t t h a t B i s a n i d e a l w e h a v e A . . = B.. f o r ij = i i , i0, 01.
1 3 1 ~
S i n c e A O 0 = 0 w e h a v e B = A . T h e r e f o r e A i s s i m p l e . S i n c e A ~ i s a t l e a s t
4 - d i m e n s i o n a l o v e r K w h i l e A ~ I a n d A ~ O a r e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l w e m u s t h a v e
A O I ~ 0 , a n d b y 1 1 . 8 , A i s p r o p e r l y a l t e r n a t i v e . T h i s c o m p l e t e s t h e p r o o f .
1 1 . 1 2 . R e m a r k s . (i) L e t A = A ( X , K , ~ ) w i t h ~ n o n - d e g e n e r a t e , a n d l e t e ~ a n d
f o b e a s a b o v e . If d i m K X = 2 t h e n A 0 1 = 0 , a n d b y 1 1 . 8 , A i s a s s o c i a t i v e .
I n d e e d , i t i s e a s i l y s e e n t h a t A = A ( M , K , ~ ) w h e r e gl = K 2 a n d ~ ( x , y ) = x l Y I
+ x 2 Y 2 . I n a n y c a s e , A c o n t a i n s n o i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s s i n c e Q ( x ) y = < x y x > =
x . ~ o ( x , J o y ) a n d h e n c e Q ( x ) h a s a t m o s t r a n k o n e a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t b e i n v e r -
t i b l e . H e n c e n o p a i r o f t y p e (C) i s i s o m o r p h i c w i t h a p a i r o f t y p e (B). A l s o t h e r e
i s o b v i o u s l y n o o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t y p e (A) o r (A') a n d (B) o r (C) s i n c e t h e f o r m e r
a r e a s s o c i a t i v e w h i l e t h e l a t t e r a r e n o t .
(ii) T h e p a i r s o f t y p e (B) a n d (C) p o s s e s s i n v o l u t i o n s . I n d e e d , l e t A = ( C , C ~
b e o f t y p e (B), a n d l e t j b e a n y i n v o l u t i o n o f C , f o r i n s t a n c e t h e s t a n d a r d
i n v o l u t i o n . If w e d e n o t e a s u s u a l b y a ~ a t h e c a n o n i c a l a n t i i s o m o r p h i s m f r o m
124 1 1 . 1 3
C to C ~ and c o n v e r s e l y t h e n o n e c h e c k s i m m e d i a t e l y that Do(a) = j (a) d e f i -
n e s a n i n v o l u t i o n ~ of (C,C ~ . In o t h e r w o r d s , C is a n a l t e r n a t i v e t r i p l e
s y s t e m w i t h < a b c > = ( a j ( b ) ) c (cf. 6.15). If A is of t y p e (C) t h e n n o = J - o
d e f i n e s a n i n v o l u t i o n of A . In c o n t r a s t , t h e p a i r s of t y p e (A) or (A') do not
in g e n e r a l h a v e i n v o l u t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , let R = K b e a field, let M + b e an
i n f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l v e c t o r s p a c e o v e r K , let M- b e t h e d u a l of M + , and set
~ ( x , y ) = y(x) (= the v a l u e of t h e l i n e a r f o r m y o n x ). T h e n M + a n d M- are
of d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n , and t h e r e f o r e A c a n h a v e no i n v o l u t i o n s .
(iii) T h e c e n t r o i d of a p a i r of t y p e (A) or (A') is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e c e n t e r
of t h e s i m p l e a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a R . For a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s of t y p e (B) or (C)
t h e c e n t r o i d is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h K . T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m 1 1 . 2 and 11.9.
11.13. L E M M A . L e t R b e a s e m i s i m p l e u n i t a l a s s o c i a t i v e r i n g s a t i s f y i n g the dcc
o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r ideals. T h e n e v e r y r i g h t i d e a l of R is g e n e r a t e d b y a n i d e m c
p o t e n t , and R is A r t i n i a n .
P r o o f . W e s h o w f i r s t that e v e r y n o n - z e r o r i g h t i d e a l r of R c o n t a i n s a n o n -
z e r o i d e m p o t e n t . N o t e v e r y e l e m e n t of r c a n b e n i l p o t e n t s i n c e o t h e r w i s e r
w o u l d b e a q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e r i g h t i d e a l of R , c o n t r a d i c t i n g the a s s u m p t i o n that
R is s e m i s i m p l e . T h u s let x G r b e not n i l p o t e n t , a n d c o n s i d e r the c h a i n of
p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s x R x ~ x 2 R x 2 ~ . . . . By the dcc, x n R x n = x n + i R x n + l for
s o m e n , and h e n c e x 2 n G x n R x n x 2 n R x 2 n is r e g u l a r , i.e., x 2n 2n 2n
= = x y x for
2n
s o m e y . T h e n x y is a n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t c o n t a i n e d in r . O b s e r v e n o w t h a t
R s a t i s f i e s the c h a i n c o n d i t i o n o n i d e m p o t e n t s . Indeed, if { e l , e 2 , . . . } is a n
o r t h o g o n a l set of i d e m p o t e n t s t h e n ( l - e l ) R ( l - e l ) ~ ( l - e l - e 2 ) R ( l - e l - e 2 ) ~ . . . is
a d e s c e n d i n g c h a i n of p r i n c i p a l i n n e r ideals. T h e r e f o r e w e m a y c h o o s e a m a x i m a l
i d e m p o t e n t e C r . T h e n w e h a v e ~ = e R 9 r ~ ( l - e ) R , u s i n g the f a c t t h a t e is
in r a n d that ~ is a r i g h t ideal. L e t d ~ r n ( l - e ) R b e a n i d e m p o t e n t . T h e n
1 1 . 1 4 125
ed = 0 w h i c h i m p l i e s (d(l-e)) 2 = d 2 - d 2 e - ded + d e d e = d - d e = d ( l - e ) , and
h e n c e c = d ( l - e ) ~ r is a n i d e m p o t e n t w i t h ec = c e = 0 . By m a x i m a l i t y of e
w e h a v e c = 0 and t h e r e f o r e d = d e = d 2 = d e d = 0 . B y w h a t w e p r o v e d b e f o r e ,
the r i g h t i d e a l ~ ( l - e ) R is zero, and t h u s r = eR . N o w let e R C f R b e
r i g h t i d e a l s w h e r e e a n d f a r e i d e m p o t e n t s . T h e n eR = e2R c e f R C e R w h i c h
s h o w s that eR = efR . A l s o , (l-f)e ~ ( l - f ) f R = 0 , i.e., fe = e . F r o m t h i s it
f o l l o w s e a s i l y that ef and f - ef a r e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s . T h u s if e l R ~
e 2 R ~ ... is a d e s c e n d i n g c h a i n if r i g h t i d e a l s t h e n w e o b t a i n ( r e p l a c i n g e.
I
b y e i e i _ 1 if n e c e s s a r y ) a set { e l - e 2 , e 2 - e 3 , . . . } of o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s .
S i n c e R s a t i s f i e s the cei it f o l l o w s that R is A r t i n i a n .
11.14. P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) I f A = A ( M , R , ~ ) is a n a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r of t y p e (A) as
i n ii.ii, s a t i s f y i n g t h e d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r ideals, t h e n R is A r t i n i a n .
(b) C o n v e r s e l y , if A = A ( M , R , ~ ) as in 6.4 w i t h R s i m p l e A r t i n i a n and ~ n o n -
d e g e n e r a t e t h e n A is v o n N e u m a n n r e g u l a r and s a t i s f i e s the d c c and acc o n p r i n -
c i p a l i n n e r ideals; in p a r t i c u l a r , it is of t y p e (A).
P r o o f . (a) S i n c e R is s i m p l e w i t h u n i t y it is s e m i s i m p l e . A l s o , the d c c on
+
p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s c a r r i e s o v e r f r o m A to R = All b y 10.2. N o w (a) f o l l o w s
f r o m 11.13.
(b) S i n c e A ~ s a t i s f i e s our h y p o t h e s e s as w e l l it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t e v e r y
x C M + = A + is r e g u l a r , and that c h a i n s of p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s c o n t a i n e d i n
M + M + a r e of f i n i t e length. If x G t h e n ~ ( x , M - ) is a r i g h t i d e a l of R , and
b y w e l l - k n o w n f a c t s o n s e m i s i m p l e A r t i n i a n r i n g s , ~(x,M-) = e R w h e r e e is a n
i d e m p o t e n t of R . H e n c e 0 = ( l - e ) ~ ( x , M - ) = ~ ( x - e x , M - ) and s i n c e
g e n e r a t e w e h a v e x - e x = 0 . A l s o , e = ~(x,y) for s o m e y C M-
x = e x = ~ ( x , y ) x = < x y x > and x is r e g u l a r . N o w let z G M + a n d
w h e r e f
is n o n - d e -
w h i c h i m p l i e s
~(z,M-) = f R
is a n i d e m p o t e n t . A s s u m e that the p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s g e n e r a t e d b y
126 1 1 . 1 5
x and z are c o n t a i n e d in e a c h o t h e r , < x M - x > C < z M - z > . T h e n x = faz for
s o m e a 6 R and t h e r e f o r e e R = ~ ( x , M - ) = ~ ( f a z , M - ) = f a ~ ( z , M - ) = f a f R C f R .
T h e e l e m e n t b = faf b e l o n g s to the P e i r c e s p a c e RII of R w i t h r e s p e c t to f.
N o w if e R = b R = fR t h e n b R l l = RII w h i c h i m p l i e s that b is i n v e r t i b l e in
R I I (here w e u s e that R l l is A r t i n i a n , too). H e n c e t h e r e e x i s t s c G RII s u c h
that cb = f . It f o l l o w s t h a t cx = c f a z = c f a f z = c b z = fz = z and t h e r e f o r e
< z M - z > = eRz = e R c x C e R x = ~ x M - x > . A l t o g e t h e r , w e see that a c h a i n of p r i n c i p a l
i n n e r i d e a l s of M + g i v e s r i s e to a c h a i n of r i g h t i d e a l s of R , and t h a t o n e
b e c o m e s s t a t i o n a r y if and o n l y if the o t h e r o n e does. H e n c e A s a t i s f i e s the d c c
and acc o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r ideals. B y 10.7, it s a t i s f i e s the c c i and h e n c e c o n -
t a i n s a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t e w h i c h b y i 0 . i i s a t i s f i e s A00(e) = 0 . T h i s p r o v e s
t h a t A is of t y p e (A).
11.15. P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) L e t A = (C,C ~ b e a s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r of t y p e
(B) w h e r e C is a C a y l e y a l g e b r a o v e r its c e n t e r K . T h e n the i n n e r i d e a l s of
A c o n t a i n e d in C are C i t s e l f and t h o s e K - s u b s p a c e s of C w h i c h are t o t a l -
ly i s o t r o p i c w i t h r e s p e c t to the n o r m of C . In p a r t i c u l a r , A s a t i s f i e s the
dcc a n d acc o n a l l i n n e r ideals.
(b) L e t A = A ( X , K , ~ ) b e an a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r of t y p e (C). T h e n the p r i n c i p a l
i n n e r i d e a l g e n e r a t e d b y x @ A ~ is K . x , a n d t h e r e f o r e A s a t i s f i e s the dcc
and a c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r ideals. T h e i n n e r i d e a l s of A ~ a r e p r e c i s e l y the K -
subs p a c e s of A ~ (= X ), and t h e r e f o r e A s a t i s f i e s the dcc and acc o n a l l i n n e r
i d e a l s if and o n l y if X is f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l o v e r K .
P r o o f . (a) T h e i n n e r i d e a l s of C d e p e n d o n l y on the J o r d a n a l g e b r a C J a s s o -
c i a t e d w i t h C , and C J is the J o r d a n a l g e b r a d e f i n e d b y the n o r m f o r m of C .
N o w the a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m M c C r i m m o n [ 8 ] , Th. 6.
(b) For x ~ A ~ w e h a v e < x y x > = x . ~ a ( x , J o y ) w h i c h s h o w s that x is r e g u l a r
1 1 . 1 6 1 2 7
a n d t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l g e n e r a t e d b y x i s K . x . I f m i s a n i n n e r
i d e a l a n d x C m a n d % C K t h e n x = < x y x > f o r s o m e y i m p l i e s % x = < x , l y , x >
C m a n d h e n c e m i s a K - s u b s p a c e o f A ~ . C o n v e r s e l y , i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t e v e r y
K - s u b s p a c e i s a n i n n e r i d e a l .
1 1 . 1 6 . T H E O R E M . F o r a s e m i s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r o v e r k w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i p a l
i n n e r i d e a l s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
(i) T h e a e c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s ;
(ii) t h e c h a i n c o n d i t i o n o n i d e m p o t e n t s ;
( i i i ) t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t .
T h e s i m p l e p a i r s w i t h t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e u p t o i s o m o r p h i s m p r e c i s e l y t h e f o l i o -
w i n g .
(A) A ( M , R , ~ ) w i t h
(A') T h e r e v e r s e A'
(B) ( C , C ~ w i t h C
(C) A ( X , K , ~ ) w i t h X
n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
R a s i m p l e A r t i n i a n a l g e b r a o v e r k a n d ~ n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
o f a p a i r A o f t y p e (A).
a C a y l e y a l g e b r a o v e r a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d K o f k .
a v e c t o r s p a c e o v e r a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d K o f k a n d
P r o o f . B y 1 0 . 7 a n d i 0 . i 0 w e h a v e (i) (ii) ( i i i ) . B y 1 0 . 1 4 i t s u f f i c e s t o p r o -
v e ( i i i ) (i) f o r s i m p l e p a i r s . B y i i . i i , 1 1 . 1 4 , a n d 1 1 . 1 5 t h e s i m p l e s e m i s i m p l e
a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s w i t h d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s a r e p r e c i s e l y t h e o n e s l i s -
t e d , a n d t h e y h a v e a c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s . T h i s p r o v e s t h e t h e o r e m .
1 1 . 1 7 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t A = A ( M , R , ~ ) w i t h R s i m p l e A r t i n i a n a n d ~ n o n - d e -
s e n e r a t e . T h e n t h e f o l l o w i n $ c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
1 2 8 1 1 . 1 7
( i )
( i i )
( i i i )
A s a t i s f i e s t h e d c c o n a l l i n n e r ideals;
A s a t i s f i e s the acc o n a l l i n n e r ideals;
M + is a f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d R - m o d u l e .
If t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e s a t i s f i e d t h e n w e h a v e
( a ) A is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h ( M p , q ( D ) , M p , q ( D ~ w h e r e D is a d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a
o v e r k and the pr oduc t i s gi ve n by <xyz> = xy z ( c f . 0. 5 f or not a t i on) . Al s o
R ~ M (D) and ~ i s gi ve n by ~( x, y) = xy
P
(b) The r e ve r s e A' of A i s i s omor phi c wi t h ( M q , p ( D ~ unde r t he
map x + x
(c) T h e i n n e r i d e a l s of A c o n t a i n e d i n A + = M + = M p , q ( D ) a r e of t h e f o r m
e M + f w h e r e e G M (D) and f C M (D) a r e i d e m p o t e n t s .
p q
(d) T h e m a x i m u m l e n g t h of a c h a i n 0 ~ m I ~ m 2 ~ ... ~ m r = M + of i n n e r i d e a l s
is r $ p + q - I .
Proof. C l e a r l y , e v e r y R - s u b m o d u l e of M + is a n i n n e r ideal, and t h e r e f o r e (i)
or (ii) i m p l i e s (iii) (recall that e v e r y R - m o d u l e is c o m p l e t e l y r e d u c i b l e ) . C o n -
v e r s e l y , a s s u m e that (iii) holds. S i n c e @ is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e w e h a v e i n j e c t i o n s
i : M - (M+) v (the d u a l of M + _ as a R - m o d u l e ) and i+: M + + ( M - ~ g i v e n b y
i _ ( y ) ( x ) = @(x,y) = i + ( x ) ( y ) . H e n c e M - is f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d as w e l l . T o s h o w
t h a t i is s u r j e c t i v e it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t ( i ) v : (M+) v v (M-) v is i n j e c -
tive. But one c h e c k s t h a t the d i a g r a m
can.
M + > (M+) ~
i + ~ / (i_) v
( M - f
c o m m u t e s , a n d h e n c e the c a n o n i c a l m a p f r o m M + i n t o
T h e r e f o r e , w e m a y i d e n t i f y M - w i t h (M+) V and t h e n
(M+) ~v is a n i s o m o r p h i s m .
is g i v e n b y # ( x , y ) =
1 1 . 1 7 129
y(x) . By the s t r u c t u r e t h e o r e m for s i m p l e A r t i n i a n r i n g s , R = M (9) , a f u l l
P
m a t r i x a l g e b r a o v e r a d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a ~ . A l s o , M + is i s o m o r p h i c as R - m o d u l e
w i t h a f i n i t e d i r e c t s u m of p - d i m e n s i o n a l r i g h t v e c t o r s p a c e s o v e r D , say D p
w r i t t e n as c o l u m n v e c t o r s , and R a c t s b y m a t r i x m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o n t h e left.
T h u s M + , q (D ~ = M p , N ( D ) . W e m a y i d e n t i f y ( M + ~ w i t h M p and ~ is t h e n gi-
v e n b y ~ ( x , y ) = x y . T h i s p r o v e s (a) (under the a s s u m p t i o n of (iii)). N o w (b)
is i m m e d i a t e s i n c e ( x y * z ) * = z * y x *
N e x t w e p r o v e (c). Let m C M + = M p , q ( ~ ) b e an i n n e r ideal, and c h o o s e
i d e m p o t e n t s e ~ R = M (D) and f e S = M (9) m a x i m a l w i t h r e s p e c t to the p r o -
P q
p e r t y that e M + f C m . w e w i s h to s h o w that w e h a v e e q u a l i t y or, e q u i v a l e n t l y ,
that ( l - e ) m = m ( l - f ) = 0 . N o t e f i r s t that e and f a r e n o n - z e r o u n l e s s m is
zero. I n d e e d , if x g m is n o t z e r o t h e n b y r e g u l a r i t y ( l l . 1 4 ( b ) ) w e h a v e x =
< x y x > = x y * x for s o m e y 6 M - = M p , q ( D ~ so that e = x y * and f = y * x a r e
n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t s of R and S r e s p e c t i v e l y w i t h eM+f = x y * M + y * x C < x M - x >
~ m , s i n c e m is an i n n e r ideal. C o n s e q u e n t l y , w e h a v e M+f(M-) * = R and
( M - ) * e M + = S s i n c e R and S a r e s i m p l e rings. N o w let x C m and set z =
x ( l - f ) . W e w i l l s h o w that z ~ m . S i n c e z is r e g u l a r w e h a v e z e < z M - z > =
x ( l - f ) ( M - ) * x ( l - f ) C x ( l - f ) ( M - ) * x + x ( l - f ) ( M - ) * x f . N o w x ( l - f ) ( M - ) * x C x ( M - ) * x
= < x , M - , x > C m s i n c e m is an i n n e r ideal. T h e r e f o r e it r e m a i n s to s h o w that
x ( l - f ) ( M - ) * x f C m . W e h a v e (M-)*x c S = (M-)*eM +, and t h e r e f o r e x ( l - f ) ( M - ) * x f
C x ( ( l - f ) ( M - ) * ) e M + f = { x , M - ( l - f * ) , e ~ + f } C m , s i n c e f(l-f) = 0 and m is an
i n n e r ideal. H e r e {abc} <abc> + <cba> a b * c + c b * a B y r e g u l a r i t y , z zv* = = . = z
for s o m e v , a n d s i n c e 1 - f is a n i d e m p o t e n t w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t (l-f)v* = v*.
T h e n fv* = zf = 0 and t h e r e f o r e the i d e m p o t e n t g = v * f E S s a t i s f i e s fg = gf
= 0 ; i.e., g is o r t h o g o n a l to f and t h e r e f o r e g + f is a n i d e m p o t e n t . N o w
e M + g = e M + v * f C e M + f ( M - ) * z = ( e M + f ) ( f ( M - ) * z ) = {eM f , M f , z } C m s i n c e zf = 0
a n d m is a n i n n e r ideal. T h u s a l s o e M + ( f + g ) C m , and b y m a x i m a l i t y of f w e
h a v e g = 0 w h i c h i m p l i e s z = zg = 0 , and w e h a v e s h o w n that m(l-f) = 0 . In
130 11.18
order to prove (l-e)m = 0 it suffices to prove m*(l-e*) = 0 for the inner ide-
al m* ~ ( M - ) * of A' (using (b)), and the proof of this is the same as above.
Now we prove (d) and give first a geometric interpretation of (c) as fol-
lows. Let X = ~q, Y = D p (right vector spaces of column vectors over ~ ). Then
M + = Mp,q(~) is naturally isomorphic with HomD(X,V) , and the inner ideals con-
tained in M + = {x e M + are precisely the spaces m U , V I K e r ( x ) ~ U , Im(x) C V},
for vector subspaces U C X , V C Y . Clearly m U , V C m u , , v , if and only if U'
C U and V' ~ V . This implies (d), and also proves that (iii) implies (i) and
(ii).
11.18. THEOREM. A semisimple alternative pair over k with dcc on all inner ide-
als satisfies the acc on all inner ideals. The simple pairs of this kind are;
(A) (Mp,q(~),Mp,q(D~ with D a division algebra over k and <xyz> = xy*z.
(B) (C,C ~ with C a Cayley algebra over an extension field K of k .
(C) A(X,K,~) with X a finite-dimensional vector space over an extension field
K of k and ~ non-degenerate.
Proof. By 10.7, pairs with dcc on all inner ideals have maximal idempotents, and
are therefore (10.14) direct products of simple ones. By ii.ii - 11.17 a simple
pair is one of the above, and conversely the pairs listed have acc on all inner
ideals.
1 2 . 1 1 3 1
w C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f J o r d a n p a i r s
1 2 . 1 . L E M M A . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r a n d l e t e b e a n i d e m p o t e n t o f V s u c h
t h a t V 0 ( e ) = 0 . L e t U i ~ V i = V i ( e ) b e p a i r s o f s u b m o d u l e s . T h e n U = U 2 ~ U 1
i s a n i d e a l o f V i f a n d o n l y i f U. i s a n i d e a l o f t h e J o r d a n p a i r V. a n d
2 l
( w i t h t h e n o t a t i o n s o f 8 . 0 )
o G ~ (7 (/
( 1) U2oV 1 + V2oU 1 C U1 ,
(2) {vi,u I ,e } U 2 .
I n t h i s c a s e , U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A = V 1 (cf. 8 . 2 ) .
P r o o f . T h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s o b v i o u s , a n d f r o m 8 . 1 it f o l l o w s e a s i -
l y t h a t t h e y a r e s u f f i c i e n t . B y 8 . 2 . 2 , U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f A .
1 2 . 2 . L E M M A . W i t h t h e a b o v e n o t a t i o n s , l e t U 1 b e a n i d e a l o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e
o o ~ U~ . S e t ~ = o - o o o V~O, eO}
p a i r A = V 1 s u c h t h a t V 2 o U 1 _ _ U 2 { V I , U 1 ,e } + { U I, a n d
U 2 = ( U ~ , U 2) . T h e n U = U 2 ~ U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f V .
P r o o f . S i n c e U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f A w e h a v e b y 8 . 2 . 2 t h a t
o < V ~ , - ~ ~ o - o ~
U 2 ~ 1 = B 1 , V I > + < U I , V 1 , V I > C U 1
H e n c e (i) a n d (2) o f 1 2 . 1 a r e s a t i s f i e d . I t r e m a i n s t o s h o w t h a t U 2 i s a n i d e a l
o f V 2 F r o m J P I 4 a n d 8 . 1 i t f o l l o w s t h a t { V 2, U 2 9 V 2 , U 2 } C . U s i n g J P I 2 w e s e e
t h a t
Q ( V 2 ) - o o - ~ C o - o o a o - o o o
{ e , U I , V 1 } { V 2 , V 1 , U I O V 2 } C - { V 2 , V 1 , U I } C - U 2 ,
a n d s i m i l a r l y Q ( V 2 ) { e , V I , U 1 } C - U 2 . F i n a l l y it f o l l o w s f r o m J P 2 0 t h a t
1 3 2 1 2 . 3
o - o o o S e t a
1 2 . 3 . L E M M A . L e t U 2 b e a n i d e a l o f V 2 s u c h t h a t { V I , V 1 ,U 2} C U 2 9 U 1
= U 2 o V I O ~ a n d .... U 1 = ( U I , U - I ) . T h e n U = U 2 ~ U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f Y
P r o o f . B y 8 . 1 . 1 w e h a v e V 2 o U 1 = V 2 o ( U 2 o V I ) ~ U 2 o ( V 2 o V I ) + ( V 2 o U 2 ) o V I U 2 ~ 1 = U 1
a n d h e n c e (i) o f 1 2 . 1 i s s a t i s f i e d . A l s o
{ V I , U I ,e } = { V I , U 2 o C ,U 2 } C V 1 ,e } { V I , V 1 U 2
b y 8 . 1 . T h u s 1 2 . 1 . 2 i s v e r i f i e d , a n d i t r e m a i n s t o s h o w t h a t U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f
o , a n d h e n c e b y 8 . 2 . 2 ,
V I 9 B y 8 . 1 . 7 , { U I , V I ( I , e C l } C U 2
F u r t h e r m o r e ,
{ V ~ , - a a a o ~ o ~ a o o V ~ U ~ o a a U O o V a a
= ( V 2 ~ 2 - I U1 V 1 ,U I } ~ V 2 ~ 1 V 2 ~ 1 7 6 ) C ( V 2 ~ U 2) + = ,
u s i n g 8 . 1 . 4 . T h u s U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A a n d t h e r e f o r e a l s o
o f t h e J o r d a n p a i r V 1 = A J . N o w t h e l e m m a f o l l o w s f r o m 1 2 . 1 .
1 2 . 4 . L E M M A . L e t V = V 2 ~ V 1 a n d A = V 1 b e a s i n 1 2 . 1 . A s s u m e t h a t V i s
s i m p l e a n d t h a t A # 0 . T h e n t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m h f r o m V i n t o t h e s t a n d a r d i m -
b e d d i n g W o f A (of. 8 . 1 2 ) i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m , a n d t h e J o r d a n s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a
J o f A c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e i n n e r s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a F (cf. 8 . 8 ) .
P r o o f . S i n c e h i s t h e i d e n t i t y o n V 1 i t f o l l o w s b y s i m p l i c i t y o f V t h a t h
~ 0 V-~ ~
i s i n j e c t i v e . B y 1 2 . 2 , U 2 ~ V 1 w h e r e U 2 = I V l ' 1 ,e ~ i s a n i d e a l o f V .
+ + V~,e + } and e + + + V~,e+}) = F
H e n c e V 2 = {VI, , e V 2 i m p l i e s 1 = f ( e + ) e f ( { V I,
+ J i s
a n d t h e r e f o r e 7 = F (of. 8 . 8 , 8 . 1 0 f o r n o t a t i o n ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f: V 2
s u r j e o t i v e , a n d b y d e f i n i t i o n o f h t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t h i s s u r j e c t i v e .
1 2 . 5 1 3 3
1 2 . 5 . T H E O R E M . T h e s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r s V c o n t a i n i n g a n i d e m p o t e n t e s u c h t h a t
V 0 ( e ) = 0 a r e u p t o i s o m o r p h i s m e i t h e r
(i) J o r d a n p a i r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s i m p l e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a s , o r
(ii) s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g s o f s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s f o r w h i c h J o r d a n s t r u c t u r e
a l g e b r a a n d i n n e r s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a c o i n c i d e .
P r o o f . L e t V a n d e b e a s i n t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e t h e o r e m . If V l ( e ) = 0 t h e n
+
e is i n v e r t i b l e i n V = V 2 ( e ) w i t h i n v e r s e e , a n d V i s i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e
J o r d a n p a i r ( 7 , 7 ) w h e r e J = V + i s a s i m p l e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a , b y 1 . 6 a n d
e
i . i i . T h u s V i s o f t y p e (i). C o n v e r s e l y , i f 7 i s a s i m p l e J o r d a n a l g e b r a w i t h
u n i t e l e m e n t 1 t h e n ( 7 , J ) i s a s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r , a n d ( i , i ) i s a n i d e m p o -
t e n t w i t h V l ( e ) = V 0 ( e ) = 0 .
N o w a s s u m e t h a t V l ( e ) # 0 . B y 1 2 . 4 , V i s i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d
i m b e d d i n g o f n = V l ( e ) , t h e J o r d a n s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e i n n e r
s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a , a n d h e n c e V 2 = { V I , V 1 ,e } L e t U 1 b e a n i d e a l o f A . T h e n
o o = o - o o o = o - o o o a n d b y 1 2 . 2 U 2 ~ U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f
V 2 o U 1 { V 1 , V 1 ,e }oU 1 { A ,A , U I } ~ U 1 ,
V . T h i s s h o w s t h a t A i s s i m p l e a n d h e n c e V i s o f t y p e (ii). C o n v e r s e l y , l e t
A b e a s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r w h o s e s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e i n n e r
s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a , a n d l e t W = W 2 ~ W 1 b e t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g o f A . T h e n
O Cl - O O
w e h a v e W 2 = { W I , W 1 ,e } . If U = U 2 ~ U 1 i s a n i d e a l o f W t h e n b y 1 2 . 1 , U 1
is a n i d e a l o f A a n d i s t h e r e f o r e e i t h e r z e r o o r a l l o f A . I n t h e f i r s t c a s e ,
o o C o
U 2 o W 1 U 1 = 0 w h i c h i m p l i e s U 2 = 0 b y d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g .
o ~ { W I , W I O , e O } o a n d t h e r e f o r e U 2 = W 2 I n t h e s e c o n d c a s e , U 2 = W 2 .
1 2 . 6 . R e m a r k s . (a) If V = V 2 ~ V I i s s i m p l e o f t y p e (ii) t h e n i t i s u n k n o w n
w h e t h e r V 2 is s i m p l e (or, e q u i v a l e n t l y , w h e t h e r t h e J o r d a n s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a
o f V 1 i s s i m p l e ) . F o r a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s u l t i s t r u e ( 1 1 . 4 ) .
I f , h o w e v e r , V s a t i s f i e s t h e d c c o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s t h e n V 2 i s s i m p l e
134 12.7
in view of 10.14.
(b) In general, the structure Jordan algebra and the inner structure algebra of
a simple alternative pair are not the same, and the standard imbedding is not sim-
ple; cf. 8.9(c). If they are, however, then n is semisimple. Indeed, the stan-
dard imbedding of A is simple and contains a non-zero idempotent and is there-
fore semisimple. This implies that A is semisimple by 5.8.
