Yoga

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga
For other uses, such as Hatha Yoga or Yoga postures, see Yoga (disambiguation)
Statue of Shiva performing Yogic meditation in the admasana posture.
Yoga (Sanskrit: , !"S#: yga, !": $%o g&' ) refers to traditiona( ph)sica( and
menta( discip(ines originating in !ndia* to the goa( achieved b) those discip(ines* and
to one of the si+ orthodo+ (,stika) schoo(s of Hindu phi(osoph).
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/a%or branches of )oga inc(ude 0a%a Yoga, 1arma Yoga, 2nana Yoga, 3hakti Yoga,
and Hatha Yoga.
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0a%a Yoga, compi(ed in the Yoga Sutras of atan%a(i, and
known simp() as )oga in the conte+t of Hindu phi(osoph), is part of the Samkh)a
tradition.
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/an) other Hindu te+ts discuss aspects of )oga, inc(uding the 8edas,
9panishads, the 3hagavad :ita, the Hatha Yoga radipika, the Shiva Samhita and
various #antras.
#he Sanskrit word yoga has man) meanings,
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and is derived from the Sanskrit root
yuj, meaning <to contro(<, <to )oke< or <to unite<.
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#rans(ations inc(ude <%oining<,
<uniting<, <union<, <con%unction<, and <means<.
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@utside !ndia, the term yoga is
t)pica(() associated with Hatha Yoga and its asanas (postures) or as a form of
e+ercise. " practitioner of Yoga is ca((ed a Yogi (gender neutra() or Yogini (feminine
form).
History of yoga
Main article: History of yoga
Ahi(e the most ancient m)stic practices are vague() hinted at in the 8edas, the ascetic
practices (tapas) are referenced in the 3r,hma as (>?? 3BC and 6?? 3BC),
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ear()
commentaries on the 8edas. #he 0ig 8eda, ear(iest of the Hindu scripture mentions
the practice.
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Bertain() breath contro( and curbing the mind was practiced since the
8edic times.
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opu(ar )oga writer :eorg Feuerstein be(ieves that )oga was
fundamenta( to 8edic ritua(, especia(() to chanting the sacred h)mns.
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!n the 9panishads, an ear() reference to meditation is made in 3rihadaran)aka
9panishad,
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one of the ear(iest 9panishads (appro+. >?? 3BC). #he main te+tua(
sources for the evo(ving concept of Yoga are the midd(e 9panishads, (ca. 5?? 3BC),
the /ahabharata (6th c. 3BC) inc(uding the 3hagavad :ita (ca. .?? 3BC), and the
Yoga Sutras of atan%a(i (4?? 3BCD.?? 3BC). Severa( sea(s discovered at !ndus
8a((e) Bivi(iEation (c. 44??F-;?? 3B) sites depict figures in a )ogaD or meditationD
(ike posture, <a form of ritua( discip(ine, suggesting a precursor of )oga< that point to
Harappan devotion to <ritua( discip(ine and concentration<, according to
"rchaeo(ogist :regor) osseh(.
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Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
!n !ndian phi(osoph), Yoga is the name of one of the si+ orthodo+ phi(osophica(
schoo(s.
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#he Yoga phi(osophica( s)stem is c(ose() a((ied with the Samkh)a
schoo(.
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#he Yoga schoo( as e+pounded b) atan%a(i accepts the Samkh)a
ps)cho(og) and metaph)sics, but is more theistic than the Samkh)a, as evidenced b)
the addition of a divine entit) to the Samkh)aGs twent)Dfive e(ements of rea(it).
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#he para((e(s between Yoga and Samkh)a were so c(ose that /a+ /H((er sa)s that
<the two phi(osophies were in popu(ar par(ance distinguished from each other as
Samkh)a with and Samkh)a without a Iord....<
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#he intimate re(ationship between
Samkh)a and Yoga is e+p(ained b) Heinrich Jimmer:
#hese two are regarded in !ndia as twins, the two aspects of a sing(e discip(ine.
S,kh)a provides a basic theoretica( e+position of human nature, enumerating and
defining its e(ements, ana()Eing their manner of coDoperation in a state of bondage
(bandha), and describing their state of disentang(ement or separation in re(ease
(mok a ), whi(e Yoga treats specifica(() of the d)namics of the process for the
disentang(ement, and out(ines practica( techniKues for the gaining of re(ease, or
Giso(ationDintegrationG (kaivalya).
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#he sage atan%a(i is wide() regarded as the founder of the forma( Yoga phi(osoph).
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atan%a(iGs )oga is known as 0a%a )oga, which is a s)stem for contro( of the mind.
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atan%a(i defines the word <)oga< in his second sutra,
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which is the definitiona(
sutra for his entire work:

yoga! citta"vtti"nirodha #
D Yoga Sutras -..
