Rosenbaum 1968 - A Critique of Brazilian Foreign Service

A Critique of the Brazilian Foreign Service
Author(s): H. Jon Rosenbaum

Source: The Journal of Developing Areas, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Apr., 1968), pp. 377-392
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The Joumal of Developing Areae, II (April, 1968), 377-392.
A Critique of the Brazilian
F oreign S ervic e
H. JON ROS ENBAUM
Nations anxious to bec ome world powers or those simply wishing to
break the bonds of underdevelopment must possess a variety of resourc es.
A seldomly studied human resourc e whic h may c ontribute to the ac hieve-
ment of either goal is an effec tive foreign servic e. Numerous artic les and
books have been written about diplomac y generally and about United
S tates and European foreign servic es,' but there have been almost no
desc riptive analyses published about the foreign servic es of the devel-
oping c ountries, while investigations of the foreign servic e's role in the
development of these states are c ompletely absent.2
Assistant Professor in the Department of Politic al S c ienc e, Wellesley College, Wel-
lesley, Massac husetts; formerly a S hell International F eilow (Brazil), 1966. The author
is grateful for the c ooperation of the many Brazilian diplomats, journalists, and
sc holars who provided information for this artic le. Of c ourse, the writer alone is
responsible for the interpretations.
IThe interested reader may c onsult the following works: S ir William Hayter, The
Diplomac y of the Great Powers (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1959); K. M. Panikkar,
The Princ iples and Prac tic e of Diplomac y (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1956);
Harold Nic olson, The Evolution of Diplomatic Method (London: Constable, 1954);
Henry M. Jac kson (ed.), The S ec retary of S tate and the Ambassador (New York:
Praeger, 1964); Charles Thayer, Diplomat (London: Mic hael Joseph, 1960); S ir Nevil
Bland (ed.), S atow's Guide to Diplomatic Prac tic e (London: Longmans, 1958); William
Barnes and John Heath Morgan, The F oreign S ervic e of the United S tates (Washington:
Bureau of Public Affairs, Department of S tate, 1961); Lord S trang, "Inside the F oreign
Offic e," annual lec ture of the David Davies Memorial Institute of International
Relations, 1960.
2The present study of a single c ountry is intended only as a c ontribution to the
desc riptive literature in the field. After the c ollec tion of similar desc riptive material
for other c ountries, the author hopes to write a c omparative study of the role of
foreign servic es in the development proc ess of nations.
378 H. Jon Rosenbaum
Brazil, potentially one of the first five or six world powers, already
has what many foreign diplomats and sc holars c onsider to be one of the
most professional, if not best, foreign servic es of developing nations.
Among other Latin Americ an nations, perhaps only Argentina's foreign
servic e approximates Brazilian standards.
Unlike the prac tic e c ommon in many Latin Americ an c ountries where
a politic ian c an arrange a foreign servic e appointment for his relatives
or friends, Brazil's foreign servic e demands that new diplomats have the
highest possible qualific ations as demonstrated by c ompetitive examina-
tions. Ambassadors are the only exc eption to the rule that c areer offic ers
must fill all diplomatic positions. When nonc areer diplomatic appoint-
ments are made to ambassadorial positions (an infrequent oc c urrenc e),
the quality of the individual is c onsidered of great importanc e, and
although politic al c onsiderations are a motivating fac tor, the selec tion
of the nonprofessional is not merely a politic al prize. F or example,
although not a c areer diplomat, former member of the federal Chamber
of Deputies, Bilac Pinto, now ambassador to F ranc e, has proven an
able representative of Brazil. (It should be noted, however, that not all
politic al appointments have been equally suc c essful.)
The Brazilian foreign servic e deserves its fine reputation, but this does
not mean that the diplomatic c orps is without problems or that its
quality has been c onsistent sinc e its founding. F rom its establishment
by law 614 of 22 August 1851, until after World War II, entranc e into
the foreign servic e was mainly determined by one c riterion, the personal
judgment of the foreign minister or hi-s c lose aides. Although an entranc e
examination was spec ified in 1852 as the method of selec ting new offic ers,
even the hero foreign minister, the Baron of Rio Branc o, relied on a
highly aristoc ratic method of selec tion whic h plac ed good manners above
intelligenc e as an entranc e requirement. S tandards for admission were
finally regulated by the Joaio Neves de F ontoura Reform, dec ree law
9032 of 6 Marc h 1946, whic h initiated the c urrent rigorous examination
system.3 This system has been largely responsible for the high quality
of the Brazilian foreign servic e in rec ent years.
S inc e the formation of the diplomatic c orps in 1851, other reforms
adopted by Paulino Jose S oares de S ouza, Visc ount of Uruguay, have
also c ontributed to the modernity of the present organization. F or exam-
ple, the Mello F ranc o Reform of 1951 spec ified that Brazilian diplomats
c ould no longer remain overseas indefinitely, a previously c ommon
prac tic e. Dec ree law 18.392 required diplomats to c hange posts every
two or three years and to return to Brazil for two or three years after
every four to six years overseas. Before this reform was enac ted many
Brazilian diplomats spent almost their entire adult lives outside of
Brazil and knew little of the c urrent state of their own c ountry.4
Although the quality of the Brazilian foreign servic e is admirable, in
rec ent years the foreign servic es of several other Latin Americ an nations
3Antonio Camilo de Oliveira, "Educ aqdo para a diplomac ia," Digesto Ec onbmic o,
No. 150 (1959),
pp. 89-103; and Geraldo Eulalio Nasc imento e S ilva, "Organizaqao
diplomatic a brasileira," Revista do S erviqo Pitblic o, LXXIII, No. 1-3 (1956), 53-69.
4A more c omplete desc ription of the organization of the F oreign Ministry is avail-
able in Brasil, Ministerio das
Relaq6es
Exteriores (c ited as MRE subsequently), Em-
baixador A. F . Azeredo da S ilvera,
Organizaqao
do Ministerio das Relac bes Exteriores
(Rio de Janeiro: S eqao de Public aq6es, 1966).
