MAY 2006 | VOLUME 1 | NUMBER 2 9

RESEARCH NEWS
Using nanoparticles (NPs) for drug delivery of
anticancer agents has significant advantages
such as the ability to target specific locations in
the body, the reduction of the overall quantity
of drug used, and the potential to reduce the
concentration of the drug at nontarget sites
resulting in fewer unpleasant side effects.
For intravenously injected particles,
biocompatibility is the first issue. The second is
to promote specific carrier-target interactions
or devise specific carrier physicochemical
properties to enable selective targeting. Recent
research has made advances on both fronts.
Researchers from Harvard Medical School,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),
MIT-Harvard Center for Cancer Nanotechnology
Excellence, and Gwangju Institute of Science
and Technology in Korea have reported the
successful use of targeted NP-aptamer
bioconjugates for in vivo chemotherapy
[Farokhzad et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
(2006) 103, 6315]. The aim of the joint effort of
Omid C. Farokhzad and Robert Langers groups
was to design a system able to target cancer
cells specifically, introduce chemotherapy drugs
directly into the cells and release them over
time, and avoid uptake by noncancerous cells.
To achieve this, the researchers devised a NP-
based system using biodegradable and
biocompatible poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid).
An anticancer drug, in this case docetaxel (Dtxl),
is encapsulated in the 150 nm NPs. The surface
of the NPs is then functionalized with aptamers
(Apt) nucleic acid ligands that promote cell-
specific uptake by binding to target antigens,
analogous to antibodies. In this case, the RNA
aptamers that recognize the prostate-specific
membrane antigen (PSMA), which is expressed
by prostate cancer cells, are used. The NPs are
also functionalized with poly(ethylene glycol)
(PEG) to reduce uptake by tissue macrophages
and nontargeted cells. The polymeric NPs
dissolve slowly once inside the cancerous cell,
releasing the Dtxl. The rate of dissolution can be
designed into the system so that drugs are
released over a predetermined time.
After a single administration of the Dtxl-NP-Apt
bioconjugates into mice, which had been
implanted with human prostate cancer cell
lines, five out of seven animals showed
complete tumor reduction and all survived the
109-day study. The ability to treat tumors in
one go is particularly attractive. Early diagnosis
of cancer creates the opportunity for localized
treatment options, explains Farokhzad.
Since all of the components of the NP-based
system, except the RNA aptamers, are already
approved by the Food and Drug Administration
for clinical use, Farokhzad is confident that such
NP-based treatment systems could be feasible
in the near future, not only for cancer but other
diseases as well. As Langer explains, [we] can
put different things inside or on the outside of
the NPs. This technology can be applied to
almost any disease.
Cordelia Sealy
Nanoparticles target cancer cells in vivo
NANOPARTICLES
Nanoparticles turn up the heat
NANOPARTICLES
Researchers from Ohio University have developed a
novel way of studying the heat generated by metal
nanoparticles (NPs), especially Au, under optical
illumination. [Richardson et al., Nano Lett. (2006) 6,
783].
We wanted to understand how much heat can be
generated locally by nanoscale metal NPs when
illuminated with light, explains Alexander O. Govorov.
By using an ice matrix and observing the melting
effect, Hugh H. Richardson and coworkers were able to
characterize the heat generated by Au NPs.
This heat can be so intense that the melting of the
ice matrix looks like a nano-explosion, says Govorov.
The researchers found a strong dependence of the
melting effect on position, which they believe is the
result of the NPs with different geometries forming
complexes. Since each geometry has a unique thermal
response, this leads to an overall mesoscopic character
for the heat generation. The heat generation is also
enhanced in a collection of NPs.
The heat generation capabilities of NPs have been
suggested for several applications, including protein
labeling for all-optical imaging, fabricating composites
with novel thermal and optical properties, remote
release of drugs when excited by light, and
photothermal therapy for cancer treatment. This last
application has been the focus of much research in the
medical field. Recently, researchers from Georgia
Institute of Technology and the University of
California at San Francisco have found that Au
nanoparticles can be made to absorb and scatter much
more strongly in the near-infrared region if they are
rod-shaped [Huang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2006)
128, 2115]. The Au nanorods are synthesized and
conjugated to anti-epidermal growth factor receptor
monoclonal antibodies so that they bind onto the
surface of malignant cancer cells. The bound nanorods
make the malignant cells clearly visible when observed
in dark field, using a laboratory microscope. The
malignant cells also require only about half the laser
energy required to destroy nonmalignant cells
photothermally. The use of Au nanorods allows both
effective cancer cell diagnosis and photothermal
therapy, say the researchers.
