IB Chemistry 2013

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BONDING
(Topics 4 & 14)
4.1 Ionic bonding
4.1.1 Describe the ionic bond as the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions (2)
Ionic bonds occur between a metal and non-metal element
Held together by electrostatic attraction between positively charged cations (metals) and
negatively charged anions (non-metals)
Forms an alternating lattice structure

4.1.2 Describe how ions can be formed as a result of electron transfer (2)
When a metal and non-metal react, metal donates electrons to the non-metal to complete
valence shell
The easier for an element to atomise, the more reactive

4.1.3 Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 1, 2 and 3 lose electrons (3)
Group 1 form +1
Group 2 form +2
Group 3 form +3

4.1.4 Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 5, 6 and 7 gain electrons (3)
Group 5 form -3
Group 6 form -2
Group 7 form -1

4.1.5 State that transition elements can form than one ion
Due to proximity of 4s and 3d shells
E.g. Fe
2+
, Fe
3+


4.1.6 Predict whether a compound of two elements would be ionic from the position of the
elements in the periodic table or from their electronegativity values (3)
Ionic or covalent nature of the bonding in a binary compound is a result of the difference
their electronegativity
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E.g. NaCl
(s)
is ionic, HCl
(g)
is polar covalent
Ionic compounds tend to be solid, covalent as liquid or gas form
If difference between electronegativities of the two elements is greater than 1.7, the bone
will be more than 50% ionic
Examples
Element Electronegativity
Aluminum (Al 1.5
Fluorine (F) 4.0
Difference in electronegativity : 4.0 1.5 = 2.5
Therefore the bonding here is ionic.
Element Electronegativity
Aluminum (Al) 1.5
Bromine (Br) 2.8
Difference in electronegativity : 2.8 1.5 = 1.3
Therefore, the bonding is unlikely to be ionic


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4.1.7 State the formula of common polyatomic ions formed by non-metals in periods 2 and 3 (1)
E.g.
NO
3
-

OH
-

SO
4
-

CO
3
2-

PO
4
3-

NH
4
+

HCO
3
-


4.1.8 Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds (2)
Opposite charges of cations and anions attract, creating solid lattice
Gives salts its brittle texture
E.g. NaCl









4.2 Covalent bonding
4.2.1 Describe the covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between a pair of electrons and
positively charged nuclei (2)
Involves only non-metals

Electrostatic attraction between a pair of electrons and positively charged nuclei

When two particles approach each other, electron clouds can overlap, causing electron
cloud to be attracted to both nuclei, holding them together

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4.2.2 Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a result of electron sharing (2)
In most cases, each atom donates an electron to form a pair shared between the two
atoms

Sharing of a single electron pair forms single bonds e.g. H-Cl (HCl)

Sharing of two electrons from each atom forms double bonds e.g. O=O (O
2
)

Sharing of three electrons from each atom forms triple bonds e.g. CO (CO)

Cannot form quadruple bonds due to bond positions

Dative bonds:
A coordinate bond (dative covalent bond) is a shared pair of electrons in which both
electrons come from the same atom

E.g. NH
4
+







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CO
CO can be thought of as having two ordinary covalent bonds between the C and O plus a
coordinate bond using a lone pair on the O atom





4.2.3 Deduce the Lewis (electron dot) structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron
pairs on each atom (3)

Single bond




Double bond



4.2.4 State and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond
strength (3)
Bonding electrons draw the atoms closer together but as they get too close, they experience
repulsive forces from other non-bonding electrons and the two nuclei
There is an optimum distance for the two atoms, known as bond length
Single bond < double bond < triple bond (strength)
Triple bond < double bond < single bond (bond length)
As bond strength increase, bond length decreases, because of force of attraction between
greater number of pairs of electrons and nuclei
As number of bonds increase in a molecule, bond strength increases
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4.2.5 Predict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent from the position of the
elements in the periodic table or from their electronegativity values (3)

Non-metal elements can form covalent bonds

Electronegativity difference of >1.5 units = ionic

Electronegativity difference of <1.5 units = covalent


4.2.6 Predict the relative polarity of bonds from electronegativity values (3)

Direct comparison of bonds may be done using electronegativity difference between the
atoms in the bonds

E.g. C-F bond (difference = 1.5) has a great dipole than the C-Br bond (difference = 0.3)