(c) Let V = V 2 ~ V I be of type (ii), and let A = V 1 . Then the centroids of
V and A are naturally isomorphic. Indeed, if a ~ Z(V) then a leaves V 2
and V 1 invariant, and the restriction of a to V 1 belongs to the centroid of
A . The map a ~ aIV 1 is an isomorphism between Z(V) and Z(A) . The details
are left as an exercise.
12.7. LEMMA. Let V = V 2 ~ ) V I be a simple Jordan pair as in 12.5, and assume
that V satisfies the dcc O n principal inner ideals. Then V 2 an_~d V 1 satisfy
the dcc on principal inner ideals, and V 1 satisfies the chain condition on idem-
potents.
Proof. The first statement follows from 10.2. Assume that V I = A # 0 and let
c = (c+,c -) be an idempotent of A 9 Then ~(c) = ~(c+,c -) is an idempotent of the
Jordan structure algebra J of A by 8.4.1, and if c and d are orthogonal
idempotents of A then ~(c) and ~(d) are orthogonal idempotents of 7 , by
8.5.1 and 8.5.3. Since V 2 ( 7 , 7 ) it follows that 7 has dcc on principal in-
ner ideals (10.7). If {Cl,C 2 .... } is an orthogonal set of idempotents of A
then J2(l-~(Cl)) ~ 7 2 ( I - ~ ( c i ) - ~ ( c 2 ) ) ~ ... is a descending chain of principal
inner ideals of 7 . It follows that A satisfies the chain condition on idempo-
tents.
12.8 135
over
( 0 )
( i )
( i f )
of k .
(III) Hn(D,D0) , n ~ 2,
ple subspace of D .
12.8. In view of 12.5 and 12.7, the classification of simple Jordan pairs with
dcc on principal inner ideals and containing an idempotent e with V0(e ) = 0
amounts to the following.
(i) Classify simple unital Jordan algebras with dcc on principal inner ideals
(up to Isotopy, cf. 1.12).
(ii) Classify simple alternative pairs with dcc on principal inner ideals and
chain condition on idempotents for which the Jordan structure algebra and the in-
ner structure algebra coincide, and determine their standard imbeddings.
By the "Second Structure Theorem" (Jacobson[3]), the simple unital Jordan algebras
k with dcc on principal inner ideals are up to isotopy the following.
Jordan division algebras over k .
R J where R is a simple Artinian algebra over k .
Hn(Q,K), n ~ 2, ~ a split quaternion algebra over an extension field K
a division algebra with involution, and D O an am-
(IV) Outer ideals containing i in Jordan algebras of non-degenerate quadra-
tic forms with base point over an extension field K of k .
(V) H3(C,K) , C a Cayley algebra over an extension field K of k .
By McCrimmon[8] all these algebras satisfy the acc on principal inner ideals.
Note that Hn(Q,K) is isomorphic with the Jordan algebra J of symplectic sym-
metric 2n 2n matrices over K by McCrimmon[8], p. 459. The Jordan pair as-
sociated with J is isomorphic with (A2n(K),A2n(K)) under the map X ~ SX
where S is as in 8.16. In case (IV) let q be a non-degenerate quadratic form
on a vector space X over K , and let i ~ X be such that q(1) = i . Then the
1 3 6 1 2 . 9
a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n a l g e b r a J h a s u n i t e l e m e n t 1 a n d q u a d r a t i c o p e r a t o r s U x Y
= q ( x , y ) x - q ( x ) ~ w h e r e ~ = q ( y , l ) - y (cf. J a c o b s o n [ 3 ] ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
V = ( X , X ) i s a J o r d a n p a i r w i t h Q ( x ) y = q ( x , y ) x - q ( x ) y , a n d o n e c h e c k s e a s i l y
t h a t h = ( h + , h _ ) : ( J , J ) V g i v e n b y h + ( x ) = x a n d h _ ( y ) = y i s a n i s o m o r -
p h i s m o f J o r d a n p a i r s . H e n c e t h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h J d e p e n d s , a s i t
s h o u l d , o n l y o n t h e q u a d r a t i c f o r m q a n d n o t o n t h e c h o i c e o f t h e b a s e p o i n t .
B y t h e r e s u l t s o f 1 1 . 1 6 w e k n o w a l l t h e s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s w i t h d c c
o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s a n d c h a i n c o n d i t i o n o n i d e m p o t e n t s . W e p r o c e e d t o d e t e r -
m i n e t h e i r s t r u c t u r e a l g e b r a s a n d s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g s .
1 2 . 9 . T y p e (A) a n d (A'). L e t A = A ( M , R , ~ ) w i t h R s i m p l e A r t i n i a n a n d # n o n -
d e g e n e r a t e . B y 8 . 9 ( a ) , J = F ~ R J , a n d b y 8 . 1 4 , t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g o f A
i s " o f t h e s a m e t y p e " , W = A ( N , R , ~ ) J w i t h t h e s a m e R , a n d ~ n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
S i n c e ( p r i n c i p a l ) i n n e r i d e a l s a r e t h e s a m e f o r a n a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a n d t h e a s s o -
c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r i t f o l l o w s f r o m l l . 1 4 ( b ) t h a t W s a t i s f i e s t h e d c c a n d a c c o n
p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s . N e x t l e t A' b e t h e r e v e r s e o f A ( M , R , # ) s o t h a t t h e
p r o d u c t i s g i v e n b y < x y z > ' = < z y x > = ~ ( z , y ) x . I f F = J t h e n 1 C F a n d h e n c e
t h e r e e x i s t f i n i t e l y m a n y ( x i , Y i ) C M s u c h t h a t z = Z < x i Y i Z > ' = E r i
f o r a l l z @ M + . T h i s m e a n s t h a t M + i s f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d a s a n R - m o d u l e . B y
1 1 . 1 7 , w e h a v e A ~ ( M p , q ( D ) , M p , q ( ~ ~ a n d A' ~ ( M q , p ( D ~ . I t f o l -
l o w s t h a t A' i s a g a i n o f t y p e (A) ( w i t h R = M ( D ) ) a n d w e a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e
q
p r e v i o u s c a s e .
1 2 . 1 0 . T y p e (B). L e t A = ( C , C ~ w i t h C a C a y l e y a l g e b r a o v e r a n e x t e n s i o n
f i e l d K o f k . T h u s C i s o f d i m e n s i o n 8 o v e r K . B y 8 . 9 ( b ) w e h a v e F = J
C 7 , a n d b y 8 . 1 5 , t h e s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g i s W = ( M I , 2 ( C ) , M I , 2 ( c ~ w i t h
Q ( x ) y = x ( y * x ) . U s i n g t h e c a n o n i c a l i n v o l u t i o n o f C w e m a y i d e n t i f y W w i t h
1 2 . 1 1 1 3 7
( M I , 2 ( C ) , M I , 2 ( C ) ) w h e r e Q ( x ) y = x ( t y x ) a n d t h e b a r n o w s t a n d s f o r t h e c a n o n i -
c a l i n v o l u t i o n . L e t E = H 3 ( C , K ) b e t h e e x c e p t i o n a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a o f 3 3 h e r -
m i t i a n m a t r i c e s o v e r C w i t h d i a g o n a l c o e f f i c i e n t s i n K , a n d d e f i n e a m a p h
= ( h + , h _ ) f r o m W i n t o t h e J o r d a n p a i r ( E , E )
h + ( X l , X 2 )
0
= x 1
x 2
b y
x 1 1 0 0
A c o m p u t a t i ( n s h o w s t h a t
t w e e n W a n d ( E l , E 1 )
t i o n E = E 2 + E 1 + E 0
h is a h o m o m o r p h i s m ; i n f a c t , h i s a n i s o m o r p h i s m b e -
w h e r e E 1 is t h e P e i r c e - l - s p a c e i n t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i -
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i d e m p o t e n t
< 0 i 0 0
o f E . S i n c e E is r e g u l a r (cf. M c C r i r m m o n [ 8 ] ) s o i s E 1 ~ I n d e e d , i f x C E 1
a n d x = U x Y f o r s o m e y ~ E t h e n w e h a v e U x Y 2 C E 0 a n d U x Y O G E 2 s o t h a t
x = U x Y 1 ( Y i d e n o t e s t h e c o m p o n e n t o f y i n E.I )" I t f o l l o w s t h a t W i s r e -
g u l a r , a n d t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t e v e r y i n n e r i d e a l i s a K - s u b s p a c e . B y f i n i t e - d i m e n -
s i o n a l i t y , W s a t i s f i e s t h e d c c a n d a c c o n a l l i n n e r i d e a l s .
1 2 . 1 1 . T y p e (C). L e t A = A ( X , K , ~ ) w i t h X a v e c t o r s p a c e o v e r a n e x t e n s i o n
f i e l d K o f k a n d ~ n o n - d e g e n e r a t e . I f X i s i n f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l t h e n b y
8 . 9 ( c ) w e h a v e F # J . I f d i m K X = 2 m < ~ w e h a v e F = J , a n d b y 8 . 1 6 t h e
t
s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g W is ( A n ( K ) , A n ( K ) ) w h e r e n = 2 m + l a n d Q ( x ) y = x y x
= - x y x . w e s h o w t h a t W i s r e g u l a r . A n n n m a t r i x x i s a l t e r n a t i n g i f a n d
o n l y i f ( x u , u ) = 0 f o r a l l u C K n , w h e r e ( u , v ) = Z u . v . i s t h e u s u a l s c a l a r
1 1
p r o d u c t . B y l i n e a r i z a t i o n t h i s i m p l i e s ( x u , v ) = - ( u , x v ) a n d h e n c e K e r ( x ) i s
t h e o r t h o g o n a l c o m p l e m e n t o f I m ( x ) w i t h r e s p e c t t o ( , ) . C h o o s e a n y s u b s p a c e
1 3 8 1 2 . 1 2
of K n s u c h that U ~ K e r ( x ) = K n a n d let V b e the o r t h o g o g o n a l c o m p l e m e n t
of U . T h e n Im(x) ~ ) V = K n . S i n c e x i n d u c e s a v e c t o r s p a c e i s o m o r p h i s m , s a y
x ~ , b e t w e e n U and Im(x) w e m a y d e f i n e y b y y I l m ( x ) = - x -I y [ V = 0 .
o 9
T h e n o n e c h e e k s t h a t y ~ A ( K ) a n d t h a t Q ( x ) y = - x y x = x .
T h e r e g u l a r i t y of W i m p l i e s that e v e r y i n n e r i d e a l is a
and h e n c e W s a t i s f i e s the d c c a n d acc o n a l l i n n e r ideals.
K - s u b s p a c e ,
12.12. T H E O R E M . F o r a s e m i s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k w i t h dcc on p r i n c i p a l i n n e r
i d e a l s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
(i) T h e acc o n p r i n c i p a l i n n e r i d e a l s ;
(ii) the c h a i n c o n d i t i o n o n i d e m p o t e n t s ;
(iii) the e x i s t e n c e of a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t .
T h e s i m p l e p a i r s w i t h t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e up to i s o m o r p h i s m p r e c i s e l y the f o l -
lowing.
(0) J o r d a n d i v i s i o n p a i r s o v e r k .
(I) A ( M , R , ~ ) J w i t h R a s i m p l e A r t i n i a n k - a l g e b r a and ~ n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
(II) ( A n ( K ) , A n ( K ) ) w i t h K a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d of k ; n ~ 4 .
(III) ( H n ( D , D 0 ) , H n ( D , ~ 0 ) ) w i t h D a di_vision a l g e b r a w i t h i n v o l u t i o n o v e r k
and 9 0 a n a m p l e s u b s p a e e ~ n ~ 2 .
(IV) ( I , I ) w h e r e I is a n o u t e r i d e a ~ c o n t a i n i n g 1 in a J o r d a n a l s e b r a of
a n o n - d e g e n e r a t e q u a d r a t i c f o r m o n a v e c t o r s p a c e o v e r a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d of k .
( v )
of k .
( v l )
( M I , 2 ( C ) , M I , 2 ( c ~ w i t h
C a C a y l e y a l g e b r a o y e r a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d K
( H 3 ( C , K ) , H 3 ( C , K ) ) w i t h C as above.
1 2 . 1 3 139
Proof. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s (i) * (ii) (iii) f o l l o w f r o m 1 0 . 7 a n d i0.i0. B y 10.14,
w e o n l y h a v e to p r o v e (iii) + (i) for s i m p l e pairs. N o w t h e t h e o r e m f o l l o w s f r o m
1 2 . 8 - 12.11.
12.13. R e m a r k s . (a) C l e a r l y the p a i r s of t y p e (0), (III), (IV), a n d (VI) c o n t a i n
i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s . T h e p a i r s of t y p e (II) c o n t a i n i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s if a n d
o n l y if n is even, and t h e p a i r s of t y p e (I) do if a n d o n l y if M = R (these
t w o c o r r e s p o n d to the J o r d a n a l g e b r a s of t y p e (II) a n d (I) in 12.8). F i n a l l y , the
p a i r s of t y p e (V) c o n t a i n no i n v e r t i b l e elements.
(b) T h e p a i r s of t y p e (0), (II), (III), (V), a n d (VI) s a t i s f y t h e acc and d c c on
a l l i n n e r ideals. By 11.17, a J o r d a n p a i r of t y p e (I) h a s d c c a n d a c c o n a l l i n n e r
i d e a l s if a n d o n l y if M + is a f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d R - m o d u l e , and t h e n it is iso-
m o r p h i c w i t h ( M p , q ( D ) , M p , q ( D ~ w h e r e D is a d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a . H e r e w e m a y
a s s u m e that p 6 q s i n c e the m a p x ~ x* d e f i n e s a n i s o m o r p h i s m b e t w e e n t h e J o r -
d a n p a i r s ( M p , q ( D ) , M p , q ( D ~ J a n d ( M q , p ( D ~ J (the a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r s
a r e n o t i s o m o r p h i c l ) . By M c C r i m m o n [ 8 ] , J o r d a n a l g e b r a s (and t h e r e f o r e J o r d a n
pairs) d e f i n e d b y q u a d r a t i c f o r m s h a v e d c c a n d acc on a l l i n n e r i d e a l s if a n d o n l y
if t h e r e e x i s t no t o t a l l y i s o t r o p i c s u b s p a c e s of i n f i n i t e d i m e n s i o n .
N O T E S
T h e t h e o r y of i n n e r i d e a l s of J o r d a n p a i r s is v e r y s i m i l a r to (but s i m p l e r
than) the c o r r e s p o n d i n g t h e o r y for J o r d a n a l g e b r a s . P r o p o s i t i o n 1 0 . 4 is t h e J o r d a n
1 4 0
p a i r v e r s i o n of M c C r i m m o n [ 8 ] , Prop. I. T h e M i n i m a l Inner I d e a l T h e o r e m (cf. J a c o b -
s o n [ 3 ] ) t a k e s t h e f o r m 10.5; t h u s t h e t r o u b l e s o m e m i n i m a l i n n e r i d e a l s of t y p e II
of t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a t h e o r y d o n ' t o c c u r for J o r d a n pairs. It is a n o p e n p r o b l e m
w h e t h e r t h e r a d i c a l of a J o r d a n p a i r or a J o r d a n a l g e b r a w i t h d c c o n (principal)
i n n e r i d e a l s is n i l p o t e n t or s o l v a b l e . T h e s h o r t a n d e l e g a n t p r o o f of y o n N e u m a n n
r e g u l a r i t y (10.15 - i0.17) p r e s e n t e d h e r e is d u e to K. M e y b e r g [ 7 ] . E a r l i e r p r o o f s
( M e y b e r g [ 5 ] , M c C r i m m o n [ 2 ] ) w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d a l s o n e e d e d
s t r o n g e r h y p o t h e s e s (chain c o n d i t i o n o n a l l i n n e r i d e a l s or a m i n i m u m a n d m a x i m u m
c o n d i t i o n f o r c e r t a i n i n n e r i d e a l s ) .
T h e f i r s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e t r i p l e s y s t e m s ( f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l
o v e r a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d s of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c # 2 ) w a s g i v e n i n L o o s [ 3 ] .
M e y b e r g ( [ 6 ] ) n o t i c e d t h a t t h e s a m e m e t h o d s w o r k f o r s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e t r i p l e s y s -
t e m s (over rings) c o n t a i n i n g a n i d e m p o t e n t e w i t h A00(e) = 0 . T h e g e n e r a l i z a -
t i o n of t h i s to a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s (ii. Ii) is r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . P r o p o -
s i t i o n 1 1 . 1 7 , (c) a n d (d), is t h e " r e c t a n g u l a r m a t r i x v e r s i o n " of Th. 1 a n d C o r o l -
l a r y of M c C r i m m o n [ 8 ] .
B y 1 . 1 3 a n d 6.15, t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of i n v o l u t i o n s of a l t e r n a t i v e a n d
J o r d a n p a i r s is e q u i v a l e n t w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e and J o r d a n t r i -
p l e s y s t e m s . T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o u t in t h e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l
c a s e o v e r a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d s of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c # 2 ( L o o s [ 2 - 4 ] ) b u t is a n
o p e n p r o b l e m in g e n e r a l .
1 3 . 1 1 4 1
C H A P T E R IV
F I N I T E - D I M E N S I O N A L J O R D A N P A I R S
w U n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n K a l ~ e b r a s
13.1. D E F I N I T I O N . L e t V = ( V + , V - ) b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r t h e r i n g k , a n d l e t
(d,q) b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of V i n t o a n a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a A w i t h i d e m p o t e n t s
e + and e (cf. 2 . 3 f o r t h e d e f i n i t i o n ) . W e s a y t h a t (d,q) is u n i v e r s a l if for
e v e r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (d',q') of V i n t o A'
: A - ~ A ' of a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a s s u c h that
t h e r e e x i s t s a u n i q u e h o m o m o r p h i s m
( i ) ~ ( e i ) = e ' = d ' , = '
, ~ o d ~ o q q .
By s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t s (cf. C o h n [ l ] ) u n i v e r s a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s e x i s t a n d a r e u n i q u e
up to i s o m o r p h i s m . T h e a l g e b r a A of a u n i v e r s a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (d,q) is c a l l e d
t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a of V a n d is d e n o t e d b y u(V) . It h a s i d e m p o -
t e n t s e + a n d e_ s u c h t h a t e + + e = 1 , a n d w e d e n o t e t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s w i t h
r e s p e c t to e b y U ~ ( ~,T = ).
13.2. P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) U(V) is f u n c t o r i a l in V : A h o m o m o r p h i s m h: V W o f
J o r d a n p a i r s i n d u c e s a h o m o m o r p h i s m U(h): U(V) U ( W ) s u c h that U ( h ) ( e o ) = e
U ( h ) ( d o ( x , y ) ) = d o ( h o ( x ) , h _ o ( y ) ) , U ( h ) ( q a ( x ) ) = q o ( h o ( x ) ) , f o r a l l x , y e V
1 4 2 1 3 . 2
(b) If I is a n i d e a l o f V a n d 7 i s t h e i d e a l o f U ( V ) g e n e r a t e d b y
d o ( l o , V - ~ d ( V ~ q o ( l O ) , q o ( I o , V ~ ( ~ = ) t h e n U ( V / I ) = U ( V ) / [ .
(c) U ( V ) is c o m p a t i b l e w i t h e x t e n s i o n o f s c a l a r s : If R is a n e x t e n s i o n o f k
t h e n t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m U ( V ) ~ R -~ U ( V ~ R ) i n d u c e d b y
p h i s m .
V V ~ R is a n i s o m o r -
(d) T h e r e e x i s t s a u n i q u e i n v o l u t i o n * o f U ( V ) s u c h t h a t e + * = e , q + ( x ) *
= q + ( x ) , q _ ( y ) * = q (y), d + ( x , y ) * = d _ ( y , x ) ; i . e . , t h e u n i v e r s a l r e p r e s e n t a t i -
o nn (d,q) is a * - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e s e n s e o f 2.5. I f ( d ' , q ' ) i s a * - r e p r e -
s e n t a t i o n o f V i n A' t h e n t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m ~: U ( V ) + A' i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
t h e i n v o l u t i o n s .
(e) U ( V ) = k . e + 9 k . e _ ~ U 0 ( V ) w h e r e U 0 ( V ) i s t h e s u b a l ~ e b r a g e n e r a t e d b y
d ( V ~ a n d q ~ ( V ~) ( ~ = ) . U 0 ( V ) i s a c t u a l l y a n i d e a l o f U ( V ) . A l s o
U ~ ~ = k . e ~ ~ U ~ O ( V ) w h e r e U ~ ~ is t h e s u b a l g e b r a g e n e r a t e d b y d o ( V ~ , V - ~
a n d q o ( V ~ -~) , a n d U ~ 1 7 6 = U~176176176 . A s b e f o r e , U ~ ~
is a n i d e a l o f U O ~ .
T h e p r o o f o f (a), (b), a n d (c) i s s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d . F o r (d), o n e c h e c k s
t h a t d ~ ( x , y ) = d _ o ( y , x ) , q ~ ( x ) = q o ( x ) d e f i n e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f V i n
U ( V ) ~ . T h e i n d u c e d h o m o m o r p h i s m ~ : U ( V ) + U ( V ) ~ is t h e d e s i r e d i n v o l u t i o n .
F i n a l l y , t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p e o f t h e t r i v i a l J o r d a n p a i r (0,0) i s o b v i o u s l y
k . e + ~ k . e _ , a n d U ( V ) = k . e + ~ ) k . e ~ ) U 0 ( V ) w h e r e U 0 ( V ) is t h e k e r n e l o f t h e
h o m o m o r p h i s m U ( V ) U ( 0 ) i n d u c e d b y V 0 . B y (b), U 0 ( V ) is t h e i d e a l g e n e -
r a t e d b y d ( V ~ "~) a n d q o ( V ~) ( o = ). B u t t h e s u b a l g e b r a g e n e r a t e d b y t h e s e
e l e m e n t s i s a l r e a d y a n i d e a l . T h e l a s t a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m t h e r u l e s f o r t h e
P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n i n a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a s .
1 3 . 3 1 4 3
1 3 . 3 . P R O P O S I T I O N . (a)
v e r s a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
T h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p e o f V ~ i s U ( V ) w i t h t h e u n i -
o p a n d i d e m p o t e n t s e ~ = e
d ~ p = d - o ' q o = q - ~ ' o - o
(b) A n a n t i a u t o m o r p h i s m ~ o f V i n d u c e s a n a u t o m o r p h i s m U ( ~ ) o f U ( V ) s u c h
t h a t U ( n ) ( e o ) = e _ o , U ( ~ ) ( d ( x , y ) ) = d _ o ( n o ( x ) , ~ _ o ( y ) ) , U ( ~ ) ( q o ( x ) ) = q_o(~o(x)).
I f ~ i s a n i n v o l u t i o n t h e n U ( ~ ) i s o f p e r i o d t w o .
T h e p r o o f i s l e f t a s a n e x e r c i s e .
1 3 . 4 . T o s i m p l i f y n o t a t i o n , w e w i l l a g a i n o m i t s u b s c r i p t s o i n d a n d q o (cf.
2. 0) . Then we have t he f ol l owi ng i de nt i t i e s , va l i d f or any r e pr e s e nt a t i on ( d, q)
o f a J o r d a n p a i r V .
( i )
( 2 )
(3)
[ d ( u , v ) , d ( x , y ) ] = d ( { u v x } , y ) - d ( x , { v u y } ) ,
d ( x , y ) 4 = d ( x , y ) 2 d ( Q x y , y ) + d ( Q x y , y ) d ( x , y ) 2
+ d ( Q x y , y ) 2 - d ( Q ( Q x y ) y , y ) - d ( x , Q ( Q y X ) X ) ,
[ q ( u ) q ( v ) , q ( x ) q ( y ) ] = q ( { u v x } ) q ( y ) - q ( x ) q ( { v u y } )
+ q ( Q x v , Q u v ) q ( y ) - q ( x ) q ( Q y U , Q v u )
+ q ( x ) q ( y , v ) q ( u ) q ( y , v ) - q ( x , u ) q ( v ) q ( x , u ) q ( y ) .
P r o o f . (i) f o l l o w s f r o m J P I 5 b y t h e p e r m a n e n c e p r i n c i p l e ( 2 . 8 ) . B y 2 . 3 . 3 w e h a v e
d ( x , y ) 2 - d ( Q x y , y ) = 2 q ( x ) q ( y ) . I f w e s q u a r e t h i s a n d o b s e r v e 2 . 3 . 5 a n d 2 . 6 . 1 w e
o b t a i n ( 2 ) . F r o m 2 . 6 . 7 i t f o l l o w s t h a t
q ( x ) q ( y ) q ( u ) q ( v ) + q ( x ) q ( v ) q ( u ) q ( y )
= q ( x ) q ( { y u v } ) + q ( x ) q ( Q y U , Q v U ) - q ( x ) q ( y , v ) q ( u ) q ( y , v )
a n d
q ( x ) q ( v ) q ( u ) q ( y ) + q ( u ) q ( v ) q ( x ) q ( y )
= q ( { x v u } ) q ( y ) + q ( Q x V , Q u V ) q ( y ) - q ( x , u ) q ( v ) q ( x , u ) q ( y ) .
1 4 4 1 3 . 5
N o w (3) f o l l o w s b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e s e t w o f o r m u l a s .
13.5. L E M M A . L e t U(V) b e t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p e of V . T h e n t h e s u b a l g e b r a D
of U + + ( V ) g e n e r a t e d b y d ( V + , V -) is a n i d e a l of U + + ( V ) . If 2 is i n v e r t i b l e
i n k t h e n U ~ ( V ) = D (cf. 1 3 . 2 ( e ) ) .
Proof. F r o m 2 . 6 . 3 a n d 2 . 3 . 2 it f o l l o w s that
q ( x ) q ( y ) d ( u , v ) = q ( x ) ( d ( y , u ) q ( y , v ) - q ( Q y U , V ) )
= - d ( u , y ) q ( x ) q ( y , v ) + q ( x , { x y u } ) q ( y , v ) - q ( x ) q ( Q y U , V ) ,
a n d b y 2 . 3 . 3 a n d 2 . 3 . 4 this b e l o n g s to D . S i m i l a r l y , o n e s h o w s t h a t
d ( u , v ) q ( x ) q ( y ) G ~ , a n d t h e r e f o r e ~ is an i d e a l of U + + ( V ) . If 1 / 2 ~ k
b y 2 . 3 . 3 w e h a v e q ( x ) q ( y ) = ( i / 2 ) ( d ( x , y ) 2 - d ( Q x y , y ) ) G D .
t h e n
13.6. T H E O R E M . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a r i n g k s u c h t h a t V + a n d V-
a r e f i n i t e l y s p a n n e d as k - m o d u l e s . T h e n U(V) is f i n i t e l y s p a n n e d as a k - m o d u l e .
Proof. F r o m 13.2, (d) a n d (e), w e s e e t h a t it s u f f i c e s to p r o v e that U = U + + ( V )
is f i n i t e l y spanned. W e s h o w f i r s t t h a t D (as i n 13.5) is f i n i t e l y spanned. L e t
X l , . . . , x m b e a s p a n n i n g s e t of V + and y l , . . . , y n a s p a n n i n g set of V- . Set
dij = d ( x i , Y j ) , a n d l e t X r b e t h e k - s u b m o d u l e of U s p a n n e d b y a l l m o n o m i a l s
d . . . . . d. . w h e r e 1 ~ s < r . C l e a r l y , t h e X f o r m an i n c r e a s i n g s e q u e n c e
1 1 3 1 is3 s = r
of s u b m o d u l e s w h o s e u n i o n is ~ , a n d w e h a v e X r ' X s ~ X r + s . B y 1 3 . 4 . 1 w e h a v e
(i) d i j d k s _= dks m o d X 1 .
In a m o n o m i a l x = d i l J l . . , d i r J r w h e r e r > 3 m n , at l e a s t o n e of t h e dij o c -
4
c u r s at l e a s t f o u r times. B y (i), w e h a v e x ~ d i j Y m o d X r _ 1 w h e r e y G X r _ 4 .
B y 1 3 . 4 . 2 , d~j C X 3 a n d h e n c e x e X 3 X r _ 4 C X r _ 1 . T h i s s h o w s that X r = X r - i '
and h e n c e D = X 3 m n is f i n i t e l y spanned.
1 3 . 7 1 4 5
N e x t w e s h o w t h a t U / D i s f i n i t e l y s p a n n e d . L e t q i j = q ( x i ) q ( Y j ) + D 6 U / D .
T h e n U / D i s g e n e r a t e d b y i = e + + I) a n d t h e q i j . L e t Y r b e t h e k - s u b m o d u l e
s p a n n e d b y t h e m o n o m i a l s q i l J l ' ' " q i s J s ' 0 _<_ s ~ r , w h e r e Y 0 = k . l . T h e n
U / D i s t h e u n i o n o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g s e q u e n c e o f t h e V a n d w e h a v e Y . V C
r r s
V r + s . F r o m 1 3 . 4 . 3 , 2 . 3 . 3 , a n d 2 . 3 . 4 i t f o l i o w s t h a t
(2) q i j q k % ~ q k ~ q i j m o d Y I '
a n d f r o m 2 . 3 . 5 w e g e t
(3) q i j q i s = q ( Q ( x i ) Y j ) . q ( y ~) + D G V I .
A m o n o m i a l q i l J l . . , q i r J r w i t h r > m m u s t b e o f t h e f o r m . . . q i j . . . q i % . . .
f o r s o m e i n d e x i . N o w i t f o l l o w s f r o m (2) a n d (3) s i m i l a r l y a s b e f o r e t h a t
= Y r - i a n d h e n c e U / D = Y m i s f i n i t e l y s p a n n e d .
Y
r
1 3 . 7 . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s . L e t A b e a
u n i t a l a s s o c i a t i v e a l g e b r a a n d l e t J b e a u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a o v e r k . A r e -
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J i n A i s a q u a d r a t i c m a p ~ : J A s a t i s f y i n g
( i ) ~ ( i ) = i ,
( 2 ) ~ ( x , y ) ~ ( x ) = ~ ( x ) ~ ( y , x ) = ~ ( X , U x Y ) ,
(3) ~ ( U x Y ) = ~ ( x ) ~ ( y ) ~ ( x ) ,
i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s (cf. M c C r i ~ m o n [ 7 ] ) . H e r e
(4) ~ ( x , y ) = ~ ( x , l ) ~ ( y , l ) - ~ ( x , y ) .
