This chapter describe about the theory of problem solving.

It consists of two sections

1- First section tells about the examples of different types of problems. And also explains
about the different kinds of problems
2- The second section describes about the general characteristics of theories related to
problem solving.
Mainly puzzles are discussed in this chapter are puzzles, one reason for considering this type of
problems is that they often appear in intelligence tests. Another reason is that when studying
puzzles, psychologists can be less concerned about differences in peoples education: everyone
must have an equal chance of understanding as compared to problems taken from text books.
A problem is any situation in which a person has a goal that has not yet been accomplished.
Problem solving occurs when a person has an open ended problem and knows the goal, but
nothing in the problem describes how to accomplish the goal. There are two main themes in
solving any problem:
a) Memory (Prior experience)
b) General Problem Solving routines.
Classifying Problems:
Examples of Problems:
A- Analogy
What word completes the analogy?
Merchant: Sell:: Customer: .
Lawyer: Client:: Doctor:.
B- String Problems
Two strings hang from a ceiling but are too far apart to allow a person to hold one
and walk to the other. On the floor are a book of matches, a screw driver, and a few
pieces of cotton. How could the strings be tied together?
C- Missionaries and cannibals:
Five missionaries and five cannibals who have to cross a river find a boat, but the
boat is so small that it can hold no more than three persons. If the missionaries on either
bank of the river or in the boat are outnumbered at any time by cannibals, they will be
eaten. Find the simplest schedule of crossings that will allow everyone to cross safely. At
least one person must be in the boat at each crossing.
D- Water Jar
You have an 8- gallon pail and a 5- gallon pail. How could you obtain 2- gallon s
of water?
E- Anagram
Rearrange the letters in each row to make an English word.
RWAET
KEROJ
F- Series Completion
What number or letter continues each series?
1 2 8 3 4 6 5 6 .
A B M C D M .
In attempt to improve the problem solving skills .There arises a question that what kind
of skills are required to solve different kinds of problems. The above list shows the
examples of problems studied by different psychologists.
The above mentioned six problems can be categorized into three categories of problems
based on the general kinds of psychological skills and knowledge needed to solve
different problems. These three kinds are:
1. Arrangement
2. Inducing structure
3. Transformation

1- Arrangement:

Arrangement problems present some objects and requires the problem solver to
arrange them in some specific way to fulfil the criteria. Anagram is a problem that
requires rearranging a string of letters to form a word. Example: The answer to the
problem Arrange the letters in LEPAP to make the name of a fruit is APPLE.
Arrangement problems present some objects and require the problem solver to arrange
them in a way that satisfies some criterion.
The problem requires the rearrangement of objects to form a new relation among them.
Often much trial and error is involved, during which partial solutions are formed and
evaluated.
The skills needed to solve such problems include

(1) Fluency in generating possibilities & rejecting those that are unpromising.

(2) Retrieval of solution patterns.

(3) Knowledge of principles that constrain search.

Arrangement problems received the most initial attention--they were first studied in great
depth by the Gestalt psychologists. Gestalt psychology emphasized the structure of
patterns and analyzed problem solving from this perspective.
It argued that discovering the correct solution usually occurs as a flash of insight. Insight
can be defined as the sudden discovery of a correct solution following a period of
incorrect attempts based on trial and error. For Gestalt whole is more than collection of
parts.
Insight problems: require to perceive problem as a whole.
One factor which sometimes interferes with finding a correct arrangement functional
fixedness which is a tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its most common
use.
A well-known example of problem described by Kohler (1925) in his book The
mentality of Apes. He hung some fruits from top of a cage to observe the behavior of
apes. Cage had several sticks and crates. The solution depended on finding the correct
way to rearrange the objects i.e. by standing on crate and using the stick.
Insight learning - the sudden understanding of the relationships between the elements of a
problem

2- Inducing Structure:

In problems of inducing structure the relation is fixed and the problem is to
discover what that fixed relation is.
The psychological processes involve identifying relations among the components and
fitting the relations together in a pattern. The classic example is an analogy problem.
It involves several steps:

The encoding process identifies attributes that could be important in
establishing relations.

The inference process establishes a valid relation between the 1st and 2nd
items.

The mapping process establishes relations between the 1st and 3rd items.

Finally the application process attempts to establish a relation between the 3rd
and 4th items that is analogous to the one between the 1st and 2nd items.

Types:

1- Series extrapolation: A problem that requires finding a pattern among a
sequence of items in order to continue the sequence in the same pattern e.g.
1 2 8 3 4 6 5 6 _
2- Analogy Problem: A four term problem that requires finding the answer
that completes the relation. A is to B as C is to D e.g.
Free Food: Graduate Student:: Light: Moth
Inducing Structure involves: Attribute discovery, Attribute comparison, Rule Application (many
possibilities) and Choose best possibility.