A Critique of the Brazilian F oreign S ervic e 379
have bec ome more professional while Brazil has made few signific ant
innovations. The relative advantage Brazil has long held in Latin Ameri-
c an diplomac y has therefore dec reased. The most glaring defic ienc ies
of the Brazilian foreign servic e are insuffic ient mid and advanc ed c areer
training and a membership too small to meet its growing responsi-
bilities.5
Compared to the Americ an or British foreign servic es, the Brazilian
servic e is smaller,6 more c ompac t, and exerc ises a greater amount of
autodirec tion. Many members seem to resist c hange. F amily tradition
in the servic e is strong and has produc ed, in effec t, a foreign servic e
oligarc hy. At least 10 perc ent of the diplomats have fathers, sons, or
brothers who are also diplomats.7
The 1966 c lass of the Rio Branc o Institute, the F oreign Ministry
administered sc hool through whic h all c areer foreign servic e offic ers
must pass, inc luded the names Araujo Castro, Ribeiro, and Griec o.
Luis Augusto de Araujo Castro is the son of Ambassador Joao Augusto
de Araujo Castro, Brazil's present ambassador to Peru and a former
foreign minister. Edgar Teles Ribeiro is the son of Ambassador Milton
Ribeiro, Brazil's ambassador to Nationalist China; Mario Griec o is the
son of Ambassador Donatelo Griec o, general assistant sec retary for
Western European and Afric an affairs at the Itamarati (the F oreign
Offic e). The three sons were in a c lass of twenty-seven; all three fathers
entered the foreign servic e in 1940.8 Among the c andidates for foreign
servic e appointments in 1967 were a grandson of former President Wash-
ington Luis and a nephew of former F oreign Minister Raul F ernandes.
S ome of these problems are being ac knowledged, studied, and solved.
A general reform of the foreign servic e was initiated with the proc lama-
tion of dec ree law 69 of 21 November 1966, signed by President Castelo
5Most of the c ritic ism and rec ommendations c ontained in this artic le are those of
Brazilians, inc luding foreign servic e offic ers, although the author has c ontributed a
few personal observations. Bec ause the material is c ontroversial, direc t quotes and
attributions are minimal to avoid embarrassing individuals or endangering their
c areers. Eight Brazilian foreign servic e offic ers read this manusc ript before public a-
tion, and all have agreed that the fac ts are ac c urate and the c omments are not unfair
to their servic e.
Researc h for this artic le inc luded interviews with Brazilians and foreign diplomats,
students at the Rio Branc o Institute, and applic ants to the institute, professors of
international relations at the institute and at other Brazilian sc hools of higher learn-
ing, and journalists. Brazilian literature, inc luding newspapers and periodic als, was
also c onsulted although it must be admitted that there is little written about the
F oreign Ministry or the foreign servic e in Brazilian public ations.
6The Brazilian foreign servic e was c omposed of about 525 diplomats between 1964
and 1966. At the same time the United S tates foreign servic e c onsisted of about
11,000 offic ers.
7S tatistic s c ompiled by the author from Brasil, MRE, Departamento de Adminis-
trac 4,
DavisAo do Pessoal, Anuaro 1964 a 1965 (Rio de Janeiro: S eqAo de Public a-
q6es da DivisAo de
Doc umentaq&o,
1967). Other diplomats are related to eac h other
more distantly, but the nature of the biographies in the above book does not permit
exac t statistic al analysis of family relationships beyond the father, son, or brother
c ategories.
8The fathers' positions listed are those they held in 1966, the time of their sons'
graduation.
Branc o." Patterned after the post-World War II reforms of the United
S tates foreign servic e, the Brazilian servic e will no longer remain a small
(but well qualified) Europe admiring, inbred elite. The number of diplo-
mats is being inc reased by ninety-four: inc luding five ambassadors,
fourteen ministers, twenty-five first sec retaries, twenty-five sec ond sec re-
taries, and twenty-five third sec retaries. These advanc ed positions are
being filled by immediate promotions within the foreign servic e. The
ninety-four vac anc ies thus c reated are also being filled, and the foreign
servic e is gradually being inc reased from 592 to 868 members. This
aspec t of the reform does not seem to be produc ing a morale c risis
similar to that following the Wristonization'll of the U.S . foreign servic e.
The c harac ter of the elite may c hange due to other provisions of the
new law, but the foreign servic e offic er's prestige will not be impaired
bec ause he will c ontinue to be a member of an elite organization.
In order to entic e diplomats from the large staffs of the European
posts, the degree law requires that for merit promotion to a higher
grade an offic er must serve in a developing area of the world. F or
promotion from sec ond sec retary to first sec retary, the c andidate must
serve at least two years either in Latin Americ a, Afric a, Asia, or Oc eania.
S imilarly, a first sec retary wishing to be promoted on merit to mninister
sec ond c lass must serve at least four years in the above geographic al
areas. Promotion by seniority without servic e in developing areas is still
possible, and at present, there are three promotions from sec ond to first
sec retary based on merit for every one suc h promotion based on seniority
(from first sec retary to minister sec ond c lass-five on merit, one onI
seniority; from minister sec ond c lass to ambassador promotion is only
by merit).
Inbreeding in the servic e will be c ontrolled and partly eliminated by
the new law bec ause the Itainarati will be permitted to employ people
from outside c areer servic e ranks to staff overseas positions of a non-
diplomatic and spec ialized c harac ter. F or example, a c ommerc ial attac he
may be hired from the c entral bank to do work previously c arried out
by the generalists of the diplomatic c orps. These reforms may c ause
some animnosity among diplomatic offic ers and, together with the c urrent
removal of the F oreign Ministry from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia, may
even c ause a few diplomats to resign. The prospec t of living in Brasilia,
New Delhi, or Ac c ra rather than in Rio de Janeiro, Paris, or London
c ertainly will not be welc omed by many offic ers. However mass resigna-
tions are not to be expec ted; only one c areer offic er has resigned sinc e
1958 although four individuals were ousted after the 1964 "Revolution."