#his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. !. 1. #aimni
trans(ates it as <Yoga is the inhibition (nirodha) of the modifications (vtti) of the
mind (citta)<.
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Swami 8ivekananda trans(ates the sutra as <Yoga is restraining the
mindDstuff (Bitta) from taking various forms (8rittis).<
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" scu(pture of a Hindu )ogi in the 3ir(a /andir, Le(hi
atan%a(iGs writing a(so became the basis for a s)stem referred to as <"shtanga Yoga<
(<CightDIimbed Yoga<). #his eightD(imbed concept derived from the .>
th
Sutra of the
.
nd
book, and is a core characteristic of practica(() ever) 0a%a )oga variation taught
toda). #he Cight Iimbs are:
(-) Yama (#he five <abstentions<): nonDvio(ence, nonD()ing, nonD
covetousness, nonDsensua(it), and nonDpossessiveness.
(.) Mi)ama (#he five <observances<): purit), contentment, austerit), stud),
and surrender to god.
(4) "sana: Iitera(() means <seat<, and in atan%a(iGs Sutras refers to the seated
position used for meditation.
(5) rana)ama (<Iengthening r,na<): Pr$na, (ife force, or vita( energ),
particu(ar(), the breath, <,),ma<, to (engthen or e+tend. "(so interpreted as
contro( of prana.
(6) rat)ahara (<"bstraction<): Aithdrawa( of the sense organs from e+terna(
ob%ects.
(7) Lharana (<Boncentration<): Fi+ing the attention on a sing(e ob%ect.
(;) Lh)ana (</editation<): !ntense contemp(ation of the nature of the ob%ect
of meditation.
(=) Sam,dhi (<Iiberation<): merging consciousness with the ob%ect of
meditation.
Bhagavad Gita
Main article: %hagavad &ita
#he 3hagavad :ita (GSong of the IordG), uses the term yoga e+tensive() in a variet) of
wa)s. !n addition to an entire chapter (ch. 7) dedicated to traditiona( )oga practice,
inc(uding meditation,
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it introduces three prominent t)pes of )oga:
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1arma )oga : #he )oga of action
3hakti )oga : #he )oga of devotion
2nana )oga : #he )oga of know(edge
/adhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa -5>?) divided the :ita into three sections, with the
first si+ chapters dea(ing with 1arma )oga, the midd(e si+ with 3hakti )oga, and the
(ast si+ with 2nana (know(edge).
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@ther commentators ascribe a different G)ogaG to
each chapter, de(ineating eighteen different )ogas.
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Hatha Yoga
Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika
Hatha Yoga is a particu(ar s)stem of Yoga described b) Yogi Swatmarama, compi(er
of the Hatha Yoga radipika in -6th centur) !ndia. Hatha Yoga differs substantia(()
from the 0a%a Yoga of atan%a(i in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the
ph)sica( bod) as (eading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vita(
energ) (tha).
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Bompared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of
atan%a(iGs 0a%a )oga,
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it marks the deve(opment of asanas (p(ura() as fu(( bod)
GposturesG now in popu(ar usage.
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Hatha Yoga in its man) modern variations is the st)(e that man) peop(e associate with
the word <Yoga< toda).
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3ecause its emphasis is on the bod) through asana and
pranayama practice, man) western students are satisfied with the ph)sica( hea(th and
vita(it) it deve(ops and are not interested in the other seven (imbs of the 0a%a Yoga
tradition.
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[edit] Yoga practices in other traditions
"(though Yoga has basica(() been a Hindu practice, its e(ements have crept
throughout the wor(d and ma%or re(igions (ike 3uddhism, 2ainism, Sufism, a(( being
m)stic re(igions, have embraced the practice as being a ho() one.
Yoga and Sufism
#he deve(opment of Sufism was considerab() inf(uenced b) !ndian )ogic practises,
where the) adapted both ph)sica( postures (asanas) and breath contro( (prana)ama).
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#he ancient !ndian )ogic te+t, "mritakunda, (<oo( of Mectar)< was trans(ated into
"rabic and ersian as ear() as the --th centur).
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Yoga and Buddhism
Main article: Yoga and %uddhism
Yoga is intimate() connected to the re(igious be(iefs and practices of the !ndian
re(igions.
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#he inf(uence of Yoga is a(so visib(e in 3uddhism, a descendant of
Hinduism, which is distinguished b) its austerities, spiritua( e+ercises, and trance
states.
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Yogacara Buddhism
Yogacara (Sanskrit: <ractice of Yoga $9nion'<
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), a(so spe((ed )og,ch,ra, is a
schoo( of phi(osoph) and ps)cho(og) that deve(oped in !ndia during the 5th to 6th
centuries.
Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the
practices that (ead to the path of the bodhisattva.
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#he Yogacara sect teaches yoga in
order to reach en(ightenment.
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h!an "Seon#$en% Buddhism
Jen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit <dh)ana< via the Bhinese
<chGan<
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) is a form of /aha)ana 3uddhism. #he /aha)ana schoo( of 3uddhism is
noted for its pro+imit) with Yoga.
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!n the west, Jen is often set a(ongside Yoga* the
two schoo(s of meditation disp(a) obvious fami() resemb(ances.
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#his phenomenon
merits specia( attention since the Jen 3uddhist schoo( of meditation has some of its
roots in )ogic practices.
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Bertain essentia( e(ements of Yoga are important both for
3uddhism in genera( and for Jen in particu(ar.
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&i'etan Buddhism
Yoga is centra( to #ibetan 3uddhism. !n the M)ingma tradition, practitioners progress
to increasing() profound (eve(s of )oga, starting with /ah, )oga, continuing to "nu
)oga and u(timate() undertaking the highest practice, "ti )oga. !n the Sarma
traditions, the "nuttara )oga c(ass is eKuiva(ent. @ther tantra )oga practices inc(ude a
s)stem of -?= bodi() postures practiced with breath and heart rh)thm. #iming in
movement e+ercises is known as #ru( khor or union of moon and sun (channe() pra%na
energies. #he bod) postures of #ibetan ancient )ogis are depicted on the wa((s of the
La(ai IamaGs summer temp(e of Iukhang. " semiDpopu(ar account of #ibetan Yoga
b) Bhang (->>4) refers to Lumo, the generation of heat in oneGs own bod), as being
<the ver) foundation of the who(e of #ibetan Yoga< (Bhang, ->>4, p;). Bhang a(so
c(aims that #ibetan Yoga invo(ves reconci(iation of apparent po(arities, such as prana
and mind, re(ating this to theoretica( imp(ications of tantrism.
Yoga and (slam
/a(a)siaGs top !s(amic bod) has passed a fatwa against /us(ims practicing )oga,
sa)ing it had e(ements of <Hindu spiritua( teachings< was hence b(aspheme) and
haraam. /us(im )oga teachers in /a(a)sia have criticiEed this decision and the fatwa
as <insu(ting<.
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. #he fatwa was app(ied based on the incorrect conc(usion that terms
(ike asanas used in Yoga are <Hindu< in nature
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Mews of the )oga ban prompted
criticism from activists and outrage from Yoga practitioners.
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Yoga and &antra
Main article: 'antra
#antrism is a practice that is supposed to a(ter the re(ation of its practitioners to the
ordinar) socia(, re(igious, and (ogica( rea(it) in which the) (ive. #hrough #antric
practice an individua( perceives rea(it) as ma)a, i((usion, and the individua( achieves
(iberation from it.
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#his particu(ar path to sa(vation among the severa( offered b)
Hinduism, (inks #antrism to those practices of !ndian re(igions, such as )oga,
meditation, and socia( renunciation, which are based on temporar) or permanent
withdrawa( from socia( re(ationships and modes.
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Luring tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation
techniKue, particu(ar() chakra meditation. #his is often in a (imited form in
comparison with the wa) this kind of meditation is known and used b) #antric
practitioners and )ogis e(sewhere, but is more e(aborate than the initiateGs previous
meditation. !t is considered to be a kind of 1unda(ini Yoga for the purpose of moving
the :oddess into the chakra (ocated in the <heart,< for meditation and worship.
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Goal of yoga
#he goa( of )oga ma) range from an)where between improved hea(th and reaching
Moksha.
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Aithin the monist schoo(s of "dvaita 8edanta and Shaivism the goa( of
)oga takes the form of /oksha, which is (iberation from a(( wor(d() suffering and the
c)c(e of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a rea(isation of identit)
with the Supreme 3rahman. !n the /ahabharata, the goa( of )oga is various()
described as entering the wor(d of 3rahma, as 3rahman, or as perceiving the 3rahman
or "tman that pervades a(( things.
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For the bhakti schoo(s of 8aishnavism, bhakti or
service to Svayam bhagavan itse(f is the u(timate goa( of the )oga process, wherein
perfection cu(minates in an eterna( re(ationship with 8ishnu, 0ama or 1rsna.
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Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine
Yoga is a hea(ing s)stem of theor) and practice. !t is a combination of breathing
e+ercises, ph)sica( postures, and meditation that has been practiced for more than
6,??? )ears.
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Ahi(e )oga evo(ved as a spiritua( practice in Hinduism, in the Aestern wor(d, a part
of )oga, known as "sana, has grown popu(ar as a form of pure() ph)sica( e+ercise.