A r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m T i n A c o n s i s t s o f a b i l i n e a r m a p
: T x T A a n d a q u a d r a t i c m a p p : T A s a t i s f y i n g i n a l l s c a l a r e x t e n s i o n s
(5) % ( x , y ) p ( x ) = p ( x ) % ( y , x ) = p ( x , P ( x ) y ) ,
146 1 3 . 8
( 6 )
( 7 )
( 8 )
( 9 )
( c f . L o o s [ 5 ] ) .
p ( x ) s + s = p ( x , { x y z } ) ,
s 1 6 3 = s + p ( x ) p ( y , z ) ,
Z ( z , x ) Z ( y , x ) = s + p ( y , z ) p ( x ) ,
p ( P ( x ) y ) = p ( x ) p ( y ) p ( x ) .
13.8. P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t (d,q) b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e J o r d a n p a i r V i__n_n A .
L e t v ~ V- , a n d let J = k . l ~ V + b e t h e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a o b t a i n e d f r o m
- - V
V + b y a d j o i n i n g a u n i t e l e m e n t . T h e n
v
~ ( ~ l + x ) = ~ 2 . 1 + ~ d + ( x , v ) + q + ( x ) q _ ( v )
(~ e k , x 6 V +) d e f i n e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of J in A .
Proof. L e t ~ ( ~ l + x ) = Uel+xIV+v = e 2 1 d + a D ( x , v ) + Q ( x ) Q ( v ) . S i n c e V +v is a n i d e -
al of J t h i s d e f i n e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of J in E n d ( V + ) , a n d t h e i d e n t i t i e s
1 3 . 7 . 2 a n d 1 3 . 7 . 3 f o r ~ a r e e q u i v a l e n t w i t h c e r t a i n i d e n t i t i e s in D ( x , y ) ' s
a n d Q ( z ) ' s . B y the p e r m a n e n c e p r i n c i p l e , t h e s a m e i d e n t i t i e s a r e v a l i d w i t h D , Q
r e p l a c e d b y d , q , and h e n c e ~ s a t i s f i e s 1 3 . 7 . 2 and 13.7.3. S i n c e ~ is o b v i -
o u s l y q u a d r a t i c a n d ~(i) = i t h e p r o p o s i t i o n follows.
13.9. P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t J b e a u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a , a n d l e t T b e t h e a s s o c i a -
ted J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m o b t a i n e d b y " f o r g e t t i n g " t h e u n i t element. I f ~ is a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of J a n d ~ is d e f i n e d as i n 1 3 . 7 . 4 t h e n (s = (~,~) is a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of T . C o n v e r s e l y , if (~,p) is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f T s u c h that
p(1) = 1 t h e n D = p is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 7 .
Proof. S i n c e U x Y = P ( x ) y it is c l e a r t h a t (5) a n d (9) of 13.7 h o l d f o r (s
= (~,~) , a n d the v a l i d i t y of (6) - (8) f o l l o w s f r o m w e l l - k n o w n f o r m u l a s f o r re-
p r e s e n t a t i o n s of J o r d a n a l g e b r a s (see M c C r i m m o n [ 7 ] ) . C o n v e r s e l y , if (s is a
1 3 . 1 0 147
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of T s u c h t h a t p(1) = 1 t h e n it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t
s = p ( x , l ) p ( y , l ) - p ( x , y ) .
N o w ~(l,x) = s = p ( l , x ) b y 1 3 . 7 . 5 , a n d b y 1 3 . 7 . 7 w e h a v e ~ ( l , y ) ~ ( l , z )
= %(y,z) + p ( 1 ) p ( y , z ) w h i c h p r o v e s o u r a s s e r t i o n .
13.10. P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t T be a J o r d a n t r i p l e system, a n d let (T,T) b e t h e a s -
s o c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r (cf. 1.13).
(a) E v e r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (~,p) of T i n A i n d u c e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (d,q)
o f ( T , T ) i n t h e a l g e b r a M 2 ( A ) o f 2 x 2 m a t r i c e s o v e r i b y
, d _ ( y , x ) = g ( y , x '
d + ( x , y ) =
p+(x) = , p_(y) = .
( y )
( b ) E v e r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ( d , q ) o f ( T , T ) i n
o f T i_~_n i b_y_y %(x,y) = d + ( x , y ) + d _ ( x , y ) ,
A i n d u c e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (Z,p)
p(x) = q+(x) + q_(x) 9
T h e p r o o f is l e f t to t h e r e a d e r .
13.11. L e t T b e a J o r d a n t r i p l e system. W e d e f i n e t h e c o n c e p t s of u n i v e r s a l r e -
p r e s e n t a t i o n and u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a i n t h e s a m e w a y as for J o r d a n pairs.
L e t U(T) d e n o t e t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a of T w i t h u n i v e r s a l r e p r e s e n -
t a t i o n (%,p) . W i t h T w e a s s o c i a t e t h e J o r d a n p a i r ( T , T ) w i t h t h e c a n o n i c a l
i n v o l u t i o n m g i v e n b y t h e e x c h a n g e of f a c t o r s (cf. 1.13). B y 13.3, K i n d u c e s
a n a u t o m o r p h i s m 0 = U(K) of p e r i o d 2 of U ( T , T ) s u c h t h a t 0(e ) = e _ o ,
1 4 8 1 3 . 1 2
8 ( d ( x , y ) ) = d _ o ( x , y ) a n d @ ( q o ( x ) ) = q _ o ( x ) . T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n U ( T ) a n d
U ( T , T ) is n o w a s f o l l o w s .
1 3 . 1 2 . P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) L e t U @ b e t h e f i x e d p o i n t s e t o f e i n U ( T , T ) , a n d
d e f i n e s : T x T U o , p : T U 0 by_
s = d + ( x , y ) + d _ ( x , y ) ,
p ( x ) = q + ( x ) + q _ ( x ) .
T h e n (s is a u n i v e r s a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f T a n d h e n c e U ( T ) ~ U @ .
(b) I d e n t i f y U ( T ) a n d U @ b y (a), a n d l e t u + ( T ) = u ( T ) (~ (U + + ~ U - - ) , u - ( T )
= u ( T ) f~ (U + - ~ U -+) w h e r e U o r = U ~ ( c f . 1 3 . 1 ) . T h e n u ( T ) = u + ( T ) ~ u - ( T )
is a z ~ m Z _ - g r a d e d a l g e b r a 9 W e h a v e U + ( T ) = k . l ~ U o ( T ) w h e r e U ; ( T ) i s g e n e r a -
t e d b y % ( T , T ) a n d p ( T ) p ( T ) , a n d U - ( T ) = U + ( T ) p ( T ) U + ( T ) .
(c) T h e m a p
u++ + @ u + + ,
F ( u ) = u _ + + 0 u _ + ,
a n i s o m o r p h i s m .
P r o o f . B y 1 3 . 1 0 ( a ) ,
a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
s e n t a t i o n
= U ( T , T )
F : U(T,T)---> { ~ a db) I a , d 6 U + ( T ) , b , c 6 U - ( T ) } g i v e n b y
u + _ + O u + _ 1 a n d u 6 U O T ( T , T )
u _ _ + O u _ _ / w h e r e u = ~ u T - - ~
i s
a , b 6 A ' ~ N o w t h e m a p X : B A'
(s is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f T i n U @ . L e t ( ~ ' , p ' ) b e
T i n s o m e a l g e b r a A' . B y 1 3 . 1 0 ( b ) , t h i s i n d u c e s a r e p r e -
( d ' , q ' ) o f ( T , T ) i n M 2 ( A ' ) a n d h e n c e a h o m o m o r p h i s m ~ f r o m U
i n t o M 2 ( A ' ) . O n e c h e c k s e a s i l y (on t h e g e n e r a t o r s o f U ) t h a t if
b ) t h e n ~ ( @ ( u ) ) = (b d c ) f o r a l l u 6 U ; i . e . , @ c o r r e s p o n d s t o
s e n d i n g ( b b ) i n t o a + b, is a h o m o m o r -
149
p h i s m , a n d h e n c e ~ = Xo~ : U @ + A' is a h o m o m o r p h i s m s u c h that ~(Z(x,y)) =
~ I ~ '(x'y)s = ~ ' ( x , y ) a n d s i m i l a r l y ~ ( p ( x ) ) = p'(x) . It r e m a i n s to b e
s h o w n t h a t ~ is u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d . F o r t h i s it s u f f i c e s to s h o w t h a t U o is
g e n e r a t e d b y i , Z ( T , T ) , and p(T) . B e f o r e d o i n g so w e p r o v e (b). S i n c e @
i n t e r c h a n g e s e + a n d e it is c l e a r t h a t @ ( U ~ ) = U - o ' - T , a n d t h e r e f o r e
U @ = {a + b + @a + @b I a C U ++, b C U + - } .
H e n c e U+(T) = U @ f ~ ( U + + ~ U - - ) = {u + @u ] u C U + + } ~ U + + . By 13.2(e) it f o l l o w s
t h a t U+(T) h a s the a s s e r t e d s t r u c t u r e , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t that p ( x ) p ( y ) =
(q+(x) + q _ ( x ) ) ( q + ( y ) + q _ ( y ) ) = q + ( x ) q _ ( y ) + q _ ( x ) q + ( y ) = q + ( x ) q _ ( y ) + @(q+(x).
.q_(y)) b y the P e i r c e rules. A l s o , for u G U ++, v G U +-, w C U-- w e h a v e
u v w + 8(uvw) = ( u + O u ) ( v + @ v ) ( w + @ w ) b y the P e i r c e rules. T h i s p r o v e s (b) i n v i e w
of 1 3 . 2 ( e ) , a n d a l s o s h o w s that U @ is g e n e r a t e d b y i , s and p(T) .
F i n a l l y , (c) f o l l o w s b y a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d c o m p u t a t i o n .
13.13. P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t ff b e a u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a , and let U(J) b e the
u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a of J . (U(J) is d e f i n e d a n a l o g o u s l y to the u n i v e r s a l
e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a s of J o r d a n p a i r s and J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s ; it is a l s o c a l l e d
t h e u n i v e r s a l q u a d r a t i c e n v e l o p e , cf. M c C r i m m o n [ 7 ] ) . L e t T b e the J o r d a n t r i p l e
s y s t e m o b t a i n e d f r o m J b y f o r g e t t i n g the u n i t e l e m e n t Ij o f J. T h e n U(J) i__ss
i s o m o r p h i c w i t h U ( T ) / B w h e r e B is the i d e a l of U ( T ) g e n e r a t e d b y i - p(ij).
P r o o f . B y 13.9, the m a p x ~ p(x) + B is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of ff in U ( T ) / B and
h e n c e i n d u c e s a h o m o m o r p h i s m ~ : U ( J ) U ( T ) / B . A l s o b y 13.9, the u n i v e r s a l r e -
p r e s e n t a t i o n ~ : J U(J) d e f i n e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (~,~) of T in U(J)
w h i c h i n d u c e s a h o m o m o r p h i s m ~ : U(T) U(J) . C l e a r l y , D f a c t o r s t h r o u g h a
h o m o m o r p h i s m ~ : U ( T ) / B U(J) , a n d ~ a n d ~ a r e i n v e r s e s of e a c h other.
150 1 4 . 1
w S o l v a b i l i t y a n d n i l p o t e n c e
14.1. S o l v a b i l i t y . Let V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r the r i n g k . W e d e f i n e the d e r i -
v e d s e r i e s of V b y
V (0) = V, V (I) = ( Q ( V + ) V - , Q ( V - ) V + ) , V (n+l) = (v(n)) (I),
a n d say that V is s o l v a b l e if V (n) = 0 for s o m e n . C l e a r l y V (n+l) is an
i d e a l of V (n) but n e e d n o t b e an i d e a l of V . Let I b e an i d e a l of J . A
s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t s h o w s that V is s o l v a b l e if a n d o n l y if 7 and V / I are s o l -
v a b l e . T h u s if V s a t i s f i e s the acc o n i d e a l s t h e n it c o n t a i n s a m a x i m a l s o l v a b l e
ideal, and the q u o t i e n t of V b y t h i s i d e a l is f r e e of n o n - z e r o s o l v a b l e ideals.
N o t e a l s o t h a t s o l v a b i l i t y is p r e s e r v e d u n d e r e x t e n s i o n of s c a l a r s .
14.2. L E M M A . Let A and ~ b e i d e a l s of V , a n d let
C a = { A ~ , B - ~ ~ + { B ~ 1 7 6 ~ } + { A ~ , V - ~ , B ~ } + Q ( A ~ - ~
+ Q ( B ~ -~ + Q ( V ~ 1 7 6 ~ + Q ( V ~ ~ .
T h e n (C+,C -) = A # B is an i d e a l of V .
T h e p r o o f c o n s i s t s in a t e d i o u s but s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d v e r i f i c a t i o n , u s i n g
the i d e n t i t i e s JPI - JP21.
14.3. V - s o l v a b i l i t y . Let I b e a n i d e a l o f V . The V - d e r i v e d s e r i e s o f I in
V is I = I<0> ~ I < l > ~ ... w h e r e I <n+l> = I < n > # 1 <n> , a n d I is c a l l e d V-
s o l v a b l e if I <n> = 0 for s o m e n . B y 14.2, the V - d e r i v e d s e r i e s of I c o n -
sists of i d e a l s of V . N o t e that V - s o l v a b i l i t y of I d e p e n d s o n the i m b e d d i n g
of I into V a n d is not a n i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t y of I . C l e a r l y , if I is V-
1 4 . 4 1 5 1
s o l v a b l e t h e n it is / - s o l v a b l e , a n d if it is
the s e n s e of 14.1. Let
0 V' ~ V ~ V"
b e an e x a c t s e q u e n c e o f J o r d a n p a i r s . A n i d e a l
and o n l y if p(1) is V " - s o l v a b l e a n d V' is
l - s o l v a b l e t h e n it is s o l v a b l e in
0
I ~ V' of V is V - s o l v a b l e if
V - s o l v a b l e . F r o m t h i s it f o l l o w s
as u s u a l that t h e s u m of two V - s o l v a b l e i d e a l s is a g a i n V - s o l v a b l e . H e n c e if
V s a t i s f i e s t h e a c c o n i d e a l s t h e r e e x i s t s a m a x i m a l V - s o l v a b l e i d e a l , a n d the
q u o t i e n t of V b y t h i s i d e a l is f r e e of s u c h i d e a l s .
14.4. L E M M A . V
a n o n - z e r o i d e a l
( 1 )
Proof. A n i d e a l
c o n t a i n s a n o n - z e r o V - s o l v a b l e i d e a l if and o n l y if it c o n t a i n s
I s u c h that
Q(I ~ = D ( I ~ , I - ~ ) = 0 .
I s a t i s f y i n g (i) is V - s o l v a b l e s i n c e I <I> = 0 . C o n v e r s e l y ,
let B b e a n o n - z e r o V - s o l v a b l e ideal, a n d let n b e the l a r g e s t p o s i t i v e in-
t e g e r s u c h that C = B <n> # 0 . T h e n C#C = 0 a n d h e n c e
{ C ~ 1 7 6 ~ = { C ~ 1 7 6 ~ = Q ( C ~ - ~ = 0 .
Let I O = {x ~ C ~ IQ(x) = 0} , a n d set I = ( I + , I - ) . In o r d e r to s h o w that I # 0
w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t I + # C + . T h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a ~ C + and b C V- s u c h that
x = Q ( a ) b # 0 . But x C C + s i n c e C is an i d e a l , a n d Q ( x ) V - = Q a Q b Q a V - C Q a C -
= 0 s h o w s t h a t x C I + . N o w w e s h o w t h a t I is a n ideal. C l e a r l y , I is c l o -
s e d u n d e r s c a l a r m u l t p l i c a t i o n . F r o m { C ~ 1 7 6 ~ = 0 it f o l l o w s t h a t I is
c l o s e d u n d e r a d d i t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e I is a s u b m o d u l e o f V . F r o m J P 3 a n d J P 2 1
it f o l l o w s t h a t I is an o u t e r ideal, a n d s i n c e it c o n s i s t s of t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s
b y d e f i n i t i o n , it is a n i d e a l o f V .
1 5 2 1 4 . 5
14.5. P R O P O S I T I O N . A V - s o l v a b l e i d e a l of V is c o n t a i n e d in r a d V a n d a s o l -
v a b l e i d e a l is c o n t a i n e d in N i l V .
P r o o f . T h e f i r s t i n c l u s i o n f o l l o w s f r o m 14.4, a n d t h e s e c o n d f r o m t h e f o r m u l a
Q ( x ( n ' Y ) ) . y (n'x) = Q ( x ( n ' Y ) ) Q ( y ) . x (n-l'y) = u .x n - I = x 2 n + n - I = x (3n-l'y)
n
x
(cf. 3.8.1; x n = x (n'y) a n d U = Q ( x ) Q ( y ) i n t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a V ).
x y
14.6. N i l p o t e n c e . L e t V(n ) d e n o t e t h e k - l i n e a r s p a n of a l l p r o d u c t s in V of
d e g r e e ~ n w h e r e Q ( x ) y a n d {xyz} a r e c o n s i d e r e d to b e o f d e g r e e 3 . T h u s
V = V ( 1 ) ~ V(3) ~ V ( 5 ) ~ . . . ,
a n d W(n ) is a n i d e a l of V , in fact, w e h a v e
V - ~ C V ~ , { V~ m , V - ~ V ~ V ~
Q ( V ( m ) ) (n) (2m+n) ( ) (n)' ( p ) } C (m+n+p) "
W e s a y V is n i l p o t e n t if V ( n ) = 0 for s o m e n . If V is n i l p o t e n t t h e n it
is s o l v a b l e a n d e v e n V - s o l v a b l e s i n c e
v(n) c v < n > c V
(3 n)
Let M(V) b e t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a l g e b r a of V (cf. 2.4), a n d let M 0 = M 0 ( V ) b e
t h e s u b a l g e b r a of M(V) g e n e r a t e d b y d + ( x , y ) a n d q+(x) a s in 2.4; in o t h e r
words, M 0 is t h e i m a g e of U0(V) u n d e r t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m U(V) + E n d ( V + V-)
OT
i n d u c e d b y t h e r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (cf. 13.2). W e h a v e M 0 = ~ M 0 w h e r e
oT
M 0 = M 0 ~ M ~ a n d M ~ is t h e i m a g e of U ~ . W e set
M o . V = ( M o . V + + M ~ - . V - , M o + . V + + M o - . V - ) .
14.7. P R O P O S I T I O N .
V C ( M O ) n . v c V ( 2 n + l ) 9
(3 n)
Proof. T h e s e c o n d i n c l u s i o n is o b v i o u s f r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s . F o r t h e f i r s t i n c l u -
1 4 . 8 1 5 3
s i o n w e n o t e t h a t if
for n = 0
N o w c l e a r l y
a C ( M ~ . V ) + a n d b C W- t h e n Q(a) C (M~+I.v) + . I n d e e d ,
t h i s is o b v i o u s , a n d f o r t h e i n d u c t i o n s t e p o n e u s e s J P 3 a n d JP20.
V ( 3 ) = M O . V . A s s u m e t h a t V ( 3 n ) ~ M ~ . V a n d l e t x ~ V +(3n+l) 9
T h e n x is a s u m of e l e m e n t s of t h e f o r m Q ( a ) b a n d {abc} w h e r e a o r b
n V + n + l - . +
c i s i n V ~ MO.V . I f a ~ t he n Q( a) b 6 (M 0 .V) by t he r emar k
(3 n) (3 n)
n + l .+
above, a n d { a b c } = D ( c , b ) a ~ M .a ~ ( M 0 .V) . If b o r c a r e in V
(3 n)
.~n+l
w e h a v e s i m i l a r l y Q ( a ) b e M 0 . b t ~ (N O .V) +
..n+l , . +
e (M 0 .V) . S i n c e a l l t h i s h o l d s w i t h + a n d
p o s i t i o n f o l l o w s .
or
a n d {abc} = Q ( a , c ) b = D ( c , b ) a
i n t e r c h a n g e d as w e l l t h e p r o -
14.8. C O R O L L A R Y . V is n i l p o t e n t if a n d o n l y if M0(V) is n i l p o t e n t .
T h e f o l l o w i n g is t h e m a i n lermma f o r t h e p r o o f of t h e e q u i v a l e n c e of s o l v a -
b i l i t y a n d n i l p o t e n c e for f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r s . W e s a y a J o r d a n p a i r
V is f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l if k is a f i e l d a n d b o t h V + a n d V- a r e f i n i t e - d i -
m e n s i o n a l o v e r k .
14.9. LEMMA. L e t V b e a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a f i e l d k , a n d
l e t I b e a n i d e a l of V s u c h t h a t t h e s u b a l g e b r a of U + + ( V ) g e n e r a t e d b y
d ( l + , l -) a n d q ( l + ) q ( l - ) is n i l p o t e n t . T h e n t h e i d e a l ~ of U(V) g e n e r a t e d
b y d ( l ~ 1 7 6 d ( V ~ 1 7 6 q ( l ~ ) , q ( l ~ 1 7 6 ( ~ = ) is n i l p o t e n t . (Cf. 13.2
f o r n o t a t i o n ) .
Proof. B y 13.6, t h e u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p i n g a l g e b r a u(V) is f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l .
C l e a r l y , ~ is t h e s u m of its i n t e r s e c t i o n s w i t h t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s u ~ .
S i n c e a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l a l g e b r a is n i l p o t e n t if it is s p a n n e d b y n i l p o t e n t
154 1 4 . 9
e l e m e n t s a n d s i n c e U ~ 2 = 0 b y t h e P e i r c e r u l e s it s u f f i c e s to p r o v e that
I n U ~ 1 7 6 is n i l p o t e n t . N o w I is i n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e i n v o l u t i o n * of U(V)
w h i c h i n t e r c h a n g e s U + + ( V ) a n d U--(V) (cf. 1 3 . 2 ( d ) ) a n d h e n c e w e o n l y h a v e to
s h o w t h a t ~ N U + + ( V ) is n i l p o t e n t . T h i s w i l l b e d o n e in s e v e r a l steps. To sim-
p l i f y n o t a t i o n , let U = U++(V) a n d d e n o t e b y A t h e n i l p o t e n t s u b a l g e b r a of
U g e n e r a t e d b y d ( l + , l -) .
1 ~ T h e s u b a l g e b r a B of U g e n e r a t e d b y S = d ( V + , I - ) ~ d ( I + , Y -) is n i l p o -
i
tent.
L e t ~ b e t h e s u b a l g e b r a of U g e n e r a t e d b y d ( V + , V -) (which is a c t u a l l y a n i d e -
al b y 13.5). F r o m 1 3 . 4 . 1 a n d the fact that I is a n i d e a l of V it f o l l o w s t h a t
D A ~ A D + A . T h i s i m p l i e s A' = A D + A is a n i l p o t e n t i d e a l of D , a n d it w i l l
t h e r e f o r e b e s u f f i c i e n t to s h o w that B / B N A ' is n i l p o t e n t . L e t u ~ u d e n o t e
the c a n o n i c a l m a p D ~ D/A' . By 1 3 . 4 . 1 w e h a v e
[ d ( u , v ) , d ( x , y ) ] = d ( { u v x } , y )
f o r u , x ~ I +, v , y C V-, or x ~ I +, v ~ I-, u e V +, y @ V-, a n d a l s o
/ d ( u , v ) , d ( x , y ) ] = d ( - x , { v u y } )
for u , x e V +, v , y e I- . T h i s p r o v e s IS,S] C - S 9 F u r t h e r m o r e , it f o l l o w s f r o m
13.4 2 a n d 2 . 6 . 1 t h a t d(x,-----~) 4 0 if x e I + . = o r y C I . By E n g e l ' s t h e o r e m
(cf. J a c o b s o n [ l ] ) t h e s u b a l g e b r a of D / A ' g e n e r a t e d b y S , i.e., B = B / ~ A ' ,
is n i l p o t e n t . (The p r o o f of E n g e l ' s t h e o r e m g i v e n in J a c o b s o n [ l ] is f o r a l g e b r a s
of l i n e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ; t h e g e n e r a l c a s e f o l l o w s b y a p p l y i n g t h i s to t h e l e f t
r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ) .
2 ~ . T h e i d e a l C o f U g e n e r a t e d b y B (resp. S ) is n i l p o t e n t .
By 1 3 . 4 . 1 w e h a v e D B ~ B D + B . F r o m 2 . 3 . 2 - 2 . 3 . 4 o n e d e r i v e s t h e i d e n t i t y
[ q ( u ) q ( v ) , d ( x , y ) ] = q ( u ) q ( v , { v x y } ) - q ( u , { u y x } ) q ( v )
1 4 . 9 1 5 5
= d ( u , v ) d ( u , { v x y } ) - d ( Q u V , { v x y } ) - d ( { u y x } , v ) d ( u , v ) + d ( { u y x } , Q v U ) .
T h i s i m p l i e s [ q ( u ) q ( v ) , d ( x , y ) ] C B ~ + B w h e n e v e r x ~ I + o r y e 7 - . S i n c e
U i s g e n e r a t e d b y 1 = e + , D , a n d q ( V + ) q ( V -) i t f o l l o w s t h a t U B C B U , a n d
= B U i s n i l p o t e n t .
N o w l e t W = U / C , a n d f o r ( x , y ) ~ V s e t f ( x , y ) = q ( x ) q ( y ) + C . A l s o
d e n o t e b y E t h e s u b a l g e b r a o f W g e n e r a t e d b y f ( I + , I - ) w h i c h i s n i l p o t e n t b y
h y p o t h e s i s .
3 ~ . T h e i d e a l G o f W g e n e r a t e d b y T = f ( 1 + , V - ) U f ( V + , I - ) i s n i l p o t e n t .
F r o m 1 3 . 4 . 3 a n d 2 . 3 . 3 a n d 2 . 3 . 4 i t f o l l o w s t h a t
( 1 ) [ f ( u , v ) , f ( x , y ) ] = f ( { u v x } , y ) - f ( x , { v u y } )
u , v , x , y i s i n I . H e n c e w e h a v e W E C E W , a n d t h e r e f o r e w h e n e v e r o n e o f E'
= E W i s a n i l p o t e n t i d e a l o f W . L e t F b e t h e s u b a l g e b r a o f W g e n e r a t e d b y
T . W e w i l l s h o w t h a t F / F ~ E ' i s n i l p o t e n t . D e n o t i n g b y u ~ u t h e c a n o n i c a l
m a p W W / E ' w e h a v e b y ( i ) , s i m i l a r l y a s i n t h e p r o o f o f 1 ~
[ f ( u , v ) , f ( x , y ) ] = f ( { u v x } , y )
i f u , x ~ I + , v , y C V - , o r x ~ I + , v C I - , u C V + , y ~ V - , a n d
[ f ( u , v ) , f ( x , y ) ] = f ( - x , { v u y } )
f o r u , x ~ V + , v , y C 7 - w h i c h p r o v e s [ T , T ] ~ T . F r o m 2 . 3 . 5 i t f o l l o w s t h a t
f ( x ~ ) 3 f ( Q x Y , Q y X ) = 0 i f x C I + = o r y C I . N o w E n g e l ' s t h e o r e m i m p l i e s
t h a t t h e s u b a l g e b r a F = F / F ~ E ' g e n e r a t e d b y
i s n i l p o t e n t . A g a i n b y (i) w e s e e t h a t W F C F W
N o t e n o w t h a t ~ Uq-~(V) i s t h e i d e a l o f
d ( I + , W - ) ~ d ( V + , I - ) ~ q ( I + ) q ( V - ) ~ j q ( V + ) q ( I - ) s i n c e b y 2 . 3 . 3 a n d 2 . 3 . 4 w e m a y
o m i t q ( V + ) q ( I , V ) a n d q ( I + , V + ) q ( V -) f r o m t h e g e n e r a t o r s . H e n c e w e h a v e t h a t
i s n i l p o t e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e F
a n d h e n c e G = F W i s n i l p o t e n t .
U = Uq-+(V) g e n e r a t e d b y
156 14 .i0
C I ~ U + + ( V ) , a n d ~ O U + + ( V ~ / C " = G . T h e r e f o r e I O U + + ( V ) is n i l p o t e n t , and C
the l e m m a is proved.
14.10. T H E O R E M . Let V
let I b e a n i d e a l of
b e a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a f i e l d
V . T h e n the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
k and
(i) I is s o l v a b l e ;
(ii) I is I - s o l v a b l e ;
(iii) I is V - s o l v a b l e ;
(iv) I is n i l p o t e n t ;
(v) U0(1) is n i l p o t e n t ;
(vi) t h e i d e a l I = K e r ( U ( V ) U ( V / I ) )
d ( V ~ , l - ~ ) , q ( l ~ ) , q ( 5 ~ , V ~ ( ~ = )
of U(V) , g e n e r a t e d b y d ( I ~ 1 7 6
is n i l p o t e n t .
Proof. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s (iv) (ii) (i) a n d (iii) (ii) a r e o b v i o u s . S i n c e
~v
M0(1) is a h o m o m o r p h i c i m a g e o f U0(1) and a l s o of a s u b a l g e b r a of I , w e h a v e
(v) (iv) and (vi) (iv) b y 14.8. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n (v) (vi) f o l l o w s f r o m 14.9.
W e p r o v e (i) (v) b y i n d u c t i o n o n the l e n g t h of t h e d e r i v e d s e r i e s o f I . F i r s t
a s s u m e that I is t r i v i a l (i.e., [ (1) = 0 ) and let D ( 1 ) C U ~ ( 1 ) b e the i d e a l
g e n e r a t e d b y d ( [ + , I -) (cf. 13.5). B y 1 3 . 4 . 1 a n d 1 3 . 4 . 2 w e see that D(1) is c o m -
m u t a t i v e , and g e n e r a t e d b y n i l p o t e n t e l e m e n t s . H e n c e D(1) is n i l p o t e n t . N o w
U ~ ( 1 ) / D ( 1 ) is g e n e r a t e d b y q ( x ) q ( y ) + D(5) w h e r e x e 5 + , y C I- . F r o m 1 3 . 4 . 3
a n d 2 . 3 . 3 and 2 . 3 . 4 w e see that U O ( 1 ) / D ( 1 ) is c o m m u t a t i v e , and s i n c e 0 =
(q(x)q(y)) 2 = q ( Q x y ) q ( y ) , it is n i l p o t e n t . T h u s U O ( 1 ) is n i l p o t e n t , a n d b y
14.9, U 0 ( I ) is n i l p o t e n t . In the g e n e r a l case, w e h a v e U O ( I ( 1 ) ) n i l p o t e n t b y
i n d u c t i o n , and h e n c e ~ n i l p o t e n t b y 14.9. A l s o I/I (I) is t r i v i a l and h e n c e
U O ( I / I ( 1 ) ) = U O ( 1 ) / I ( 1 ) is n i l p o t e n t . T h e r e f o r e UO(1) is n i l p o t e n t .
