INTRODUCTION TO UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND BEHAVIOUR

LESSON 1
Understanding of culture is the first step towards improving intercultural communication. This
lesson aims to understand why culture develops, highlights its essential features, define culture
and examine various dimensions and deep structure of culture that might influence intercultural
communication.
Basic Functions of culture:
1. To improve the adaptation of members of the culture to a particular ecology and social
environment.
. Fulfills the basic needs! food shelter, physical protection
". Fulfills the derived needs! organi#ation of wor$, distribution of food, social control.
%. Fulfills the integrative needs! psychological security, social harmony and purpose in life.
&ulture has certain elements which mar$ a collection of people as a culture. These are history,
religion, values, social organi#ation and language.
'efining &ulture:
'ifferent researchers define culture differently. There are about 1(% definitions of culture in the
anthropology literature )*amovar and +orter ),,%-. /owever, for all practical purposes we will
focus on 0arsella1s definition:
Culture is shared learned behavior which is transmitted from one generation to another for
purposes of promoting individual and social survival, adaptation and growth and development.
Culture has both external (e.g. artifacts, roles, institutions) and internal representations (e.g.
values, attitudes, beliefs, cognitive styles, consciousness patterns and epistemologies).
The definition would include three attributes of culture: what people thin$, what people do, and
the things they made. 2n other words, culture is a way of life. 2t is important to recogni#e that
&ulture is not innate but learned. 2t is learned and transmitted through numerous channels such
as family, peer, media, church etc. &ulture can be enduring as it is passed on from one
generation to the next through communication. &ommunication ma$es culture a continuous
process. 3pparently, it depends on the ability for symbolic thought that is characteristic of human.
4arious symbols are used to transmit culture. These symbols are embedded in boo$s, languages,
pictures, films and even non5verbal behaviors such as using hand sha$e or bowing as symbols to
greet someone.
3nother important characteristic of culture is that it is not static but dynamic! cultures change and
evolve over time. 2nnovation through discovery of new practices, tools and concepts produce
changes in social habits and behavior, for instance, cellular phones have reshaped the lifestyle of
most people all over the world. /ence, changes in culture can be observed as a result of
environmental upheavals, war, migration, influx of immigrants and growth of new technologies.
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1. Evoked Culture5 is defined by cultural differences created by differing environmental
conditions activating a predictable set of responses. 7nvironmental conditions can
activate some behaviors, such as co5operation and sharing. 7veryone has the capacity to
share and cooperate, but the extents to which people share and cooperate depend upon
the external environmental conditions, such as variance in the food supply.
. Transmitted Culture5 consists of values, attitudes and beliefs that are transmitted within
and across generations through social interaction and learning. ;hen people have
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adopted a culture, they would tend to pass it on to the others. /ence, transmitted culture
plays an important role in defining the general norms for a group or society. For instance,
whether marriage should be parental decision or an individual1s choice is often the result
of family sociali#ation. :anguage is one of the most important symbolic tools used in the
transmission of culture.
". Cultural Universals5 this approach tries to identify aspects of culture that are universal
or similar to all culture groups. These elements can be found across all cultures but the
way they are expressed might vary from culture to culture. *ome examples of cultural
universals would be sports, religiousity, music, basic emotions, even the practice of
funeral rites. &ultural universals unite all people in a common bond of humanity.
'207<*29<* 9F &U:TU67: /ofstede1s 4alue 'imensions
The lac$ of precision, and the lac$ of a universally applicable framewor$ for classifying cultural
patterns, has been addressed by a number of researchers. The most famous and most often
cited wor$ in this area is the research by the 'utch organi#ational anthropologist /ofstede.
/ofstede derived his culture dimensions from examining wor$5related values in employees of 2B0
during the 1=>,s. /ofstede1s wor$ was one the earliest attempts using extensive statistical data
to examine cultural values. /e proposed five value dimensions!