Dec ree law 69 also stipulates that all personnel employed in foreign
servic e c apac ities, whether c areer diplomats or not, will now be c ontrolled
by the new Brazilian F oreign S ervic e Offic e (S EB) patterned after the
United S tates Department of S tate and the British F oreign Offic e.
9Brasil, MRE, Departmento Cultural e de Informaqoes, DivisAo de
Informaq6es,
Boletim Informativo No. 220-Dec reto-lei No. 69 (Rio de Janeiro: 30 November 1966).
10After the submission of a report by the Eisenhower appointed Public Committee
on Personnel, headed by Dr. Henry M. Wriston of Brown University, Department of
S tate personnel were integrated into the foreign servic e whic h was expanded in the
mid-1950's. Although some foreign servic e offic ers c omplained that they were losing
their elite status by this reform, the innovations whic h followed the Wriston report,
usually termed Wristonization, were generally benefic ial.
A Critique of the Brazllian F oreign S ervic e 381
This aspec t of the dec ree law is a response to the fear of some F oreign
Offic e personnel that they were in danger of being c ontrolled by the
DAS P (Departamento Administrativo do S erviqo Plublic o), the Brazilian
c ivil servic e. People formerly c lassified as c ivil servants are no longer
so c lassified and are available for worldwide assignment. It is not yet
apparent whether former c ivil servants will be required to serve overseas.
If people formerly employed in Brazil are ordered to serve overseas, some
may be provoked into resigning their positions.
F inally, the dec ree law c reates a new system whereby a diplomat c an
be temporarily removed from the list of ac tive diplomats." When taken
from the ac tive list a diplomat's position c an be held by others, and he
will rec eive no diplomatic remuneration. This Instituto de Agregeqao
affec ted fifteen individuals when enac ted, inc luding then Planning Minis-
ter Roberto Campos and F ranc isc o de Assis Griec o, c oordinator for the
Allianc e for Progress in Brazil.
Although tensions have already been c reated by the law, the overall
effec t appears to be positive. Other reforms are also c ontemplated by
the Brazilian government; for example, in June 1967 the president ap-
pointed a c ommission, headed by Ambassador Arnaldo Vasc onc ellos, to
make the first study on the formation of a c onsular servic e.
The other major c ritic ism of the foreign servic e, made earlier, has yet
to rec eive appropriate study and ac tion. A progressive reform of the
entire training proc edure from the initiation of formal rec ruitment to
advanc ed training is badly needed. S ome important Brazilian diplomats,
however, believe that there have already been too many reforms of the
servic e. One ambassador, for example, told the author that the foreign
servic e "must digest present reforms. No new reforms should be enac ted
until the F oreign Ministry is settled in Brasilia."
Training at the Rio Branc o Institute c onsists of a two year c ourse
followed by a two year internship at the F oreign Offic e and then by
immediate assignment abroad. Until rec ently it was not nec essary to
have a university educ ation in order to enter the Rio Branc o Institute.
A presidential dec ree now requires a c andidate for entranc e into the
institute to have c ompleted at least two years of university.'2 This reform
is of no great signific anc e sinc e about 90 perc ent of the students admit-
ted to the sc hool in the past few years have c ompleted university c ourses.
However, the two year length of the Rio Branc o c oaurse seems to be
inadequate sinc e many entering students have had little training in
soc ial sc ienc es, ec onomic s, or foreign affairs.'3 The administration of the
"1This rule applies to diplomats in the following c ases: (1) when on leave for
private reasons for more than six months; (2) when on sic k leave for six months
exc ept in c ases of labor ac c ident or professional illness; (3) when on leave to serve in
the army for more than six months; (4) when on leave for reasons of illness in his
family; (5) when on leave to assume a position in the federal, state, or munic ipal
administrations exc ept when serving in the c ivil household of the president of the
Republic ; (6) when on leave to assume a position in an international organization;
(7) when on leave to hold an elec tive offic e; and (8) when on leave to ac c ompany a
diplomat spouse who will serve abroad.
12
Jornal do Brasil, 7 Dec ember 1966, p. 15.
A basic ally unc ritic al ac c ount of the Rio Branc o Institute is available in Georges
D. Landau and Elizabeth B. Kilmer, "S c hool for Diplomats," Americ as, X (Marc h
1958), 3-7.
institute realizes this and attempts to c ram too many subjec ts into the
limited time period. As far bac k as 1959 an Itamarati c ommittee investi-
gating Brazilian educ ation for the diplomatic servic e pointed to the fac t
that military offic ers were given a longer professional educ ation than
were diplomatic offic ers. ' 4 The report suggested a minimum of five years
of educ ation during a diplomat's c areer, but instead of lengthening the
initial training period, the report c alled for even more required c ourses
during the initial two year training period. A knowledge of S panish as
well as a c ourse in Latin Americ an problems were to be added.
The c onsequenc e of all foreign servic e offic ers rec eiving their interna-
tional affairs educ ation at the same institution may be the c reation of
intellec tual c onformity or perhaps only the strengthening of an extant
c onformity due to the trainees similar c lass and geographic al bac kgrounds.
Most students at the institute are from the upper middle and upper
c lasses of urban areas, partic ularly Rio de Janeiro.'5 A final ingredient
whic h reinforc es c onformity even more is the c omposition of the Rio
Branc o fac ulty. F ifty perc ent of the professors at the institute in rec ent
years have been either foreign servic e members or government ec ono-
mists.'6 The 50 perc ent of the staff from outside government ranks would
probably not be employed very long if they deviated greatly from the
F oreign Ministry's interpretation of world events.