Some Aestern forms have (itt(e or nothing to do with Hinduism or spiritua(it), but are
simp() a wa) of keeping fit and hea(th).
Yoga was introduced to "merican societ) in the (ate ->th centur) b) Swami
8ivekananda, the founder of the 8edanta Societ).
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He be(ieved that !ndia
has an abundance of spiritua( wea(th and that )oga is a method that cou(d he(p those
who were bound b) the materia(ism of capita(ist societies to achieve spiritua( we((D
being.
" surve) re(eased in /a) .??5 b) the Mationa( Benter for Bomp(ementar) and
"(ternative /edicine focused on who used comp(ementar) and a(ternative medicine
(B"/), what was used, and wh) it was used in the 9nited States b) adu(ts age -=
)ears and over during .??..
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"ccording to this surve), Yoga was the 6th most
common() used B"/ therap) (..=N) in the 9nited States during .??..
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Yoga is
considered a mindDbod) intervention that is used to reduce the hea(th effects of
genera(iEed stress.
History
Yoga dates back to over 6,??? )ears, and is a form of a spiritua( practice in !ndia. !n
the Aest, it has evo(ved from its founding phi(osoph). #oda), )oga is a (ucrative and
growing business. "bout -7.6 mi((ion "mericans spend near() O4 bi((ion annua(() on
c(asses and products, a Februar) .??6 po(( b) Harris !nteractive and Yoga (ournal
magaEine revea(ed.
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"n argument against the g(oba(iEation of )oga is that it is coDopting an ancient
spiritua( phi(osoph).
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3ecause )oga invokes idea(s of harmon), hea(th and
ba(ance, it PfitsQ we(( in the environment of modernit). @n one hand, the accu(turation
of Yoga in "merica and Curope can be viewed as a we(come ce(ebration of
mu(ticu(tura(ism, promoting more open and to(erant cu(tura( dispositions. @n the other
hand, the processes of commercia(iEation ma) have debased the sacred practice.
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Yoga as e+ercise has evo(ved into numerous subdivisions and variations. Maked )oga,
Bhair Yoga, "cro)oga and HipDHop Yoga are some of the few variations emerging.
#here is debate as to whether or not the term Hatha Yoga proper() describes )oga as
e+ercise, since the traditiona( Hatha Yoga s)stem originated as, and sti(( is, a spiritua(
path in its own right.
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Overview as alternative medicine
Yoga is be(ieved to ca(m the nervous s)stem and ba(ance the bod), mind, and spirit. !t
is thought b) its practitioners to prevent specific diseases and ma(adies b) keeping the
energ) meridians open and (ife energ) (rana) f(owing.
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Yoga is usua(() performed
in c(asses, sessions are conducted at (east once a week and for appro+imate() 56
minutes. Yoga has been used to (ower b(ood pressure, reduce stress, and improve
coordination, f(e+ibi(it), concentration, s(eep, and digestion. !t has a(so been used as
supp(ementar) therap) for such diverse conditions as cancer, diabetes, asthma,
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and !rritab(e 3owe( S)ndrome.
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Restorative Yoga
0estorative )oga is often associated with hea(ing from diseases. 0estorative )oga is
)oga practiced in a ver) re(a+ed state b) using supports instead of muscu(ar tension to
maintain the pose a(ignments. 0estorative poses he(p re(ieve the effects of chronic
stress in severa( wa)s. First, the use of props provide a comp(ete() supportive
environment for tota( re(a+ation. Second, each restorative seKuence is designed to
move the spine in a(( directions. #hird, a we((DseKuenced restorative practice a(so
inc(udes an inverted pose, which reverses the effects of gravit). 3ecause we stand or
sit most of the da), b(ood and ()mph f(uid accumu(ate in the (ower e+tremities. 3)
changing the re(ationship of the (egs to gravit), f(uids are returned to the upper bod)
and heart function is enhanced. Fourth, restorative )oga a(ternate() stimu(ates and
soothes the organs. Aith this movement of b(ood comes the enhanced e+change of
o+)gen and waste products across the ce(( membrane. Fina((), )oga teaches that the
bod) is permeated with energ). rana, the mascu(ine energ), resides above the
diaphragm, moves upward, and contro(s respiration and heart rate. "pana, the
feminine energ), resides be(ow the diaphragm, moves downward, and contro(s the
function of the abdomina( organs. 0estorative )oga ba(ances these two aspects of
energ) so that the practitioner is neither overstimu(ated nor dep(eted.
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Yoga as exercise for treating diseases
#he popu(ariEation in the Aest of the medica( aspect of Yoga is (arge() attributed to
Lr.Swami Sivananda SaraswatiGs 3ihar Schoo( of Yoga. /ost )oga c(asses consist of
a combination of ph)sica( e+ercises, breathing e+ercises, and meditation. #hese
characteristics make )oga a particu(ar() beneficia( kind of e+ercise for peop(e with
certain hea(th conditions, inc(uding heart disease/h)pertension, asthma, and back
prob(ems.
