INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The identity of an atom is given by the atomic number Z. Z denotes the number of protons
in the nucleus. It is also equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom. The electrons are
responsible for the chemical characteristics of the atom. The mass of protons and neutrons
are approximately the same, but that of electrons are about 1 800 times less.



The number of neutrons in an atom is described by N, but in general Z N (for lighter
elements, Z = N). The protons inside the nucleus repulse ach other, and this Coulomb force is
offset by the nuclear forces between nucleons (protons and neutrons). As the atomic number
increases, proportionally more neutrons are required to maintain the force balance required
for a stable nucleus.



The atomic mass number, A is given by the sum of the nuclei (A = Z + N).


Atoms that contain the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are known
as isotopes. For example, oxygen has three stables isotopes (N = 8, 9 and 10) and five
unstable (or radio-active) isotopes. Stable isotopes are found in naturally occurring elements,
but not in the same abundance. This declares why the atomic mass of oxygen listed in the
periodic table is close to (about 99. 8 % of oxygen is
16
O), but not exactly the same as the
mass of the isotope
16
O.

RADIO-ACTIVE DECAY

A nucleus can be exited (be in a higher energy state than the base state), say by a collision
with a neutron. However, it cant remain in an exited state indefinitely, and will emit a
photon (gamma ray) with energy required for it to fall back into a lower state. Only discrete
bands of energy states can be accessed. Think of a staircase either it is on a particular
step, or not. There is no in between state.

Unstable nuclei, lacking neutrons like
15
O may eject a positron (positive electron), to change
one of its protons into a neutron. Hence, it changes identity from Oxygen to Nitrogen. The
atomic mass number stayed the same.

A nucleus lacking neutrons may also capture one of its own inner electrons, and change a
proton into a neutron.

On the other hand, unstable isotopes with an excess of neutrons, like
19
O may eject an
electron to change identity to Fluorine (
19
F).

Nuclei that undergo -decay (emitting or capturing electrons and positrons) leave the nucleus
in an exited state, and it decay to a stable state by emitting one or more gamma rays.

Heavy (heavier than lead) unstable neutrons may emit an particle (Helium nucleus),
reducing its proton and neutron numbers by 2. For example
238
U may decay into
234
Th by
emitting an alpha particle. This reaction has a half-life of 4.68 10
9
years (by comparison,
the age of the earth is estimated at 6 10
9
years). Once again, the Thorium nucleus is left in
an exited state, and as it falls back to the ground state, it will emit -rays.

The probability that an unstable nucleus will decay per second is constant (decay constant ).
If there are n atoms in a sample, at time t, expect n disintegrations per second. The time
required for the number of disintegrations to fall to half its original value is called the half-
life.

BINDING ENERGY

According to Einstein, mass and energy are equivalent
2
mc E=
Due to the binding energy between the nucleons, the mass of a nucleus is slightly less than the
mass of the individual protons and neutrons it contains. This mass defect is the same as the
energy required to break the bonds between the nuclei. The binding energy is not constant for
all elements, but increase sharply with atomic mass number, up to a mass number of 56 (Fe),
whereafter it decreases gradually. Hence, a more stable nucleus is formed if a large nucleus is
split into two more or less equal parts and a few stray neutrons. Most of the neutrons are
released immediately upon fission, and are called prompt neutrons. Some of the larger fission
products will be unstable and eject a neutron at a later stage. These are called delayed
neutrons. The delayed neutrons enable one to control a nuclear reaction.



For example, the binding energy per nucleon for
235
U is about 7.6 MeV, compared to
8.4 MeV in the neighbourhood of A = 118. If the
235
U fissions, there is a gain in binding
energy of the system (and hence a reduction in mass), which is offset by an energy release
from the fission, in this case about 190 MeV.



Formation of fission products is not very predictable, but on average two groups of fission
products will form, releasing on average 207 MeV of energy. This translates to 83.14 TJ/kg
235
U. Compare this to the combustion hydrocarbon fuels, where combustion energy is
measured in MJ/kg. The fission products are left in an exited state, and will undergo
radioactive decay until a stable state is reached, a process that may take thousands of years.