Cordelia Sealy
A model of Au NPs excited with laser light and
results of calculated temperature increase for a
complex of 16 NPs (left). A surface map of the ice
using Raman spectroscopy. A crater on the surface
of the ice after massive heat generation from Au
NPs is visible (right). (Courtesy of Alexander O.
Govorov.)
Prostate cancer cells that have taken up
fluorescently labeled NPs (red) and can release
chemotherapy drugs. The cells nuclei and
cytoskeletons are stained blue and green.
(Courtesy of Benjamin A. Teply.)
MAY 2006 | VOLUME 1 | NUMBER 2 10
RESEARCH NEWS
Itamar Willner and colleagues at the Hebrew
University of Jersusalem, Israel have devised an
alternative to the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for
the amplified detection of DNA [Weizmann et al.,
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. (2006) 45, 2238].
PCR is the standard method for amplifying nucleic
acids for analysis, diagnosis, and manipulation. It is the
key that has advanced genome research, genetic
engineering, and DNA analysis. However, the PCR
process suffers from basic limitations, as it is error
prone, requires long analysis time intervals, and the
quantification of the analyzed DNA is limited,
explains Willner.
This led the researchers to design and demonstrate
another method based on a DNA/enzyme machine
that, on detection of a specific target sequence, is
activated to devour a supply of DNA fuel, giving a
fluorescent waste product and a further machine. The
formation of more DNA-cutting machines accelerates
further cleavage of the fuel, amplifying the fluorescent
signal that is produced, so it is large enough to be
detected.
The researchers demonstrate the potential of their
system by detecting one of the genetic mutations
characteristic of Tay-Sachs disease. The disease is fatal
in early childhood and the defective gene is thought to
be carried by 1 in 30 Ashkenazi Jews. The system was
able to detect the mutation with a sensitivity limit of
10 fM. The normal sequence gives a much smaller
signal even at micromolar levels, and other DNA
sequences give no detectable signal at all.
Despite this ultrahigh sensitivity, the researchers note
a saturation in fluorescent signal. Changes of orders of
magnitude in the concentration of the mutated
sequence are observed as only relatively small changes
in the evolved fluorescence.
The practical applications of such systems are
enormous, says Willner. DNA machines may be used
for the rapid analysis of pathogens or genetic
disorders. We believe that the development... is a
general, new scientific paradigm.
The group is already developing simpler and more
effective machines. Furthermore, the method is not
limited to DNA sensing. The machines can be
conjugated to protein antigen/antibody complexes to
provide a whole new sensing area for bioanalytics,
Willner told Nano Today.
Jonathan Wood
Biomolecular machine provides alternative to PCR
NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY
Technique images proteins in living cell membranes
CHARACTERIZATION
A scanning probe microscopy technique has been
adapted by a group of UK and US researchers to
allow the imaging of individual protein complexes
on the surfaces of live cells [Shevchuk et al.,
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. (2006) 45, 2212]. The
advance should open up new areas of membrane
biology, say the researchers from the University
of Cambridge, Imperial College London, The
Babraham Institute, Ionscope, and the University
of Kentucky.
There has been a great deal effort to use
scanning probe microscopies to image proteins
and structures on live cells directly, but without
much success since the cell surface is both soft
and responsive, explains David Klenerman of the
University of Cambridge.
The team adapted a technique called scanning ion
conductance microscopy (SICM) developed by
Paul Hansma and colleagues, improving the
resolution by an order of magnitude.
We believe [this] to be a major breakthrough,
says Klenerman. While such experiments have
been proposed ever since scanning probe
microscopy was developed 25 years ago, this is
the first time that they have been achieved. This
is not an iterative improvement in resolution but
a quantum step, since it allows individual protein
complexes to be imaged directly on the
membrane of live cells and their dynamics to be
followed.
A nanoscale pipette is used as the scanning probe
in SICM, and the ion current between an
electrode in the pipette and an electrode in the
sample chamber is used as the feedback control.
The probe senses a reduction in ion current when
a surface is encountered within a hemisphere
extending from the pipette tip with the same
radius as the pipettes inner radius. This means
that sensing is both vertical and lateral under the
tip, helping to prevent the pipette walls from
touching the cell surface.