F i n a l l y w e s h o w t h a t (vi) (iii). Let I = I < 0 > ~ I < l > ~ ... b e the
V - d e r i v e d s e r i e s of I , and a s s u m e t h a t I <n> = I <n+l> = (I<n>) <I> . T h e n the
1 4 . 1 1 1 5 7
i d e a l I < n > o f U ( V ) i s c o n t a i n e d i n I a n d i s t h e r e f o r e n i l p o t e n t . R e p l a c i n g
I <n> by I we ha ve t o show t ha t I = 0 . Le t f : u( V) + End( V + x V-) de not e
t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m i n d u c e d b y t h e r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s i t
f o l l o w s e a s i l y t h a t I < I > c f ( ~ ) . I , a n d i f I # 0 t h e n f ( ~ ) . I ~ I b y n i l p o t e n -
c e o f f ( 1 ) . H e n c e w e h a v e I = 0 .
1 4 . 1 1 . T H E O R E M . T h e r a d i c a l o f a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r i s n i l p o t e n t .
P r o o f . S i n c e V s a t i s f i e s a l l c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s w e h a v e r a d V = N i l V = R a d V
b y 1 0 . 8 . B y 1 4 . 1 0 , i t s u f f i c e s t o s h o w t h a t r a d V i s s o l v a b l e . L e t S b e t h e
m a x i m a l s o l v a b l e i d e a l o f V w h i c h b y 1 4 . 5 i s c o n t a i n e d i n r a d V . A f t e r d i v i -
d i n g b y S, w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t V h a s n o n o n - z e r o s o l v a b l e i d e a l s a n d h a v e t o
s h o w t h a t r a d V = 0 . I f t h i s i s n o t s o t h e n V c o n t a i n s n o n - z e r o t r i v i a l e l e -
m e n t s a n d h e n c e T ( V ) , t h e l i n e a r s p a n o f a l l t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s , i s a n o n - z e r o
i d e a l o f V (cf. 4 . 6 ) . R e p l a c i n g V b y T ( V ) i t s u f f i c e s t o s h o w : If V i s
s p a n n e d b y t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s t h e n it i s s o l v a b l e . L e t B b e a s u b p a i r o f V, m a x i -
m a l a m o n g t h e s u b p a i r s w h i c h a r e b o t h s o l v a b l e a n d a r e s p a n n e d b y t r i v i a l e l e -
m e n t s . C l e a r l y , 0 is s u c h a s u b p a i r . A s s u m e t h a t B # V . T h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a
t r i v i a l e l e m e n t w , s a y w C V + , w h i c h i s n o t i n B + . B y 1 4 . 1 0 , u 0 ( B ) i s n i l -
p o t e n t , a n d h e n c e i t s i m a g e N i n M 0 ( V ) u n d e r t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m i n d u c e d b y t h e
r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n i l p o t e n t . T h e r e f o r e t h e r e e x i s t s a n i n t e g e r n ~ 0
s u c h t h a t N n . w ~ B b u t N n + l . w C B ( b y N . w w e m e a n o f c o u r s e t h e p a i r
~ T
( N ~ - ~ . w , N - + . w ) w h e r e N ~ i s t h e i m a g e o f U 0 ( B ) ) . S i n c e B i s s p a n n e d b y
t r i v i a l e l e m e n t s N i s g e n e r a t e d b y D ( a , b ) a n d Q ( a , c ) w h e r e a , b , c a r e t r i -
v i a l e l e m e n t s c o n t a i n e d i n B . H e n c e t h e r e e x i s t s a n e l e m e n t P = P I ' ' " P m C N n ,
e a c h P. o f t h e f o r m D ( a , b ) o r Q ( a , b ) , s u c h t h a t z = P . w i s n o t i n B , s a y
i
z ~ B + . F r o m J P 2 0 i t f o l l o w s t h a t { u v w } i s t r i v i a l i f u , v , w a r e t r i v i a l .
H e n c e z i s a t r i v i a l e l e m e n t , a n d w e h a v e N . z ~ B , i n p a r t i c u l a r , { B + , B - , z }
1 5 8 1 4 . 1 2
~ B + a n d Q ( B - ) z ~ B - . L e t C = (k.z + B + , B - ) . T h e n C is s p a n n e d b y t r i v i a l
e l e m e n t s , a n d Q ( C + ) C - = Q ( B + ) B - + { B + , B - , z } C B + , Q ( C - ) C + = Q ( B - ) B + + Q ( B - ) z
( B - . T h u s C ( 1 ) ~ - B w h i c h i m p l i e s c ( n + l ) ~ B (n) a n d C is s o l v a b l e , c o n t r ~
d i c t i n g t h e m a x i m a l i t y o f B . T h i s c o m p l e t e s t h e p r o o f .
1 4 . 1 2 . C O R O L L A R Y . A f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r is s e m i s i m p l e .
1 4 . 1 3 . S o l v a b i l i t y a n d n i l p o t e n c e f o r a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s . L e t n = ( A + , A -) b e a n
- a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r o v e r a r i n g k . T h e d e r i v e d s e r i e s o f A i s d e f i n e d b y
A ( I ) = ( < A + A - A + > , < A - A + A - > ) , A (n+l) = ( A ( n ) ) (I)
W e s a y A i s s o l v a b l e if A (n) = 0 f o r s o m e n . O b v i o u s l y A ( n ) ~ (AJ) (n)
w h e r e A J i s t h e a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n p a i r . L e t A ( n ) b e t h e k - l i n e a r s p a n o f a l l
p r o d u c t s o f d e g r e e ~ n w h e r e < x y z > is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e o f d e g r e e 3 . T h e n
A = A ( 1 ) ~ A ( 3 ) ~ A ( 5 ) ~ ... i s a s e q u e n c e o f i d e a l s o f A , a n d A i s c a l l e d
n i l p o t e n t if A ( n ) = 0 f o r s o m e n . A g a i n w e h a v e A ( n ) ~ ( A J ) ( n ) . A l s o , it i s
c l e a r t h a t A ( n ) c A a n d h e n c e n i l p o t e n c e i m p l i e s s o l v a b i l i t y .
(3 n)
W e d e f i n e t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a l g e b r a M o ( A ) a s f o l l o w s . W r i t e t h e e l e -
m e n t s o f A + x A - a s c o l u m n v e c t o r s , a n d d e f i n e e n d o m o r p h i s m s o f A + x A - b y
~ + ( x , y )
p + ( x , y )
~ + ( x , y )
L + ( x , y ) i )
0
i)
0 M + ( x , y ) )
=
0 0
(i 0) ~ _ ( y ~ x ) =
L _ ( y , x )
(0 ~ 0 )
O _ ( y , x ) =
R ( y , x
14.14 159
T h e n Mo(A) is t h e s u b a l g e b r a of E n d ( A + x A-) g e n e r a t e d b y a l l % (A~ -O)
p ~ ( A O , A - O ) , o o
~ o ( A , A ) , a n d M(A) = k . c + + k . c _ + M0(A) w h e r e
(:d :) (: 0)
C =
c + _ Id
A p r o o f s i m i l a r to (but s i m p l e r than) that of 1 4 . 7 s h o w s t h a t
A ( 3 n ) ~ M o ( A ) n . A C A ( 2 n + I )
a n d h e n c e A is n i l p o t e n t if and o n l y if M0(A) is n i l p o t e n t .
14.14. T H E O R E M . F o r a n i d e a l B of a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r
the f o l l o w i n $ c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
(i) B is n i l p o t e n t ;
(ii) B is s o l v a b l e ;
(iii) B is r a d i c a l ;
(iv) t h e i d e a l B o f M(A) g e n e r a t e d b y ~o(A~176 ~o(B~ -~
,A ), ~ o ( A ~ 1 7 6 ~ o ( B ~ ~ ( o = ) is n i l p o t e n t .
Po( B
Proof. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s (iv) + (i) * (ii) a r e o b v i o u s .
(ii) (iii): B is a s o l v a b l e i d e a l of the J o r d a n p a i r A J
in Rad A J = R a d A b y 14.5.
(iii) (iv): L e t W = W 2 ~ W 1 b e the s t a n d a r d i m b e d d i n g of
s t r u c t i o n , it is c l e a r that W is f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l . W e h a v e
+ Rad W 1 (cf. 5.8) a n d h e n c e B ~ R a d A = Rad W I ~ Rad W . F r o m the f o r m u l a
<xyz> = { { x y e ~ 1 7 6 (cf. 8.12) it f o l l o w s t h a t
(i) Xo(X,y) = d ( { x y e ~ 1 7 6
(2) po(z,y) = d (z,e-~ (e~ IWl ,
A ,
, p o ( A ,B ),
a n d h e n c e c o n t a i n e d
A (8.12). By c o n -
R a d W = Rad W 2
1 6 0
1 5 . 0
(3) ~ o ( x , z ) = d o ( z , e - ~ 1 7 6 1 ,
w h e r e ( d , q ) i s t h e r e g u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f W (cf. 2 . 4 ) . L e t
is s o l v a b l e b y 1 4 . 1 1 . B y 1 4 . 1 0 , t h e i d e a l o f M ( W ) g e n e r a t e d b y
I = R a d W w h i c h
d ( I a , W - ~
d ( W O , l - O ) o o
, q o ( l ,W ) is n i l p o t e n t , s i n c e i t i s a h o m o m o r p h i c i m a g e o f 7 . H e n -
c e i t f o l l o w s f r o m (i) - (3) t h a t ~ i s n i l p o t e n t .
w C a r t a n s u b p a i r s
1 5 . 0 . I n t h i s s e c t i o n , k a l w a y s d e n o t e s a f i e l d a n d k i t s a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e .
J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r k a r e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l . If V = ( V + , V -) i s a J o r d a n p a i r
o v e r k t h e n w e d e f i n e t h e d i m e n s i o n o f V a s
d i m V = m a x ( d i m V + , d i m V - ) .
W e o f t e n w r i t e V i n s t e a d o f V ~ = V ~ k . B y f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l i t y , V s a t i s f i e s
a l l c h a i n c o n d i t i o n s . H e n c e t h e v a r i o u s r a d i c a l s c o i n c i d e ( 1 0 . 8 ) , a n d R a d V i s
t h e m a x i m a l s o l v a b l e (= n i l p o t e n t ) i d e a l o f V ( 1 4 . 1 1 ) . R e c a l l a l s o t h a t a f r a m e
o f V i s a m a x i m a l o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t s ( 1 0 . 1 2 ) .
1 5 . 1 . G a l o i s d e s c e n t . L e t X b e a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l v e c t o r s p a c e o v e r k , l e t
K b e a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d o f k , a n d l e t Y b e a s u b s p a c e o f X K = X ~ K . W e s a y
t h a t F i s d e f i n e d o v e r k if X n Y s p a n s F o v e r K . H e r e w e i d e n t i f y X
w i t h X ~ I i n X K . I f K i s G a l o i s o v e r k ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o f f i n i t e d e g r e e )
1 5 . 2 161
and r = G a l ( K / k ) is t h e ( t o p o l o g i c a l ) G a l o i s g r o u p , a c t i n g o n X K b y s e m i l i n e -
a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , t h e n F is d e f i n e d o v e r k if and o n l y if it is s t a b l e u n -
der F 9 F o r a p r o o f , see B o r e l [ l ] , p. 52ff.
15.2. S e p a r a b i l i t y . Let V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k , and let K b e a n e x t e n s i -
o n f i e l d of k . B y 4 . 1 2 and 1 0 . 8 w e h a v e
(i) (Rad V ) K ~ R a d ( V K ) ,
but i n g e n e r a l , w e w i l l n o t h a v e e q u a l i t y . If, h o w e v e r , K is a s e p a r a b l e e x t e n -
s i o n of k t h e n e q u a l i t y h o l d s in (i). I n d e e d , let K b e the a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e
of K , and let k b e t h e s e p a r a b l e c l o s u r e of k in K so t h a t K ~ k . It
S S
s u f f i c e s to p r o v e the a s s e r t i o n for k i n s t e a d of K so w e a s s u m e K = k
S S
Let ~ ( V K ) b e t h e J o r d a n p a i r o v e r ~ o b t a i n e d f r o m V K b y r e s t r i c t i n g the
s c a l a r s to ~ (cf. 0.3). T h e n F = G a l ( K / k ) a c t s o n ~ ( V K) b y a u t o m o r p h i s m s ,
a n d h e n c e R a d ( ~ ( V K ) ) = R a d V K (cf. 4.1) is s t a b l e u n d e r F . B y 15.1, it is d e -
f i n e d o v e r k . S i n c e o b v i o u s l y R a d ( V K ) ~ V = R a d V the a s s e r t i o n f o l l o w s . A s a
c o n s e q u e n c e , w e see that R a d V~ is d e f i n e d o v e r k p w h e r e p = c h a r k .
A J o r d a n p a i r V is c a l l e d s e p a r a b l e if V K is s e m i s i m p l e , for e v e r y
e x t e n s i o n f i e l d K of k . O b v i o u s l y , s e p a r a b i l i t y is p r e s e r v e d u n d e r b a s e f i e l d
e x t e n s i o n . By t h e a b o v e , V is s e p a r a b l e if a n d o n l y if V ~ k p is s e m i s i m p l e . In
p a r t i c u l a r , a s e m i s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a p e r f e c t f i e l d is s e p a r a b l e .
15.3. A s s o c i a t o r s . Let V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a r i n g R a n d let
and v , y C V -~ . T h e a s s o c i a t o r of ( u , v , x , y , z ) is d e f i n e d as
[ u v x y z ] = { { u v x } y z } - { u v { x y z } } .
It is c l e a r l y l i n e a r in e a c h v a r i a b l e . F o r x = (x+,x-), y = (y+,y') e V
u , x , z C V ~
w e de-
1 6 2 1 5 . 4
f i n e A ( x , y ) e E n d ( V a) b y
A ( x , y ) . z = [ x ~ 1 7 6 - ~ z]
W e s a y V i s a s s o c i a t i v e i f a l l a s s o c i a t o r s v a n i s h . I n t h i s c a s e , V i s a n a s -
s o c i a t i v e p a i r w i t h < x y z > = { x y z } . I n d e e d , b y J P I 4 , [ u v x y z ] = { x { v u y } z } -
{ x y { u v z } } = 0 . A f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a f i e l d i s c a l l e d a t o r u s i f
i t i s a s s o c i a t i v e a n d s e p a r a b l e .
A s a n e x a m p l e o f a n a s s o c i a t i v e J o r d a n p a i r , l e t U b e t h e s u b p a i r o f a
J o r d a n p a i r V g e n e r a t e d b y a p a i r ( x , y ) ~ V . I t i s n o t h a r d t o s h o w t h a t U +
( r e s p . U - ) i s s p a n n e d b y a l l p o w e r s x ( n ' y ) ( r e s p . y ( n , x ) ). F r o m t h e f o r m u l a
{ x ( m , y ) , y ( n , X ) , x ( P , Y ) } = 2 x ( m + n + p - l , Y )
( p r o v e d b y i n d u c t i o n ) i t f o l l o w s t h a t U i s a s s o c i a t i v e .
L e t J b e a J o r d a n a l g e b r a . T h e a s s o c i a t o r o f x , y , z 6 J i s d e f i n e d b y
[ x y z ] = ( x o y ) o z - x o ( y o z ) ,
a n d J i s c a l l e d a s s o c i a t i v e i f a l l a s s o c i a t o r s v a n i s h . I f J = V + t h e n x o y =
v
{ x v y } a n d h e n c e [ x y z ] = [ x v y v z ] . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i f V i s a n a s s o c i a t i v e J o r d a n
p a i r t h e n a l l t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a s V + a r e a s s o c i a t i v e .
v
1 5 . 4 . L E M M A . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a r i n g R . L e t ( e l , . . . , e r ) b e a n
o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f i d e m p o t e n t s , .... l e t x ~ = %lel~ ~ + ... + %OeOr r ' Y ~ = ~lelo ~ + "'"
~ w h e r e ~ ~ + + -
+ ~ r e r % i ' ~ i C R . S e t % i = % % i ' ~ i = D i ~ i ' % 0 = ~ 0 = 0, a n d d e n o t e
b y E ~ 1 7 6 t h e p r o j e c t i o n o n t o t h e P e i r c e s p a c e V ~ j ( c f . 5 . 1 4 ) . T h e n
ij
A o ( x , y ) = ~ ( % i - % j ) ( ~ i - ~ j ) E ~ j
0_~i__<j __<r
I n p a r t i c u l a r , i f e = ( e + , e - )
o n t o t h e P e i r c e s p a c e V ~ ( e ) .
i s a n i d e m p o t e n t t h e n A o ( e , e )
i s t h e p r o j e c t i o n
1 5 . 5 1 6 3
P r o o f . L e t z ~ Vij . T h e n i t f e l l o w s f r o m 5 . 1 4 t h a t { x ~ 1 7 6 = ( % i + % j ) z .
H e n c e { x O , x - ~ ~} = 2 E ~ e ~ , a n d
A o ( x , y ) . z = 2 { E % s 1 7 6 - { x ~ 1 7 6 }
( 2 ( k i ~ i + ~ j ~ j ) - ( ~ i + k j ) ( ~ i + ~ j ) ) z = ( ~ i - k j ) ( ~ i - ~ j ) z .
1 5 . 5 . L E M M A . (a) L e t J b e a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a o v e r k ,
a n d l e t K b e t h e s u b a l g e b r a g e n e r a t e d b y ( 1 a n d ) a C J . T h e n K " i s a
f i e l d " ; i . e . , t h e r e e x i s t s a b i l i n e a r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n x y o n K s u c h t h a t K is
2
a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d o f k an__~d U x Y = x y f o r a l l x , y C K .
(b) A f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a ( r e s p . J o r d a n d i v i s i o n p a i r )
o v e r a n a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d k i s i s o m o r p h i c w i t h k J (resp. ( k J , k J) ).
P r o o f . L e t f: k [ T ] ~ 7 b e t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m o f u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a s s e n d i n g T
i n t o a . It s u f f i c e s t o s h o w t h a t t h e k e r n e l o f f i s a n i d e a l o f t h e a s s o c i a -
t i v e a l g e b r a k [ T ] . T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m J a c o b s o n [ 3 ] , p. 1 . 6 2 , s i n c e J i s n o n - d e -
g e n e r a t e . N o w (b) f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m (a).
1 5 . 6 . P R O P O S I T I O N . A J o r d a n p a i r V o v e r k i s a t o r u s if a n d o n l y i f V i s a
f i n i t e d i r e c t p r o d u c t o f J o r d a n p a i r s o f t h e f o r m ( K J , K J) w h e r e K is a f i n i t e
s e p a r a b l e e x t e n s i o n f i e l d o f k .
P r o o f . C l e a r l y a J o r d a n p a i r o f t h e i n d i c a t e d f o r m i s a t o r u s . C o n v e r s e l y , l e t V
b e a t o r u s , a n d l e t E = ( e l , . . , e r ) b e a f r a m e o f V . S i n c e V is s e m i s i m p l e
t h e e. a r e d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t s (cf. 5 . 1 2 ) . B y 1 5 . 4 a n d a s s o c i a t i v i t y o f V w e
l
h a v e V.. = 0 f o r i # j i n t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to E , a n d
Ij
h e n c e V = V I I 9 ... ~ V r r . B y t h e c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s f o r t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s t h e
V.. a r e i d e a l s . T h e r e f o r e w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t V i s a d i v i s i o n p a i r . L e t v ~ V -
1 1
164 1 5 . 6
b e n o n - z e r o , and let J b e the J o r d a n d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a V + w i t h u n i t e l e m e n t
v
- i
v . S i n c e V ~ (7,7) it s u f f i c e s to s h o w that J "is" a s e p a r a b l e e x t e n s i o n
of k (in the s e n s e of 15.5). If c h a r k ~ 2 w e s i m p l y set x y = ( i / 2 ) ( x o y ) .
A s s u m e t h a t k h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 2 and let ~ = 7 ~ k . S i n c e V = (7,7) is a
t o r u s o v e r k w e m a y c h o o s e a f r a m e ( C l , . . . , C n ) and t h e n h a v e a s b e f o r e t h a t
V = V I I ~ ... ~ w h e r e the V.. a r e J o r d a n d i v i s i o n p a i r s o v e r k . By 15.5,
n n ii
?. = k . c ? and t h e r e f o r e v = VlC 1 + ... + ~ c- w h e r e ~i # 0 . R e p l a c i n g c]
i i l 11 n I
+
b y ~.c-l 1 a n d c i b y ~ilc + w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t 1 = v - I = E c.l is t h e u n i t e l e -
-- + -- +
of J , a n d h e n c e 7 = k . c I ~ ... @ k . c +n w h e r e the c.i a r e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m - m e n t
pot e nt s of J , Now we di s t i ngui s h t wo c a s e s .
(a) k is i n f i n i t e . L e t b l , . . . , b n b e a b a s i s of 7 o v e r k , let b = b l A ...
A b ( w h i c h is a b a s i s for the o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l n - t h e x t e r i o r p o w e r of J) and
n
d e f i n e a p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n f o n J b y f ( x ) . b = I A x A x 2 A ... A x n - I . T h e n
+ +
f has a n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n to ~ , and if x = ~ i C l + ... + ~ n C n C J t h e n f(x)
is up to a n o n - z e r o s c a l a r f a c t o r t h e V a n d e r m o n d e d e t e r m i n a n t of ~ l , . . . , ~ n 9
H e n c e f ~ 0 , and s i n c e k is i n f i n i t e t h e r e e x i s t s x C J s u c h t h a t f(x) # 0.
T h i s m e a n s that J is g e n e r a t e d b y x , a n d b y 1 5 . 5 it is a f i e l d e x t e n s i o n of
k w h i c h is s e p a r a b l e s i n c e ~ = ~ n .
+
(b) k is finite. S i n c e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is 2 w e h a v e x o y = 2 E ~ i n i c i = 0 for
+ + 2
all x = E~ic i , y = E~ie i i n ~ . T h e m a p x ~ x f r o m J into i t s e l f is in-
j e c t i v e s i n c e J is a d i v i s i o n a l g e b r a , and t h e r e f o r e s u r j e c t i v e s i n c e 7 is fi-
nite. A l s o (x+y) 2 = x 2 + x o y + y 2 = x 2 + y2 . T h u s if x + /xx d e n o t e s its i n v e r -
se t h e n w e h a v e ~ = / x + / y , a n d ~ = ~ - ~ x for a l l % G k 9 W e set x y =
U ~ y . T h e n this is a k - b i l i n e a r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o n J m a k i n g J i n t o a n e x t e n -
2
s i o n f i e l d of k and s u c h t h a t U x Y = x y (the f a c t t h a t x y is a s s o c i a t i v e and
c o m m u t a t i v e n e e d s to b e c h e c k e d o n l y i n J w h e r e it is t r i v i a l ) .
1 5 . 7 1 6 5
1 5 . 7 . D E F I N I T I O N . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r
i s a p a i r o f s u b s e t s w e d e f i n e t h e c e n t r a l i z e r o f
( C + , C - ) w h e r e
C ~ = { z C V ~ I A o ( x , Y ) Z = 0,
T h e n o r m a l i z e r N o r m ( X ) o f X i s t h e p a i r
k . If X = ( X + , X - ) ~ ( V+, V - )
X , C e n t ( X ) , t o b e t h e p a i r
f o r a l l x , y C X } .
( N + , N - ) w h e r e
N ~ = { z C V O I A ( x , y ) z G X , f o r a l l x , y G X } .
o
C l e a r l y , C e n t ( X ) i s a p a i r o f v e c t o r s u b s p a c e s , a n d so i s N o r m ( X ) p r o v i d e d X
i s a p a i r o f v e c t o r s u b s p a c e s .
G e n e r a l i z i n g a s s o c i a t i v i t y , a J o r d a n p a i r i s c a l l e d a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t
i f t h e r e e x i s t s a n i n t e g e r n s u c h t h a t a n y p r o d u c t o f m o r e t h a n n o f t h e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s A ( x , y ) v a n i s h e s . S i n c e t h i s i s a m u l t i l i n e a r c o n d i t i o n , a s s o -
o
c i a t o r n i l p o t e n c e i s p r e s e r v e d u n d e r b a s e f i e l d e x t e n s i o n . A n i l p o t e n t J o r d a n p a i r
i s o b v i o u s l y a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t . F i n a l l y , a s u b p a i r C o f V i s c a l l e d a C a r -
t a n s u b p a i r i f i t i s a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t a n d e q u a l t o i t s o w n n o r m a l i z e r .
1 5 . 8 . T H E O R E M . ( a ) C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s o n a J o r d a n p a i r C o v e r k.
(i) C i s a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t ;
(ii) A i s n i l p o t e n t f o r e v e r y x e C ;
( i i i ) C l ( e ) = 0 f o r e v e r y i d e m p o t e n t e o f C ;
(iv) C = C O ~ C I ~ ... ~ C r ( d i r e c t s u m o f i d e a l s ) w h e r e
a n d C. i s l o c a l , f o r i = l , . . . , r .
1
C O i s n i l p o t e n t
T h e n w e h a v e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s (i) (ii) ( i i i ) + (iv). I f k i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y
c l o s e d t h e n a l s o (iv) + (i).
(b) L e t k b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d , a n d l e t C b e a n a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t J o r -
d a n p a i r , c o n t a i n e d i n s o m e J o r d a n p a i r V a s a s u b p a i r . D e n o t e b y A ~ ~
1 6 6 1 5 . 9
t h e s u b a l g e b r a g e n e r a t e d b y a l l A ( x , y ) , x , y C C . L e t ( e l , . . , e r ) b e a f r a m e
o f C , and l e t E~. be t he pr oj e c t i on of V O ont o t he Pe i r c e s pa c e V~. . Then
- - 1 3 l ]
o
E . . i s a c e n t r a l i de mpot e nt of A O f or i # j , and
13 ...
k ( 1 ) A ~ = [ . E
i#j 13
w h e r e R ~ i s a n i l p o t e n t i d e a l o f A ~ .
9 R ~
P r o o f . O b v i o u s l y w e h a v e (i) ( i f ) , a n d (if) (iii) f o l l o w s f r o m 1 5 . 4 . F o r ( i i i )
( i v) , pi c k a f r ame ( e l , . . . , e r ) of C . Then Ci j = 0 f or i ~ j and he nc e
C = C O ~ C 1 ~ ... ~ C r w h e r e w e s e t C. = C . . . B y i 0 . i i a n d 1 4 . 1 1 , C 0 C R a d C
1 i i
i s ni l pot e nt . For ( i v) ~ ( i ) i t s uf f i c e s t o pr ove (b) unde r t he a s s umpt i on t ha t
C = C O O ~ C I I ~ ... @ C w h e r e C = E C . . i s t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h r e -
r r ~]
s p e c t t o a f r a m e (e I .... ,er) o f C . S i n c e C..ll i s l o c a l f o r i > 0 t h e q u o -
t i e n t C. . / Ra d C i s a di vi s i on pa i r by 4. 4, and t he r e f or e i s omor phi c wi t h
I i i i
( k J , k J) + + +
by 15. 5. Hence C?. = k. e ? ~ Rad C?. and
11 1 l l
(2) C = k . e ~ @ ... ~ k ' e r ~ R a d C
F r o m t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n r u l e s i t f o l l o w s t h a t e v e r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n A q
l e a v e s t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s ~ ? . i n v a r i a n t . B y 1 5 . 4 i t f o l l o w s t h a t E ? . i s a c e n -
13 13
t r a l i d e m p o t e n t o f A O f o r i # j . N o w (i) f o l l o w s f r o m (2), 1 4 . 1 0 , 1 4 . 1 1 , a n d
1 5 . 4 .
1 5 . 9 . C O R O L L A R Y . (a) C a r t a n s u b p a i r s a r e m a x i m a l a m o n g a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t s u b -
p a i r s .
(b) L e t k b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d . T h e n C i s a C a r t a n s u b p a i r o f V i f a n d
o n l y i f i t i s o f t h e f o r m C = V O 0 ~ I I ~ ... ~ ~ r r = C e n t ( T ) where.. V = E V i j
i s t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f V w i t h r e s p e c t t o a f r a m e ( e l , . . . , e r ) o_~f V
a n d T = ( Z k . e ~ , E k. ei) i s t h e t o r u s s p a n n e d b Y (e I . . . . . e r) 9
1 5 . 1 0 167
Proof. F o r the p r o o f of (a) w e m a y a s s u m e k to b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d . L e t C
b e a C a r t a n s u b p a i r of V , c o n t a i n e d in s o m e a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t s u b p a i r D of
V . P i c k a f r a m e ( e l , . . . , e r ) of C . T h e n b y 1 5 . 8 ( a ) w e h a v e C = E C i i ~ D =
E ~ i i ~ E Vii . A s s u m e that t h e r e e x i s t s a z in E V~. but not in C ~ . S i n c e
11
A ~ = R ~ a n d R ~ is n i l p o t e n t t h e r e e x i s t s P C R ~ s u c h that w = P . z ~ C ~
but A o ( x , y ) w ~ C ~ for a l l x , y C C , c o n t r a d i c t i n g t h e fact that C is its o w n
n o r m a l i z e r . H e n c e C = ~ = E V..11 ; in p a r t i c u l a r , ( e l , . . . , e r ) is a f r a m e of V .
T h i s p r o v e s (a) and o n e h a l f of (b). N o w let ( e l , . . . , e r) b e a f r a m e of V , a n d
set C = ~ W . . . T h e n b y 1 5 . 8 ( b ) , C is a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t , a n d if z b e l o n g s
11
to the n o r m a l i z e r of C t h e n A ~ C C ~ w h i c h b y 1 5 . 8 . 1 i m p l i e s z C C ~ . T h i s
s h o w s that C is a C a r t a n s u b p a i r of V . F i n a l l y , it is c l e a r b y 1 5 . 4 t h a t the
c e n t r a l i z e r of T is C .
15.10. P R O P O S I T I O N . Let C be a C a r t a n s u b p a i r of V . T h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a to-
rus T C C w i t h the f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s .
(i) C K = T K ~ R a d C K for any p e r f e c t e x t e n s i o n f i e l d K o f k .
(ii) C = C e n t ( T ) .