It has been suggested that either the institute should be transformed
into a graduate sc hool with the government supplying funds for the
universities to establish independent international affairs c enters or that
Rio Branc o graduates should be sent to independent university graduate
sc hools either in Brazil or overseas. Another suggestion rec eiving serious
attention by offic ials of the Itamarati is the addition of a third stage to
the training sc hedule. This plan would have the young offic er sent to
his first overseas assignment in a loc ation near a major university. One
of the offic er's main duties on this first assignment would be to take
university c ourses. The problem fac ing the advoc ates of this sc heme is
how to financ e the training. This diffic ulty should not hinder the initia-
tion of suc h a program bec ause many universities in developed c ountries
would be willing, even anxious, to provide free or partial tuition to
Brazilian diplomats in the hope of earning good will or attrac ting quali-
fied foreign students to their c ampuses.
A rec iproc al sc heme whic h would allow foreign students to attend the
Rio Branc o Institute seems less likely to be approved due to the suspi-
c ion and c onc ern for sec urity on the part of many offic ers at the F oreign
Offic e, the lac k of spac e at the institute's present physic al loc ation, and
the opposition of the direc tor of the institute to the attendanc e of foreign
students. Direc tor Antonio Correa do Lago seems to feel that Brazilian
diplomats will be overseas for a great part of their lives, therefore
foreign servic e students should spend their years at sc hool learning about
Brazil. He believes that the presenc e of foreign students and
professors
14Brasil, MRE, Relatorio do S ubgrupo de Trabalho Enc arregadq de Estudar o
Problem a da F orm ac ao e Aperfeic oamento do Diplom ata, 1959.
15Brasil, MRE, S eqAo de Pesquisas e
Public aq6es
do Instituto Rio Branc o, Anuario
do Instituto Rio-Branc o, 19611196211963 (Rio de Janeiro: 1964). To be c ited subsequently
as Anuario do IRB.
16Ibi.
A
Critique
of the Brazilien F oreign S ervic e 383
would not c ontribute to the educ ational experienc e of Brazilian diplo-
mats. Perhaps, he c onc ludes, when the sc hool moves to larger quarters,
or in five years, the attendanc e of foreign students might be rec onsid-
ered.'7 In 1965, when the institute was direc ted by Ambassador Antonio
Camillo de Oliveira, a S wedish girl, financ ed by a Rotary Club F ellow-
ship, was allowed to take a c ourse or two at the Rio Branc o Institute.
The new direc tor has not permitted her to c omplete the c ourses she
started.
The library of the sc hool appears to be c ompletely inadequate, c ontain-
ing only 7,000 items. Although the students have ac c ess to the Bibliotec a
Nac ional, also loc ated in Rio, that institution reflec ts the lac k of atten-
tion given to educ ation by almost every Brazilian government.'# The
ric h F oreign Ministry library c ollec tion whic h c ontains 250,000 books is
also available to Rio Branc o students but will probably be moved to the
new F oreign Ministry building in Brasilia in the near future. In the
unlikely event that the library remains in Rio, it may bec ome a part
of the Rio Branc o Institute when that institution oc c upies the former
Itamarati Palac e. That the library will remain is c ertainly the hope of
the direc tor of the institute, but one wonders how the ac tive diplomats
in Brasilia would c onduc t their day-to-day researc h with the mintstry
library in Rio. The small Rio Branc o library is hardly suffic ient for
daily assignments.'9 While Ambassador Correa do Lago feels that a
"reform" of the institute's library is needed, no real ac tion is antic ipated
until the dec ision on the ministry library is c onfirmed.
Admission to the Rio Branc o Institute is highly c ompetitive. Applic ants
must pass what is generally c onsidered by Brazilian students tc be the
most diffic ult examination administered in the c ountry. Language c ompe-
tenc e is partic ularly stressed, with students required to take examinations
in Portuguese, English, and F renc h. Ac c ording to an informant who has
graded these examinations, a c andidate speaking grammatic ally perfec t
English, for example, but with little knowledge of slang will not be
passed. Psyc hologic al and physic al examinations are also required be-
c ause entranc e into Rio Branc o is tantamount to being ac c epted into the
Brazilian foreign servic e. Hardly anyone fails the final examinations
17Personal interview with Ambassador Antonio Correa do Lago, 26 Dec ember 1966,
4:30 P.M., at the Rio Branc o Institute. The ambassador rec ognizes the problem of
developing c ommitment to the nation, a dilemma frequently enc ountered in developing
c ountries. It should also be noted that several foreign sc holars, inc luding Americ ans,
have taught at the institute.
18The Bibliotec a Nac ional is of little use to the student of c ontemporary affairs
sinc e c ataloging is several years behind ac quisitions. Lighting is poor, books must be
requested a day in advanc e of reading, and only three volumes of periodic als may be
c onsulted on any one day. It is hardly surprising that there are rarely more than half
a dozen readers in the referenc e room at one time. The situation at the library has
stimulated an investigation by the National Congress.
19It may be of interest to note that the F letc her S c hool of Law and Diplomac y, a
small Americ an graduate sc hool for students mainly interested in entering the foreign
servic e, has a library of 85,000 voluimes and even this is c onsidered inadequate by
its administration. Moreover, students at the F letc her S c hool have ac c ess to the ric h
c ollec tions of the Harvard University library system.
384 HI. Jon Rosenbaum
given upon c ompletion of the c ourse.2')
Bec ause c ompetition is high for the few available positions, over five
hundred people usually applying for the twenty-seven positions, many
students take a preparatory c ourse offered in Rio de Janeiro. It is expen-
sive to travel to Rio and to live in that c ity, therefore, students from
outside the c ity who are not wealthy are usually unable to take the
preparatory c ourse. Although the institute does offer some sc holarship
assistanc e, about 100,000 c ruzeiros (less than U.S .$ 50.00) per rec ipient
a month, most students who lac k wealth do not even c onsider taking
the examination bec ause of inadequate funds. Living on 100,000 c ruzeiros
a month in Rio is extremely diffic ult and even Peac e Corps volunteers
working in Rio's favelas (similar to North Americ an slums) rec eive a
larger living allowanc e. The result of Rio's high living expenses is that
students who have families in the c ity and c an live with them have an
advantage over students c oming from other areas of the c ountry. There-
fore, a large proportion of the students that take the examination are
residents of Rio de Janeiro.