3- Transformation Problems
These consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a sequence of operations for changing the initial
state into the goal state, i.e., the water jar or cannibals problem.
Solution requires skills in planning based on means/end analysis--identifying differences that
exist between the current state and the goal state and selecting operators that will reduce the
differences. Since the goal is given, one can compare the current problem state with the goal
state.
One factor which often interferes with the solution of these problems is called persistence of set.
Sometimes in the literature this is called habituation, and refers to the use of a previously
successful formula to a current problem, although it may not be the most efficient formula to use.
This is like a mental set functional fixedness.
Ways of solving transformation problems include trial and error, hill climbing and Means-end.

Stages in Problem Solving
Several authors have suggested different phases or stages that problem solving goes through.
A) Wallas (1926): The Art of Thought
Based on introspections, Wallas suggested 4 phases of problem solving:
1. Preparation-information gathered and preliminary attempts at solution are made.
2. Incubation-problem is put aside to work on other activities or sleep.
3. Illumination-the key to the solution appears (a flash of insight).
4. Verification-the solution is checked out to make sure it 'works'.
B) Polya (1957): How to Solve It
Polya was a mathematician who based his theories of problem solving on his observations of
mathematics problem solving. He also suggested four steps:
1. Understanding the Problem - the solver gathers information about the problem.
2. Devising a Plan - solver tries to use past experience to find a method of solution. At
this stage insight may play a part. This may also involve two different perspectives:
a. working backwards
b. working forwards
3. Carrying out the Plan - solver tries out the plan, checking each step.
4. Looking Back - The solver checks the result.
Newell & Simon's Theory
Newell and Simon emphasized the usefulness of thinking in terms of a problem space that
includes all possible configurations a problem can take.
Objectives & Method
Although Newell & Simon's methods have not been widely adopted, their theory of problem
solving has been influential in determining how psychologists think about human information
processing in general and problem solving in particular.
The theory provides a framework for specifying how I-P characteristics, the structure of the
problem, and different sources of knowledge interact to influence behavior.
They examined how individual subjects tried to structure their problem-solving protocols.
A) Theoretical Assumptions
Performance on a problem-solving task is influenced by capacity, storage time, and retrieval time
of STM and LTM--limited STM capacity places a constraint how many sequential operations
that can be carried out mentally. The time required to store new information in LTM can
influence the efficiency of a human problem solver.
B) The Problem Space
The sequential nature of many problems raises the question of what options are available at each
point in solving the problem. Newell & Simon use the term problem space to refer to choices that
the problem solver evaluates while solving a problem.
There are several sources of information that influence how we construct a problem space. These
include:
(1) The task instructions that give a description of the problem and which may contain
helpful information.
(2) Previous experience with the same task or a similar one.
(3) Previous experience with analogous tasks.
(4) Plans stored in LTM that generalize over a range of tasks.
(5) Information accumulated while solving a problem.
Computer-Simulation Definition of Thinking
This approach assumes that a problem solver solves problems by applying operators to
problem states.
An operator is any more that the problem solver deems to be legal, and which can be applied
physically or mentally.
A problem state is a description of the elements in a problem. Applying an operator results in
changing the problem from one state to another.
Thus, problem solving involves three major components:
The problem solver -- the information processing system (human or machine).
The problem -- which is also called the task environment.
The problem representation -- which is synonymous with the problem state.
A) Means/Ends Analysis
An example of computer programmed problem solving is the heuristic of means/end analysis--
specifically General Problem Solver (GPS).
A general procedure for solving transformation problems is to select operators that result in a
problem state that is closer to the goal state.
Solving a problem by setting up sub goals. Solution to each sub goal serves as a means toward
the final end. Useful for large, complex problems (Heuristic). Getting close to the goal is
accomplished by reducing the differences between the current problem state and the goal state.
B) Memory and Problem Solving
The computer analogy to problem solving fails to account for the limitations of human problem
solving, specifically capacity limitations of STM and time needed to access LTM.
Thus, in means/ends analysis STM places a constraint on the number of moves that can be
evaluated at any time. If there are four possible moves but STM only holds three the best move
might not be the one evaluated. So people look for a GOOD MOVE, which may not be the
BEST MOVE. In fact, Atwood & Polson (1976) found that STM capacity seems to be about
three moves.
Also, an old state might appear to be a new state if the problem solver does not remember it--old
states need to be stored in LTM and then accessed as necessary.

The Problem Space
A major contribution of the computer simulation approach is the idea of problem space. The
problem space refers to the problem solver's internal representation of several problem solving
states:
Initial state -- in which the given or starting conditions are represented;
Goal state -- in which the final or goal situation is represented;
Intermediate problem states -- consisting of states that are generated by applying an operator to a
state;
Operators the moves that are made from one state to the next.