Quartz pipettes with an inner diameter of 13 nm
were used in a SICM system with enhanced
mechanical stability and custom-designed
software. The resolution of the instrument was
tested by imaging a monolayer of bacterial
proteins arranged in a square lattice with a
spacing of 13.1 nm. The individual protein
molecules are clearly identifiable, and a fast
Fourier transform of the image indicates that the
lateral resolution is ~3-6 nm.
Having determined the capabilities of their SICM
setup, the group imaged the plasma membranes
of sperm cells. Under certain conditions, these
cells exhibit protrusions that are generally
thought to be transmembrane proteins or protein
complexes. SICM could visualize these
protrusions, showing two populations with
diameters of ~14 nm and ~30 nm in size. The
researchers observations reveal that a small
number of these proteins diffuse, disappear, or
appear over time in the cell surface, showing the
SICM technique can also follow changes in
membrane structure.
The next steps are to continue to improve the
instrument both hardware and software and
exploit the new capabilities to follow biological
processes on live cells down to the level of single
molecules, says Klenerman.
Jonathan Wood
SICM images of protein complexes in the surface of a sperm cell membrane. The images in (a) are taken
10 min apart. Areas where the position and shape of the proteins change over time are circled. By coloring
the two images red and green, then overlapping them (b), the changes are immediately apparent.
( 2006 Wiley-VCH.)
(a) (b)
MAY 2006 | VOLUME 1 | NUMBER 2 13
RESEARCH NEWS
Researchers from the University of
Chicago and Argonne National
Laboratory believe that they have
revealed the mechanism for the self
assembly of large areas of nanocrystal
monolayers [Bigioni et al., Nat. Mater.
(2006) 5, 265].
A lacy coffee-stain-like ring of material
with clumps of particles is usually left
behind when a drop of a colloidal
solution of nanoparticles (NPs) dries
on a surface. However, an alternative
drying behavior that produces highly
uniform, long-range-ordered
nanocrystal monolayers is possible. In
this regime, the morphology of a NP
film is controlled by evaporation
kinetics and particle interactions with
the liquid-air interface. At the start of
the process, a saturated two-
dimensional solution of NPs forms at
the liquid-air interface. Monolayer
islands of nanocrystals form on the top
surface of the drop, which grow and
merge to form a continuous
monolayer over the entire liquid-air
interface. Unlike ordinary two-
dimensional growth, the islands show
exponential and linear growth
behaviors. This creates monolayers
with exceptional long-range order and
an extraordinary degree of perfection
(of up to 10
8
particles), say the
researchers. The monolayer shows no
lace- or ring-like patterns and no
clumps of particles. The researchers
suggest two requirements for such
highly ordered self-assembly: (1) rapid
evaporation (to segregate particles
near the liquid-air interface); and
(2) an attractive interaction between
the particles and liquid-air interface
(to localize them on the interface).
This drop-dry self-assembly method is
simple, robust, scalable, and insensitive
to substrate material or topography,
making it an excellent candidate for
the fabrication of ultrathin films.
Cordelia Sealy
Self-assembly
leaves no stain
NANOPARTICLES
Blood compatibility is a vital
property for biomedical devices
intended for use in vivo.
Researchers from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute (RPI) and
Albany College of Pharmacy
have developed blood-
compatible carbon nanotubes
that could form the basis of
new generations of nanodevices
for medical applications
[Murugesan et al., Langmuir
(2006) 22, 3461].
The design of blood-compatible devices primarily relies on
the immobilization of the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) heparin
on their surfaces. Proteoglycans (PGs), consisting of a core
protein to which multiple GAG chains are linked, have
essential physiological, biochemical, and structural functions
within the body. Consequently, the researchers combined
these structures with carbon
nanotubes. We applied some
activation-coupling chemistry,
which we had previously
developed for the preparation of
blood-compatible plastics, to
carbon nanotubes, explains
Robert J. Linhardt of RPI. The
researchers replaced the core
protein of PGs with multiwalled
carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) and
heparinized the material in a
three-stage process.
We believe this represents a new enabling technology in the
field of nanomedicine, says Linhardt. It could be useful for
artificial or reconstruction of blood vessels, blood-compatible
dialyzers, and drug delivery systems. The researchers are now
undertaking in vivo animal studies.