A. 2ndividualism versus &ollectivism: This dimension is concerned about how individuals
relate to the other people in their group. 2ndividualistic cultures such as the cultures in the
west, allow more self5expression. The individual sees oneself as distinct from others in
the group, values autonomy and individual rights, while personal goals ta$e priority over
the group1s goals. 2n contrast, collectivistic societies such as those found in the eastern
parts of the world and *outh 3merica, emphasi#e the importance to yield to group1s goals
and sensitivity towards members1 needs. 2ndividuals in such culture earnestly observe
and behave according to their position in the group. /ence, there is greater readiness to
cooperate with the in5group members. 2ndeed, collectivistic people are relatively highly
interdependent with each other, sharing responsibilities in ta$ing care of each other.
B. Uncertainty 3voidance: This term defines the extent to which people within a culture
would be nervous when they are in situations which they perceive as unstructured,
unclear or unpredictable. 2n order to improve the predictability of such situations, people
would try to formulate and promote rules or codes of behaviors. &ultures with high
uncertainty avoidance express a strong need for written rules, planning, regulations and
ceremonies which add structure to the daily lives. 9n the other hand, cultures with low
uncertainty avoidance needs are not threatened by deviance and unconventional ideas,
they pri#e initiative, disli$e structure associated with hierarchy and are more willing to
ta$e ris$s.
C. +ower 'istance: +ower distance defines the extent to which the less powerful person in
society accepts ine?uality in power as a norm. +eople from high power distance countries
such as 2ndia, 3frica, Bra#il, and *ingapore believe that power and authority are facts of
life! these cultures teach their members that people are not e?ual in this world and people
low in power should respect and obey those higher in power than them. :ow power
distance countries such as 3ustria, <orway, United *tates, <ew @ealand and 2srael hold
that ine?uality in society should be minimi#ed. +eople in these cultures see people as
relatively e?ual in power. 2n organi#ation, for instance, it is not unusual for superiors to
consult the opinions of subordinates in ma$ing decisions.
D. 0asculinity versus Femininity: This dimension describes whether the prevailing values of
the society are assertive or nurturing. /ofstede used the term masculinity and femininity
to refer to the degree to which masculine and feminine traits are valued and manifested
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in a society. 0asculine cultures expect greater differentiation between the social roles of
men and women, emphasi#ing masculine traits such as assertive, ambitious and
competitive. &ultures that value femininity allow the gender roles to overlap significantly,
and advocate the importance of nurturing behaviors that build interpersonal relationships.
*uch cultures are supportive towards their members.
E. :ong versus *hort Term 9rientation: This dimension came about as a result of the
criticism /ofstede faced for collecting data with a western bias. This survey used a form
called the &hinese 4alue *urvey which included teachings of &onfucius. &ultures who
favor long term planning such as those in 2ndia, &hina, /ong Aong, 8apan and Bra#il.
*uch individuals are thrifty, motivated and dedicated. They tend to value long term results
and exhibit high perseverance in pursuit of these goals. /owever, those cultures that
ran$ low on long term orientation index such United *tates, Breat Britain, &anada and
+hilippines, easily submit to social pressure in terms of spending, concerned with short
term results and as such see$ immediate gratification of their needs.
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&ulture plays an important role in perception. The process of perception includes selection,
organi#ation and interpretation. ;e select information to attend to, organi#e or categori#e them,
and interpret them in meaningful ways. This process is highly influenced by culture. The beliefs,
values and norms prescribed and transmitted by cultures inevitably affect our perception of the
social reality. 2n a way it acts as a filter or framewor$ and we see our world through these cultural
lens. For instance, culture would determine what we are more li$ely to pay attention to. 6esearch
has found that when as$ed to explain what they see in a picture, &hinese tend to describe things
in the bac$ground more than the 3mericans. The same behavior is li$ely to be perceived
differently in different cultures. For example, 3merican family might perceive canning a child as a
form of child abuse, while traditional &hinese families thin$ that it is an appropriate way to
discipline the $id.