Proof. P i c k a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t e C C so that C0(e) C R a d C .This is p o s s i b l e
b y i0.ii. Let V = V~ and ~ = C ~ . T h e n ~ is a C a r t a n s u b p a i r of ~ , a n d b y
1 5 . 9 w e h a v e C = E V.li w i t h r e s p e c t to a f r a m e (el,...,er) of V . S i n c e e
o + -
is s t i l l a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t of ~ w e h a v e e ~ = E c i w h e r e c i = (ci,ci) is
a n o n - z e r o i d e m p o t e n t c o n t a i n e d in 7..11 . R e p l a c i n g e i b y c i w e m a y a s s u m e
that e = E e i . Let U = E k . e i C ~ b e the t o r u s s p a n n e d b y the e.1 . T h e n
= Cent(U) , a n d s i n c e ~.. = k.e. ~ R a d ~.. w e h a v e ~ = U ~ R a d ~ . T h u s if w e
ii 1 ii
c a n s h o w t h a t U is d e f i n e d o v e r k t h e n T = U O V is t h e d e s i r e d t o r u s . W e
d i s t i n g u i s h two cases.
(a) Qhar k = 0 . T h e n k is p e r f e c t , and b y 1 5 . 1 w e h a v e to s h o w t h a t U is
168 1 5 . 1 1
i n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e G a l o i s g r o u p
F . H e n c e F p e r mu t e s t h e e . a n d l e a v e s U i n v a r i a n t .
1
(b) c h a r k = p > 0 . L e t J b e t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a C + , a n d let f : J J
- r
e
r
b e t h e ma p f r ( X ) = x p , r ~ 0 . T h e n f r i s d e f i n e d o v e r
r _ +
43). W e h a v e ~ = . ~ J. w h e r e J. = k.e. ~ R a d J. is l o c a l f o r i p o s i t i v e ,
l= O i 9 1 i
F = G a l ( k / k ) . S i n c e e @ C it is f i x e d u n d e r
k (see B o r e l [ l ] , pp.
+
a n d J o is n i l p o t e n t . T h u s if x @ ~ w e h a v e x = E %.e. + n. w h e r e %. C k,
t h e n i a r e n i l p o t e n t , a n d w e set X 0 = e O = 0 . It f o l l o w s that x p r = ~ X prl e. +I
r r r
P
p + U + + n _ , a n d f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e r w e h a v e x p = E ~. e. @ . S i n c e w e
i i 1
c a n e x t r a c t p r - t h r o o t s in k w e s e e that U + = f (C a n d is t h e r e f o r e d e f i -
r
n e d o v e r k ( s e e B o r e l [ 1 ] , p . 5 7 , C o r . 1 4 . 5 ) . S i mi l a r l y , o n e s h o w s t h a t U- i s
d e f i n e d o v e r k .
15.11. P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t x = (x+,x -) @ V a n d let N(x) = ( N + ( x ) , N - ( x ) ) ~ ( V + , V - )
be d e f i n e d b y
N~ = {z ~ V ~ I A o ( x , x ) n - z = 0, for s o m e i n t e g e r n > 0}.
T h e n N(x) is a s u b p a i r of V w h i c h is e q u a l to its o w n n o r m a l i z e r .
Proof. F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n it is o b v i o u s that N(x) is its o w n n o r m a l i z e r . To
s h o w t h a t it is a s u b p a i r w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t k is a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d . L e t C
b e t h e s u b p a i r of V g e n e r a t e d b y x w h i c h is a s s o c i a t i v e b y 15.3. C h o o s i n g a
f r a m e (e I .... ,er) of C w e h a v e
o o o
( 1 )
x O
= ~ % i e i + n
i=l
w h e r e n q 6 R a d C a . S i n c e x g e n e r a t e s C it f o l l o w s that a l l %. = %.%. a r e
l i i
o o o
d i f f e r e n t f r o m z e r o , a n d ) t # ) t . f o r i # j . L e t s = r. ) t . e . a n d l e t s =
l j i i
(s+,s -) . T h e n it f o l l o w s f r o m 1 5 . 8 ( b ) that A (s,s) is t h e s e m i s i m p l e p a r t in
o
1 5 . 1 2 169
t h e J o r d a n d e c o m p o s i t i o n of A (x,x). By 15.4, N(x) = (Ker A K e r A _ ( s , s ) )
= E V.. is a s u b p a i r of V .
!i
R e m a r k . F o r m u l a (I) m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s a " J o r d a n d e c o m p o s i t i o n " of x . I n c o n -
t r a s t to t h e f a m i l i a r J o r d a n d e c o m p o s i t i o n of m a t r i c e s , h o w e v e r , n i l p o t e n t and
s e m i s i m p l e p a r t a r e n o t u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d w h e r e a s the %i = % ~ % ~ a r e
+
u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y x ( a l t h o u g h the %~ a r e not) a n d p l a y t h e r o l e of e i g e n -
v a l u e s of x .
15.12. A s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r i t y . Let V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k . For x = (x+,x -
C V R a n d
R C k - a l g let
P ( x , T ) = T n + C l ( X ) T n - I + ... + c (x)
n
b e the p r o d u c t of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p o l y n o m i a l s of A + ( x , x ) and A _ ( x , x ) (so
that n = d i m V + + d i m V-). T h e n it is c l e a r that b y " v a r y i n g R " w e h a v e d e f i -
V + T n
n e d p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n s c. o n V- (cf. 1 8 . 1 ) , and h e n c e P(T) = +
i
Cl T n - I + ... + C n is a p o l y n o m i a l in T w h o s e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e p o l y n o m i a l f u n c -
V + t i o n s on V- . Let m b e t h e l a r g e s t i n t e g e r s u c h that P(T) is d i v i s i b l e
T m T n Cl T n - I T m
b y so that P(T) = + + ..t + c w h e r e c # 0 b u t Cn_ i
' n - m n - m
= 0 for all i < m . W e r e m a r k that m ~ 2 s i n c e A + ( x , x ) . x - = 0 . A n e l e m e n t
x ~ ~ is c a l l e d a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r if C n _ m ( X ) # 0 . It is c l e a r t h a t t h e a s s o -
c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s f o r m a Z a r i s k i o p e n a n d d e n s e s u b s e t of ~ w h i c h is in-
V a r i a n t u n d e r t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p A u t ( ~ ) . If k is i n f i n i t e t h e n V i t s e l f
c o n t a i n s a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s but if k is f i n i t e t h i s n e e d not b e so.
15.13. P R O P O S I T I O N . Let m b e d e f i n e d as a b o v e , and let x = (x+,x -) E V . T h e n
d i m V+(x) + d i m V-(x) ~ m , a n d e q u a l i t y h o l d s if and o n l y if x is a s s o c i a t o r
r e g u l a r . In t h i s case, N ( x ) is a C a r t a n s u b p a i r of V , a n d it is t h e o n l y o n e
170 1 5 . 1 3
w h i c h c o n t a i n s x .
P r o o f . T h e f i r s t a s s e r t i o n h o l d s s i n c e d i m N+(x) + d i m N-(x) is the m u l t i p l i -
c i t y of z e r o as a r o o t of P ( x , T ) . N o w let x b e a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r . B y 1 5 . 1 1
w e o n l y h a v e to s h o w t h a t C = N(x) is a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t . S i n c e w e m a y a s s u m e
k to b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d it s u f f i c e s (by 1 5 . 8 ( a ) ) to s h o w t h a t t h e r e s t r i c -
t i o n of A o ( y , y ) to C ~ is n i l p o t e n t , for a l l y C C . S i n c e A o ( x , x ) i n d u c e s
a n i n j e c t i v e e n d o m o r p h i s m o n V ~ ~ b y d e f i n i t i o n of C , t h e r e e x i s t s a n o p e n
d e n s e s u b s e t W of C s u c h that t h i s is s t i l l t h e c a s e for all y C W ; i.e.,
N(y) C C for a l l y 6 W . O n t h e o t h e r hand, d i m N+(y) + d i m N-(y) ~ m =
C + d i m + d i m C- and h e n c e N(y) = C for a l l y C W . T h i s m e a n s that A o ( y , y )
r e s t r i c t e d to C ~ is n i l p o t e n t , for a l l y ~ W , a n d s i n c e W is d e n s e in C ,
this is t r u e for a l l y C C . A s s u m e n o w t h a t x is c o n t a i n e d in s o m e o t h e r
C a r t a n s u b p a i r C' . T h e n C ' ~ N ( x ) s i n c e C' is a s s o c i a t o r n i l p o t e n t , and
h e n c e C' = N(x) b y 1 5 . 9 ( a ) .
15.14. L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k , and let V = V~ . Let X C V + V- b e
the set of q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e pairs. T h e n X is the o p e n and d e n s e s u b s e t d e f i n e d
b y det B(x,y) # 0 and is t h e r e f o r e an i r r e d u c i b l e s m o o t h a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t y d e -
f i n e d o v e r k . T h e m a p B: X + G L ( ~ +) GL(~-) (cf. 3.9) is a m o r p h i s m of k - v a -
r i e t i e s . B y B o r e l [ l ] , p. 106, t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p G = Inn(V) w h i c h is
g e n e r a t e d b y B(X) is a c o n n e c t e d a l g e b r a i c g r o u p w h i c h is d e f i n e d o v e r k .
F r o m 3 . 1 1 it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e L i e a l g e b r a g of G c o n t a i n s all i n n e r d e r i v a t i -
ons ~(x,y), (x,y) 6 V . W e r e c a l l that a m o r p h i s m ~ b e t w e e n s m o o t h i r r e d u c i b l e
a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t i e s is d o m i n a n t and s e p a r a b l e if and o n l y if the d i f f e r e n t i a l of
at s o m e p o i n t (and h e n c e at a l l p o i n t s of a d e n s e o p e n subset) is s u r j e c t i v e
(see B o r e l [ l ] , p. 75, Th. 1 7 . 3 ) .
1 5 . 1 5 1 7 1
1 5 . 1 5 . T H E O R E M . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a n a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d k ,
a n d l e t B b e a s u b p a i r o f V . C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
(i) B c o n t a i n s a C a r t a n s u b p a i r o f V ;
(ii) B c o n t a i n s t h e c e n t r a l i z e r o f s o m e t o r u s o f V ;
( i i i ) t h e o r b i t m a p ~: G x B + V i s d o m i n a n t a n d s e p a r a b l e ;
(iv) t h e o r b i t o f B u n d e r G c o n t a i n s a n o p e n d e n s e s u b s e t o f V ;
(v) B c o n t a i n s a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s .
T h e n w e h a v e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s ( i ) # + ( i i ) - > ( i i i ) (iv) + (v) . If
s i m p l e t h e n a l l f i v e c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
V i s s e m i -
( 1 ) ( d ~ ) a ( A , y ) = & ( x ) + y ,
w h e r e & = ( A + , A _ ) 6 g a n d & ( x ) = ( & + ( x + ) , A _ ( x - ) ) . S i n c e C C B i t s u f f i c e s
t o s h o w t h a t e v e r y z = ( z + , z - ) 6 V f o r i ~ j i s o f t h e f o r m A ( x ) f o r s o m e
13
A 6 g . L e t w a a a A, = E ~ e ~ , a n d l e t = 6 ( z + , w -) = ( D ( z + , w - ) , - D ( w - , z + ) 6 g
T h e n w e h a v e b y t h e r u l e s f o r t h e P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
a n d
P r o o f . (i) + ( i i ) : T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m 1 5 . 1 0 .
(ii) + ( i i i ) : L e t T b e a t o r u s o f V s u c h t h a t C = C e n t ( T ) C B . B y 1 5 . 6 w e
h a v e T = ( k J , k J ) r a n d h e n c e t h e r e e x i s t s a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m ( e l , . . . , e r ) o f
i d e m p o t e n t s o f V s u c h t h a t T is t h e t o r u s s p a n n e d b y t h e e. . T h e n C = E V i i
l
b y 1 5 . 4 . L e t x a a a ~ a e a ~ a = % l e l + "'' + r r w i t h i 6 k b e a n e l e m e n t o f T ~ a n d s e t
= ~ ~ a = % 0 = 0 S i n c e k i s i n f i n i t e w e m a y h i % % f o r i = l , . . . , r , a n d % 0
c h o o s e t h e % ' s i n s u c h a w a y t h a t %. # %. f o r i # j, i,j = 0 , . . . , r . It w i l l
l j
b e s u f f i c i e n t t o s h o w t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l (d~) a o f ~ a t t h e p o i n t a = (Id,
( x + , x - ) ) 6 G x B i s s u r j e c t i v e . T h e t a n g e n t s p a c e o f G x B a t a m a y b e i d e n -
t i f i e d w i t h g x B , a n d t h e n (d~) a i s g i v e n b y
1 7 2 1 5 . 1 5
C h o o s e n o w t h e ~ ' s i n s u c h a w a y t h a t $ s = 0 f o r s ~ i , j a n d
- + C ~ ? 1 ,
$ i X i + =
J J
$ i l j + ~ j l i = 0.
T h i s i s p o s s i b l e s i n c e t h e d e t e r m i n a n t o f t h i s s y s t e m o f l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s i s
k + % +
i j + - + -
= X . X . - X . X . = k - I. # 0 . Then-~we h a v e A ' ( x ) = ( z + , 0 ) . I n a s i -
m i l a r w a y , o n e f i n d s w + s u c h t h a t f o r A " = ~ ( w + , z -) w e h a v e
T h e n A = A' + A " i s t h e d e s i r e d e l e m e n t o f @ .
( i i i ) + ( i v ) : T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m B o r e l [ l ] , p. 3 8 f .
A " ( x ) = ( 0 , z ) .
G i t
(iv) + (v): T h e s e t V o f a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s o f V
r eg
t h e r e f o r e i n t e r s e c t s t h e d e n s e o r b i t G . B . S i n c e V i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r
r e g
m u s t i n t e r s e c t B . T h e r e f o r e B c o n t a i n s a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s .
i s d e n s e a n d
r i v e m a p o n V~/B ~ . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e s e t W o f a l l e l e m e n t s i n B w i t h t h i s
p r o p e r t y i s o p e n a n d d e n s e i n B . B y (ii) (v) s o i s t h e s e t o f a s s o c i a t o r r e -
g u l a r e l e m e n t s o f B . H e n c e t h e r e e x i s t s y g W w h i c h i s a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r .
T h e n N ( y ) i s a C a f t a n s u b p a i r c o n t a i n e d i n B ( 1 5 . 1 3 ) .
F i n a l l y , w e p r o v e (v) + (i) i n c a s e V i s s e m i s i m p l e . L e t x ~ B b e a s -
s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r , a n d l e t C = N ( x ) b e t h e C a r t a n s u b p a i r d e t e r m i n e d b y x .
T h e n C = E V i i w i t h r e s p e c t t o a f r a m e (e I .... ,e r) , a n d s i n c e V i s s e m i s i m -
= ~ = k . e ~ A l s o i f x ~ o
p l e w e h a v e V 0 0 0 a n d V i i . = E l i e i t h e n w e m u s t h a v e
- lj # 0 f o r 0 ~ i ~ j $ r ( w h e r e a g a i n I i = X~X?I i a n d X 0 = 0) s i n c e
% i
(ii) + (i): L e t x = ( x + , x -) b e a s i n t h e p r o o f o f (ii) ( i i i ) , a n d l e t z =
V ~ ( x , x ) . z = Z (I i - l j ) 2 z i j . S i n c e B ~ Z V ~ Z z i j 6 Z ij . B y 1 5 . 4 w e h a v e A 0 i i
w e s e e t h a t A ( x , x ) . z 8 B ~ i m p l i e s z e B ~ o , i . e . , A ( x , x ) i n d u c e s a n i n j e c -
o
1 5 . 1 6 1 7 3
o t h e r w i s e N ( x ) w o u l d b e b i g g e r t h a n C b y 1 5 . 4 . R e p l a c i n g e i b y ( % i ) - l e i
- +
a n d e i b y X-e~l i w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t x = ~ e i e B - a n d x + = E X i e i . S i n c e
a l l p o w e r s (x +) ( n , x ) b e l o n g t o B + a Vander monde d e t e r mi n a n t a r gume nt shows
t h a t e i C B + a n d h e n c e e. Q ( e ) e i ~ B - T h i s i m p l i e s C C B
, = . 9
I
1 5 . 1 6 . C O R O L L A R Y . I f k i s i n f i n i t e t h e n e v e r y C a r t a n s u b p a i r C o_~f V c o n -
r a i n s a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s .
P r o o f . B y 1 5 . 1 5 , C ~ c o n t a i n s a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s a n d h e n c e t h e f u n c t i o n
C n _ m (cf. 1 5 . 1 2 ) d o e s n o t v a n i s h o n C ~ . S i n c e k i s i n f i n i t e i t d o e s n o t v a -
n i s h o n C .
1 5 . 1 7 . T H E O R E M . L e t k
a J o r d a n p a i r V o v e r
b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d . T h e n a n y t w o C a r t a n s u b p a i r s o f
k a r e c o n j u g a t e b y a n i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m o f V .
P r o o f . L e t C a n d C' b e C a r t a n s u b p a i r s , a n d l e t V b e t h e s e t o f a s s o c i a -
r e g
t o t r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s o f V . T h e n G . C ~ G . C ' ~ V i s n o t e m p t y b y 1 5 . 1 5 , a n d
r e g
s i n c e V i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r G t h e r e e x i s t s a n a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t x
r e g
i n C a n d g 8 G s u c h t h a t g ( x ) C C' . B y 1 5 . 1 3 w e h a v e C = N ( x ) a n d g ( C )
= N ( g ( x ) ) = C '
1 5 . 1 8 . D E F I N I T I O N . L e t k b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d , a n d l e t ( e l , . . . , e r) b e a
f r a m e o f V . T h e n C = E V.. i s a C a f t a n s u b p a i r , a n d w e h a v e r = d i m ( C / R e d C ) .
1 1
S i n c e a n y t w o C a f t a n s u b p a i r s a r e c o n j u g a t e w e s e e t h a t a n y t w o f r a m e s o f V m u s t
h a v e t h e s a m e n u m b e r r o f e l e m e n t s . T h e n o n - n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r r = r a n k V i s
c a l l e d t h e r a n k o f V . I f k i s n o t a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d w e d e f i n e r a n k V =
r a n k V ~ . C l e a r l y t h e r a n k o f V i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e b a s e f i e l d .
1 7 4 1 5 . 1 9
If I i s a n i d e a l c o n t a i n e d i n t h e r a d i c a l o f V t h e n
r a n k V = r a n k ( V / l ) .
B y 1 0 . 1 2 w e h a v e r a n k V = 0 i f a n d o n l y i f V i s r a d i c a l . F r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n
i t i s i m m e d i a t e t h a t r a n k V ~ = r a n k V a n d t h a t t h e r a n k o f a d i r e c t p r o d u c t o f
J o r d a n p a i r s i s g i v e n b y r a n k ( V W) = r a n k V + r a n k W .
1 5 . 1 9 . L E M M A . F o r a n y t o r u s T o f V w e h a v e
h o l d s t h e n C e n t ( T ) i s a C a r t a n s u b p a i r o f W .
d i m T < r a n k V . If e q u a l i t y
P r o o f . W e m a y a s s u m e t h a t k i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d a n d , b y p a s s i n g t o V / R a d V~
= ( k J , k J ) s T ~
t h a t V i s s e m i s i m p l e . T h e n T ~ b y 1 5 . 6 ; i . e . , = ~ k . e . w h e r e t h e
i
e i a r e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s o f V . P i c k i n g i n e a c h V i i a d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t
d i w e o b t a i n a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m ( d l , . . . , d s) o f d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t s , a n d
h e n c e s = d i m T ~ r = r a n k V . I f s = r t h e n t h e e. a r e d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t s ,
i
i . e . , V i i = k.e.1 . I n d e e d , i f ( s a y ) e I i s n o t a d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t t h e n V l l
i s a t l e a s t o f d i m e n s i o n 2 . P i c k i n g a f r a m e ( C l , . . . , c t) i n V I I w e h a v e t ~ 2
s i n c e o t h e r w i s e V I I w o u l d b e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l . B u t t h e n ( C l , . . . , c t , d 2 , . . . , d r)
i s a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f m o r e t h a n r d i v i s i o n i d e m p o t e n t s w h i c h i s i m p o s s i b l e .
H e n c e C e n t ( T ) i s a C a r t a n s u b p a i r b y 1 5 . 9 .
R e m a r k . A m a x i m a l t o r u s ( i . e . , a t o r u s n o t p r o p e r l y c o n t a i n e d i n a n y o t h e r t o r u s )
n e e d n o t b e a t o r u s o f m a x i m u m d i m e n s i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , l e t V b e t h e J o r d a n p a i r
o f 2 2 s y m m e t r i c m a t r i c e s o v e r a f i e l d o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 2 , a n d l e t T b e
t h e t o r u s s p a n n e d b y e - = . T h e n T i s m a x i m a l b u t n o t o f m a x i m a l d i m e n -
s i o n a m o n g t h e t o r i o f V s i n c e r a n k V = 2 . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n i s o f c o u r s e r e l a -
t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t a p r i m i t i v e i d e m p o t e n t n e e d n o t b e a l o c a l i d e m p o t e n t (cf.
5 . 1 2 ) , a n d o c c u r s o n l y i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 2 .
1 5 . 2 0 1 7 5
1 5 . 2 0 . T H E O R E M . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r a n a r b i t r a r y f i e l d k . T h e n V
c o n t a i n s C a r t a n s u b p a i r s . A l s o , V c o n t a i n s t o r i o f d i m e n s i o n r a n k V , a n d t h e
C a f t a n s u b p a i r s o f V a r e p r e c i s e l y t h e c e n t r a l i z e r s o f s u c h t o r i .
P r o o f . If C i s a C a r t a n s u b p a i r o f V l e t T C C b e a t o r u s a s i n 1 5 . 1 0 . T h e n
C i s t h e c e n t r a l i z e r o f T , a n d d i m T = d i m ( C ~ / R a d ( C ~ ) ) = r = r a n k V . C o n v e r -
s e l y , i f T i s a t o r u s o f d i m e n s i o n r t h e n b y 1 5 . 1 9 , C e n t ( T ) i s a C a r t a n s u b -
p a i r . T h u s w e o n l y h a v e t o p r o v e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f C a r t a n s u b p a i r s . If k i s i n -
f i n i t e t h e n V c o n t a i n s a s s o c i a t o r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s a n d h e n c e C a r t a n s u b p a i r s
( 1 5 . 1 3 ) . A s s u m e t h e r e f o r e t h a t k i s f i n i t e , a n d l e t q b e t h e n u m b e r o f e l e -
m e n t s o f k . T h e n t h e G a l o i s g r o u p F o f k o v e r k i s g e n e r a t e d ( t o p o l o g i -
c a l l y ) b y t h e F r o b e n i u s m a p f: % ~ % q . I f X i s a n a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t y d e f i n e d
o v e r k t h e n F a c t s o n X a n d w e d e n o t e b y x ~ x (q) t h e a c t i o n o f f o n X .
( I f X c k n t h e n x (q) i s s i m p l y g i v e n b y r a i s i n g e a c h c o o r d i n a t e o f x t o t h e
q - t h p o w e r ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , c o n s i d e r t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p G = I n n ( V ) .
B y 1 5 . 1 4 , G i s c o n n e c t e d a n d d e f i n e d o v e r k . H e n c e t h e m a p g ~ g - l g ( q )
f r o m G i n t o i t s e l f i s s u r j e c t i v e ( B o r e l [ l ] , p. 3 6 9 , 1 6 . 4 ) . L e t C b e a C a r t a n
s u b p a i r o f V . S i n c e f a c t i n g o n ~ i s a n a u t o m o r p h i s m o f (~) w h i c h i s s e -
m i l i n e a r ( i . e . , (%x) (q) = % q x (q) f o r % C k ) i t i s c l e a r t h a t C (q) i s a C a r -
t a n s u b p a i r o f ~ . B y 1 5 . 1 7 t h e r e e x i s t s g C G s u c h t h a t g ( C (q)) = C , a n d
g = h - l h (q) f o r s o m e h C G . T h i s i m p l i e s h ( C ) = h ( q ) ( c (q)) = ( h ( C ) ) (q) a n d
h e n c e h ( C ) i s a C a r t a n s u b p a i r o f ~ w h i c h i s s t a b l e u n d e r r . B y 1 5 . 1 , h ( C )
i s d e f i n e d o v e r k , a n d t h e r e f o r e h ( C ) ~ V i s a C a f t a n s u b p a i r o f V .
176 1 6 . 0
w T h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l
1 6 . 0 . I n t h i s s e c t i o n , k i s a f i e l d w i t h a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e k , a n d k ~ l = ~ d e -
n o t e s t h e c a t e g o r y o f c o m m u t a t i v e u n i t a l k - a l g e b r a s . A l l J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r k
a r e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l . T h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f w 1 8 w i l l b e u s e d f r e e l y . I f V = ( V + ,
V - ) i s a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k t h e n w e d e n o t e b y
A = ~ ( V ) = ~ ( V + V - )
t h e a l g e b r a o f p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n s o n V + V - , a n d b y
F = ~ ( V ) = ~ ( V + V - )
i t s q u o t i e n t f i e l d , t h e f i e l d o f r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s o n V + V - . T h e g e n e r i c
p o i n t o f V + ( r e s p . V - ) i s d e n o t e d b y X ( r e s p . Y ), a n d t h e g e n e r i c p o i n t o f
k i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e i n d e t e r m i n a t e T (cf. 1 8 . 4 ) . A l s o , ~ = V ~ i s t h e s e t
o f g e o m e t r i c p o i n t s o f V ( 1 8 . 1 0 ) .
1 6 . 1 . L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k . F o r e v e r y R ~ k - a l ~ a n d (t, ( x , y ) )
R V R w e s e t
(i) x ( t , x , y ) = d e t ( t 2 1 d v + - t D ( x , y ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y ) ) .
T h i s d e f i n e s a p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n X = x ( T , X , Y ) ~ ~ ( k V) = ~ ( V ) ~ k [ T ] = A [ T ] ,
c a l l e d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p o l y n o m i a l o f V . I f t i s i n v e r t l b l e i n R t h e n
t 2 1 d - t D ( x , y ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y ) = t 2 B ( t - l x , y ) a n d t h e r e f o r e
(2) x ( t , x , y ) = t 2 n . d e t B ( t - l x , y )
w h e r e n = d i m V + . N o t e t h a t x ( T , X , Y ) i s h o m o g e n e o u s o f d e g r e e 2 n i n ( T , X )
a n d ( T , Y ) , a n d a l s o m o n i c i n T .
1 6 . 2 1 7 7
1 6 . 2 . D E F I N I T I O N . C o n s i d e r t h e f i e l d ~ ( k V) o f r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s o n k V
w h i c h m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h F ( T ) . T h e e l e m e n t ( T - I x , y ) 6 V F ( T ) i s q u a s i - i n -
v e r t i b l e s i n c e d e t B ( T - I x , y ) = T - 2 n X ( T , X , Y ) i s a n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t o f F ( T ) .
H e n c e q ( T , X , Y ) = ( T - I x ) Y i s a n e l e m e n t o f V + F ( T ) , i . e . , a r a t i o n a l m a p f r o m
k V i n t o V + (cf. 1 8 . 7 ) . N o t e t h a t X i s a d e n o m i n a t o r o f q s i n c e
( T - I x ) Y = x ( T , X , y ) - l . a d j ( T 2 1 d - D ( X , Y ) + Q ( X ) Q ( Y ) ) . ( T X - Q ( X ) Y )
w h e r e a d j d e n o t e s t h e a d j o i n t l i n e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . N o w l e t
q ( T , X , Y ) = p ( T , X , Y ) / m ( T , X , Y )
b e a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n . S i n c e t h e e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r m
g e n e o u s i n ( T , X ) a n d ( T , Y ) a n d h e n c e w e c a n w r i t e
d i v i d e s X i t i s h o m o -
m ( T , X , Y ) =
h
( - l ) i m i ( X , Y ) T h - i
i = O
w h e r e m i = m i ( X , Y ) 6 A i s h o m o g e n e o u s o f b i d e g r e e ( i , i ) a n d m 0 = 1 . N o r m a -
l i z e d i n t h i s w a y , m = m ( T , X , Y ) i s c a l l e d t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l o f V .
V + T h e b i l i n e a r f o r m m l : V - + k i s c a l l e d t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e o f V . T h e n u m -
b e r h i s c a l l e d t h e h e i g h t o f V . T h e l a r g e s t i n t e g e r s s u c h t h a t m # 0
s
i s c a l l e d t h e d e g r e e o f V . C l e a r l y w e h a v e 0 ~ s ~ h . T h e d i f f e r e n c e h - s
i s c a l l e d t h e e x c e s s o f V . T h u s V h a s e x c e s s 0 i f a n d o n l y i f m ( 0 , X , Y ) # 0.
B y 1 8 . 9 , m i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r b a s e f i e l d e x t e n s i o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e s a n d h
a r e i n v a r i a n t u n d e r b a s e f i e l d e x t e n s i o n .
1 6 . 3 . E x a m p l e s . (i) L e t V b e n i l p o t e n t . T h e n
h ~i,Y) T - h ~ T h - ~ ( i , Y )
(i) ( T - 1 X ) Y = ~ T - i x =
i = l i = l
w h e r e h i s t h e l a r g e s t i n t e g e r s u c h t h a t X ( h ' Y ) = 0 . H e n c e m ( T , X , Y ) = T h
a n d V h a s d e g r e e z e r o a n d h e i g h t h . C o n v e r s e l y , if V h a s d e g r e e z e r o
1 7 8 16.4
t h e n m ( T , X , Y ) = T h , a n d h e n c e X Y = p ( I , X , Y )
It f o l l o w s that all (x,y) C V
p o t e n t b y 14.11.
(ii) L e t V = (J,J)
o v e r k . L e t N(X)
is a p o l y n o m i a l in X and Y .
a r e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e , a n d h e n c e V = R a d V is n i l -
w h e r e J is a u n i t a l f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a
b e t h e g e n e r i c n o r m of J , i.e., t h e e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r of
the r a t i o n a l m a p X -I , n o r m a l i z e d b y N(1) = 1 (see a l s o J a c o b s o n [ 4 ] and M c C r i m -
m o n [ 9]). S i n c e X -I is h o m o g e n e o u s so is N(X) , a n d b y the d e g r e e of 7 w e
m e a n the d e g r e e , say s , of N(X) . By 3.13, w e h a v e ( T - I x ) Y = (TX-I _ y ) - i ,
and b y 18.13, m ( T , X , Y ) is the e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r of the r a t i o n a l m a p f(T,Y) =
(TX-I _ y ) - i f r o m K 7 K into 7 K w h e r e K = ~ ( J ) . O n the o t h e r hand, it is
e a s i l y s e e n t h a t N ( T X - I - Y) is a n e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r of f(T,Y) . H e n c e the two
d i f f e r o n l y b y a f a c t o r in K w h i c h is s e e n to b e N(X) b y s p e c i a l i z i n g Y 1 .