Cordelia Sealy
Designing in blood compatibility
CARBON NANOTUBES
Nanorice combines best of both worlds
NANOPARTICLES
The plasmonic properties of metallic
nanostructures, where light interacts
with free electrons giving rise to
collective oscillations of charge density,
are attracting interest for a range of
applications. However, the rational
design and control of nanostructures
with structurally tunable plasmon
resonances and large, well-defined
optical fields is needed for real devices.
There are two current approaches,
both of which produce structures with
two tunable plasmon resonances:
cylindrical nanoparticles, or nanorods,
and dielectric core-metal shell
nanoparticles, or nanoshells.
Researchers from Rice University
have devised a hybrid nanoparticle
geometry that combines the plasmonic
properties of both nanorods and
nanoshells [Wang et al., Nano Lett.
(2006) 6, 827].
The rice-shaped nanoparticle consists
of a hematite dielectric core with a
nanometer-thick Au shell. We [grew] a
thin, homogeneous Au shell around a hematite particle
to create a layered nanostructure with a shape known
as a prolate spheroid, explains Naomi J. Halas. The
strong resemblance of the resulting
particles to grains of rice earned them
their moniker. Nanorice are special
particles because they truly are
hybrids, combining the tunable
plasmon properties of nanoshells with
the high field focusing shape of
nanorods in a single particle, says
Halas. The results indicate that
plasmon tunability arising from
variation in the shell thickness is far
more geometrically sensitive than
that arising from variation of the
length of the nanorice. Furthermore,
the plasmon modes of nanorice can be
tuned across a broader spectral range
than either nanorods or nanoshells.
The strong, tunable local fields make
nanorice suitable for surface-
enhanced spectroscopy sensing
substrates. The optical properties of
these nanoparticles are ideal for
sensing applications, says Halas.
Nanorice has advantages for
spectroscopic sensing and
characterization of large biomolecules, like proteins and
DNA, or biological samples.
Cordelia Sealy
Schematic of Au-coated hematite
nanostructure (top). Transmission
electron micrograph of nanorice
(middle). Calculated local
electromagnetic field for nanorice
illuminated at its plasmon resonant
frequency by light polarized in the
longitudinal axis of the structure
(bottom). [Credit: Hui Wang and
Fei Lee, Rice University.]
(Image courtesy of Robert J. Linhardt.)
MAY 2006 | VOLUME 1 | NUMBER 2 15
RESEARCH NEWS
Both the size and shape of Au nanoparticles (NPs)
affects their uptake by mammalian cells, according
to research from the University of Toronto,
Canada [Chithrani et al., Nano Lett. (2006) 6,
662]. The findings could influence the design of
more complex NPs being developed for biomedical
applications.
Fine-tuning the properties of NPs generally
involves altering their size and shape. However,
little is known about how such structural
reengineering can alter the nanostructures
interactions with cells. But measures that promote or
impede cellular uptake could have important
implications for the efficacy of biomedical applications.
This information could also help inform toxicity
studies.
Previously, researchers just looked at targeting
molecules on the surface of the nanostructures to
dictate uptake, says Warren C. W. Chan. It was
speculated that size and shape may influence how
nanostructures go into cells. However, no one
conducted a full study.
Chan and colleagues performed their investigations on
spherical and rod-shaped colloidal Au NPs 14-100 nm
in diameter. The nanostructures were incubated for
6 hours with HeLa cells in solution containing growth
medium and 10% serum. Cellular uptake of the NPs
can be observed using transmission electron
microscopy (TEM). Concentrations of Au within the
cells were measured using inductively coupled plasma
atomic emission spectroscopy.
A comparison of differently sized nanostructures
reveals that the HeLa cells accept more 50 nm
particles than any other. The greatest number of
50 nm NPs entering a cell was over 6000, whereas
maximum uptake for 14 nm and
74 nm sized NPs was only around 3000. The team
also observed significant variations in uptake
concentration for differently-shaped particles. For
instance, HeLa cells ingested 500% more 74 nm
spherical NPs and 375% more 14 nm spherical
NPs compared with the same size rod-shaped
particles.
Chan acknowledges that alternative nanostructure-
cell combinations could yield quite different results.
Uptake mechanisms could hinge on the number of
receptors that certain cells have and how those
receptors are clustered. The nature of molecules bound
to different NPs could also influence uptake processes.
All these variables need to be investigated.
This is the first study, Chan told Nano Today. We
really have to develop a full understanding of the
interface between nanostructures and biological
systems to develop knowledge of how to design these
nanostructures for biology.