Although not representative of all Brazilian geographic al areas and
c lasses, those admitted to the institute after suc c essful c ompletion of the
examination are exc eptionally intelligent students.21 The only form of
rec ruitment prac tic ed by the foreign servic e is the holding of the prelimi-
nary entranc e examinations in various c ities throughout the c ountry,
an admirable prac tic e but sc arc ely rec ruitment, as the foreign servic e
terms it. At present, there are no members of the foreign servic e who
c an be c alled Negroes, regardless of the possible semantic arguments to
suggest the c ontrary.22 There are, similarly, no Negro students at the
Rio Branc o Institute at present (1966-67). F ormer F oreign Minister Afonso
Arinos found it nec essary in Marc h of 1961 to remind the Rio Branc o
administration to observe law 1.390 of 3 July 1951 whic h forbids disc rimi-
nation in Brazil.23 The only immediate result was the sending of a
Negro, nonc areerist writer Raymunido S ousa Dantas, to Ghana as ambas-
sador. The reason for the lac k of Negroes and lower c lass individuals
in the foreign servic e may be that these people do not have suffic ient
educ ation to enable them to pass the entranc e examinations. However,
20This year, for the first time sinc e 1958, bec ause of the reform whic h inc reases the
size of the foreign servic e, applic ants who have not attended the Rio Branc o are being
permitted to take examinations in order to qualify for the position of third sec retary.
S uc c essful applic ants will be required to take a one year c ourse at the institute before
entering ac tive servic e.
21
The 550 diplomats who were members of the foreign servic e from 1964 to 1966
were born in the following Brazilian states: Guanabara (c ity of Rio)-237, S ao Paulo-
46, Minas Gerais-46, Rio Crande do S ul-34, Rio de janeiro(state)-22,
Pernambuc o-
19, and Para-19. Less than ten diplomats were born in eac h of the other states.
Many of the diplomats not born in Guanabara were residents of that c ity when they
entered the servic e. Brasil, NIRE, Departamento de
Administragao,
Divisao do Pessoal,
Anuario 1964 a 1966 (Rio de J aneiro: S eqao de Public aq6es da DivisAo de Doc umentaqao,
1967).
22The medic al doc tor at the Itamarati, Dr. S ebastiao S antos, is the only profes-
sional member of the F oreign Offic e who is a Negro. Rac ial definition 'n Brazil
differs from that generally used in the United S tates, nevertheless, almost all Brazilian
diplomats interviewed stated that there were no
"Negroes"
in the
foreign
servic e.
23'Arinos lenibra penas ao Rio Branc o: sua lei," 0 Jornal, 21 Marc h 1961, p. 1.
0 Jornal is one of the best Brazilian newspapers for diplomatic news.
a few of these people have been educ ated to a level whic h would permit
them to pass, and perhaps they should be ac tively rec ruited to take the
examination. This is not to suggest that spec ial c onsideration be given
to anyone in grading examinations. In any c ase, a rec ruitment c ampaign
seems nec essary to fill the inc reasing personnel needs of the servic e and
to explain the c harac teristic s of the c areer. Many of those now taking
the examination for the Rio Branc o c laim that they want to join the
foreign servic e bec ause it promises, in their words, the boa vida ("good
life").24
Courses at the institute are taught c onservatively and stress memoriza-
tion. Legal training is emphasized to a degree seemingly out of
propor-
tion with its importanc e in the prac tic e of modern international rela-
tions. Of the twenty c ourses taken by the students during the two year
attendanc e at the sc hool, one-third c ould be c onsidered of a legal nature.
Only two c ourses in ec onomic s are required. Modern politic al sc ienc e
tec hniques are either ignored or unknown by the staff, and the one
c ourse in international relations is merely a survey of the entire field.
The new direc tor, young and urbane Ambassador Antonio Correa do
Lago, has plans for making some "adjustments" in the c urric ulum, but
apparently law c ourses will c ontinue to predominate. Ambassador Correa
do Lago says, "We believe in the legal approac h to politic al sc ienc e.'"25
Politic al sc ienc e in Brazil is hardly a rec ognized disc ipline and c ourses
that do exist, with few exc eptions, rely heavily on legal training or
bec ome mere sessions in polemic s. The study of international relations
as pursued in the United S tates is almost nonexistent in Brazil. The
bibliography in the Portuguese language is sc anty, and instruc tion must
rely on English and F renc h books. S pec ialists in the subjec t are mainly
of three types: the diplomats who prefer to speak twenty years later,
the journalists who are only interested in the highly dramatic aspec ts
of the field, and the professors of international law.
The c ourse load of the institute is heavy, with students taking nine
c ourses the first year and eleven the sec ond year. As a c onsequenc e
students have little time to reflec t on what they are taught. There is
little time to study during the day, and the free time the student does
have between c ourses is used to relax, talk in groups, and drink
c afezinhos-all very understandable. Many students develop an almost
defeatist attitude regarding the great volume of work demanded of them
and as a c onsequenc e do almost none of the assigned work. Ambassador
Correa do Lago rec ognizes that a reduc tion in the number of c ourses
is nec essary. He also feels that c ourses should be taught using the
seminar method.28
24Twenty-five students c onsidering c areers in the diplomatic servic e were inter-
viewed by this author. S ixty-eight perc ent of the respondents replied that they were
interested in the foreign servic e bec ause it promised the good life while another
20 perc ent answered that they wished to travel.
25Personal interview with Ambassador Antonio Correa do Lago,
1
July 1966, 5:00
P.M. at the Rio Branc o Institute.
26It should be noted that the seminar method is not applic able to every type of
c ourse. S inc e many c ourses at the Rio Branc o are rudimentary, with students having
had no previous experienc e with the subjec t matter, the degree to whic h seminars will
be suc c essful is quiestionable.