For peop(e with heart prob(ems, studies have shown )oga to he(p peop(e )oung and
o(d. Specifica((), )oga seems to promote heart hea(th in severa( wa)s, inc(uding
regu(ating high b(ood pressure and improving resistance to ps)cho(ogica( stress.
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Yoga a(so has the potentia( to buffer against the harmfu( effects of bodi() se(fD
ob%ectification as we(( as to promote embodiment and we((Dbeing.
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However, in recent )ears, there have been increasing reports of )ogaDre(ated in%uries.
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#hese inc(ude carotid arter) tears, bu(ging disks, rotator cuffs, gang(ion c)sts,
compression of spine and h)pere+tension of the neck. "ccording to :ar) 1raftsow,
author of PYoga for #ransformationQ, man) )oga positions arenGt re(evant to
ever)bod). @rthopedic surgeon 2effre) Ha(brecht, /.L., medica( director for the
!nstitute for "rthroscop) and Sports /edicine in San Francisco and a specia(ist in
knee and hip prob(ems warns that both e+perienced and rookie )oga practitioners are
getting hurt. PYoga is marketed as such an innocuous thing,Q sa)s Ioren Fishman,
/.L., assistant c(inica( professor of rehabi(itation medicine at Bo(umbia 9niversit) in
Mew York Bit). P3ut without care, in%uries can abso(ute() happen.Q
Breast cancer studies
!n .??7, scientists at the 9niversit) @f #e+as conducted an e+periment on 7- breast
cancer patients. #hirt) of the patients participated in )oga around the time of their
radiation treatments. #he )oga was customiEed for the cancer patients* it focused on
breathing and re(a+ation, and e+c(uded difficu(t e+ercises, given possib(e (imitations
on range of motion. #he stud) found increased ph)sica( function, s(ight() better (eve(s
of socia( functioning, and (ower (eve(s of s(eep d)sfunction and fatigue. #here was no
difference in rates of an+iet) or depression.
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#here are man) studies avai(ab(e now that confirm success from patients doing Yoga,
a minimum of twice week(), whi(e undergoing treatments for their breast cancer.
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$clarify'
Hatha yoga
Main article: Hatha yoga
!n #he Aest, hatha )oga has become popu(ar as a pure() ph)sica( e+ercise regimen
divorced of its origina( purpose.
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Burrent(), it is estimated that about 4? mi((ion
"mericans and about 6 mi((ion Curopeans practice a form of hatha )oga. 3ut it is sti((
fo((owed in a manner consistent with tradition throughout the !ndian subcontinent.
#he traditiona( guruDstudent re(ationship that e+ists without sanction from organiEed
institutions, and which gave rise to a(( the great )ogis who made wa) into
internationa( consciousness in the .?th centur), has been maintained in !ndian,
Mepa(ese and some #ibetan circ(es.
Y@:"
the word )oga means <union< in Sanskrit, the (anguage of ancient !ndia where )oga
originated. Ae can think of the union occurring between the mind, bod) and spirit.
Ahat is common() referred to as <)oga< can be more accurate() described b) the
Sanskrit word asana, which refers to the practice of ph)sica( postures or poses.
"sana is on() one of the eight <(imbs< of )oga, the ma%orit) of which are more
concerned with menta( and spiritua( we(( being than ph)sica( activit). !n the Aest,
however, the words asana and )oga are often used interchangeab().
Yoga Poses
/an) peop(e think that )oga is %ust stretching. 3ut whi(e stretching is certain()
invo(ved, )oga is rea(() about creating ba(ance in the bod) through deve(oping both
strength and f(e+ibi(it). #his is done through the performance of poses or postures,
each of which has specific ph)sica( benefits. #he poses can be done Kuick() in
succession, creating heat in the bod) through movement (vin)asaDst)(e )oga) or more
s(ow() to increase stamina and perfect the a(ignment of the pose. #he poses are a
constant, but the approach to them varies depending on the tradition in which the
teacher has trained.
References
-. ) <Yoga has five principa( meanings: -) )oga as a discip(ined method for
attaining a goa(* .) )oga as techniKues of contro((ing the bod) and the mind* 4)
)oga as a name of one of the schoo(s or s)stems of phi(osoph) (dar!ana)* 5)
)oga in connection with other words, such as hatha") mantra") and laya",
referring to traditions specia(ising in particu(ar techniKues of )oga* 6) )oga as
the goa( of )oga practice.< 2acobsen, p. 5.