7very culture has its own belief system and values. +eople might or might not be conscious about
their beliefs though they are fundamental to a person1s worldview. For instance, in the past,
people believed that the earth was at the center of universe. /ence, beliefs are things or ideas
that are thought to be true or exist. Beliefs and values are intimately related. 3 person who
believes in the spiritual world, might pray to their ancestors, and therefore values ancestors5
worshipping as a form of virtue. 4alues are evaluative rules which teach a member of a culture
what is good or bad, right or wrong, morality and Custice. 2t is embedded in our socio5cultural
milieu. /owever, the value of a culture may not be the value of all individuals within that culture.
3ge, gender, personal experience, occupation may also shape the individual1s view of the social
environment. From the beliefs and values, cultural norms are formed. <orms are behaviors that
are considered appropriate in a society. 4iolations of cultural norms often result in DpunishmentE
such as social isolation.
DEEP STRUCTURE OF CULTURE
<obles )1=F,- identified the deep structure of culture as the philosophical assumptions
underpinning and reflected in the culture1s world view, ethos and ideology. The most important
beliefs can be found within the deep structure of the culture. 'eep structure of cultures informs us
the reasons behind the collective action of a culture group. 2n order to have in5depth
understanding of any culture, you need to appreciate the culture1s deep structure. *ome
intercultural conflicts arise from misunderstanding about each other1s religious beliefs rather than
due to personal issues. Family, *tate or community, and religion )worldview- are three social
organi#ations that form the deep structure of culture. 6eligiousity is a universal characteristic
exhibited in all humans, across all cultures. /ence, 6eligion is the most enduring element of the
deep structure of a culture. 2t serves a number of important psychological and social needs, and
unifies the culture. For instance, it provides comfort through the belief that supernatural aid is
available in times of crisis. Through rituals, religion may be used to enhance the learning of oral
traditions and plays an important role in maintaining social solidarity.
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'ominant religious traditions of the world
;e have chosen &hristianity, 8udaism, 2slam, /induism, Buddhism and &onfucianism as these
religions and their associated worldviews have lasted for centuries and shaped millions of people
across the world. 2t is noted that &onfucianism is not exactly a religion, but GH@philosophical
teachings of &onfucius and his disciples. 'ue to its far5fetching influences in the deep structures
of 3sian cultures, hence &onfucianism is also discussed here.
&hristianity: There are thousands of different &hristian denominations worldwide. /owever, most
profess the fundamental beliefs as follow:
The &hristian Bod is a triune Bod, meaning " persons5in5one )Bod the father, 8esus the son, and
the /oly *pirit-. &hristianity re?uires followers to have faith in 8esus, *on of Bod, as their only
*avior and 6edeemer. 3ll humans are sinners and will subCect to the Cudgment of Bod after
death. 8esus came to the world to save people from eternal punishment by dying for their sins on
the cross and was resurrected on the "
rd
day, proclaiming victory over death and devil.
&hristians practice organi#ed worship and Bod1s message based on the bible is shared with the
congregation every *unday. :ove is the central ethics in &hristianity. Believers are exhorted to
love Bod and love each other. The two greatest commandment cited by 8esus in the Bible is to
love Bod wholeheartedly, and Dlove your neighbor as yourselfE )0ar$ 1:F5"1-. D3nd as you wish
that others would do to you, do so to themE ):u$e (:"1-. 3pparently, the importance of love and
the proactive action based on love is valued and promoted in &hristianity.
7ven though membership in the church community is important to &hristians, however, personal
relationship with Bod is also emphasi#ed in order to mature spiritually. &hristians are encouraged
to have ?uiet time daily )i.e., build personal relationship with Bod through reading the bible,
meditating on Bod1s words and praying-. ;hile &hristians are urged to perform good deeds that
are pleasurable in Bod1s sight, their salvation are not based on good deeds. 2t is emphasi#ed that
salvation is only by faith in 8esus. Those who truly repent from their sins and turn to 8esus will be
forgiven and redeemed.