In some atoms, the binding energy is much higher than that of their immediate neighbours.
This occurs for atoms having 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 or 126 neutrons or protons. These are called
magic numbers. Double magic (protons and neutrons have magic numbers) atoms are
especially stable, and have very small cross-sections. Compare it to the chemical
characteristics of noble gases.
NEUTRON INTERACTIONS

When a neutron collides with a nucleus, it may

Scatter (bounce) elastically off the nucleus (it may not necessarily be the same
neutron, but another ejected from the nucleus)

Scatter inelastically, leaving the nucleus in an exited state. The nucleus will undergo
gamma decay. Inelastic scattering will only happen if the neutron has sufficient
energy to place the target neutron at least in its first exited state.

Be captured by the nucleus. Once again, the nucleus is left in an exited state, and will
undergo gamma decay to get back to the ground state.

It may cause the nucleus to split apart (fission).

The cross section of an atom (electrons included) is about 2 10
-10
m, and that of a
235
U
nucleus 8 10
-15
m (i.e. the relative size of the nucleus is about the same as that of a tennis
ball to a rugby pitch). It is clear from this analogy that it isnt that easy to (randomly) hit a
nucleus. So if one fire a beam of neutrons with intensity I into a target plate, it will cause
only N collisions,
x A n I N =
with n the atom density of the material, and A x the total volume of the target
(n A x is the number of atoms in the target). The proportionality constant is called the
cross section (it has no relationship at all with the actual cross section A or the diameter of the
atom or nucleus). Neutron cross sections has the units of barn (10
-24
cm
2
). The product n
( = n) is called the macroscopic cross section, and is more often used in nuclear
engineering than on its own.

Each neutron/nucleus interaction above has its own cross section.


FISSION

Heavy nuclei will very seldom fission spontaneously. Energy has to be transferred to the
nucleus, usually by a neutron. First of all, the neutron must be captured. The fission cross
section of fissile materials typically vary with the inverse of the neutrons kinetic energy,
hence it is much easier to capture slow (thermal) neutrons (velocities below 2 200 m/s). In a
nuclear reactor, the neutrons are slowed down by multiple inelastic collisions with light atoms
in the moderator. Think gravel beds meant to catch runaway trucks at a steep downhill.

When a nucleus capture a slow neutron, the newly formed nucleus has an energy content
equal to the kinetic energy of the neutron, plus the binding energy of one additional neutron.
When this energy exceeds the critical energy required for fission, fission may occur. This is
true for only a few fissile isotopes (
232
Th,
233
U and
235
U,
239
Pu) which are used as reactor fuels.
For most other heavy nuclei, the neutron must have significant kinetic energy to induce
fission.



Neutrons released during fission (on average, 2.41 neutrons for
235
U) may interact with other
nuclei, inducing further fissions. This is called a chain reaction.

Some neutrons will leak out of the reactor, whilst other nuclei, like
238
U will also capture
neutrons, without fissioning. Natural occurring Uranium, containing only about 0.7 %
235
U
cant sustain a chain reaction. Hence, a certain enrichment level required. Neutron leakage is
reduced by wrapping the reactor in a reflector.

The multiplication factor k is defined as

generation previous in fissions of number
generation this in fissions of number
k =

If k > 1, the number of fissions increase from one generation to the next, and the chain
reaction is supercritical (nuclear bomb). If k < 1, the number of fissions decrease from one
generation to the next, and the chain reaction is subcritical. The chain reaction will peter out
and stop eventually. If k = 1, the chain reaction (and energy release) proceeds at a constant
rate (nuclear reactor). The chain reaction is critical. The challenge is to maintain k 1 by
control rods.



Control rods contain material with a very high macroscopic absorption cross section, like
Boron (about 250 times higher than that of
238
U). When the control rods are inserted deeper
into the fuel, boron will capture so many neutrons that the chain reaction becomes subcritical.
Withdrawing the control rods will free up more neutrons for the reactor to be (super)
critical again.

Certain fission products, especially
135
Xe and
149
Sm have very large absorption cross-sections
as well, and may poison the chain reaction.

The multiplication factor is also affected by temperature
T d
k d
k
T
2
1
=

T
is the temperature coefficient of reactivity.

If
T
is positive, an increase in temperature (loss of cooling) will lead to an increase in
reactivity without operator interference, and potentially a runaway reactor (Chernobyl).




If
T
is negative, an increase in temperature will lead to a decrease in reactivity, and the
reactor will shut down without operator interference (inherently safe reactor). Usually,
T

will be negative due to Doppler broadening of capture cross section of
238
U.