.. ) /onierDAi((iams inc(udes <it is the second of the two S,kh)a s)stems,<
and <menta( abstraction practised as a s)stem (as taught b) ataR%a(i and
ca((ed the Yoga phi(osoph))< in his definitions of <)oga<.
4. ) andit 9sharbudh "r)a (->=6). #he phi(osoph) of hatha )oga. Hima(a)an
!nstitute ress* .nd ed.
5. ) Sri Swami 0ama (.??=) #he ro)a( path: ractica( (essons on )oga.
Hima(a)an !nstitute ress* Mew Cd edition.
6. ) Swami rabhavananda (#rans(ator), Bhristopher !sherwood (#rans(ator),
atan%a(i ("uthor). (->>7). 8edanta ress* How to know god: #he )oga
aphorisms of atan%a(i. Mew Cd edition.
7. ) 2acobsen, p. 5.
;. ) For a (ist of 4= meanings of the word <)oga< see: "pte, p. ;==.
=. ) For <)oga< as derived from the Sanskrit root <)u%< with meanings of <to
contro(<, <to )oke, or <to unite< see: F(ood (->>7), p. >5.
>. ) For meaning -. %oining, uniting, and .., union, %unction, combination see:
"pte, p. ;==.
-?. ) For <mode, manner, means<, see: "pte, p. ;==, definition 6.
--. ) For <e+pedient, means in genera(<, see: "pte, p. ;==, definition -4.
-.. ) F(ood, p. >5.
-4. ) . 6- 'he *omplete +diot,s &uide to Yoga 3) 2oan 3udi(ovsk), Cve
"damson
-5. ) . 64- 'he Yoga 'radition 3) :eorg Feuerstein
-6. ) . 64= 'he Yoga 'radition 3) :eorg Feuerstein
-7. ) F(ood, p. >5.
-;. ) osseh( (.??4), pp. -55D-56
-=. ) For an overview of the si+ orthodo+ schoo(s, with detai( on the grouping of
schoo(s, see: 0adhakrishnan and /oore, <Bontents<, and pp. 564D5=;.
->. ) For a brief overview of the Yoga schoo( of phi(osoph) see: Bhatter%ee and
Latta, p. 54.
.?. ) For c(ose connection between Yoga phi(osoph) and Samkh)a, see:
Bhatter%ee and Latta, p. 54.
.-. ) For Yoga acceptance of Samkh)a concepts, but with addition of a categor)
for :od, see: 0adhakrishnan and /oore, p. 564.
... ) For Yoga as accepting the .6 princip(es of Samkh)a with the addition of
:od, see: Bhatter%ee and Latta, p. 54.
.4. ) /H((er (-=>>), Bhapter ;, <Yoga hi(osoph)<, p. -?5.
.5. ) Jimmer (->6-), p. .=?.
.6. ) For atan%a(i as the founder of the phi(osophica( s)stem ca((ed Yoga see:
Bhatter%ee and Latta, p. 5..
.7. ) For <ra%a )oga< as a s)stem for contro( of the mind and connection to
atan%a(iGs Yoga Sutras as a ke) work, see: F(ood (->>7), pp. >7D>=.
.;. ) ataR%a(i (.??-D?.D?-). <Yoga Sutras of ataR%a(i< (ete+t). Studio 45 Yoga
Hea(ing "rts. 0etrieved on .??=D--D.5.
.=. ) For te+t and wordDb)Dword trans(ation as <Yoga is the inhibition of the
modifications of the mind< see: #aimni, p. 7.
.>. ) 8ivekanada, p. --6.
4?. ) F(ood, p. -?.
4-. ) <...3hagavad :ita, inc(uding a comp(ete chapter (ch. 7) devoted to
traditiona( )oga practice. #he :ita a(so introduces the famous three kinds of
)oga, Gknow(edgeG (%nana), GactionG (karma), and G(oveG (bhakti).< F(ood, p. >7.
4.. ) :ambhirananda, p. -7.
44. ) 2acobsen, p. 57.
45. ) Iiving Yoga: Breating a Iife ractice D age 5. b) Bhrist) #ur(ington (page
5.)
46. ) :uiding YogaGs Iight: Yoga Iessons for Yoga #eachers D age -? b) Manc)
:erstein
47. ) /indfu(ness Yoga: #he "wakened 9nion of 3reath 3od) S /ind D age 7
b) Frank 2ude 3occio
4;. ) Hatha Yoga: !ts Bonte+t, #heor) and ractice 3) /ike( 3ur(e) (page -7)
4=. ) Feuerstein, :eorg. (->>7). 'he Shambhala &uide to Yoga. 3oston S
Iondon: Shambha(a ub(ications, !nc.