7ven though gender ine?uality prevailed in many ancient cultures of the world, the biblical view of
gender is more consistent with current perceptions. For instance, in many ancient cultures, men
could divorce their wives but not vice versa. 8esus banned all divorce except for adultery cases.
&hristianity offered women not only greater status and influence within the church but also more
protection as wives and mothers.
8udaism: 8udaism is one of the oldest religions being practiced today and smallest of all the maCor
religious traditions. /owever, it has had a profound effect on the entire world.
Fundamental beliefs:
8udaism has three essential elements! Bod, Torah and 2srael. They believe in one universal and
eternal Bod, who has entered into a special relationship or covenant with one people, the 8ews
are given the tas$ of being the Ination of the nations1 whose goal is to serve Bod. Torah is
commonly $nown as The Five Boo$s of 0oses, though sometimes it refers to the entire 8ewish
scriptures. 2t serves as an instruction manual for various subCect areas in daily lives. There is no
part of life the Torah doesn1t have an opinion on. 0uch of the teachings today consist of not only
the Torah, but also the oral traditions that had been added throughout the years. The oral
traditions are prescribed precise5instructions for the 8ews to follow, such as delineating exactly
how far they are allowed to travel on the *abbath day. 2srael is considered the /oly :and and
8ews are the only people who receive blessing from Bod. /ence, 8ews often consider
themselves as more superior than other races or ethnic groups.
8udaism is not only a religion that serves spiritual needs but a guide to worship, ceremonies,
Custice, friendship, $indness, intellectual pursuits and diet. The family is at core of 8ewish faith,
which actively participates in the religion as one, dedicating the whole family to religious activities.
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2slam: 2slam is one of the most widespread and most misunderstood religions in the world. 2slam
emerged in the 3rab world thousands of years ago with the arrival of +rophet 0uhammad5 who
was considered the messenger of Bod by the 0uslim people. 2t is believed that Bod spo$e to
0uhammad and he wrote down the divine words in Ju1ran )Aoran-, the holy boo$ of 2slam.
0uhammad delivered the religious message to 0uslims, established the social order and formed
a city5state $nown as 0adinah.
Fundamental beliefs:
Five pillars of faith. 1. There is only one, true, eternal Bod. . Bod wishes to communicate with
human beings he did so through prophets. 3braham, 0oses, 8esus were all prophets but the final
prophet 0uhammad revealed Bod1s eternal message. ". Bod revealed scriptures to humanity as
guidance for them and hold that the Juran is Bod1s final word and supersedes all previous
writings. %. The existence of angels. K. There is afterlife and final Cudgment, where those who
oppose 3llah and 0ohammed would be sent to hell.
Following the five pillars of faith, five pillars of practice serve to strengthen the faith, which
delineate the ways of worship and instructions for proper social conduct. These include details on
the re?uirements to recite the creed, pray five times a day, almsgiving )similar to tithes-, fasting
during the holy month of 6amadan, and ma$e a pilgrimage to 0ecca once in a lifetime.
The additional pillar of 8ihad is one of the most misinterpreted concepts of 2slam, which is often
reduced to refer to holy war. 8ihad has two meanings: The first is the inner 8ihad or Istruggle with
oneself1 a battle all individuals have in order to achieve a virtuous life. The outer 8ihad includes all
activities that either Ddefends 2slam or else further its causeE. 2n sum, 8ihad is much more complex
than Dholy warE. 7xtremists believe that if their cause is Cust, they could wage a war in defend of
their 0uslim faith or land.