LIGHT WATER REACTORS

Light water reactors are thermal (moderated) reactors, using ordinary water as moderator,
coolant and reflector. It run on enriched fuel (typically 3 % - 8 %
235
U), since water readily
absorbs thermal neutrons, preventing natural Uranium to become critical. The fuel is in the
form of UO
2
pellets (i.e. a ceramic, that can withstand high temperatures), in Zirconium alloy
fuel rods. An air space is left at the top of the fuel rods for gaseous fission products to
accumulate. Fuel rods are bundled together in fuel assemblies for easier handling.





In a pressurized water reactor (Koeberg) water is not allowed to boil, at least not beyond the
nucleate boiling stage. A high pressure (15 MPa) is maintained in the reactor vessel, and
steam is generated in a second circuit. The pressurizer maintains reactor pressure to prevent
boiling. The pressurizer is half filled with water, and equipped with an immersion heater and
spray nozzle. In case of overpressure, the spray nozzle operates, and condenses some of the
steam in the upper part of the pressurizer. This will effectively reduce the reactor pressure.
On the other hand, if the reactor pressure drops, the immersion heaters will kick in and
generate additional steam in the pressurizer, effectively increasing the reactor pressure.



Water is allowed to boil in a boiling water reactor. Hence, the steam is generated in the
reactor itself and there is no need for (secondary) steam generators. On the down side, the
turbine, pumps and condenser all carries radioactive water, and must be shielded. Boiling
water reactors operate at about 7 MPa.

Light water reactors utilize only about 1 % of the energy available in nuclear fuel.
Furthermore, it produces
239
Pu, a long-lived radioactive isotope with a half-life of 24 110
years. Due to the Plutonium, radioactive waste from a light water reactor remains harmful for
up to 100 000 years.



FAST BREEDER REACTORS

Fast breeder reactors are used to convert
238
U into fissile
239
Pu (first interest from the military,
for producing bombs). The reactor is not moderated, and requires higher enrichment levels.
The
238
U readily captures fast neutrons, whilst fission of
239
Pu mostly results from capture of
thermal neutrons. A breeder reactor is designed to produces more fuel (
239
PU) than it
consumes, whilst a burner reactor consumes more fuel than it produces. The reactor has a
core of fissile
239
Pu, surrounded by a blanket of natural (or depleted) Uranium.

Most fast breeder reactors are cooled by liquid sodium. Sodium is a good heat transfer
medium but poor moderator. Hence, neutrons are not slowed down appreciably. Sodium has
a high boiling point (882 C at ambient pressure), and can be used to generate superheated
steam. Sodium melts at 98 C, and the entire system requires trace heating to prevent the
sodium from solidifying.

In a nutshell, breeder reactors utilize fuel much more effectively (about 200 times more
effective than a light water reactor). Their waste products decay faster, and do not pose a risk
after about 1000 years. Operational challenges, especially with water/sodium systems, and
the thread of nuclear proliferation, placed a damper on their development.


HEAVY WATER REACTORS

Heavy-water reactors use D
2
O (D =
2
H) as moderator and coolant. Heavy-water has a small
absorption cross-section for thermal neutrons, and the reactor can run on natural Uranium. It
is also an inferior moderator to ordinary (light) water. Thus, the core of the reactor is much
bigger. The moderator is contained in a large tank at near atmospheric pressure, crossed by
tubes containing fuel and pressurized coolant.

Light water reactors outnumber other reactors by far, and are used in power generation,
submarines and a few aircraft carriers. France (77 %), Japan (18 %), Ukraine (47 %) and the
USA (19 %) depend fairly heavily on nuclear power for electricity generation. The USA has
the largest installed nuclear capacity.



Spent fuel still generates considerable heat, and is stored on site for approximately 40 years.
During this time, it is kept in cooling ponds. Thereafter, it might be encased in concrete and
buried deep inside stable rock formations.


GAS COOLED REACTORS

Gas cooled reactors use graphite as moderator, and either CO
2
(low temperatures, < 540 C)
or He as coolant.

The first gas cooled reactors were the MAGNOX reactors in the United Kingdom. They run
on un-enriched metallic Uranium, use graphite as moderator, and CO
2
as coolant. The
Uranium was contained in non-oxidizing Magnesium/Aluminum alloy canisters. The first
reactors were used to breed Plutonium for the UKs weapons program. Britain shelved its
nuclear weapons program in the 1950s, and since then, all the reactors were used for power
generation. Hot CO
2
was used to generate steam to drive the power turbine. CO
2

temperatures were limited to 390 C.