4>. ) Situating Sufism and Yoga
5?. ) Baro(ina Seminar on Bomparative !s(amic Studies
5-. ) #he Yoga #radition: its histor), (iterature, phi(osoph) and practice 3) :eorg
Feuerstein. !S3M =-.?=->.44. pg ---
5.. ) <Yoga,< /icrosoftT CncartaT @n(ine Cnc)c(opedia .??; U ->>;D.??;
/icrosoft Borporation. "(( 0ights 0eserved. C+act Vuote : <#he strong
inf(uence of Yoga can a(so be seen in 3uddhism, which is notab(e for its
austerities, spiritua( e+ercises, and trance states.<
54. W
a

b
Jen 3uddhism: " Histor) (!ndia and Bhina) 3) Heinrich Lumou(in,
2ames A. Heisig, au( F. 1nitter (page ..)
55. ) Cnc)c(opedia 3ritannica "rtic(e: Yogacara
56. ) Lan Iusthaus. 3uddhist henomeno(og): " hi(osophica( !nvestigation of
Yogacara 3uddhism and the BhGeng AeiDshih Iun. ub(ished .??.
(0out(edge). !S3M ?;??;--=75. pg 644
57. ) Simp(e #ibetan 3uddhism: " :uide to #antric Iiving 3) B. "(e+ander
Simpkins, "nne((en /. Simpkins. ub(ished .??-. #utt(e ub(ishing. !S3M
?=?5=4->>=
5;. ) #he 3uddhist #radition in !ndia, Bhina, and 2apan. Cdited b) Ai((iam
#heodore de 3ar). gs. .?;D.?=.!S3M ?D4>5D;-7>7D6 D <#he /editation
schoo(, ca((ed *h,an in Bhinese from the Sanskrit dhy$na, is best known in the
Aest b) the 2apanese pronunciation -en<
5=. ) Jen 3uddhism: " Histor) (!ndia and Bhina) 3) Heinrich Lumou(in, 2ames
A. Heisig, au( F. 1nitter (age +viii)
5>. ) Jen 3uddhism: " Histor) (!ndia and Bhina) 3) Heinrich Lumou(in, 2ames
A. Heisig, au( F. 1nitter (page -4). #rans(ated b) 2ames A. Heisig, au( F.
1nitter. Bontributor 2ohn /c0ae. ub(ished .??6 Aor(d Aisdom. 4=; pages.
!S3M ?>5-64.=>6 $C+act Kuote: <#his phenomenon merits specia( attention
since )ogic roots are to be found in the Jen 3uddhist schoo( of meditation.<'
6?. ) Jen 3uddhism: " Histor) (!ndia and Bhina) 3) Heinrich Lumou(in, 2ames
A. Heisig, au( F. 1nitter (page -4)
6-. ) #op !s(amic bod): Yoga is not for /us(ims D BMM
6.. ) $-'
64. ) $.'
65. ) $4'
66. W
a

b
#it(e: /esocosm: Hinduism and the @rganiEation of a #raditiona( Mewar
Bit) in Mepa(. "uthor: 0obert !. Iev). ub(ished: 9niversit) of Ba(ifornia
ress, ->>-. pp 4-4
67. ) #it(e: /esocosm: Hinduism and the @rganiEation of a #raditiona( Mewar
Bit) in Mepa(. "uthor: 0obert !. Iev). ub(ished: 9niversit) of Ba(ifornia
ress, ->>-. pp 4-;
6;. ) 2acobsen, p. -?.
6=. ) 2acobsen, p. >.
6>. ) 3rittanica Boncise <BharacteriEed b) an emphasis on bhakti, its goa( is to
escape from the c)c(e of birth and death in order to en%o) the presence of
8ishnu.<
[edit] Further reading
Iook up Yoga in
Aiktionar), the free dictionar).
"pte, 8aman Shivram (->76). 'he Practical Sanskrit .ictionary. Le(hi:
/oti(a( 3anarsidass ub(ishers. !S3M =-D.?=D?67;D5. (fourth revised S
en(arged edition).
Bhang, :.B.B. (->>4). #ibetan Yoga. Mew 2erse): Baro( ub(ishing :roup.
!S3M ?D=?76D-564D-
Bhatter%ee, Satischandra* Latta, Lhirendramohan (->=5). /n +ntroduction to
+ndian Philosophy, Cighth 0eprint Cdition, Ba(cutta: 9niversit) of Ba(cutta.
Lonate((e, 0ebecca 2. Hea(th: #he 3asics. 7th ed. San Francisco: earson
Cducation, !nc. .??6.
Feuerstein, :eorg. #he Shambha(a :uide to Yoga. -st ed. 3oston S Iondon:
Shambha(a ub(ications ->>7.
F(ood, :avin (->>7). /n +ntroduction to Hinduism. Bambridge: Bambridge
9niversit) ress. !S3M ?D6.-D54=;=D?.