Most students at the institute are not outwardly c ritic al of Brazilian
foreign polic y (a rec ent c lass at the U.S . F oreign S ervic e Institute
inc luded several students who were opposed, for example, to U.S . polic y
in Vietnam). No doubt some Rio Branc o students do objec t to c ertain
aspec ts of Brazilian foreign polic y, but they are c areful not to artic ulate
their opinions outside the sc hool.27 The students are less retic ent, how-
ever, in disc ussing issues of domestic polic y, and there was some verbal
opposition at the sc hool during 1966 over the c onduc t of the national
elec tions. Although students at the Rio Branc o (like most students in
Brazil) talk about the soc ial problems of their c ountry, most are not
ac tivists. There is little interest, for example, in volunteering for work
in the favelas of Rio. Of c ourse, the students have almost no free time
from their studies, and it should be remembered that soc ial servic e in
the c ommunity has generally Ino tradition among Brazilian students.
A final eduic ational problem at the institute perhaps worthy of mention
is that little c ontac t exists between students and professors outside the
c lassroom. After a c lass adjourns most professors immediately leave the
building. The main reason for this situation is that many professors
at the institute, as at most universities in Brazil, hold more than one
teac hing or professional position in order to survive financ ially. Perhaps
salaries at the Rio Branc o should be inc reased so that the professors c an
devote all of their professional attention to their students.
In spite of these educ ational problems, and probably in spite of the
training itself, the foreign servic e of Brazil c ontinues to c onsist of highly
qualified personnel. Outstanding diplomats suc h as Jose Oswaldo de
Meira Penna, the bright and aggressive former assistant sec retary for
Eastern Europe and Asia, and Arnaldo Vasc onc ellos, an ac c omplished
violiniist and writer who was assistant sec retary for Americ an affairs,
among others, c ontinue to serve Brazil in top c areer positions.
Women have attained high positions of responsibility in the Brazilian
foreign servic e. One highly c ompetent woman, Maria de Lourdes de
Vinc enzi, was assistant sec retary for international organizational affairs.
Another female diplomat, Dona Dora Vasc onc ellos, serves as Brazil's
amnbassador to Catnada.28
Brazilian diplomats are generally satisfied with their c areers, but many
foreign servic e offic ers c omplain of the extremely low pay for servic e in
Rio. A first sec retary hardly rec eives enough money to rent an apartment
when assigned to the Itamarati. Most offic ers save while abroad sinc e
various overseas allowanc es
p)rovide
Brazilian diplomats with handsome
inc omes. S ome diplomats return with c ars from overseas and live in Rio
on profits earned fromn selling the c ars.
A sonmewhat more serious problem than low pay c onc erns professional
identity, a stubjec t whic h has stimulated a basic c onflic t within the
Braziliani foreign servic e. The internal dissension originated in the 1950's,
and the areal of disagreement now inc ludes not
only
the methods of
27
Brazilian historian Jose Hon6rio Rodrigues c laims that the sec rec y whic h c harac -
terizes the Brazilian foreign servic e was inherited from Portuguese c olonialism. S ee
Jose Honorio Rodrigues, Brazil and Afric a (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1965), p. 314.
28F our perc ent of Brazilian diplomats are women. Between 1964 and 1966, the
Brazilian foreign servic e had twenty-nine female members. MRE, Anuario 1964 a 1966,
statistic s were c omputed by the author.
operating the F oreign Nlinistry, suc h as rec ruiitment and training of new
personnel, but also the basic aims of Brazilian foreign polic y. In the
late 1940's several young Brazilian diplomats went abroad (mainly to
the United S tates) to study ec onomic s. This group inc ltuded Roberto
Campos, Oc tavio Dias Carneiro, and Joao Baptista Piinheiro.29 Having
spec ialized ability and high c ompetenc e, these men were exc eptional and
rose rapidly in the c areer during the early 1950's, but at the same time
they developed an awareness that Brazil was having diffic ulty in formu-
lating a suc c essful foreign ec onomic polic y. It seemed obvious to these
men that the future effec tiveness of Brazilian foreign polic y would
depend largely upon Brazil's possession of a highly spec ialized foreign
servic e. A new trend was begun when the grotup began urging that
young diplomats rec eive spec ialized educ ation. The ec onomist-diplomats
argued that Brazilian diplomats would attain a more c learly defined
sense of their role in soc iety if this trend was followed.
As the number of ec onomists in the foreign servic e inc reased in the
latter 1950's, there emerged a c onflic t with the members of the servic e
who thought of themselves as politic al spec ialists. At present the "mod-
ernizers," as the ec onomists c all themselves, have the allegianc e of
approximately 10 perc ent of Brazilian diplomats. The generalists, who
term themselves "politic al spec ialists" but are designated "traditionalists"
by the ec onomists, also c onstitute about 10 perc ent of the foreign servic e
membership. Eac h group, therefore, depends upon the support of nearly
sixty individuals. The rest of the diplomats have assumed various pos-
tures of relative neutrality.
S ome generalists have viewed the trend toward spec ialization as
unsavory, believing that a true diplomat is a generalist and that spec ial-
ization is undesirable. Others have had personal identity c rises. They
have bec ome aware of the lac k of spec ific ity in their own roles, and
in some c ases this has also c reated anxiety and hostility towards the
ec onomists. S arc astic remarks about the "ec onomic rac ket" and ec ono-
mists "monopolizing trips to international c onferenc es"' are often made
by the generalists.
Members of the Itamarati are generally more c ompetent than other
Brazilian bureauc rats, and the spec ialization of the ec onomists has
helped them to proc ure appointments of prestige and influenc e in other
government organs. The ec onomic spec ialists in the foreign servic e have
rec eived positions, for example, in the highest levels of the National
Development Bank and the S uperintendenc y of Money and Credit
(S UMOC). This has c ontributed to the antagonism the hard c ore gener-
alists maintain towards their ec onomic ally oriented c olleagues.