/induism: There is no single founder, prophet, nor holy boo$ that serves as the highest or central
authority of the religion. 6ather, it is a collection of orally transmitted religious texts that teaches
religious thoughts, values and beliefs of /induism. 3mongst the /indus, one may find magic,
nature worship, animal veneration and an unlimited number of deities. They find divine in
everything, from the /imalayan pea$s to the several inconspicuous sites where the gods and
goddesses lived. 'aily rituals show that Bod is involved in their everyday lives and everything.
These include the lighting of incense, bathing, eating and marriage ceremonies.
There are multiple sacred texts and the oldest are the 4edas, of which the IUpanishads1 are the
most influential as it teaches the $nowledge of Bod and the live of sages. *ome fundamental
assumption of /indu beliefs: there are multiple realities outside material reality! satisfaction
obtained from the material world would not be lasting. /ence, one should strive for a state of
<irvana or spiritual enlightenment. This inner state of bliss would enable human to escape the
never5ending cycle of birth, death and reincarnation.
Buddhism: Buddhism was founded by an 2ndian prince named *iddhartha Bautama in about K("
B.&. Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to 2nsight into the true
nature of life. Buddhist practices such as introspection and meditation are means of changing
oneself in order to develop the ?ualities of awareness, $indness, and wisdom. These experiences
developed within the Buddhist tradition over thousands of years has created an incomparable
resource for all those who wish to follow a path L a path which ultimately culminates in
7nlightenment or Buddha hood. 7veryone can become a Buddha! salvation from suffering is only
possible by one1s own effort.
The Four <oble Truth forms the fundamental worldview of Buddhism. They describe that life is
nothing but suffering. 0uch of the sufferings are due to desire arising from ignorance. 2t is
possible to end the suffering and enCoy <irvana state through the attainment of 7ightfold +ath
)instructions on how to thin$ and behave in order to find enlightenment-. <irvana for Buddhism
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refers to a state of transformed consciousness or enlightenment, where one is at perfect peace
with the self and the reality.
Buddhism advocate a practical worldview where nothing is deemed permanent in this world! all
actions have conse?uences )$arma-! everyone can find truth and peace! and exercising
mindfulness through meditation helps to control our mind and find enlightenment. 3lthough
Buddhism is originally an 2ndian religion, but it has spread extensively across the world. There are
many different forms of Buddhism, but most advocate the ?ualities of compassion and wisdom,
meditation practices for transformation of the mind, and high tolerance for differences.
&onfucianism: &onfucius is the most respected teacher throughout the history of &hina.
&onfucianism is not really a religion, DitMs a system of social, political, ethical and religious thought
based on the teachings of &onfucius and his successorsE. 6eligious thoughts were very briefly
mentioned and in fact, &onfucius discouraged discussions about life after death, excerpts from
3nalects of &onfucius, we do not as yet understand life, how can we understand deathNE /ence,
it has no priests, no temples, and no religious rituals. 6ather, it provides practical principles on
how one should behave and live his life in the present, training oneself to attain the ideal
personality of the genuine gentlemen )-, who has high ethical standards and integrity. 2t also
emphasi#es social harmony, and provides guiding principles of proper social conduct expected of
individuals in the five cardinal relationships in society. The teachings of &onfucius were recorded
by &onfucian1s disciples or written by his successors. 9ne of the most influential boo$s written
was the 3nalects ) - which contained aphorisms, sayings and proverbs that were believed to
be the most salient ideas of &onfucian philosophy.
The essence of all its teachings may be summed up under this one word I8en1 )-. The nearest
e?uivalent to this difficult word is Osocial virtueO. 3ll those virtues which help to maintain social
harmony and peace li$e benevolence, charity, magnanimity, sincerity, respectfulness, altruism,
diligence, loving $indness, goodness are included in 8en. &onfucius laid great importance on the
cultivation of character, purity of heart and conduct.
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2n this lesson, we discussed culture as a complex and dynamic process. 2ndividuals who are well
informed in cultural $nowledge are more li$ely to have successful intercultural communication.
/ence, it is essential to have some fundamental understanding of what is culture and how does it
influence people.
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