:ambhirananda, Swami (->>=). Madhusudana Sarasvati %hagavad0&ita:
1ith the annotation &2h$rtha .3pik$. Ba(cutta: "dvaita "shrama
ub(ication Lepartment. !S3M =-D;6?6D->5D>.
Harinanda, Swami. Yoga and 'he Portal. 2ai Lee /arketing. !S3M
?>;=-5.>6?.
2acobsen, 1nut ". (Cditor)* Iarson, :era(d 2ames (Cditor) (.??6). 'heory /nd
Practice of Yoga: 4ssays in Honour of &erald (ames 5arson. 3ri(( "cademic
ub(ishers. !S3M >??5-5;6;=. (Studies in the Histor) of 0e(igions, --?)
1ea), 2ohn (.???). +ndia: / History. Mew York: :rove ress. !S3M ?D=?.-D
4;>;D?.
/ichae(s, "+e( (.??5). Hinduism: Past and Present. rinceton, Mew 2erse):
rinceton 9niversit) ress. !S3M ?D7>-D?=>64D-.
/ittra, Lharma Sri. "sanas: 7?= Yoga oses. -st ed. Ba(ifornia: Mew Aor(d
Iibrar) .??4.
/H((er, /a+ (-=>>). Si6 Systems of +ndian Philosophy7 Samkhya and Yoga)
8aya and 9aiseshika. Ba(cutta: Susi( :upta (!ndia) Itd.. !S3M ?D;77-D5.>7D
6. 0eprint edition* @rigina(() pub(ished under the tit(e of 'he Si6 Systems of
+ndian Philosophy.
osseh(, :regor) (.??4). 'he +ndus *ivili:ation: / *ontemporary
Perspective. "(ta/ira ress. !S3M >;=D?;6>-?-;...
0adhakrishnan, S. * /oore, B" (->7;). / Sourcebook in +ndian Philosophy.
rinceton. !S3M ?D7>-D?->6=D5.
Saraswati, swami sat)ananda. Movember .??. (-.th edition). <"sana
rana)ama /udra 3andha< !S3M =-D=7447D-5D-
#aimni, !. 1. (->7-). 'he Science of Yoga. "d)ar, !ndia: #he #heosophica(
ub(ishing House. !S3M =-D;?6>D.-.D;.
9sharabudh, "r)a andit. hi(osoph) of Hatha Yoga. .nd ed. enns)(vania:
Hima(a)an !nstitute ress ->;;, ->=6.
8ivekananda, Swami (->>5). Raja Yoga. Ba(cutta: "dvaita "shrama
ub(ication Lepartment. !S3M =-D=64?-D-7D7. .-st reprint edition.
Jimmer, Heinrich (->6-). Philosophies of +ndia. Mew York, Mew York:
rinceton 9niversit) ress. !S3M ?D7>-D?-;6=D-. 3o((ingen Series XX8!*
Cdited b) 2oseph Bambe((.
References
-. ) #he 3hagavadD:ita and 2ivana Yoga 3) 0amnara)an 8)as
.. ) Hatha Yoga: !ts Bonte+t, #heor) and ractice 3) /ike( 3ur(e) (page -7)
4. ) Mationa( Benter for Bomp(ementar) and "(ternative /edicine Surve) .??5
5. ) 3arnes , owe((D:riner C, /cFann 1, Mahin 0. <BLB "dvance Lata
0eport Y454. Bomp(ementar) and "(ternative /edicine 9se "mong "du(ts:
9nited States, .??.<. /a) .;, .??5. @n(ine (LF) tab(e - on page =.
6. ) http://www.)oga%ourna(.com/aboutZpress?.?;?6.cfm
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Bhicago ress, ->>>.
;. ) Strauss, Sarah. <ositioning Yoga: 3a(ancing "cts "cross Bu(tures<. Mew
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=. ) #e+tbook of Yoga D age 656 b) Yogeswar
>. ) Mature Bure at Home D age -7; b) Lr 0a%eshwari
-?. ) 3arnes , owe((D:riner C, /cFann 1, Mahin 0. <BLB "dvance Lata
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9nited States, .??.<. /a) .;, .??5. @n(ine (LF) see page ->. (@n page .?
this report states: <"(( materia( appearing in this report is in the pub(ic domain
and ma) be reproduced or copied without permission* citation as to source,
however, is appreciated.<)
--. ) 8an 8orous, Heather. <First Year: !3S (!rritab(e 3owe( S)ndrome)<, !S3M
-D67>.5D65;D>. Yoga chapter e+cerpted with authorGs permission at He(p For
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-.. ) <0e(a+ and 0enew<, b) 2udith Iasater, h.L., .#
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