The traditionalists and the modernizers are in disagreement over the
struc ture of the foreign servic e. The generalists believe that the servic e
only needs adjustments while the ec onomists feel that basic reforms
are required. As one admitted modernizer reported to the author, "The
Ministry is a one legged animal. It only has an operational leg and
does not have an intelligenc e and planning leg. This implies that a
reformulation of the entire definition of c ompetenc e is needed sinc e
intelligenc e requires highly spec ialized training in ec onomic s and the
soc ial sc ienc es."
29Carneiro rec eived a Ph.D. from the Massac husetts Institute of Tec hnology, Baptista
an M.A. from Berkeley, while Campos studied at George Washington University.
One ec onomist suggests that the Rio Branc o Institute provide a four
year c ourse leading to the bac helor's degree for new diplomats. The four
year c ourse would inc lude extensive training in the soc ial sc ienc es and
would be followed by a two year c ourse in whic h eac h student would
spec ialize in one of the following: international relations, politic al theory,
international ec onomic relations, or international administration.30
S ome modernizers wish to eliminate the present stric t language exami-
nations required of students entering the Rio Branc o. They feel that
advanc ed language profic ienc y disc riminates against c andidates who are
not members of the upper middle and the upper c lasses. It is suggested
that entering students only be required to demonstrate ability to read
English and F renc h sinc e many of the books used in the sc hool are
written in these languages. Intensive language training, with the assis-
tanc e of modern elec tronic language laboratories, would be provided for
students who were unable to speak foreign languages fluently. Russian,
German, and S panish instruc tion would be provided as well as English
and F renc h.3'
Many of the modernizers believe that the 1966 reforms did little more
than formalize past prac tic es and inc rease personnel, while the struc ture
of the foreign servic e was not greatly affec ted. The spec ialists say that
the prestige of the F oreign Ministry for too long has been assoc iated
with the glory brought to Brazil by a handful of men suc h as the
Baron of Rio Branc o but that the foreign servic e c an not c ontinue to
live on past ac hievements.m
Another issue produc ing alterc ations within the foreign servic e c onc erns
the proper orientation of Brazilian foreign polic y. Although four foreign
servic e offic ers were expelled from the diplomatic c orps after President
Goulart was removed from offic e by the 1964 c oup, the highest ranking
among them being Jayme Rodrigues, some members of the servic e quietly
c ontinue to advoc ate an 'independent" foreign polic y for Brazil. Many
diplomats formerly favoring an independent foreign polic y (i.e., a polic y
different from that pursued by the United S tates) were disillusioned by
30The four year c ourse would inc lude, in part, the following: introduc tion to soc i-
ology, introduc tion to ec onomic s, introduc tion to politic al sc ienc e, introduc tion to
law, mathematic analysis in the soc ial sc ienc es, theory and methodology in politic al
sc ienc e, ec onometric s, logic and sc ientific method, statistic s, soc iology of organization,
introduc tion to psyc hology, theory of international relations, Brazilian government
and administration, Brazilian c onstitutional law, c ommerc ial law, Brazilian diplomatic
history, c ivil law, ec onomic analysis, public international law, ideology and politic s
of Asia and Afric a, ideology and politic s of Latin Americ a, ideology and politic s of
the United S tates, ideology and politic s of the U.S .S .R., personality theory, theory
and problems of ec onomic development, soc ial psyc hology, private international law,
struc ture and func tions of the United Nations, organization and norms of c onsular
ac tion, c ontemporary history, Brazilian ec onomic history, ideology and politic s of
Western Europe, international ec onomic relations, problems of ec onomic development
in Latin Americ a, organization and norms of diplomatic ac tion, and struc ture and
func tion of the OAS .
31The modernizers have advanc ed other spec ific proposals for the Rio Branc o Insti-
tute, inc luding its removal to Brasilia. This suggestion has been opposed by some
traditionalists. One ec onomist has even gone to the expense of having an arc hitec t
design a new c ampus for the institute.
32The results of F oreign Minister Rio Branc o's foreign polic y were so spec tac ular
that the F oreign Ministry now has an image of effec tiveness whic h is unparalleled by
any other Brazilian government agenc y, and unproduc tive foreign polic y adventures
are usually not attributed to the F oreign Ministry by the public .
the way Presidents Quadros and Goulart exec uted the
polic y and
partic u-
larly by the position Brazil defended with regard to Cuba. Diplomats,
c onsidering professional sec urity and
advanc ement, are c autious and, at
present, not eager to be identified with the foreign polic y initiatives of
the early 1960's. During Pio Correa's period as sec retary general of the
F oreign Ministry, a post sec ond in importanc e only to the foreign minis-
ter's position, diplomats supporting an independent foreign polic y were
so inhibited that they were even afraid to make their opinions known
within the F oreign Ministry.33 Compared to the number of offic ers
c hampioning a more or less traditional foreign polic y for
Brazil, the
independent group is small. Although there is no way of
ac c urately
determining their c omposition, it seems, from c asual observation, that
more spec ialists than generalists support the independent position. Many
young diplomats and Rio Branc o students also appear to be attrac ted
by the c onc ept of an independent foreign polic y.
F oreign diplomats in Brazil respec t the Brazilian foreign servic e but
are privately c ritic al of some Brazilian prac tic es. F or example, many
Brazilian diplomats assigned to the F oreign Ministry work short hours,
arriving at their offic es at 10:30 or 11:00 A.M. Unfortunately, as was
disc overed when President Quadros lengthened working hours generally
for federal bureauc rats, a longer work day alone will not inc rease effi-
c ienc y. During the short-lived Quadros reform, diplomats c ame to their
offic es at 8:00 A.M. but did little more than drink c offee and c onverse
with their friends during the additional "working" hours.
Another c ritic ism offered by foreign observers is that the Brazilian
foreign servic e lac ks a well developed public information organ.3 This
defic ienc y may be trac ed to the identity c risis disc ussed earlier sinc e
some diplomats are insec ure in their role and fear drawing attention to
themselves. However, financ ial c onsiderations are also a c onstraint on
the formation of dramatic ally enlarged information ac tivities suc h as the
development of a Brazilian information agenc y.