4.2.7 Predict the shape and bond angles for species with four, three and two negative charge
centres on the central atom using the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) (3)
Examples should include:
Shape: Shape Bond angle
CH
4
Tetrahedral 109.5
NH
3
Trigonal pyramidal 107.5
H
2
O Bent 104.5
NH
4
+
Tetrahedral 109.5
H
3
O
-
Trigonal pyramidal 107.5
BF
3
Trigonal pyramidal 107.5
C
2
H
4
Linear 180
SO
2
Bent 118
C
2
H
2
Linear 180
CO
2
Linear 180

4.2.8 Predict whether or not a molecule is polar from its molecular shape and bond polarities (3)
Bond polarity caused by difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms
Most bonds are polar, but only those with electronegativity difference of at least 1 unit on
the Pauling scale shows the effect
E.g. C has electronegativity value of 2.5 and H has 2.1 however, the two electronegativities
are so close that the effect is insignificant

Resolution of dipoles:
When centres of polarity do not meet, molecule is polar (as forces do not cancel out)
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Polar molecules:
Polar molecules attract one another, increasing the degree of intermolecular force
experienced
Hence, they have higher boiling points than expected from just van der Waals forces

4.2.9 Describe and compare the structure and bonding in the three allotropes of carbon
(diamond, graphite and C
60
fullerene) (3)
Diamond:
Giant covalent network structure
Carbon bonded to 4 other carbons, meaning all bonding pairs are filled up
Hence, carbon is the hardest substance known to man
Brittle
Insoluble
Insulator (non-conductor)
Very high melting point
Each carbon is sp
3
hybridised
Uses: jewellery, cutting tools, drills

Graphite:
Layered lattice structure
Carbon bonded to 3 other carbons in layers
Carbons sp
2
hybridised
The remaining non-bonding pair electrons become delocalised, hence giving graphite
conductivity properties
Layers of carbon able to slide over each other, giving it a soft, slippery texture
Also has very high melting point
Uses: lubricant, pencils, electrodes

C
60
fullerene:
Small molecules of carbon where the giant structure is closed over into spheres (bucky balls)
or tubes (nano-tubes)
Smallest fullerene has 60 C atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons
(Buckminsterfullerene)
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Carbon atoms are a mixture of sp
2
and sp
3
hybridisation
Insoluble in water but soluble in methyl benzene
Non-conductors, as individual molecules held to each other by weak van der Waals forces
Molecule is completely symmetrical, with all bond lengths and angles being equal
Uses: catalyst, medical uses, other possible uses

4.2.10 Describe the structure of and bonding in silicon and silicon dioxide (2)
Giant covalent structures, with each atom bonding to other like atoms in a never ending
lattice
Bond angles are 109.5
In silicon dioxide, an oxygen is inserted between the silicons, acting like a bridge


4.3 Intermolecular forces
4.3.1 Describe the types of intermolecular forces (attractions between molecules that have
temporary dipoles, permanent dipoles or hydrogen bonding) and explain how they arise from the
structural features of molecules (3)
Temporary/instantaneous dipoles
Known as Van der Waals forces
Very weak
Occur in elements, noble gases or if molecule has polar covalent bonds that cancel each
other out to produce a non-polar molecule
The larger the molecule, the greater the number of electrons present, hence the stronger
the V.d.W forces
Permanent dipoles(dipole-dipole interactions)
Exist between polar molecules
Positive charge attracted to negative charge
Occurs when electrons are shared unevenly in a covalent bond
Relatively stronger than van der Waals forces
Hydrogen bonding
Occurs between a H atom and N,O or F atom (greatest electronegativity values)
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Strongest form of dipole-dipole interactions (intermolecular forces)
E.g. H-bonds in water give it its properties, such as high melting and boiling points

4.3.2 Describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances
The stronger the intermolecular forces between molecules, the higher the boiling point
More energy required to break apart those bonds and separate molecules
Sometimes difference in strength of Van der Waals forces is sufficiently large enough to
overcome dipole forces
E.g. HCl and HBr
Would expect the boiling point of HCl to be higher because it has a greater difference in
electronegativity
However, HCl only has 18 electrons, whereas HBr has 36 electrons (twice as many)
Hence, HBr has the higher boiling point because of stronger van der Waals forces

The Boiling Points of the hydrogen halides
Hydrogen halide Melting point (C) Boiling point (C)
Hydrogen fluoride (HF) -83 20
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) -114 -85
Hydrogen bromide (HBr) -87 -67
Hydrogen iodide (HI) -51 -35