T h u s w e h a v e
(2) m ( T , X , Y ) = N ( X ) N ( T X - I - Y) .
It f o l l o w s t h a t the d e g r e e s of V a n d J c o i n c i d e . Also, V has h e i g h t s a n d
t h e r e f o r e e x c e s s zero.
16.4. L e t V b e a J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k , and let (x,y) C V . T h e n q ( T , x , y ) =
(T-Ix) y is a r a t i o n a l m a p f r o m k i n t o V + w h o s e e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r ~ x , y ( T )
k[T] , n o r m a l i z e d s u c h t h a t the h i g h e s t p o w e r of T h a s c o e f f i c i e n t one, is
c a l l e d the m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l of (x,y) . C l e a r l y ~ (T) d i v i d e s m ( T , x , y ) ,
x , y
and b y 1 8 . 1 3 t h e r e e x i s t s a d e n s e o p e n s u b s e t W of V s u c h that ~ (T) =
x , y
m ( T , x , y ) for a l l (x,y) ~ W . T h e m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l is i n v a r i a n t u n d e r e x t e n -
s i o n of the b a s e field. A l s o , it f o l l o w s f r o m 1 8 . 1 3 that the m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l
of t h e g e n e r i c p o i n t (X,Y) ~ V F is j u s t t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l of V ,
i.e., ~ X , y ( T ) = m ( T , X , Y ) .
1 6 . 5 1 7 9
1 6 . 5 . P R O P O S I T I O N . (a) T h e m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l p (T) o f (x,y) 6 V is u n i q u e -
x , y
l y d e t e r m i n e d (up to a s c a l a r f a c t o r ) a s t h e p o l y n o m i a l o f s m a l l e s t d e g r e e a m o n g
c
a l l p o l y n o m i a l s f ( T ) = i=[0 % i T c - 1 ~ k [ T ] s u c h t h a t
( i )
c
I % ' x ( n - i ' Y )
i
i = 0
= 0 f o r a l l n > c .
d
d - i t h e n ( T - i x ) y = / ~ x , y ( T ) w h e r e
(b) I_f_f P x , y ( T ) = ~ B i T ~ x , y ( T )
i = 0
d - i I ! o p j x ( l + l - J ' Y ) ) (2) V x , y (T) = I T d - i - i 9
i = 0 j
P r o o f . W r i t e p ( T ) i n s t e a d o f p (T) , a n d l e t
x , y
b
v(T) = I a i T b - i
i = 0
b e t h e e x a c t n u m e r a t o r o f (T-ix) y , w h e r e a i C V + a n d a 0
w e h a v e (Tx) y = ~ ( T - I ) / ~ ( T -I) = T d - b ~ * ( T ) / p * ( T ) w h e r e
d b
* i , .T i
(T) = [ p i T , (T) = [ a l
i = 0 i = 0
# 0 . I n V ~ k ( T )
A p p l y i n g B ( T x , y ) t o t h i s w e g e t
* T d - b
( T ) ( T x - T 2 Q ( x ) y ) = . B ( T x , y ) . ~ * ( T )
a n d c o m p a r i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s at p o w e r s o f T w e s e e t h a t d - b = 1 a n d a 0 = x .
H e n c e it f o l l o w s t h a t
(3) p ( T ) ( T x ) y = T . ~ * ( T ) .
r
N o w l e t R = k ( e ) w i t h ~ = 0 . T h e n ( e x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n ~ R
q u a s i - i n v e r s e (gx) y = E e i x (i'y) (cf. 3 . 8 ) a n d i t f o l l o w s f r o m (3) t h a t
i ~ l
B * ( e ) ( e x ) y = e v * ( e ) , i . e . , w e h a v e
w i t h
1 8 0 1 6 . 6
d ]) I r ~ = I d ~ l a i + l ~
~ i = 0 t \ i = 0 i / "
W e c o m p a r e c o ~ f i c i e n t s a t p o w e r s o f e a n d o b t a i n , s i n c e r c a n b e c h o s e n t o b e
a r b i t r a r i l y l a r g e , t h a t
i
( 4 ) a t = ~ ~ . x ~i+l-j" 'y) f o r i = 0 , I . . . . . d - 1
j = 0 J
d
(5) 0 = [ p . x kn-j'yJz" f o r a l l n > d .
j = 0 J
N o w (2) f o l l o w s f r o m (4), a n d b y (5),
b e a p o l y n o m i a l s a t i s f y i n g (I), l e t S
k [ T , S ] b e t h e u n i q u e p o l y n o m i a l s u c h t h a t
f(T) - f ( S ) = ( T - S ) h ( T , S ) .
T h e n w e h a v e
( 6 )
C o n s i d e r t h e J o r d a n h o m o m o r p h i s m f r o m
x (i'y) f o r
~ ( T ) s a t i s f i e s (i). C o n v e r s e l y , l e t f(T)
b e a n o t h e r i n d e t e r m i n a t e , a n d l e t h ( T , S )
( T S - S 2 ) ( f ( T ) - f ( S ) ) = ( ~ - S ) 2 . S . h ( T , S ) ,
S . k [ T , S ] i n t o V ~ k [ T ] s u c h t h a t
i ~ 1 . A p p l y i n g t h i s h o m o m o r p h i s m t o (6) a n d u s i n g (i) w e g e t
(Tx - x ( 2 ' Y ) ) f ( T ) = ( T 2 I d - T D ( x , y ) + Q ( x ) Q ( y ) ) g ( T )
S I ~+
w h e r e g ( T ) i s t h e i m a g e o f S . h ( T , S ) . T h i s m e a n s t h a t
(T-ix) y = ( T 2 I d - T D ( x , y ) + Q x Q y ) - l ( T x - Q x y) = g ( T ) / f ( T )
i n V ~ k ( T ) a n d s h o w s t h a t f ( T ) i s a d e n o m i n a t o r o f ( T - i x ) y .
1 6 . 6 . C O R O L L A R Y . (a) T h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l m ( T , X , Y ) o f V i s u n i q u e l y
d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e p o l y n o m i a l o f s m a l l e s t d e g r e e a m o n g a l l m o n i c p o l y n o m i a l s f ( T )
16. 7 181
c C
f T c - i f i X (n-i,Y)
i C F[T] s u c h that I
i=O i=O
(b) T h e e x a c t n u m e r a t o r o f (T-Ix) Y is
p ( T , X , Y ) =
h-i ( ! o ( - l ) J m j
i=O j
= 0 for a l l n > c .
( X , Y ) X ( i + I - J , Y ) ) T h - i - I
T h i s f o l l o w s f r o m 1 6 . 5 a p p l i e d to the e l e m e n t (X,Y) ~ V F s i n c e m ( T , X , Y )
= ~X,y(T) (cf. 16.4).
16.7. P R O P O S I T I O N . T h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l is i n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e a u t o -
m o r p h i s m g r o u p of V ; m o r e p r e c i s e l y : I f R C k - a l g a n d g = (g+,g_) is a n a u t o -
m o r p h i s m o f V R t h e n m ( T , g + X , g _ Y ) = m ( T , X , Y ) .
Proof. C o n s i d e r t h e e q u a t i o n s
h
(i) ~ ( - l ) i m i ( X , Y ) X (n-i'Y) = 0 for n > h .
i=O
S i n c e g C A u t ( V R) e x t e n d s to a n a u t o m o r p h i s m of V R ~ A = V ~ A ~ R w e c a n a p p l y
g to (i) and o b t a i n
h
(2) ~ ( - l ) i m i ( X , Y ) ( g + X ~ n - i ' g - Y ) = 0 for
i=0
n > h .
R e p l a c e (X,Y) b y (g+X,g_Y) in (i), s u b t r a c t (2) f r o m (i) a n d t h e n r e p l a c e
(X,Y) b y (g~iX,gily) . T h i s y i e l d s
h - i
(3) ~ ( - l ) i + I b i + l x ( n - i ' Y ) = 0 , for n
>
h-i
i=0
w h e r e b i = m i ( X , Y ) - m i ( g + X , g _ Y ) 6 A ~ R . H e r e w e u s e d t h e f a c t t h a t m 0 = i .
N o w let ~ b e a l i n e a r f o ~ o n R w i t h v a l u e s i n k . T h e n ~ i n d u c e s A - l i n e a r
m a p s A ~ R A a n d V ~ A ~ R V ~ A in the o b v i o u s way. A p p l y i n g ~ to (3) w e
1 8 2 1 6 . 8
h - i
(-i) i s ( b i + l ) X ( n - i ,Y)
o b t a i n ~ = 0 , f o r n > h - i . T h i s i m p l i e s ~ ( b i ) = 0 b y
i = 0
1 6 . 6 ( a ) . S i n c e R i s f r e e o v e r k t h e r e e x i s t s u f f i c i e n t l y m a n y l i n e a r f o r m s o n
R a n d it f o l l o w s t h a t b. = 0 .
2
1 6 . 8 . C O R O L L A R Y . T h e c o e f f i c i e n t s
i n v a r i a n t u n d e r D e r ( V ) ; i . e . , i f
(i) d m i ( X , Y ) ( A + X , A _ Y ) = 0 .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e m I s a t i s f i e s
(2) m l ( { u v x } , y ) = m l ( x , { v u y } ) .
m. o f t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l a r e L i e
i
A = _~(A+,A_) is a d e r i v a t i o n o f V t h e n
P r o o f . W e h a v e I d + e A C A u t ( V k ( ~ ) ) w h e r e k ( ~ ) is t h e a l g e b r a o f d u a l n u m b e r s
o v e r k . B y 1 6 . 7 , w e g e t m i ( X , Y ) = m i ( X + c A + X , Y + ~ A . _ Y ) = m i ( X , Y ) + ~ d m i ( X , Y ) ( A + X ,
g Y) (cf. t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e d e r i v a t i v e i n 1 8 . 6 ) . T h i s p r o v e s (i). N o w (2) i s
t h e s p e c i a l c a s e w h e r e A = ~ ( u , v ) = ( D ( u , v ) , - D ( v , u ) ) i s a n i n n e r d e r i v a t i o n .
1 6 . 9 . D E F I N I T I O N . T h e g e n e r i c n o r m o f a J o r d a n p a i r V o v e r k
s
(i) N ( X , Y ) = m ( I , X , Y ) = ~ ( - l ) i m i ( X , Y ) .
i=O
i s d e f i n e d b y
T h u s N = N ( X , Y ) C A , a n d t h e d e g r e e o f V i s t h e d e g r e e o f N i n X ( o r Y ).
If w e s e t P ( X , Y ) = p ( I , X , Y ) t h e n b y 1 6 . 2 ,
X Y = P ( X , Y ) / N ( X , Y ) . (2)
W e c l a i m t h a t (2) i s a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n . I n d e e d , if P a n d N h a d a n o n - c o n -
s t a n t f a c t o r i n c o m m o n t h e n s o w o u l d p a n d m s i n c e
(3) m ( T , X , Y ) = T h N ( T - I x , y ) a n d p ( T , X , Y ) = T h p ( T - I x , y ) .
1 6 . 1 0 1 8 3
B y 1 6 . 7 , t h e g e n e r i c n o r m i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p o f V . L e t
R C k - a l ~ a n d ( x , y ) C V R . T h e n ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e if a n d o n l y i f
N ( x , y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e i n R , a n d t h e n
(4) x y = p ( x , y ) N ( x , y ) - I .
I n d e e d , i f ( x , y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e t h e n d e t B ( x , y ) = i s i n v e r t i b l e
a n d s i n c e m d i v i d e s X i t f o l l o w s t h a t N ( x , y ) = m ( l , x , y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e . If
c o n v e r s e l y N ( x , y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e i n R t h e n t h e r e e x i s t s a u n i q u e h o m o m o r p h i s m
A [ N - I ] R e x t e n d i n g t h e h o m o m o r p h i s m ( x , y ) : A + R (cf. 1 8 . 1 ) . T h e i n d u c e d
h o m o m o r p h i s m V ~ A [ N - I ] + V ~ R o f J o r d a n p a i r s , a p p l i e d t o (2), y i e l d s (4).
1 6 . 1 0 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t
t h e d e g r e e o f V .
(a) T h e g e n e r i c n o r m o f
( 1 )
N b e t h e g e n e r i c n o r m o f V , a n d l e t d e g V d e n o t e
V ~ i s g i v e n b y
N ~ = N ( X , Y ) ,
V. w i t h g e n e r i c n o r m s
1
a n d h e n c e w e h a v e d e g V = d e g V ~
(b) I f V = V 1 V 2 i s a d i r e c t p r o d u c t o f J o r d a n p a i r s
N i ( X i , Y i) t h e n t h e g e n e r i c n o r m o f V is g i v e n b y
(2) N ( X , Y ) = N i ( x I , Y I ) . N 2 ( x 2 , Y 2 ) ,
a n d h e n c e d e g ( V 1 V 2) = d e g V 1 + d e g V 2 .
(c) I f V a n d V ~ ( r e s p . V 1 a n d V 2 ) h a v e e x c e s s z e r o t h e n (i) ( r e s p . (2))
h o l d s f o r t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l i n s t e a d o f t h e g e n e r i c n o r m a s w e l l .
P r o o f . B y 3 . 3 w e h a v e X Y = X + Q ( X ) Y X w h i c h s h o w s t h a t N ~ i s a d e n o m i n a t o r
o f X Y . I f w e i n t e r c h a n g e V a n d V ~ w e s e e t h a t N i s a d e n o m i n a t o r o f y X .
T h i s i m p l i e s (a) s i n c e N i s t h e e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r o f X Y b y 1 6 . 9 . P a r t (b) is
1 8 4 1 6 . 1 1
o b v i o u s , a n d (c) f o l l o w s f r o m m ( T , X , Y ) = T d e g V . N ( T - I x , y ) (cf. 1 6 . 9 . 3 ) i n c a s e V
h a s e x c e s s z e r o .
R e m a r k . I f V d o e s n ' t h a v e e x c e s s z e r o t h e n (c) b e c o m e s f a l s e ( e . g . , l e t V =
( k , 0 ) w i t h t r i v i a l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ) . A l s o t h e h e i g h t o f V a n d o f V ~ w i l l i n
g e n e r a l n o t b e t h e s a m e , a l t h o u g h i t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t t h e y d i f f e r a t m o s t b y 1 .
1 6 . 1 1 . T H E O R E M . L e t R ~ k - a l g , a n d l e t ( x , y ) ~ V R b e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . T h e n
(i) N ( x , y ) N ( x Y , z ) = N ( x , y + z ) ,
(2) N ( x , y ) N ( w , y x) = N ( x + w , y ) ,
f o r a l l ( w , z ) C V R . ( C o m p a r e w i t h J P 3 3 a n d J P 3 4 ) .
P r o o f . It s u f f i c e s t o p r o v e (i) s i n c e (2) w i l l f o l l o w b y p a s s i n g t o
u s i n g 1 6 . 1 0 ( a ) . B y 1 8 . 3 t h e r e e x i s t s a n o p e n d e n s e s u b s e t U o f 7 +
P ( x , Y ) / N ( x , Y ) i s a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n , f o r a l l x C U . L e t W C ~
V ~ a n d
s u c h t h a t
b e t h e s e t
o f q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s . T h e n W i s o p e n a n d d e n s e , a n d t h e m a p W + 7 +
0
g i v e n b y t h e q u a s i - i n v e r s e i s s u r j e c t i v e s i n c e x = x . H e n c e t h e i n v e r s e i m a g e
W ' = { ( x , y ) e W ] x y C U }
i s o p e n a n d d e n s e i n V , a n d f o r a l l ( x , y ) G W ' , t h e e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r o f t h e
r a t i o n a l m a p (xY) Y i s N ( x Y , Y ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b y 3 . 7 ,
(xY) Y = x y + Y = P ( x , y + Y ) / N ( x , y + Y )
a n d t h e r e f o r e N ( x , y + Y ) i s a l s o a d e n o m i n a t o r . I t f o l l o w s t h a t N ( x , y + z ) =
N ( x Y , z ) . f ( x , y ) f o r a l l z ~ V --= w h e r e f ( x , y ) ~ k , a n d f o r z = 0 w e s e e t h a t
f ( x , y ) = N ( x , y ) . T h u s (i) f o l d s f o r a l l ( x , y , z ) i n t h e o p e n a n d d e n s e s u b s e t
W " = W' x V o f ~ x ~ . E v e r y f u n c t i o n ~ e ~ ( V x V - ) I N - I ] d e f i n e s a f u n c t i -
o n ~ o n W " , a n d ~ = 0 i m p l i e s ~ = 0 s i n c e W " i s o p e n a n d d e n s e . I n p a r -
1 6 . 1 2 1 8 5
t i c u l a r , ~ = N ( X , Y ) . N ( x Y , z ) - N ( X , Y + Z ) v a n i s h e s o n W " a n d h e n c e
(3) N ( X , Y ) . N ( x Y , z ) = N ( X , Y + Z ) .
( H e r e ( X , Y , Z ) i s t h e g e n e r i c p o i n t o f V + V - V - ). N o w i f R ~ k - a l g a n d
( x , y , z ) C V R V R i s s u c h t h a t N ( x , y ) i s i n v e r t i b l e i n R t h e n w e h a v e a h o -
m o m o r p h i s m ~ ( V V - ) [ N ( X , Y ) -I] R , i n d u c e d b y ( X , Y , Z ) ~ ( x , y , z ) . A p p l y i n g
t h i s h o m o m o r p h i s m t o (3) w e g e t (i).
1 6 . 1 2 . C O R O L L A R Y .
( 1 )
( 2 )
T h e g e n e r i c t r a c e m I s a t i s f i e s t h e i d e n t i t i e s
m l ( Q ( x ) y , z ) = m l ( Q ( x ) z , y ),
m l ( X , Q ( y ) w ) = m l ( W , Q ( y ) x ) ,
f o r a l l ( x , y ) , ( w , z ) ~ V .
P r o o f . L e t R = k ( s , 6 ) b e t h e c o m m u t a t i v e k - a l g e b r a w i t h g e n e r a t o r s g a n d 6
2 82
a n d r e l a t i o n s e = = 0 . T h e n ( x , s y ) i s q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e i n V R a n d w e
h a v e x C y x + e x ( 2 ' y ) = x + e Q ( x ) y I n t h e s a m e w a y , x 6z = . = x + 6 Q ( x ) z . N o w
N ( x , e y ) N ( x e Y , 6 z ) = N ( x , e y + 6 z ) = N ( x , 6 z ) N ( x ~ Z , s y ) , a n d i f w e e x p a n d t h i s w e g e t
( l - E m l ( x , y ) ) ( l - 6 m l ( X + e Q x y , Z ) ) = ( l - 6 m l ( x , z ) ) ( l - e m l ( X + 6 Q x z , y ) )
C o m p a r i n g t h e t e r m s a t e6 g i v e s (i), a n d (2) f o l l o w s b y p a s s i n g t o V ~
1 6 . 1 3 . C O R O L L A R Y . (a) A n e l e m e n t y ~ V- b e l o n g s t o R a d V- i f a n d o n l y if
N ( x , y ) = i f o r a l l x ~ V + . A n a l o g o u s l y , x C R a d V + if a n d o n l y i f N ( x , y ) = i
for a l l y ~ V
(b) L e t k b e i n f i n i t e , a n d l e t y , z C V- . T h e n z - y C R a d V - i f a n d o n l y if
N ( x , y ) = N ( x , z ) f o r a l l x ~ V + . I n t h e s a m e w a y , if x a n d w a r e i n V +
186 1 6 . 1 4
t h e n x - w is i n Rad V + if and o n l y if N ( x , y ) = N ( w , y ) for a l l y C V-
Proof. (a) If N ( x , y ) = 1 f o r a l l x t h e n (x,y) is q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e for all
x b y 16.9, a n d h e n c e y ~ R a d V- . C o n v e r s e l y , i f y C R a d V- t h e n a l s o y C
--= V + Rad V b y 15.2. H e n c e N ( x , y ) is i n v e r t i b l e for all x C and t h i s i m p l i e s
that N ( x , y ) m u s t b e a c o n s t a n t , i n d e p e n d e n t of x . For x = 0 the c o n s t a n t
t u r n s out to b e one. T h e s e c o n d s t a t e m e n t f o l l o w s b y p a s s i n g to V ~ .
(b) Let U = {x ~ V + I (x,y) is q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e } a n d U' = {x y I x C U} .
T h e n b o t h U a n d U' a r e o p e n and d e n s e in V + (this f o l l o w s f r o m t h e fact
that (u - y ) y = u a n d t h e r e f o r e U' = {u e V + I (u,-y) q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e } ). If
z - y C R a d V- t h e n b y (a) and 1 6 . 1 1 w e h a v e N ( x , y ) = N ( x , y ) N ( x Y , z - y ) = N ( x , y + z - y )
= N ( x , z ) f o r a l l x C U , a n d b y d e n s i t y t h i s h o l d s for all x . (Note t h a t so
far w e h a v e n ' t u s e d t h a t k is i n f i n i t e ) . F o r the c o n v e r s e , a s s u m e that N(x,y)
= N ( x , z ) for all x C V + . S i n c e k is i n f i n i t e t h i s s t i l l h o l d s for all x C
V + . T h i s i m p l i e s N ( x Y , z - y ) = N ( x , z ) N ( x , y ) -I = 1 for a l l x C U , i.e.,
N ( u , z - y ) = 1 for a l l u C U' . By d e n s i t y of U' w e h a v e this for all x , a n d
t h e r e f o r e z - y C R a d V- b y w h a t w e p r o v e d u n d e r (a). A g a i n , the s e c o n d s t a t e -
m e n t f o l l o w s b y p a s s i n g to V ~
16.14. P R O P O S I T I O N . Let k b e i n f i n i t e a n d let V b e a s e m i s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r
k . T h e n g = (g+,g_) C G L ( V +) GL(V-) is a n a u t o m o r p h i s m of V if a n d o v e r
o n l y if
(i) N ( g + x , g _ y ) = N ( x , y )
for a l l (x,y) C V .
P r o o f . T h a t (i) is n e c e s s a r y f o l l o w s f r o m 16.7. A s s u m e that (i) h o l d s , and let
(x,y) C V b e q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e . B y 1 6 . 9 a n d (i) so is (g+x,g_y) . M o r e o v e r , b y
1 6 . 1 1 , N ( g + x , g _ y ) N ( g + ( x Y ) , g _ z ) = N ( x , y ) N ( x Y , z ) = N ( x , y + z ) = N ( g + x , g _ y + g_z) =
1 6 . 1 5 1 8 7
N ( g + x , g _ y ) N ( g + ( x ) g - ( y ) , g _ ( z ) ) a n d t h e r e f o r e N ( g + ( x y ) , g _ ( z ) ) = N ( g + ( x ) g - ( y ) , g _ z )
f o r a l l z C V - . B y 1 6 . 1 3 ( b ) t h i s i m p l i e s g + ( x y ) = g + ( x ) g - ( y ) s i n c e V i s
s e m i s i m p l e , a n d b y 1 6 . 9 . 3 w e g e t g + P ( x , y ) = P ( g + x , g _ y ) . I f w e c o m p a r e h o m o g e -
n e o u s c o m p o n e n t s i n (i) ( w h i c h w e a r e a l l o w e d t o d o s i n c e k i s i n f i n i t e ) w e
g e t m l ( g + x , g _ y ) = m l ( x , y ) . T h e h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p o n e n t o f b i d e g r e e ( 2 , 1 ) o f
P ( x , y ) i s x ( 2 ' y )
- x . m l ( x , y ) = Q ( x ) y - x . m l ( x , y ) . H e n c e w e h a v e
g + Q ( x ) y = Q ( g + x ) g _ y
f o r a l l q u a s i - i n v e r t i b l e ( x , y ) . B y d e n s i t y a n d s i n c e k i s i n f i n i t e t h i s h o l d s
f o r a l l ( x , y ) . S i m i l a r l y o n e p r o v e s t h a t g _ Q ( y ) x = Q ( g _ y ) g + x , a n d t h e r e f o r e
g i s a n a u t o m o r p h i s m .
1 6 . 1 5 . T H E O R E M . (a) L e t C b e a C a r t e r s u b p a i r o f V . T h e n t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m
p o l y n o m i a l m C o f C i s t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l m
o f V t o C ; i . e . , f o r a l l ( x , y ) C C R , R C k - a l g , w e h a v e
(i) m c ( T , x , y ) = m ( T , x , y ) .
r
( b) L e t k b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d , a n d l e t C = ~ Vi i wi t h r e s p e c t t o a
i =O
f r a m e ( e l , . . . , e r ) o f V a s i n 1 5 . 9 ( b ) . F o r i = i . . . . ,r l e t s. b e t h e d e g r e e
o f V . . , l e t s = s I + ... + s , a n d l e t e = m a x ( 0 , h o - s ) w h e r e h 0 i s t h e
- - i i r
h e i g h t o f V O 0 . D e f i n e l i n e a r f o r m s l.~: C ~ k b y s - % ~ ( s ) . e ~ m o d R e d V ~
1 - - i i
T h e n s i s t h e d e g r e e a n d e i s t h e e x c e s s o f V , a n d f o r a l l ( x , y ) 6 C w e
h a v e t h e f o r m u l a s
r s.
(2) m ( T , x , y ) = T e. ~ (T - % + ( x ) % ~ . ( y ) ) i,
i = l
r s.
(3) N ( x , y ) = ~ ( i - % + ( x ) % ~ . ( y ) ) i
i = l
1 8 8 1 6 . 1 5
P r o o f . (a) W e m a y a s s u m e k t o b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d , a n d t h e n i t s u f f i c e s
t o p r o v e (i) f o r R = k . L e t G b e t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p o f V , a n d l e t
W C V b e a n o p e n a n d d e n s e s u b s e t s u c h t h a t m ( T , x , y ) = ~ x , y ( T ) f o r a l l ( x , y )
W (el. 1 6 . 4 ) . R e p l a c i n g W b y G . W i f n e c e s s a r y w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t W i s
s t a b l e u n d e r G . B y 1 5 . 1 5 , G . C c o n t a i n s a n o p e n d e n s e s u b s e t o f V . H e n c e
G . C ~ W = G . ( C O W ) i s n o t e m p t y , a n d C ~ W i s a n o p e n a n d d e n s e s u b s e t o f C .
F o r ( x , y ) ~ C ~ W w e h a v e m c ( T , x , y ) = ~ x , y ( T ) = m ( T , x , y ) , a n d s i n c e C ~ W i s
d e n s e i n C , (1) h o l d s f o r a l l ( x , y ) C C .
(b) F o r i = l , . . . , r l e t J b e t h e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a ( V ~ i ) _
( w h o s e u n i t
e i
+
e l e m e n t i s i = e. ) s o t h a t V . = ( J , J ) (cf. i . i 0 ) . S i n c e e. i s a l o c a l i d e m -
i i i l
p o t e n t w e h a v e J = k . l 9 N w h e r e N = R a d V + i s a n i l p o t e n t i d e a l . L e t T
il
b e t h e u n i q u e l i n e a r f o r m o n J v a n i s h i n g o n N a n d s u c h t h a t r ( 1 ) = i ( i n
f a c t , r = ) . A l s o l e t s. b e t h e i n d e x o f n i l p o t e n c y o f J i . e . t h e s m a l -
l l
l e s t i n t e g e r s u c h t h a t n s i + t = 0 f o r a l l t C ~ a n d a l l n 6 N . T h e n i t i s
e a s i l y s e e n t h a t t h e g e n e r i c n o r m o f J i s g i v e n b y N ( x ) = T ( x ) s i . A l s o w e h a v e
T ( x - I ) = T ( x ) - I a n d h e n c e i t f o l l o w s f r o m 1 6 . 3 ( i i ) t h a t t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o -
l y n o m i a l m.l o f ( J , J ) ~= V i i i s g i v e n b y m i ( T , x , y ) = ( T - T ( x ) ~ ( y ) ) s i . U n d e r t h e
i s o m o r p h i s m ( J , J ) ~ = V i i g i v e n b y ( x , y ) ~ ( x , Q ( e i ) Y ) (of. i . i i ) t h i s i m p l i e s
t h a t V . h a s g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l m i ( T , x , y ) + _ s. i i = ( T _ % i ( x ) % i ( y ) ) i . B y 1 6 . 3
( i i ) , V i i h a s e x c e s s z e r o , a n d h e n c e 1 6 . 1 0 i m p l i e s t h a t t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o -
l y n o m i a l o f C' = V I I ~ ... ~ V r r i s g i v e n b y
r i s i
m ' ( T , x , y ) = ~ ( T - I ( x ) ~ ( y ) )
i = l
= . N e x t c o n s i d e r V 0 0 w h i c h i s c o n t a i n e d i n a n d i t s d e g r e e i s s s I + ... + s r
R a d V a n d i s t h e r e f o r e n i l p o t e n t . B y 1 6 . 3 ( i ) , i t h a s d e g r e e z e r o , a n d i t s g e n e r i c
m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l i s T h 0 . S i n c e m ' ( T , x , y ) = T s i f ( x , y ) e V 0 0 w e g e t (2),
a n d f o r T i w e h a v e (3).
1 6 . 1 6 1 8 9
. 1 6 . 1 6 . C O R O L L A R Y . L e t V b e s e p a r a b l e a n d n o t z e r o .
(a) T h e r a n k , d e g r e e , a n d h e i g h t o f V a l l c o i n c i d e , a n d t h e e x c e s s o f V i s
z e r o .
(b) T h e d i s c r i m i n a n t o f m ( T , X , Y ) ( c o n s i d e r e d a s a p o l y n o m i a l i n T
c i e n t s i n A ) i s n o n - z e r o ( V i s " g e n e r i c a l l y u n r a m i f i e d " ) .