Paula Gould
Size matters to cell uptake but so does shape
NANOPARTICLES
Nanofiber scaffold repairs brain tissue
BIOMATERIALS
Researchers from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, University of Hong Kong, and the
Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China,
have used a self-assembling peptide scaffold to
repair severed brain structures in blind rodents
and restore their sight [Ellis-Behnke et al., Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2006) 103, 5054].
The findings indicate that similar scaffolds could
be used to restore some critical functionality in
human victims of traumatic brain injury.
Restoring functionality, such as speech or sight,
following damage to the central nervous system
involves promoting the regrowth of branch-like
axons. Broken neuronal connections, which carry
out vital communications, can then be reinstated.
However, this is typically hampered by the
formation of scar tissue, the emergence of gaps in
nervous tissue, and the failure of many adult
neurons to initiate axonal extension.
The researchers opted to use a highly hydrated
nanofiber scaffold, formed spontaneously from
peptides, to create an environment conducive to
axon regeneration. They severed the optic nerve
of immature and adult hamsters, then injected
1% peptide scaffold solution directly into the
injury site. Subsequent follow-up revealed that
the gaps in the brain tissue had closed up and
axons had regrown across the lesion sites.
Behavioral studies on the treated adult rodents
indicated that six out of eight could respond to
visual cues. The two nonresponders had suffered
vascular injury during surgery. The treated groups
vision improved as testing progressed, indicating
the value of long-term rehabilitation.
The peptide scaffold has several advantages that
make it particularly suited to brain repair,
according to Rutledge G. Ellis-Behnke. The self-
assembling material can fill the voids of an
irregular cut, brain cells migrate into the scaffold,
it is biodegradable (disappearing from the brain
within about four weeks), and does not appear to
provoke a significant immune response.
While the material has considerable clinical
potential, research is needed to optimize the
scaffold formulation and understand how it might
be administered to patients with severe traumatic
brain injuries, says Ellis-Behnke. The team is taking
a two-pronged approach. A study of chronic injury
will assess the scaffolds performance in healing
optic nerves that have been severed and left for
up to a month. A second series of experiments will
look more specifically at stroke.
If we can reconnect parts of the brain that were
disconnected by a stroke, then we may be able to
restore speech to an individual who is able to
understand what is said, but has lost the ability to
speak, says Ellis-Behnke. This is not about
restoring 100% of damaged brain cells, but 20%
or even less may be enough to restore function,
and that is our goal.
Paula Gould
Photo of a section from the brain of an 8-month-
old hamster treated with a self-assembling peptide
nanofiber scaffold at the time of surgery. The
axons, shown by green fluorescence, have regrown
through the cut and have formed functional
connections at approximately 82% of normal
density. (Courtesy of Rutledge G. Ellis-Behnke.)
TEM images of Au nanoparticles with diameters of (a) 14 nm and
(b) 50 nm in cells. (Courtesy of B. Devika Chithrani.)
(a) (b)
MAY 2006 | VOLUME 1 | NUMBER 2 19
RESEARCH NEWS
Researchers from the University of
Zaragoza in Spain suggest that
inorganic materials, such as silica, can
offer the properties needed for
nanoparticle (NP)-based drug delivery,
namely nontoxicity, biocompatibility,
high stability, and a hydrophilic and
porous structure useful for tailoring
the encapsulation of drugs [Arruebo
et al., Chem. Mater. (2006), 18, 1911].
We have developed silica particles
belonging to the MCM family, as well
as hollow silica microcapsules,
explains Jesus Santamara. Fe is
deposited inside the porous structure
of the particles and microcapsules in
order to obtain magnetic drug-delivery
vectors. This enables the particles and
capsules to be targeted to specific
locations, such as a diseased organ, by
a magnetic field.
Both types of silica structure are small
enough to be transported through the
vascular system. The release rate from
the silica structures could be
controlled by adjusting their size and
porous structure, suggests Santamara.
The magnetic material is embedded
inside the silica matrix, which has
advantages in minimizing potential
side effects.
The researchers are undertaking in vivo
animal studies and drug diffusion
studies in simulated body fluids.
Cordelia Sealy
Silica key to
drug delivery
NANOPARTICLES
ZnO nanoparticles damage E. coli
TOXICOLOGY
Many concerns have been raised
about the impact of
nanoengineered materials on
the environment, so a study
showing that ZnO nanoparticles
can damage Escherichia coli cells
is likely to be the center of
considerable scrutiny [Brayner
et al., Nano Lett. (2006) 6, 866].