Advanced gas cooled reactors developed from the MAGNOX reactors. Stainless steel
replaced the Magnesium alloys, and the fuel was enriched to 2 3 %. CO
2
temperatures
increased to 628 C, enabling the steam side to operate the same turbines as a conventional
coal fired power station.

High temperature reactors use Helium as coolant, and theoretically an outlet temperature of
1000 C can be reached. Fuel kernels are contained in a TRISO (a layer of pyrolytic carbon,
followed by a layer SiC, and an outer layer of pyrolytic carbon) coating. A porous carbon
layer allows gas (gaseous fission products) build-up in the fuel kernel. Approximately 11 000
coated particles are embedded in a fuel sphere.



A rough comparison with pressurized water reactors indicates equivalent functions:

Fuel pellet fuel kernel
Fuel rod coated particle
Fuel assembly fuel sphere (pebble)

The gas outlet temperature of a high temperature (gas) reactor is high enough to drive a gas
turbine. This negates the need for a steam generator. At 900 C, it is also capable of
supplying process heat for water splitting.



Pressure build-up due to phase change is avoided in a gas reactor, and loss of coolant
accidents tend to be less severe since the boiling crisis is avoided.



Two designs for high temperature reactors are currently proposed. One is for a pebble bed
reactor (fuel spheres, or pebbles), and the other having prismatic fuel blocks. It is possible to
refuel a pebble bed reactor on-line, whilst the reactor has to shut down for refueling if
prismatic fuel is used.

WHY NUCLEAR

The supply of fossil fuels is limited, and production will increase until a peak (Hubbert peak)
is reached. Thereafter, production will decline until the resource is depleted. In the case of
oil, production is already in decline. Coal will reach its peak soon. Uranium is subject to
exactly the same behaviour, and can only supply the worlds energy needs for about a 100
years.




Nuclear power plant makes up about 6 % of the total installed capacity in the world. It might
be required to make up the shortfall between supply and demand as fossil fuel production
declines, whilst renewable energy technologies mature.






Most individuals and governments have strong anti-nuclear political views. Accidents
reinforce negative perceptions about nuclear, and its contribution to the global energy mix
will probably decline.

The initial promise of electricity to cheap to meter was never realized.

EXPOSURE TO RADIATION

High doses of radiation (above 340 rem) will kill, normally within 60 days (firemen at
Chernobyl). Symptoms are nausea and vomiting, bleeding and hair loss. Fatalities
are proportional to the exposure, and start at about 200 rem. Survivors have an
increased probability of contracting cancer, often with a 30 years dormant period
before the effects are seen. Workers on a nuclear installation (should a severe
accident occur) and bomb victims usually fall in this category.




Continual exposure to low doses (a few milli-rems) increases the risk of cancer.
Young children are especially vulnerable. This is why there is an exclusion zone
around Chernobyl and Fukushima. Workers on a nuclear power station (400 mrems
per year), miners (through inhalation of Radon, a radioactive gas associated with the
decay of natural Uranium), smokers (an accumulation of Polonium on tobacco leaves;
8 000 mrems per year) and medical professionals (250 350 mrems per year) are
most likely victims in this group.

Once off exposure to low radiation doses have no ill effects (X-rays).

Man is exposed to several radiation sources. Cosmic (from outer space) and
terrestrial (earth bound) is everywhere. Airline crew receives higher doses (160 mrem
per year) than the general public. The body contains radioactive materials (
14
C and
40
K), and other sources are inhalation of
222
Rn, drinking water and foodstuff, all
containing radioactive material in various (minute) quantities. Across the United
States, terrestrial radiation varies from 15 140 mrems per year.

Fallout from nuclear weapons (attack on Japan, and various atmospheric tests in the
Pacific ocean) still contributes about 5 mrems annually. Nuclear power stations
contribute a further 1 mrem to the annual radiation dose.


Deliberate exposure to radiation is not justified. Exposure to radiation should be as
low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), and dose limits are set by the National
Nuclear Regulator (NNR). The NNR grant licenses to operators in the nuclear
industry (Uranium mining, power generation, hospitals, construction, etc.).



Prompt (high energy) neutrons are the most important group requiring biological
shielding. Fast neutrons must first slow down before they can be captured. Water is
very effective in moderating fast neutrons. Concrete, containing about 10 % water
(mass base) is the most common shielding material on a power plant. It also serves a
structural purpose at the same time.

When the thermal neutrons are absorbed, they emit a -ray. Usually, a heavy material
(steel, lead) is used to attenuate -rays.