(c) T h e g e n e r i c t r a c e o f V i s n o t z e r o . I f c h a r k ~ 2 t h e n t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e
V + i s a n o n - d e g e n e r a t e b i l i n e a r f o r m o n x V - .
w i t h c o e f f i -
P r o o f . W e m a y a s s u m e k t o b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d . T h e n w e h a v e ( w i t h t h e n o t a -
t i o n s o f 1 6 . 1 5 ) V ? . = k . e ? f o r i = l , . . . , r a n d V 0 0 = 0 . H e n c e h 0 = 0 a n d
i i 1
s i = 1 w h i c h p r o v e s r = r a n k V = s = d e g V , a n d e = m a x ( O , - r ) = 0 . F o r m u l a
(2) o f 1 6 . 1 5 n o w r e a d s
r
(i) m ( T , x , y ) = ~ (T - % ~ ( x ) l i ( y ) ) .
i - 1
L e t d = d ( X , Y ) C A h e t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t o f m ( T , X , Y ) C A [ T ] . I f w e c h o o s e ( x , y )
6 C s u c h t h a t l + ( x ) % ~ . ( y ) # % j ( x ) % ~ . ( y ) f o r i # j t h e n i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e d i s -
c r i m l n a n t o f m ( T , x , y ) , w h i c h i s d ( x , y ) , i s n o n - z e r o . H e n c e d i s n o n - z e r o a s
a n e l e m e n t o f A . F r o m (i) i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e i s g i v e n b y
r
(2) m l ( x , y ) = ~ ~ i ( x ) ~ i ( y )
i =l
f o r ( x , y ) C C w h i c h s h o w s t h a t m I # 0 . T o p r o v e t h e l a s t s t a t e m e n t , d e c o m p o s e
V i n t o s i m p l e f a c t o r s ( 1 0 . 1 4 ) . B y 1 6 . 1 0 , t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e o f V i s j u s t t h e
d i r e c t s u m o f t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e s o f t h e s i m p l e f a c t o r s . T h e r e f o r e w e m a y a s s u m e
V t o b e s i m p l e . L e t K + = { x C V + I m l ( X ' V - ) = 0 } a n d K - = { y C V - I m I ( V + , Y )
= 0 } . T h e n i t f o l l o w s f r o m 1 6 . 8 . 2 a n d 1 6 . 1 2 t h a t K = ( K + , K - ) i s a n o u t e r i d e a l
o f ~ . I f c h a r k # 2 t h e n K i s a n i d e a l o f V b y 1 . 3 , a n d s i n c e m I # 0
w e h a v e K = 0 a n d m I i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
1 9 0 1 6 . 1 7
1 6 . 1 7 . R e m a r k . I f c h a r k = 2 t h e n m I m a y w e l l b e d e g e n e r a t e ; f o r e x a m p l e , i f
V i s t h e J o r d a n p a i r o f s y m m e t r i c m a t r i c e s o v e r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e g e -
n e r i c n o r m i s a l w a y s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e i n t h e s e n s e o f 1 6 . 1 3 . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i f V
h a s r a n k o n e t h e n m I i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e r e g a r d l e s s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , s i n c e t h e n
N ( x , y ) = 1 - m l ( x , y ) . A l s o , i f V i s o u t e r s i m p l e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t h a s n o
p r o p e r o u t e r i d e a l s t h e n m I i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
1 6 . 1 8 . A l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s . L e t n = ( A + , A - ) b e a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e
p a i r o v e r k . T h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l , n o r m , a n d t r a c e o f n a r e b y d e f i -
n i t i o n t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p l y n o m i a l , n o r m , a n d t r a c e o f t h e a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n
p a i r A J . L e t ( u , v ) e A . R e c a l l t h a t ( L ( u , v ) , - L ( v , u ) ) a n d ( R ( u , v ) , - R ( v , u ) )
a r e d e r i v a t i o n s o f A J (cf. 7 . 5 ) . B y 1 6 . 8 i t f o l l o w s t h a t
( 1 )
( 2 )
f o r a l l
m l ( < U V X > , y ) = m l ( x , < v u y > ) ,
m l ( < X V U > , y ) = m l ( x , < y u v > ) ,
( x , y ) G A . T h i s h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s e q u e n c e .
1 6 . 1 9 . P R O P O S I T I O N . A f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r A i s s e p a r a b l e if
a n d o n l y i f t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e o f A i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
P r o o f . W e m a y a s s u m e t h a t k i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d . L e t m I b e n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
I f y ~ R a d A - t h e n N ( x , y ) = 1 f o r a l l x e A + , b y 1 6 . 1 3 . If w e r e p l a c e x
b y t x w h e r e t 6 k a n d c o m p a r e c o e f f i c i e n t s a t p o w e r s o f t ( w h i c h w e c a n d o
s i n c e k i s i n f i n i t e ) w e g e t m l ( x , y ) = 0 f o r a l l x G A + a n d h e n c e y = 0 .
S i m i l a r l y o n e p r o v e s R a d A + = 0 . F o r t h e c o n v e r s e , it s u f f i c e s ( b y 1 0 . 1 4 ) t o
s h o w t h a t m I i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e f o r A s i m p l e . L e t K + = { x C A + I m l ( x , A - ) = 0 )
a n d K - = { y ~ A - I m I ( A + , Y ) = 0 } . T h e n i t f o l l o w s f r o m (i) a n d (2) o f 1 6 . 1 8 t h a t
1 6 . 2 0 1 9 1
K is a n i d e a l of A w h i c h is p r o p e r b y 1 6 . 1 6 ( c ) . H e n c e K = 0 a n d m I is n o n -
d e g e n e r a t e .
16.20. C O R O L L A R Y . F o r a s e p a r a b l e a l t e r n a t S v e p a i r A (resp. J o r d a n p a i r V ) w e
h a v e d i m A + = d i m A - (resp. d i m V + = d i m V-) .
Proof. F o r a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r s t h i s is c l e a r b y 16.19. In t h e J o r d a n case, c h o o s e
a m a x i m a l i d e m p o t e n t e so that V = V 2 ( e ) ~ V l ( e ) . T h e n d i m V~(e) = d i m V2(e)
s i n c e Q(e+): V2(e) -~ V~(e) is i n p a r t i c u l a r a v e c t o r s p a c e i s o m o r p h i s m . A l s o ,
Vl(e) is a s e p a r a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e p a i r a n d h e n c e d i m V~(e) = d i m Vl(e) .
w S i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r s
17.0. In this s e c t i o n , k is an a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d field, and V d e n o t e s a
s i m p l e f i n i t e F d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k .
17.1. T H E O R E M . L e t (Cl,...,er) a n d (el,...,er) b e f r a m e s of V . T h e n t h e r e
e x i s t s a n i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m g o f V s u c h that g(ci) = e i , i = l , . . . , r .
Proof. Let S and T b e the t o r i s p a n n e d b y (c I .... ,Cr) a n d ( e l , . . . , e r) .
S i n c e V is s e m i s i m p l e , $ and T a r e C a r t a n s u b p a i r s of V . B y 15.17, t h e r e
+
e x i s t s a n i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m h s u c h t h a t h(S) = T . T h e (k. e i , k . e i) a r e the
s i m p l e i d e a l s of T , and d e c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o s i m p l e i d e a l s is u n i q u e up to order.
1 9 2 1 7 . 2
H e n c e h ( c ) = t i e (i) w h e r e ~ i s a p e r m u t a t i o n o f { l , . . . , r } a n d t h e t i
a r e n o n - z e r o e l e m e n t s o f k . S i n c e h m a p s i d e m p o t e n t s i n t o i d e m p o t e n t s w e h a v e
t i = (t+) - I . I t f o l l o w s t h a t @ ( t I .... , t r ) h ( c i ) = e (i) w h e r e @ ( t l , . . . t r) i s
t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m d e f i n e d a s i n 5 . 1 3 . T h e r e f o r e i t s u f f i c e s t o s h o w t h a t
t h e r e e x i s t s a n i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m f s u c h t h a t f ( e i ) = e (i) , i = l , . . . , r .
L e t e = e I + ... + e r . T h e n V = V2(e)_ _ ~ Vl(e)_ _ a n d V 2
J o r d a n p a i r ( 1 0 . 1 4 ) . L e t J b e t h e u n i t a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a
+
m e n t e = i . T h e n V 2 = ( J , J ) a n d J
a n o r t h o g o n a l s y s t e m o f i d e m p o t e n t s o f
= V+~ (i _~ i < j ~ r) . H e n c e J i j # 0
2
s u c h t h a t y = e i + e i (cf. J a c o b s o n [ 3 ] , p. 3 . 2 5 a n d 3 . 6 1 ) . ( I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e
+ + + 2
e. a r e s t r o n g l y c o n n e c t e d i d e m p o t e n t s o f J ). L e t x = e. + e. - y . T h e n x =
l l j
+ + 2 + + 2 + + + +
(e i + e.)j - (e i + e.)oyj + y = e.1 + e.3 - 2 y + e.1 + e.z = 2 x b y t h e r u l e s f o r t h e
P e i r c e d e c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s m e a n s
= V 2 ( e ) i s a s i m p l e
(V~) e ~ _ , w i t h u n i t e l e -
+ .. e + ) i s
i s s i m p l e ( 1 . 6 ) . A l s o , (el,. ' r
J , a n d t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s o f 7 a r e J . .
13
f o r i # j , a n d t h e r e e x i s t s y 6 J . .
13
(i) Q ( x ) e - = 2 x ,
b y d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s q u a r i n g i n J . N o w i t f o l l o w s f r o m J P 2 5 t h a t B ( x , e - ) 2 = I d
a n d B ( e - , x ) 2 = I d , a n d h e n c e ~ ( x , e - ) = ( B ( x , e - ) , B ( e - , x ) - I ) i s a n i n n e r a u t o m o r -
p h i s m o f p e r i o d t w o o f V . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e h a v e U y . e ~ = Q ( y ) Q ( e - ) . e ~ = Q ( y ) e ~
+ k + + + + 2 e +
e V . . = a n d s i m i l a r l y U .e. C k . e . . S i n c e e i + ej = y = U = +
3J Y 3 m y
e j ) + = Q ( y ) ( e ~ + -ej) w e g e t Q ( Y ) e i = e ~ a n d Q ( y ) e ; = e~l " A n e a s y c o m p u t a t i o n
s h o w s t h a t B ( x , e - ) i n t e r c h a n g e s e i a n d e. a n d l e a v e s a l l t h e o t h e r i d e m p o -
3
t e n t s f i x e d . S i n c e t h e s y m m e t r i c g r o u p i s g e n e r a t e d b y t r a n s p o s i t i o n s t h e a s s e r -
t i o n f o l l o w s .
1 7 . 2 . N u m e r i c a l i n v a r i a n t s . L e t ( e l , . . . , e r ) b e a f r a m e o f V . B y 1 7 . 1 , t h e
P e i r c e s p a c e s V ~ j (i ~ i < j $ r) a l l h a v e t h e s a m e d i m e n s i o n , a n d w e s e t
1 7 . 2 193
(i) a : d i m Vij (i ~ i < j $ r).
If r = 1 w e set a = 0 . T h e s a m e h o l d s for t h e P e i r c e s p a c e s V~0 (i $ i ~ r),
a n d t h e i r c o m m o n d i m e n s i o n w i l l b e d e n o t e d b y
(i < i < r).
(2) b = d i m Vi0
B y 17.1, the n u m b e r s a a n d b d e p e n d o n l y o n V and n o t o n the c h o i c e of the
f r a m e ( e l , . . . , e r) . A l s o , a a n d b a r e t h e s a m e for V and V ~ . I n d e e d ,
- +
Q ( e + ) : Vii + Vij is a l i n e a r i s o m o r p h i s m (where w e set e = e I + ... + e r) for
i ~ i < j ~ r , a n d D r = d i m V~(e) = d i m Vl(e) b y 16.20, s i n c e Vl(e) is
a
s e m i s i m p l e (even s i m p l e ) a l t e r n a t i v e pair.
T h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s f o l l o w e a s i l y f r o m the d e f i n i t i o n s .
(3) d 2 = d i m V2(e ) : r + ~ a ,
(4) d I : d i m Vl(e) : r.b ,
(5) d : d i m V : d 2 + d I .
W e d e f i n e the g e n u s g of V b y
(6) g = 2 + a ( r - l ) + b .
T h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s a r e e a s i l y v e r i f i e d .
(7)
(8)
(9)
H e n c e
(lO)
gr = 2d 2 + d I ,
d 2 = gr - d ,
d I = 2d - g r .
V c o n t a i n s i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s (i.e., Vl(e) = 0 ) if and o n l y if
2d = gr .
1 9 4 1 7 . 3
17.3. T H E O R E M . T h e g e n e r i c n o r m N is i r r e d u c i b l e , a n d w e h a v e
(i) d e t B(X,Y) = N ( X , Y ) g,
d
(2) x(T,X,Y) = T I . m ( T , X , Y ) g,
w h e r e m (resp. X ) is t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l (resp. t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
p o l y n o m i a l ) (cf. 16.1~ 16.2), a n d d I a n d g a r e as i n 17.2.
Proof. L e t f I ( X , Y ) , . . . , f n ( X , Y ) b e t h e d i f f e r e n t i r r e d u c i b l e f a c t o r s of N ( X , Y ) .
S i n c e N is i n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p of V w e h a v e
f i ( h + ( X ) , h _ ( Y ) ) = ~ i ( h ) f (h) (i) (X,Y)
f o r a l l h in t h e i n n e r a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p G of W , w h e r e ~ is a h o m o m o r -
p h i s m f r o m G i n t o t h e s y m m e t r i c g r o u p of n l e t t e r s , a n d 0i is a c h a r a c t e r
of G . T h e k e r n e l of ~ is a c l o s e d n o r m a l s u b g r o u p of f i n i t e i n d e x i n G , a n d
s i n c e G is a c o n n e c t e d a l g e b r a i c g r o u p (cf. 15.14) it is a l l of G , T h u s e a c h
f'1 is a s e m i - i n v a r i a n t of G . N o w l e t (el,...,er) b e a f r a m e of V , a n d l e t
T b e t h e t o r u s (= C a r t a n s u b p a i r s i n c e V is s e m i s i m p l e ) s p a n n e d b y (el,..,er).
T h e n t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of fl to T is a f a c t o r of t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of N to T ,
h G G
1 6 . 1 5 . 3
a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e i n v a r i a n t , u p to t h e s c a l a r 0 1 ( h ) , u n d e r a l l
whi ch l e a ve T i nva r i a nt . For ( x, y) C T we have N( x, y) gi ven by
w i t h s. = i , i.e.,
i
r
(3) N ~ , y ) = ~ ( i - % ~ ( x ) % ~ ( y ) ) .
i = l
H e n c e t h e i r r e d u c i b l e f a c t o r s of t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of N to T a r e t h e (I-%~%i).
B y 17.1, e v e r y p e r m u t a t i o n of (el,...,er) is i n d u c e d b y s o m e h G G . S i n c e t h e
r e s t r i c t i o n of fl to T is a p r o d u c t of s o m e of t h e (i-%~%~) it f o l l o w s that
N a n d fl a g r e e (up to a scalar) o n T . By 15.15, t h e o r b i t of T u n d e r G
is dense. It f o l l o w s that N a n d fl a g r e e o n t h i s d e n s e orbit, a n d t h e r e f o r e
e v e r y w h e r e , T h i s s h o w s that N = fl is i r r e d u c i b l e .
1 7 . 4 1 9 5
N o w w e p r o v e ( I ) . S i n c e k i s i n f i n i t e i t s u f f i c e s to p r o v e t h a t d e t B ( x , y )
N ( x , y ) g f o r a l l (x,y) e V , a n d s i n c e b o t h s i d e s a r e i n v a r l a n t u n d e r G a n d
t h e o r b i t o f T u n d e r G i s d e n s e w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t (x,y) e T . L e t
(cf. 1 6 . 1 5 ) , a n d s e t
t h a t
r + + , Y i i i x = ~ % i ( x ) e i = % ( y ) e 9
i = l i = l
h i = ~ ( x ) ~ ( y )
a n d 10 = 0 . T h e n a c o m p u t a t i o n s h o w s
(4) D ( x , Y ) Z i j = ( % i + l j ) z i j a n d Q ( x ) Q ( y ) z i j = l i l j z i j ,
+
f o r zij @ Vij . T h i s i m p l i e s
(5) B ( x , Y ) Z i j = (1-h i ) ( l - % j ) z i j .
N o w
r r
d e t B ( x , y ) = ~ ( i - % i ) 2 . ~ ( ( l - % i ) ( l - % j ) ) a. ~ ( l - k i ) b
i = l l<__i<j _<_r i = l
r r
( l - l i ) 2 + a ( r - l ) + b = ~ ( l - l i ) g
i = l i = l
= N ( x , y ) g
B y 1 6 . 1 . 2 , 1 6 . 9 . 3 , a n d 1 7 . 2 w e h a v e
x ( T , X , Y ) = T 2 d i m V + . d e t B ( T - I x , y )
g r + d ~
= T 2 ( d 2 + d l ) . N ( T - I x , Y ) g = T g
= T d I . ( T r . N ( T - I x , y ) ) g = T d l . m ( T , X , y ) g .
T h i s c o m p l e t e s t h e p r o o f .
1 7 . 4 . W e n o w w i s h to c l a s s i f y t h e s i m p l e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r t h e
a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d k . B y 1 5 . 5 , t h e o n l y f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l d i v i s i o n
p a i r o v e r k is (k,k) J . A l s o , t h e r e i s (up to i s o m o r p h i s m ) o n l y o n e C a y l e y a l -
1 9 6 1 7 . 5
g e b r a o v e r k . S p e c i a l i z i n g 1 2 . 1 2 t o t h i s s i t u a t i o n w e s e e t h a t e v e r y s i m p l e
f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l J o r d a n p a i r o v e r k i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t .
I p , q . ( M p , q ( k ) , M p , q ( k ) ) , p x q m a t r i c e s o v e r k .
I I n. ( A n ( k ) , A n ( k ) ) , a l t e r n a t i n g n x n m a t r i c e s o v e r k .
I I I . ( H n ( k ) , H n ( k ) ) , s y m m e t r i c n n m a t r i c e s o v e r k
n
I n t h e s e t h r e e c a s e s , t h e J o r d a n p a i r s t r u c t u r e i s g i v e n b y Q ( x ) y = x . t y . x .
I V n. ( k n , k n ) , w i t h Q ( x ) y = q ( x , y ) x - q ( x ) y . H e r e q i s t h e s t a n d a r d q u a d -
r a t i c f o r m o n k n , g i v e n b y
m
q ( x I . . . . . X 2 m ) = [ x x i f n = 2 m ,
i = I i m + i
m
q ( x 0 .... , X 2 m ) = x 2 + i l l x i X m + i = i f n = 2 m + l .
( T h e r e a r e n o o u t e r i d e a l s c o n t a i n i n g i i n J o r d a n a l g e b r a s o f q u a d r a t i c f o r m s
e x c e p t t h e w h o l e a l g e b r a s i n c e k i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d ; e f . J a c o b s e n [ 3 ] ) .
V. ( M I , 2 ( C ) , M I , 2 ( c ~ , i 2 m a t r i c e s o v e r t h e C a y l e y a l g e b r a C o v e r k
w i t h Q ( x ) y = x ( y * x ) .
V l . ( H 3 ( C , k ) , H 3 ( C , k ) ) , t h e J o r d a n p a i r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n a l J o r -
d a n a l g e b r a o f 3 x 3 h e r m i t i a n m a t r i c e s o v e r C .
N o w w e d i s c u s s e a c h t y p e i n m o r e d e t a i l .
1 7 . 5 . T y p e I T h e t r a n s p o s e x ~+ t
9 x d e f i n e s a n i s o m o r p h i s m I = I
P , q p , q q , P
w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t p ~ q . A f r a m e ( e l , . . . , e r ) i s g i v e n b y t h e m a t r i c e s
, S O
1 7 . 6 1 9 7
e . =
i
I
H e n c e t h e r a n k ms
d I = p ( q - p ) ,
w h e r e i
P
t r a c e (x. t y )
i 9
~ 0
p q - p
i - t h i = l , . . . , p .
2
p . A l s o w e h a v e a = 2 if p _>_ 2, b = q - p, d 2 = p ,
d = p q , g = p + q. T h e g e n e r i c n o r m is g i v e n b y
N ( x , y ) = d e t ( i p - x . t y ) ,
d e n o t e s t h e p x p u n i t m a t r i x . T h e g e n e r i c t r a c e is m l ( x , y ) =
a n d is n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
1 7 . 6 . T y p e II .
n
T h e r a n k is r = [n/2] s i n c e t h e m a t r i c e s
f o r m a f r a m e . W e h a v e I ~ 2 =~ (k,k) J, 1 1 3 ~= 1 1 , 3 , u n d e r t h e m a p
( X l , X 2 , X 3 ) ~, ) - x I 0
- x 2 - x 3
a n d h e n c e w e a s s u m e n > 4 . T h e n a = 4, b = 2 ( n - 2 r ) ( i . e . , b = 0 if n is
e v e n , a n d b = 2 if n is o d d ) , d 2 = 2r 2 - r, d I = 2 r ( n - 2 r ) , d = n ( n - l ) / 2 ,
g = 2 n - 2. T h e g e n e r i c n o r m is t h e " s q u a r e r o o t " of d e t ( l n - x . t y ) ,
N ~ x , y ) 2 = d e t ( l n - x . t y ) = d e t ( l n + x y ) .
1 9 8 1 7 . 7
I f n = 2 r i s e v e n t h e n N ( x , y ) = P f ( x ) P f ( x - l - y ) f o r x i n v e r t i b l e w h e r e P f
d e n o t e s t h e P f a f f i a n ( c f . A r t i n [ l ] , p . 1 4 1 ) . T h u s N ( x , y ) i s a k i n d o f P f a f f i a n
w h i c h s t i l l m a k e s s e n s e f o r a l t e r n a t i n g m a t r i c e s o f o d d o r d e r . T h e g e n e r i c t r a c e
i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e , a n d i s g i v e n b y
m l ( x , y ) = i ! j x i j Y i j 9
1 7 . 7 . T y p e I I I . O b v i o u s l y I I I I = ( k , k ) J s o w e a s s u m e n > 2 . T h e r a n k i s
n
s i n c e a f r a m e i s g i v e n b y t h e m a t r i c e s
~ 0 1 0 0 . . 0
W e h a v e a = i , b = 0 , d = d 2 = n ( n + l ) / 2 , d I = 0 , g = n + i . T h e g e n e r i c n
n o r m i s
N ( x , y ) = d e t ( l n - x y ) .
T h e g e n e r i c t r a c e i s
m l ( x Y ) = t r a c e ( x y ) = ~ x i i Y i i + 2 ~ x i 4 Y i ;
i < j J o
a n d i s t h e r e f o r e d e g e n e r a t e i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 2 .
1 7 . 8 . T y p e I V n . W e h a v e I V I = ( k , k ) J a n d I V 2 ~ I V I x I V 1 i s n o t s i m p l e .
T h u s a s s u m e t h a t n > 3 . T h e n I V i s o f r a n k 2 , a n d w e h a v e a = n - 2 , b = 0 ,
n
d = d 2 = n , d I = 0 , g = n . T h e g e n e r i c n o r m i s
N ( x , y ) = 1 - q ( x , y ) + q ( x ) q ( y )
1 7 . 9 1 9 9
a n d t h e g e n e r i c t r a c e i s m l ( x , y ) = q ( x , y ) w h i c h i s d e g e n e r a t e if c h a r k = 2
a n d n i s o d d .
1 7 . 9 . T y p e V. L e t c I a n d c 2 b e t w o p r i m i t i v e o r t h o g o n a l i d e m p o t e n t s o f t h e
C a y l e y a l g e b r a C , e . g . , C l = 10 ~ ) ' c 2 = I~ ~ ) i f C i s r e a l i z e d i n v e c t o r
o
m a t r i x f o r m . T h e n e i = ( c i , 0 ) (i = 1 , 2 ) i s a f r a m e , a n d h e n c e t h e r a n k i s 2 .
W e h a v e a = 6, b = 4 , d 2 = d I = 8, g = 1 2 , d = 1 6 . T h e g e n e r i c n o r m a n d t r a -
c e a r e g i v e n b y
N ( x , y ) = n ( l - x y * ) , m l ( x , y ) = t ( x y * )
w h e r e n ( r e a p . t ) d e n o t e s t h e n o r m ( r e a p . t r a c e ) o f C . T h e g e n e r i c t r a c e i s
n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
1 7 . 1 0 . T y p e V I . F r o m w e l l - k n o w n f a c t s o n t h e e x c e p t i o n a l J o r d a n a l g e b r a H 3 ( C , k )
it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e r a n k i s 3, a n d w e h a v e a = 8, b = 0, d = d 2 = 2 7 , d I = 0,
g = 1 8 . T h e g e n e r i c n o r m a n d t r a c e a r e g i v e n b y m l ( x , y ) = T ( x , y ) a n d
N ( x , y ) = i - T ( x , y ) + ~ ( x # , y # ) - N ( x ) N ( y )
w h e r e N ( x ) i s t h e g e n e r i c n o r m o f H 3 ( C , k ) a n d T a n d x # a r e d e f i n e d a s i n
M c C r i m m o n [ 3 ] . T h e g e n e r i c t r a c e i s n o n - d e g e n e r a t e .
1 7 . 1 1 . I s o m o r p h i s m s i n l o w d i m e n s i o n s . A g l a n c e a t t h e t h r e e i n v a r i a n t s d i m e n s i o n ,
r a n k , a n d g e n u s i n t h e c a s e s l i s t e d a b o v e s h o w s t h a t a t m o s t t h e f o l l o w i n g i s o -
m o r p h i s m s a r e p o s s i b l e .
I i , i r~-- I I 2 I I I I ~ I V 1
(i) ~ = = (~.k,k. J ,
(2) I V 2 ~ I V 1 x I V 1 ,
200
(3) 11, 3 ~ 113,
(4) III 2 IV3,
(5) II 4 ~ IV 6 .
Of these, (i) is o b v i o u s , and (2) and (3) w e r e n o t e d b e f o r e . W e s h o w t h a t (4) and
(5) do occur. Indeed, q(x) = det x is a n o n - d e g e n e r a t e q u a d r a t i c f o r m o n
H 2(k) =~ k 3 , and w e h a v e x y x = q ( x , y ) x - q ( x ) y w h e r e
1 -yo
= for y = .
Y - Y 0 Y Y 0 Y2
H e n c e t h e m a p (x,y) (x,y) f r o m ( H 2 ( k ) , H 2 ( k ) ) into ( k 3 , k 3) (with t h e J o r d a n
s t r u c t u r e d e f i n e d b y q ) is an i s o m o r p h i s m (cf. a l s o 12.19, (ii)).
N o w w e p r o v e (5). Let
0 x I x 2 x 3 1
0 x 6 - x 5
0 x 4
0
e A 4 ( k ) ~ k 6.
T h e n t h e P f a f f i a n Pf(x) = q(x) = X l X 4 + x 2 x 5 + x 3 x 6
k 6
tic f o r m o n A4(k) = , and o n e c h e c k s that x t y x
w h e r e x is d e f i n e d b y
is a n o n - d e g e n e r a t e q u a d r a -
= - x y x = q ( x , y ) x - q ( x ) y
(x4x
0 x 3 - x 2
= ~ o 1
for x as above. H e n c e t h e m a p (x,y) ~ (x,y) f r o m ( A 4 ( k ) , A 4 ( k ) )
(with t h e J o r d a n p a i r s t r u c t u r e d e f i n e d b y q ) is a n i s o m o r p h i s m .
into (k6,k 6)
W e c o l l e c t o u r r e s u l t s in
17.12 201
17.12. THEOREM. A simple finite-dimensional Jordan pair over an algebraically
closed field is up to isomorphism uniquely determined by the three invariants
dimension, rank, and genus. The following list is complete, and contains no repe-
titions.
U I dimensi~ I rank genus ; inver tihle elements?
Ip,q, l~p~q pq p p + q if p =
q
n > 5 n. (n-l)
2n - 2 if n even =
II n ,
llln, n > = 2
IV a, n ~ 4
VI
n.(n+l)
16
27
n + l
12
18
yes
yes
n o
yes
202 1 8 . 1
w A P p e n d i x : P o l y n o m i a l a n d r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s
18.1. L e t k b e a c o m m u t a t i v e u n i t a l r i n g , a n d k - a l ~ t h e c a t e g o r y of u n i t a l
c o m m u t a t i v e ( a s s o c i a t i v e ) k - a l g e b r a s . F o r R , S ~ k-al_a~ w e d e n o t e b y
H O m k _ a l g ( R , S ) t h e s e t of k - a l g e b r a h o m o m o r p h i s m s f r o m R to S . A l s o . l e t
s e t s d e n o t e the c a t e g o r y of sets. B y a k - f u n c t o r w e m e a n a c o v a r i a n t f u n c t o r
f r o m k - a l g to s e t s . T h e f o r g e t f u l f u n c t o r , a s s i g n i n g to e a c h R E k - a l g t h e
u n d e r l y i n g set, is a k - f u n c t o r , d e n o t e d b y & a n d s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e a f f i n e
l i n e o v e r k .
C o n s i d e r a k - m o d u l e V , a n d l e t ~ b e t h e k - f u n c t o r d e f i n e d b y
~( R) = V~)kR = V R ,
for a l l R ~ k-al=~ . A p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n o n V is a m o r p h i s m (= n a t u r a l t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n ) f: 2 ~ 0= k o f k - f u n c t o r s . In o t h e r w o r d s , g i v i n g a p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i -
o n o n V s i m p l y m e a n s t h a t w e h a v e m a p s fR: V R R f o r e a c h R e k - a l g , " v a r y -
i n g f u n c t o r i a l l y w i t h R "; i.e., if ~: R S is a h o m o m o r p h i s m of k - a l g e b r a s
t h e n t h e d i a g r a m
f R
V R > R
v
V s ) S
fs
is c o m m u t a t i v e . T h u s a p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n o n V is n o t a f u n c t i o n i n t h e u s u a l
sense, a l t h o u g h it d o e s d e f i n e a f u n c t i o n fk: V k . In g e n e r a l , f is n o t u n i -
q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y f k " T h i s is so, h o w e v e r , if k is a n i n f i n i t e field, a n d
1 8 . 1 203
V is f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l o v e r k (see 18.7).
L e t ~ ( V ) b e t h e s e t of a l l p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n s o n
ly s e e n t h a t w i t h t h e o b v i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s
V . T h e n it is e a s i -
(f + g ) R = f R + g R ' ( f g ) R = f R g R ' ( ~ f ) R = ~ f R
for a l l R G k-al_ig, ~ ( V ) is i t s e l f a k - a l g e b r a . A l s o , ~ ( V ) d e p e n d s f u n c t o r i -
a l l y o n V : if ~: V + W is a h o m o m o r p h i s m of k - m o d u l e s t h e n w e o b t a i n a h o m o -
m o r p h i s m ~ * : ~ ( W ) of k - a l g e b r a s b y ( ~ * f ) R = f R = # R (where ~R: VR
W R d e n o t e s t h e R - l i n e a r e x t e n s i o n of ~ ). F r o m this o n e d e d u c e s e a s i l y t h a t
t h e r e is a n a t u r a l h o m o m o r p h i s m
(2) ~ ( V W) ~ k ~ ( W )
for a n y t w o k - m o d u l e s V a n d W .