An attitude whic h annoys many foreign diplomats, partic ularly those
from Afric a, is the c ontinuous flaunting by Brazilian diplomats of Brazil's
rac ial rec ord of nondisc rimination. When a Negro was sent as Brazilian
ambassador to Ghana, he was not partic ularly well rec eived bec ause it
was thought that a Negro was purposely sent there in order to stress
Brazilian rac ial harmony.
Perhaps the most relevant foreign c ritic ism of the' Brazilian foreign
servic e c onc erns the servic e's internal politic s. Although politic s are of
no help to a c andidate in passing the Rio Branc o entranc e examinations,
politic s do play an important role in determining promotions and assign-
ments onc e a person has entered the c areer-and highly plac ed relatives
c an be very helpful.
Many attitudes of Brazilian foreign servic e offic ers are misunderstood
by the Brazilian public . Although it is true that many Brazilian offic ers
33When Costa e S ilva assumed the presidenc y in early 1967, Pio was appointed
ambassador to Argentina, a position many of his c ritic s thought was well suited to
his supposedly authoritarian manner.
341t is interesting to note that Brazilian information bulletins distributed by the
Brazilian embassy in Washington are written in Portuguese, thereby drastic ally reduc -
ing the number of Americ ans who c an read about Brazil.
are strong proponents of F renc h c ulture and give the misleading impres-
sion of being dilettantes bec ause of their c ontinuous and often pompous
disc ussion of F renc h or European c ulture,3 many Brazilian diplomats
are true intellec tuals, spending muc h of their free time writing prose or
verse, painting, or playing and listening to music . It is no longer true,
however, that all Brazilian diplomats feel poetry, music , and theater
to be more important to Brazilian diplomac y than a knowledge of
ec onomic s. The time has passed when Brazilian diplomats c ould ac -
c urately be ac c used of being playboys.
Perhaps the Brazilian diplomat is not looked upon by his fellow
c ountrymen as well as he deserves; the rumor, similar to the one that
c irc ulated in the United S tates during the Mc Carthy era about the
Americ an foreign servic e, that the Brazilian diplomat is a homosexual
is c urrent but without foundation. These ugly rumors stem mainly from
the affec tations of some diplomats and the exc lusiveness of their soc ial
c irc le.
Brazilian intellec tuals have made somewhat more profound observa-
tions on the foreign servic e than the general public . S everal Brazilian
sc holars have c ritic ized the foreign servic e, and perhaps the most presti-
gious Brazilian historian, Jose Honorio Rodrigues, has been one of the
most vehement in his c omplaints. In his rec ent book Interesse Nac ional
e Politic a Externa ("National Interest and F oreign Polic y"), Rodrigues
stated that "The Itamarati is a very c losed and self-suffic ient organiza-
tion where all the heads, of all the spec ialties, c an be held only by
c areer diplomats.' '6 He added that this situation prevents the Itamarati
from rec eiving advic e from independent sc holars. Rodrigues also lamented
the c lass influenc e in the F oreign Ministry whic h permits restric tions
and disc riminations to be imposed upon entranc e into the c areer.
Rec ognizing and replying to many of the reproofs of the foreign servic e,
Ambassador J. 0. de Meira Penna has written in his latest book, Politic a
Externa:
S eguranqa
& Desenvolvimento ("F oreign Polic y: S ec urity and
Development"), that
The Brazilian diplomatic servic e is frequently ac c used of c onstituting a proud
c aste of its own prerogatives, unassoc iated with and deaf to the deepest yearnings
of their own people, or similarly-ac c ording to the shibboleth so agreeable
to the
intellec tuality of the left-an "estranged" profession. As a member of this
"c aste,"
I
am not able to judge the validity of these ac c usations. I will say at least that the
failings and vic es of the "c areer" are appropriate to
it,
or the same ones Brazil
has in general. Personalism, the "c lique" habit, an extreme toleranc e of abuses,
and the frequent impunity of the powerful and c orrupt, the diffic ulties of working
in
a team, performanc e, in whic h the soft life and almost brilliant
improvisation
is a
substitute for effic ienc y are no more the shortc omings of the personnel of the
Itamaraty than they are of any other branc h of the Brazilian public
servic e. The
Itamaraty, however, is one of the few truly Brazilian "institutions." And it is
only
institutions-firm, stable and dynamic -whic h c reate the greatness
of a
people. Aside
from this, rec ruiting for this c areer, done by the stric t method of tests and examina-
350f the 550 diplomats listed in the F oreign Ministry's Anuario 1964 a 1966, fifty-
two were born overseas. Nineteen foreign servic e offic ers were born in F ranc e, five in
Italy, four in Portugal, and four in Argentina. S eventy-five diplomats have taken
university level c ourses outside of Brazil. Thirty-nine, inc luding nineteen in F ranc e
and fourteen in Britain, studied in Europe. Twenty-seven offic ers attended Americ an
universities.
36Rodrigues, lnteresse Nac ional e Politic a Externa (Rio de Janeiro: CivilizaqAo
Brasileira, 1966), p. 41.
tions, open to any c andidate, is the most democ ratic method possible. We no longer
use the system in whic h the Presidents of the Republic appoint for this c areer, their
god c hildren, friends or the nephews of their politic al c oreligionists, and it is only
this kind of rec ruiting system that is likely to c reate a c aste.37
In the final analysis and in spite of c ritic isms, it must be emphasized
that the Brazilian foreign servic e has had a long and fine tradition. It
c an be c redited with a wide variety of ac hievements ranging from the
sophistic ated and ideally diplomatic settling of important boundary
disputes to its more rec ent c ontribution towards the advanc ement of
international arms c ontrol (1961-64). Hopefully, the Brazilian foreign
servic e will c ontinue to assist Brazil in her thrust forward towards
national development and international leadership.
37J. 0. de Meira Penna, Politic a Externa:
S eguranqa
& Desenvolvimento (Rio de
Janeiro: Agir, 1967), pp. 14-15.

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A Critique of the Brazilian Foreign Service

Author(s): H. Jon Rosenbaum

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