The ZnO nanoparticles (NPs)
used in the study are very similar to a semiconducting,
crystalline form of TiO
2
that is approved for use in
sunscreens. TiO
2
anatase has a band gap of 3.23 eV,
while the gap for ZnO is 3.3 eV. Both materials can
reflect and scatter ultraviolet (UV) A and B light. In
addition, ZnO is of interest for a variety of
applications in the microelectronics industry,
including sensors, photocatalysis, solar cells,
transparent electrodes, electroluminescent devices,
and laser diodes.
Researchers from the University of Paris 7 and the
Museum of Natural History, Paris synthesized ZnO
NPs in di(ethylene glycol) medium by forced hydrolysis
of Zn
2+
salts. Small molecules and macromolecules
were added to control the size and shape of NPs. Their
size, shape, and morphology were characterized by
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray
diffraction. Then the team
incubated E. coli overnight in
solutions of ZnO NPs with
differing concentrations
(10
-2
M to 10
-4
M).
Subsequent TEM analysis
shows that lower
concentrations of ZnO NPs
induce no damage in E. coli
cells. However, internalization
of NPs within E. coli cells and some cell leakage was
observed at concentrations higher than 1.3 x 10
-3
M.
Internalization of ZnO NPs may be influenced by the
attached molecules and macromolecules that were
added to control size, says Roberta Brayner. The
majority of NPs used by industry are stabilized by
molecules such as phosphines or surfactants such as
sodium decylsulfate. These molecules can be toxic to
living cells and the environment, she says. Very few
studies have been done on the toxicological impact of
these new hybrid nanomaterials.
The researchers are also carrying out conductometric
studies of cell content release, examining the effect of
varying particulate size, shape, and concentration on
bacterial growth, and looking at the mechanism of
cellular internalization.
Paula Gould
E. coli cells seen before (a) and after (b) contact
with ZnO NPs. (Courtesy of Roberta Brayner.)
(a) (b)
The increased production of nanoparticles (NPs) is making it
more likely that such materials will end up in watercourses,
either as medical or industrial waste, or when used as
ecological tools, with unknown consequences for aquatic life.
Now, research has shown that both TiO
2
and fullerene NPS
can be harmful to the freshwater zooplankton Daphnia magna
[Lovern and Klaper, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. (2006) 25, 1132].
The researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
used two alternative methods to prepare C
60
and TiO
2
NPs:
filtration in tetrahydrofuran and sonication. The average
diameter of the TiO
2
particles is 10-20 nm, while that of C
60
is 0.72 nm. Groups of young D. magna were then exposed to
four test solutions with varying concentrations of NPs. The
number of D. magna still alive in each solution after 1 hour,
24 hours, and 48 hours was assessed.
Exposure to both filtered C
60
and TiO
2
caused mortality in the
zooplankton. Filtered C
60
proved to be lethal at much lower
concentrations than TiO
2
, confirming suspicions that smaller
particles could be more harmful. The method of NP
preparation also appeared to affect toxicity. Solutions of
unfiltered, sonicated TiO
2
had little observable effect, even at
high concentrations. Mortality rates for sonicated C
60
fluctuated considerably, rather than increasing steadily with
concentration. The findings can be explained by the greater
spread of particle size in unfiltered solutions and the tendency
for particulate clumping, the researchers suggest.
The results should be useful to those seeking to establish
guidelines for nanoparticle handling and disposal, says Sarah B.
Lovern. Daphnia are a great species to study because they
have been used in toxicity tests for many other chemicals. So
the results of this study can be compared to other studies of
potentially harmful compounds, she says. The researchers are
now focusing on other, nonlethal effects that fullerene and
TiO
2
NPs may have on aquatic organisms, as well as
investigating other materials.
Mortality is important, but Daphnia change their behavior
when a contaminant is present in a body of water. These
changes in behavior may make them more likely to be preyed
upon by fish and could affect the food web, she says.
Paula Gould
Zooplankton suffer under nanoparticle exposure
TOXICOLOGY
Correction
In the February issue of Nano
Today, we mistakenly stated
that the half-life of
18
F is 11 min
[Nano Today (2006) 1 (1), 13] ,
as the result of a typographical
error. The correct half-life is
110 min. We thank Douglas
Smyth of the Royal Adelaide
Hospital in Australia for bringing
this to our attention.