F o r e v e r y R C k - a l g w e h a v e a c a n o n i c a l m a p
(3) V R H O m k _ a l ~ ( ~ V ) , R )
d e f i n e d b y x ~ x w h e r e ~ : ~ ( V ) R is e v a l u a t i o n at
s i m p l i f y n o t a t i o n , w e w i l l w r i t e f(x) i n s t e a d of
i(f) = f(x)
x ; i(f) = fR(x) . T o
fR(x) so t h a t w e h a v e
for a l l x C V R , R C k - a l ~ . T h e m a p s (3) v a r y f u n c t o r i a l l y w i t h R ; i.e., for
~: R S t h e d i a g r a m
( 4 )
V R ~ H o m k _ ~ ( ~ ( V ) ,R)
V S ) H O m k _ a = ~ ( ~ ( V ) ,S)
is c o m m u t a t i v e , w h e r e t h e v e r t i c a l a r r o w s a r e t h e o b v i o u s ones.
204 1 8 . 2
18.2. W i t h e v e r y f E ~ ( V ) w e a s s o c i a t e a f a m i l y ( f ( n ) ) n 6 N of e l e m e n t s of
=
~ V ) , c a l l e d the h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p o n e n t s o f f , b y t h e e q u a t i o n
( 1 ) f(Tx) = I f ( n ) ( x ) T n ,
n = 0
for a l l x ~ V R , R 6 k - a l ~ . H e r e T
@ T n V R . H e n c e (i) d e f i n e s f(n)(x)
e v e r y t h i n g is f u n c t o r i a l . W e s a y t h a t
is a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e a n d T x 6 VR[T]
u n i q u e l y , a n d it is e a s i l y c h e c k e d t h a t
f is h o m o g e n e o u s of d e ~ r e e n if f(n)
= f . T h i s is e q u i v a l e n t w i t h
f(~x) = ~nf(x)
for a l l e 6 R , x C V R , R C k - a l g . (Warning: u n l e s s V is f i n i t e l y s p a n n e d
f m a y h a v e i n f i n i t e l y m a n y n o n - z e r o h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p o n e n t s ; h o w e v e r , for e a c h
x 6 V R o n l y f i n i t e l y m a n y of t h e f(n)(x) a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m zero).
L e t i/ (i = 1,2) b e k - m o d u l e s , a n d let T. b e i n d e t e r m i n a t e s . F o r
i i
f 6 ~ ( V 1 V 2) t h e h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p o n e n t s of b i d e g r e e (m,n) o f f a r e d e f i n e d
b y t h e e q u a t i o n
f ( x l , x 2 ) = [ f<m'n)(xl,X2)TlmT ~ ,
m , n = O
for a l l (Xl,X2) C (VI) R (V2) R , R C k - a l g . S i m i l a r l y as b e f o r e , f is c a l l e d
h o m o g e n e o u s of b i d e g r e e (m,n) if f = f(m,n); e q u i v a l e n t l y , if
m n
f ( ~ i X l , e 2 x 2 ) = ~ l e 2 f ( x l , x 2 )
for a l l
m + n ,
~ i 6 R , x i ~ (Vi) R ,
a n d w e h a v e
R C k - a l g . T h e t o t a l d e g r e e of
f (m,n) is
f ( n ) = Z f ( i , j )
i+j = n
1 8 . 3 2 0 5
A l l t h i s g e n e r a l i z e s i n t h e o b v i o u s w a y t o t h e c a s e o f m o r e t h a n t w o m o d u l e s .
T h e p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n s o f d e g r e e z e r o o n V m a y o b v i o u s l y b e i d e n t i f i e d
w i t h e l e m e n t s o f k , a n d a l i n e a r f o r m f o n V d e f i n e s a p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n
o f d e g r e e o n e o n V . C o n v e r s e l y , l e t f 6 ~ ( V ) b e h o m o g e n e o u s o f d e g r e e o n e ,
a n d d e f i n e g @ ~ ( V V) b y g ( x , y ) = f ( x + y ) . T h e n g i s h o m o g e n e o u s o f t o t a l
d e g r e e o n e , a n d h e n c e w e h a v e , e x p a n d i n g i n t o b i h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p o n e n t s , t h a t
g = g ( l , 0 ) + g ( 0 , 1 ) . B u t t h e n f ( ~ x + ~ y ) = g ( ~ x , B y ) = ~ g ( l ' 0 ) ( x , y ) + B g ( 0 ' l ) ( x , y )
i m p l i e s t h a t f = g ( l , 0 ) = g ( 0 , 1 ) i s a l i n e a r f o r m o n V . S i m i l a r l y , i t c a n b e
s h o w n t h a t t h e h o m o g e n e o u s p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n s o f d e g r e e t w o m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d
w i t h t h e q u a d r a t i c f o r m s o n V ( s e e R o b y [ l ] f o r d e t a i l s ) .
1 8 . 3 . P R O P O S I T I O N . T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .
(i) T h e m a p V R H O m k _ a l g ( ~ ( V ) , R ) i s b i j e c t i v e , f o r a l l R 6 k - a l g ;
( i i ) V i s a f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d a n d p r o j e c t i v e k - m o d u l e .
I f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e s a t i s f i e d ~P(V) i s c a n o n i c a l l y i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e s y m -
m e t r i c a l g e b r a o v e r t h e d u a l o f V .
( N o t e t h a t (i) j u s t m e a n s t h a t t h e f u n c t o r s
p h i c ; i . e . , ~ i s r e p r e s e n t a b l e b y ~ ( V ) ).
P r o o f . (i) ( i i ) : L e t A = ~ ( V ) , a n d l e t
v i ~ V ) b e t h e u n i q u e e l e m e n t s u c h t h a t
f r o m 1 8 . 1 . 3 t h a t
r
( i ) x = X
i = l
I n p a r t i c u l a r , f o r R = k w e s e e t h a t
m e n t s V l , . . . , v r . I f w e r e p l a c e x b y
a n d H O m k _ a l = ~ ( ~ ( V ) , - ) a r e i s o m o r -
r
X = [ v i ~ f i C V A ( w h e r e f i @ A ,
i = l
= I d A . L e t x 6 V R . T h e n i t f o l l o w s
v i ~ f i ( x ) 9
V i s g e n e r a t e d a s a k - m o d u l e b y t h e e l e -
T x i n (i) w h e r e T i s a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e
2 0 6 1 8 . 4
H O m k _ a l g ( S , R ) H O m k _ a l g ( A , R )
a n d c o m p a r e c o e f f i c i e n t s a t p o w e r s o f T w e s e e t h a t (i) h o l d s w i t h f. r e p l a c e d
i
b y %. = f(1). , t h e h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p o n e n t o f d e g r e e o n e o f f. w h i c h b y 1 8 . 2 i s
I i l
a l i n e a r f o r m o n V . I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e h a v e x = E % i ( x ) v i f o r a l l x e V , a n d
b y t h e d u a l b a s i s l e m m a , V i s f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d a n d p r o j e c t i v e .
V v
(ii) (i) : L e t S b e t h e s y m m e t r i c a l g e b r a o v e r t h e d u a l o f V . I f R C
k - ~ t h e n b y w e l l - k n o w n p r o p e r t i e s o f f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d p r o j e c t i v e m o d u l e s w e
h a v e V R ~ H O m k ( V ~ , R ) a n d b y t h e u n i v e r s a l p r o p e r t y o f S w e h a v e H O m k ( V V , R)
H O ~ k _ ~ ( S , R ) . D e n o t i n g f o r x 6 V R t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g k - a l g e b r a h o m o m o r p h i s m
S R b y x w e c a n d e f i n e a h o m o m o r p h i s m s ~ w f r o m S i n t o A b y s e t t i n g
s ( x ) = x ( s ) , f o r a l l x ~ V R , R ~ k - a l ~ . C o n v e r s e l y , c o n s i d e r t h e m a p
d e f i n e d b y t h e c o m m u t a t i v e d i a g r a m
V R ~ -- -~ H o m k _ a l g ( S , R )
J
H O m k _ a l ~ ( A , R )
F o r R = S w e o b t a i n a h o m o m o r p h i s m A + S
O n e c h e c k s t h a t t h e t w o h o m o r p h i s m s S A
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o I d S ~ H O m k _ a l g ( S , 8 ) .
a n d A S a r e i n v e r s e s o f e a c h o t h e r .
1 8 . 4 . A s s u m e t h a t V
X 6 V ~ ( V ) s u c h t h a t
h a v e
i s f i n i t e l y g e n e r a t e d a n d p r o j e c t i v e . T h e u n i q u e e l e m e n t
= I d a ( v ) i s c a l l e d t h e g e n e r i c p o i n t o f V . T h u s w e
f = X ( f ) = f ( X )
f o r a l l f C O ( V ) , a n d e v e r y
i f x : V~(V) + V R a l s o d e n o t e s t h e m a p i n d u c e d b y
c o n t e x t , o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e n o t a t i o n s f o r
x C V R ( R e k - a l g ) i s a " s p e c i a l i s a t i o n " o f X :
= ~ ( x ) ,
x : ~ ( V ) R . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e
f ( X ) i s m o r e c o n v e n i e n t , a n d
18.5 207
either one will be used.
Let V and W be finitely generated and projective k-modules. It is
well known that the symmetric algebra over V W is isomorphic with the tensor
product of the symmetric algebras over V and W . Hence it follows from 18.3
that the homomorphism 18.1.2 is an isomorphism.
Now assume that V is finitely generated and free, and let Vl,...,v n
be a basis of V over k . Then we have an isomorphism k[Tl,...,Tn]-~ ~(V) as
follows: If f(TI,...,T n) C k[Tl,...,Tn] and x = Z~ix i ~ V R (~i ~ R) we set
f(x) = f(~l,...,an) . Under this isomorphism, the generic point X of V cor-
responds to the element E T.v.1 i of Vk[TI,...,Tn~N . In the special case V = k
(with the natural basis i ) we will identify ~(k) and k[T] . Thus the indeter-
minate T is the generic point of k .
18.5. For k-modules V and W we define O ( V , W ) as the set of all morphisms
from ~ to W , and call its elements polynomial maps from V to W (as before,
these are not maps in the usual sense~). The homogeneous components of an element
f C ~ _ ~ ( V , W ) are defined as before. If W is finitely generated and projective
then the natural map ~ ( V ) ~ k W ~ C ~ ( V , W ) is an isomorphism.
18.6. Let f C ~ ( V , W ) . The differential of f is the element df ~ ( ~ ( V V , W )
defined by
for all x,y 6 V R . Here
f(x + r = f(x) + r ,
x + ey C VR(g) and R(g) is the algebra of dual num-
bers over R . To see that df(x,y) = df(x).y is linear in y let g ~ ( V
be defined by g(x,y) = f(x + y) , and let g = E g(i,j) be the expansion into
bihomogeneous components. Then
2 0 8 1 8 . 7
f ( x + ey) = [ g ( i ' J ) ( x , y ) e J = f ( x ) + e. I g ( i ' l ) ( x , y ) .
T h u s d f ( x ) = d f ( x , - ) e H o m R ( V R , W R) f o r a l l x e V R . I f V i s f i n i t e l y g e n e r a -
t e d a n d p r o j e c t i v e t h e n w e m a y c o n s i d e r d f a s a n e l e m e n t o f ~ D ( V , H O m k ( V , W ) ) o
I f f 6 ~ ( V , W ) i s h o m o g e n e o u s o f d e g r e e n w e h a v e E u l e r ' s d i f f e r e n t i a l
e q u a t i o n :
d f ( x ) . x = n . f ( x ) .
I n d e e d , f ( x ) + e d f ( x ) . x = f ( x + c x ) = f ( ( l + e ) x ) = ( l + e ) n f ( x ) = (i + n e ) . f ( x ) .
W e r e m a r k t h a t h i g h e r d e r i v a t i v e s , p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s , e t c . m a y a l s o b e
d e f i n e d , a n d t h a t a l l t h e u s u a l r e s u l t s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l c a l c u l u s ( c h a i n r u l e ,
s y m m e t r y o f h i g h e r d e r i v a t i v e s , . . . ) h o l d .
1 8 . 7 . F r o m n o w o n , l e t k b e a f i e l d , a n d l e t V b e a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l v e c t o r
s p a c e o v e r k . B y 1 8 . 4 , ~ ( V ) i s i s o m o r p h i c w i t h a p o l y n o m i a l a l g e b r a k [ T l , . . ,
T ] . F r o m t h i s i t f o l l o w s t h a t a n e l e m e n t f ~ ~ ( V ) i s u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y
n
t h e f u n c t i o n f: V + k , p r o v i d e d t h a t k i s i n f i n i t e . A l s o , ~ ( V ) i s a n e n t i r e
( e v e n f a c t o r i a l ) r i n g , a n d w e c a n f o r m i t s q u o t i e n t f i e l d ~ ( V ) , c a l l e d t h e f i e l d
o f r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s o f V . A c h o i c e o f b a s i s i n V g i v e s u s a n i s o m o r p h i s m
~ ( V ) = k ( T l , .... T n ) . S i n c e w e h a v e u n i q u e f a c t o r i z a t i o n i n ~ ( V ) e v e r y f C A ( V )
h a s a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n f = g / h , w i t h g a n d h r e l a t i v e l y p r i m e , w h i c h i s
u n i q u e u p t o a n o n - z e r o f a c t o r i n k . T h e d e n o m i n a t o r o f a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n o f
f i s c a l l e d a n e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r o f f .
I f W i s a n o t h e r f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l v e c t o r s p a c e w e s e t ~ ( V , W ) = ~ ( V ) ~ k
W a n d c a l l i t s e l e m e n t s r a t i o n a l m a p s f r o m V t o W ( a l t h o u g h , a g a i n , t h e s e a r e
n o t m a p s f r o m V t o W i n t h e u s u a l s e n s e ) . L e t W l , . . . , w m b e a b a s i s o f W .
T h e n a n e l e m e n t f 6 ~ ( V , W ) c a n b e w r i t t e n u n i q u e l y a s f = E f . w . w h e r e t h e f.
1 1 l
a r e r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s o n V , a n d w e c a n a l s o w r i t e f i = g i / h w h e r e t h e
1 8 . 8 2 0 9
f u n c t i o n s g l , . . . , g m , h 6 ~ ( V ) h a v e n o n o n - c o n s t a n t c o m m o n d i v i s o r . T h e n g =
E g i w i a n d h a r e u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y f ( u p t o a f a c t o r i n k ) a n d w e c a l l
f = g / h a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n , a n d h a n e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r o f f .
L e t R 6 k - a l ~ a n d x C V R . W e s a y t h a t f C ~ ( V , W ) ( w i t h e x a c t d e n o m i -
n a t o r h ) i s d e f i n e d i n x i f h ( x ) i s i n v e r t i b l e i n R . I n t h i s c a s e , w e s e t
f ( x ) = g ( x ) h ( x ) - I .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , l e t R = ~ ( V ) . T h e n f i s d e f i n e d i n t h e g e n e r i c p o i n t X C V ~ ( V )
~ ( V ) , a n d f = f ( X ) a s b e f o r e ( 1 8 . 4 ) .
1 8 . 8 . L e t f = g / h C ~ ( V , W ) b e a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n , a n d l e t f b e d e f i n e d i n
x 6 V R . T h e n f i s a l s o d e f i n e d i n x + e y @ V R ( e ) f o r e v e r y y C V R . I n d e e d ,
h ( x + E y ) - I = ( h ( x ) + E d h ( x ) y ) - I = h ( x ) - l ( l - ~ h ( x ) - i d h ( x ) y ) . T h e d i f f e r e n t i a l o f
f i s d e f i n e d a s u s u a l b y f ( x + Ey) = f ( x ) + s d f ( x ) y . N o w
f ( x + ey) = g ( x + e y ) h ( x + e y ) - I
= h ( x ) - l ( l - c h ( x ) - i d h ( x ) y ) ( g ( x ) + e d g ( x ) y )
= f ( x ) + E h ( x ) - 2 ( h ( x ) d g ( x ) y - g ( x ) d h ( x ) y )
a n d t h u s d f = ( h . d g - g . d h ) / h 2 c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e l e m e n t o f ~ J ~ ( V , H o m ( V , W ) ) .
T h e u s u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n r u l e s c o n t i n u e t o h o l d f o r r a t i o n a l m a p s .
1 8 . 9 . L e t K b e a n e x t e n s i o n f i e l d o f k . T h e n w e h a v e @ ( V K ) = ~ ( V ) ~ k K ; i n
p a r t i c u l a r , w e m a y c o n s i d e r ~ ( V ) t o b e c o n t a i n e d i n ~ ( V K ) . S o m e t i m e s , t h e e l e -
m e n t s o f ~ ( V K ) b e l o n g i n g t o ~ ( V ) a r e s a i d t o b e d e f i n e d o v e r k . A l s o , w e
h a v e ~ ( V ) ~ ~ ( V K ) ( b u t ~ ( V ) ~ k K # ~ ( V K ) '), a n d s i m i l a r l y f o r p o l y n o m i a l o r
r a t i o n a l m a p s w i t h v a l u e s i n s o m e v e c t o r s p a c e W . I f f = g / h e ~ ( V , W ) i s a
r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n t h e n i t r e m a i n s a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n i n ~ ( V K , W K ) . T h i s f o l -
2 1 0 1 8 . 1 0
lows f r o m b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s of p o l y n o m i a l r i n g s a n d is l e f t to t h e r e a d e r .
18,10. L e t k b e t h e a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e of k . T h e e l e m e n t s of ~ = W E a r e a l s o
c a l l e d g e o m e t r i c p o i n t s of V . S i n c e k i s i n f i n i t e e v e r y f C ~ ( V ) is u n i q u e -
ly d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f u n c t i o n f: V k . A s u s u a l , ~ c a r r i e s t h e
Z a r i s k i t o p o l o g y w h o s e c l o s e d s e t s a r e t h e s e t s d e f i n e d b y f i n i t e l y m a n y e q u a t i o n s
fl(x) = ... = fr(X) = 0 w h e r e f C ~ ( V ) If f. 6 ~ ( V ) t h e n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
' i " i
s e t is c a l l e d k - c l o s e d . T h e (coarser) t o p o l o g y d e f i n e d b y t h e k - c l o s e d s e t s is
c a l l e d t h e k - t o p o l o g y .
T o p o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y w i l l a l w a y s r e f e r to t h e Z a r i s k i t o p o l o g y . W e r e -
c a l l t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o p e r t y t h a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of a n y two o p e n a n d d e n s e
(= o p e n a n d n o n - e m p t y ) s u b s e t s is a g a i n o p e n a n d dense. A l s o , e v e r y f ~ ( ~ )
d e f i n e s a c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n o n V . If f = g / h is a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n of a
r a t i o n a l m a p f ~ ( ~ , W ) t h e n f is d e f i n e d o n t h e o p e n a n d d e n s e s u b s e t of a l l
x ~ ~ w h e r e h(x) # 0 .
18.11. L E M M A . L e t k b e a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d , a n d let f. C ~ ( V ) b e n o n - c o n -
1
s t a n t (i = l , . . . , m ) . T h e n t h e r e e x i s t s v C V a n d a s u b s p a c e V' of c o d i m e n s i o n
o n e of V w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s .
(i) V = V' ~ k . v .
(ii) If w e i d e n t i f y V w i t h V' k a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y i d e n t i f y t h e g e n e r i c
p o i n t X of V w i t h (X',T) (where X' a n d T a r e t h e g e n e r i c p o i n t s of V'
a n d k ) t h e n f. = f . ( X ' , T ) ~ ~ ( V ' k) ~ ( V ' ) [ T ]
i 1
a m o n i c p o l y n o m i a l of p o s i t i v e d e g r e e i n T .
is, u p to a n o n - z e r o c o n s t a n t ,
T h i s is j u s t a r e s t a t e m e n t of a c l a s s i c a l l e m m a (cf. v a n d e r W a e r d e n II,
w
1 8 . 1 2 2 1 1
1 8 . 1 2 . P R O P O S I T I O N . L e t X a n d Y b e t h e g e n e r i c p o i n t s o f t h e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i -
o n a l v e c t o r s p a c e s V a n d W o v e r k . L e t f i = f i ( X ' Y ) C ~ ( V W ) ( i = i , . . . ,
n ) a n d l e t f 0 = f 0 ( X ' Y ) b e t h e i r g r e a t e s t c o m m o n d i v i s o r . L e t F = ~ ( W ) , a n d
l e t ~ i ~ ( V F ) b e d e f i n e d b y ~ i ( X ) = f i ( X , Y ) (i = 0 , . . . , n ) . T h e n 4 0 i s t h e
g r e a t e s t c o m m o n d i v i s o r o f ~ i , . . . , ~ n . A l s o t h e r e e x i s t s a d e n s e o p e n s u b s e t U
o f W s u c h t h a t f o r a l l y C U t h e g r e a t e s t c o m m o n d i v i s o r o f t h e f u n c t i o n s
f i ( X , y ) ~ ( ~ ) ( i = i . . . . . n ) i s f 0 ( X , y ) .
P r o o f . S i n c e F i s t h e q u o t i e n t f i e l d o f t h e r i n g A = ~ ( W ) a n d ~ ( V W ) =
~ ( V ) ~ A a n d ~ ( V F ) = ~ ( V ) ~ F , t h e f i r s t s t a t e m e n t f o l l o w s f r o m G a u s s ' s l e m m a .
F o r t h e s e c o n d , a n e a s y i n d u c t i o n s h o w s t h a t i t s u f f i c e s t o p r o v e t h i s f o r n = 2.
A l s o w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t k = k i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d . L e t f 0 g i = f i ( = 1 , 2 )
s o t h a t g l a n d g 2 a r e r e l a t i v e l y p r i m e i n ~ ( V W ) . W e m a y a s s u m e t h a t
T !
g I ( X , Y ) r e a l l y d e p e n d s o n X . W r i t e g I ( X , Y ) = ~ g j ( X ) g ~ ( Y ) w i t h g j n o n - c o n -
s t a n t , a n d c h o o s e a d e c o m p o s i t i o n V ~ V' k a s i n 1 8 . 1 1 . T h e n g I ( X , Y ) =
g I ( X ' , T , Y ) = h i ( T ) ~ ( V ' W ) [ T ] i s a p o l y n o m i a l i n T w h o s e h i g h e s t c o e f f i c i -
e n t b e l o n g s t o ~ ( W ) , i . e . , i t d e p e n d s o n l y o n Y a n d n o t o n X ' . L e t h 2 ( T )
= g 2 ( X , Y ) = g 2 ( X ' , T , Y ) . T h e n t h e r e s u l t a n t r = r ( X ' , Y ) o f h I a n d h 2 w h i c h
i s a n e l e m e n t o f ~ ( V ' W ) i s n o t z e r o . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e s e t
U 1 = { y ~ W I r ( X ' , y ) # 0 }
i s o p e n a n d d e n s e i n W . S i n c e g l ( X ' , T , y ) i s m o n i e i n T t h i s m e a n s t h a t
g l ( X , y ) = g l ( X ' , T , y ) a n d g 2 ( X , y ) = g 2 ( X ' , T , y ) a r e r e l a t i v e l y p r i m e i n ~ ( V ) ,
f o r a l l y ~ U 1 . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t c o m m o n d i v i s o r o f f l ( X , y ) a n d
f 2 ( X , y ) i s f 0 ( X , y ) , f o r a l l y 6 U = UI~'~ U 0 w h e r e
U 0 = { y C W I f 0 ( X , Y ) # 0 } .
212 1 8 . 1 3
18.13. P R O P O S I T I O N .
a n d l e t f b e a r a t i o n a l m a p f r o m V W
g / h .
(a) T h e r e e x i s t s a n o p e n d e n s e s u b s e t U
L e t V , W , Z b e f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l v e c t o r s p a c e s o v e r k ,
i n t o 2 w i t h r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n f =
f(X,y) is a r a t i o n a l m a p f r o m V to
p r e s s i o n f o r it.
(b) L e t F = ~ ( W ) . T h e n ~(X) = f(X,Y)
a n d # = ~ / ~ is a r e d u c e d e x p r e s s i o n for
~(X) = N(X,Y) C ~ ( V F ) a n d 6
of W s u c h that, for a l l y 6 U ,
a n d g ( X , y ) / h ( X , y ) is a r e d u c e d e x -
is a r a t i o n a l m a p f r o m V F i n t o Z F ,
w h e r e y(X) = g(X,Y) 6 ~ ( V F , Z F)
T h i s f o l l o w s im~nediately f r o m 18.12.
N O T E S
F o r u n i v e r s a l e n v e l o p e s of J o r d a n a l g e b r a s a n d J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s s e e
J a c o b s o n [ 2 ~ , M c C r i m m o n [ 7 J , L o o s [ 5 J . B y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n it is k n o w n t h a t t h e u n i v e r -
s a l e n v e l o p e of a f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l s e p a r a b l e J o r d a n a l g e b r a o v e r a f i e l d o f c h a -
r a c t e r i s t i c # 2 is s e p a r a b l e . It w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g to h a v e a n a p r i o r i p r o o f of
this a n d a l s o e x t e n d it to t h e J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m resp. J o r d a n p a i r case.
In t h e c a s e of a l i n e a r J o r d a n p a i r , t h e c o n c e p t of V - s o l v a b i l i t y (14.3)
w a s f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d b y M e y b e r g [ l , 2 ] . It is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to s o l v a b i l i t y i n t h e
K o e c h e r - T i t s a l g e b r a c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m V , a n d is a l s o s i m i l a r to P e n i c o - s o l v a b i -
l i t y for J o r d a n a l g e b r a s . 1 4 . 1 0 a n d 1 4 . 1 1 w e r e f i r s t p r o v e d in L o o s [ 2 ] ( f o r c h a r k
# 2) a n d L o o s [ 5 ] f o r J o r d a n t r i p l e s y s t e m s , u s i n g at a c r u c i a l p o i n t t h e a l g e b r a i c
213
g r o u p a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e K o e c h e r - T i t s a l g e b r a of V . H e r e w e g i v e a n e l e m e n t a r y
p r o o f w h i c h r e q u i r e s o n l y E n g e l ' s t h e o r e m (in 14.9). T h e p r o o f of 1 4 . 1 1 f o l l o w s
t h e l i n e s of the c o r r e s p o n d i n g o n e for J o r d a n a l g e b r a s ( M c C r i m m o n L l 0 ] ) b u t is
a c t u a l l y s o m e w h a t s i m p l e r s i n c e o n e d o e s n ' t h a v e to w o r r y a b o u t s q u a r e s i n a J o r -
d a n pair.
F o r t h e t h e o r y of C a r t a n s u b a l g e b r a s of J o r d a n a l g e b r a s w e r e f e r to J a c o b -
s o n ~ 2 ] , s e e a l s o Loos[8J . T h i s t h e o r y s e e m s to b e r e s t r i c t e d to l i n e a r J o r d a n a l -
g e b r a s o v e r f i e l d s of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c # 2. I n c o n t r a s t , t h e t h e o r y of C a r t a n s u b -
p a i r s o f J o r d a n p a i r s d e v e l o p e d h e r e w o r k s e q u a l l y w e l l i n a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h e i m p o r t a n t " d e n s i t y t h e o r e m " (15.15) w a s i n s p i r e d b y t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s u l t
for C a r t a n s u b a l g e b r a s of L i e a l g e b r a s of a l g e b r a i c g r o u p s ( D e m a z u r e a n d G r o t h e n -
d i e c k [ l ] ) . A l s o , t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of C a r t a n s u b p a i r s as c e n t r a l i z e r s of t o r i
o f m a x i m u m d i m e n s i o n a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e p r o o f f o r C a r t a n s u b p a i r s (15.20) is s i m i -
lar to t h e a l g e b r a i c g r o u p c a s e (see B o r e l [ l ] ) .
T h e a p p r o a c h to t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m p o l y n o m i a l as t h e e x a c t d e n o m i n a t o r of
a s u i t a b l e r a t i o n a l m a p is d u e to S p r i n g e r [ l ] f o r t h e c a s e of a J o r d a n a l g e b r a .
F o r a d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h w h i c h a l s o w o r k s in i n f i n i t e d i m e n s i o n s s e e J a c o b s o n [ 4 ] .
T h e p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n N ( x , y ) = N ( x ) N ( x -I - y) (cf. 16.3) w h i c h p l a y s a c o n s i d -
e r a b l e r o l e in t h e J o r d a n a l g e b r a c a s e ( M c C r i m m o n [ 9 ] ) a p p e a r s h e r e as t h e g e n e r i c
n o r m of t h e a s s o c i a t e d J o r d a n pair. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that t h e g e n e r i c m i n i m u m
p o l y n o m i a l as d e f i n e d h e r e d i f f e r s f r o m t h e o n e i n L o o s [ 2 ] b y a f a c t o r T .
It is a r e m a r k a b l e fact that t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of f i n i t e - d i m e n s i o n a l s i m -
p l e J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r a l g e b r a i c a l l y c l o s e d f i e l d s is i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c of t h e b a s e field. I n d e e d , f r o m t h e l i s t it is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e s e J o r d a n
p a i r s a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m J o r d a n p a i r s o v e r t h e i n t e g e r s b y r e d u c t i o n m o d u l o p a n d
e x t e n d i n g to t h e a l g e b r a i c c l o s u r e . T h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o v e r a r b i t r a r y f i e l d s r e -
d u c e s (by g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s , cf. D e m a z u r e a n d G a b r i e l [ 1 7 ) to a p r o b l e m i n G a l o i s
c o h o m o l o g y s i n c e t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p of a s e p a r a b l e J o r d a n p a i r is s m o o t h in
214
t h e s e n s e of g r o u p s c h e m e s (Lees[7]). A l l this is n o l o n g e r t r u e for q u a d r a t i c
J o r d a n a l g e b r a s w h i c h a g a i n i n d i c a t e s that J o r d a n p a i r s a r e a m o r e n a t u r a l concept.
T h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a l s o r e s e m b l e s t h a t of b o u n d e d s y m m e t r i c d o m a i n s . T h i s is n o
a c c i d e n t s i n c e t h e r e is a n a t u r a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n s e m i s i m p l e J o r d a n p a i r s
o v e r t h e c o m p l e x n u m b e r s a n d b o u n d e d s y m m e t r i c d o m a i n s u n d e r w h i c h J o r d a n p a i r s
w i t h i n v e r t i b l e e l e m e n t s c o r r e s p o n d to t u b e d o m a i n s . T h e g e n u s p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t
r o l e i n t h e t h e o r y of t h e s e d o m a i n s (see K o r a n y i [ l ] w h e r e it is d e n o t e d b y p ).
215
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