A) Finding a Path through the Problem Space

Solving a problem, can be seen as finding the correct path through a problem space. Several
techniques accomplish this:
1) Sub goals - the problem space can be broken down into several smaller sub goals; i.e.,
converted into several smaller problem spaces.
Sub goals can make solving a problem easier: knowing an intermediate state is on the solution
path helps prevent searching unlikely paths.
Problem: helpful intermediate states are not always obvious, and reaching a sub goal can create
confusion about what to do next.
2) Working backward - the number of alternative paths in a space can be reduced by working
backward from the goal state toward the initial state.
3) Related problem spaces - The correct path can be suggested by remembering how you solved
similar or analogous problems in the past.
The Tower of Hanoi - Example of a Problem Space
a) Problem state: A particular configuration of the elements of problem
b) Operators: Processes that can be applied to the problem to change its configuration
(the problem space)
The initial state indicates the three disks are on peg 1 with the largest on the bottom and the
smallest on the top.
The goal state requires the disks to be on peg 3 with the largest on the bottom and the smallest on
the top.
The operators consist of moving the top disk from one peg to another peg that does not contain a
smaller disk.
Each box in the problem space represents one possible state of the problem, and each arrow
represents a legal action that could be taken from that state. You can move from an intermediate
state back to a previous state in the problem space.

B) Strategies to Search the Problem Space
Brute Force Search- examining every possible answer until found the correct match. However, as
the number of possibilities increase, the number of combinations increase due to combinational
explosion.
Heuristic- A simple rule that can be applied to a complex problem, requiring minimum
computation.
Background knowledge helps by
a) Classifying problems
b) Automatizing some of the problem solving steps
There are several methods used to find a way from the initial state to the goal state:
1) Random Trial and Error -- you randomly apply legal operators until you have generated the
goal state. This may involve many wasted moves. This is a good procedure, however, for
unfamiliar problems or when under stress.
2) Hill Climbing -- a more systematic search in which you continually try to move from your
present state to a state that is closer to the goal. The main drawback is that you may need to
move away from the goal "locally" in order to achieve the final goal.
3) Means/Ends Analysis -- Again -- the problem solver always works on one goal at a time. If
you are in a certain state, you set a goal of creating the goal state. If that goal cannot be directly
achieved, you set a sub goal of removing any barriers to directly achieving the goal, etc.
Means/Ends analysis involves the use of several unique sub goals:
The transform goal involves comparing the present state to the goal state and listing any
differences between the two.
The input is a description of the present state A and the goal state B; the output is a description of
the difference D between the two states.
The reduce goal involves finding an operation that can be applied to reduce a certain difference.
The input is a description of the difference D and the output is an appropriate operator Q that
would reduce or eliminate that difference.
The apply goal involves applying the operator Q to state A to produce a new state. The input for
the apply goal is a description of the operator Q and the state A to which it is to be applied.
The output is either a new state a' of the operator Q can be directly applied to A or a description
of the difference D between state A and the required state if Q cannot be directly applied to A.

C) Analogy
Analogy requires that the problem solver use the solution of a similar problem to solve a current
problem.
Evidence, however, shows people are not better at solving a second problem analogous to the
first. Even when the instructions reveal the exact relation between the two problems it does not
guarantee that it will be easier to solve the second problem.
An explanation for this is that it is difficult to remember the correct solution when it consists of a
long sequence of moves. This suggests that the use of analogy may be more effective when the
solution is easier to remember.

D) Diagrams
Diagrams can help to represent problems in a way that allow us to search efficiently for a
solution.
Carroll, Thomas & Malhotra (1980) Problem Isomorphs Design Problem in which Subjects
weren't told to draw a diagram & both groups were given same 19 constraints.
Spatial Version: assign offices
Temporal Version: assign work shifts
Results: Spatial group were more likely to draw diagram and fulfilled more constraints and
completed task faster than temporal group. Performance in the task became equivalent when both
groups were told to use diagram matrix.
Venn diagram: A diagram that shows the set relations (such as overlap) among categories
Analogical transfer: Use of same solution in solving two problems
Representational transfer: Use of the same format (such as a matrix) in solving two
problems. e.g., Network (nodes & links), Hierarchy (grouping into categories), Part-
Whole Representation (Venn diagram).
Novick & Hmelo (1994) Representational Transfer & Solving Test Problems:
Subjects under 1 of 3 conditions: Didn't see previous example examples (control), saw a relevant
example but not told of relevance (no-hint), saw & were informed about relevant example (hint).

Results: Lack of spontaneous transfer was shown by the lack of difference between control &
no-hint groups. When not informed of relevance, subjects didn't change their representation and
improve performance.
Hint group results varied across representations. Network representation was most successful;
Hierarchy was half and half; Part-Whole was least successful.
The above mentioned strategies are called heuristics because, although they are often useful,
none guarantees a successful solution. The means/end strategy states that the problem solver
should select operators that reduce the difference between the current problem state and the goal
state. A table of connections shows which differences can be eliminated by each of the operators.
Knowledge of sub goals is valuable because it reduces the size of the search space. The use of
an analogous solution is often useful, but people may not notice a potential analogy. Diagrams
can be beneficial in design tasks, but as in the case of analogy, it is not easy to spontaneously
transfer a good representation from one problem to another.