HF has the greatest melting/boiling points because of the presence of F, which allows for
hydrogen bonding between molecules

HCl has the lowest melting/boiling points because Cl is a relatively small molecule (low no. of
electrons) whose electronegativity is not significantly greater than the other larger halides
(Br and I

4.4 Metallic bonding
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4.4.1 Describe the metallic bond as the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions
and delocalised electrons (2)
Metallic bonding forms between two metals
Metal ions, formed when atoms lose their valence electrons, are arranged in a three-
dimensional lattice
Array of ions surrounded by freely moving electrons that form a sea of mobile electrons
Electrons are not confined to a particular location but can move throughout the structure
Electrons are attracted to positively charged ions; electrostatic attraction holds the lattice
together and prevents the ions pushing each other apart due to electrostatic repulsion of
like charges
Physical properties of metals electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility (ability to
be drawn into a wire) suggests regularity in the structure

4.4.2 Explain the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals (3)
Electrical conductivity:
Delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the metal structure
When potential difference (voltage) is applied across the metal, electrons can flow in and
out of the metal
Electrons carry charge current, making metal a conductor

Malleability:
Forces of electrostatic attraction within the metal lattice are non-directional
Because of the nature of delocalised electrons, the cation lattice can shift around without
breaking
Distortion of the lattice does not affect the force of attraction, hence metal can be bent into
shape without breaking



4.5 Physical properties
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4.5.1 Compare and explain the properties of substances resulting from different types of
bonding (3)
Comparison of the properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding
Type of bonding Ionic Metallic Covalent molecular Covalent network
lattice
MP and BP Very high Medium to high Low Very high
Explanation Ions packed
closely together
Ionic bond is
strong
Size/charge on
the cation
determines MP
Metallic bonding
stronger than
inter-molecular
forces
Bonding b/w
molecules is
weak
Requires little
energy to break
Covalent
bonding
throughout
structure
requires great
amounts of
energy to break
Volatility how
easily a substance
turns into a
gas/vapour
Low Low in most cases
(exp. Mercury)
High Low
Explanation Usually solids at
room temp.
Have v. high
boiling points,
therefore
difficult to
vaporise
Most are solid at
room
temperature
Mercury is liquid
at room temp.
due to weak
metallic bonding
In many
molecular
substances, the
intermolecular
forces are weak
and easily
broken
Usually solids at
room temp.
Have v. high
boiling points,
therefore
difficult to
vaporise
Electrical
conductivity
Conduct in liquid
state
When dissolved
in water
All metals
conduct
electricity in the
solid state
Polar molecular
substances will
conduct when
dissolved in pure
water
Non-polar does
not conduct
Graphic and C
60

fullerene
conducts
Explanation Ions free to
move when
liquid/molten
Sea of
delocalised
electrons
Polar molecules
ionise when
dissolved
Delocalised
electrons b/w
layers can
conduct
Solubility Some dissolve in
polar solvents
only
Some do not
dissolve at all
Some metals will
react with water
to form alkaline
solutions
Most metals do
not dissolve
Polar molecular
substances will
dissolve in polar
and non-polar
solvents
Some small non-
polar molecules
dissolve slightly
in polar solvents
Do not dissolve
Explanation Attraction of
ions to water
Metals good
reducing agents
Polar molecules
ionised by water
Covalent bonds
too strong
HIGHER LEVEL
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14.1 Shapes of molecules and ions
14.1.1 Predict the shape and bond angles for species with five and six negative charge centres
using the VSEPR theory

Summary of molecules with 5 negative charge centres around the central atom

No. of bonding
pairs on the
central atom
No. of non-
bonding pairs on
the central atom
Example Shape of molecule Representation of the shape
5 0 PCl
5
Trigonal bipyramid
4 1 SF
4
Seesaw or sawhorse
3 2 ICl
3
T-shaped
2 3 XeF
2
Linear



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Summary of molecules with 6 negative charge centres around the central atom

No. of bonding
pairs on the
central atom
No. of non-
bonding pairs on
the central atom
Example Shape of molecule Representation of the shape
6 0 SF
6
-
, PF
6
-
Octahedral or square
bipyramidal

5 1 BrF
5
Square pyramidal

4 2 XeF
4
Square planar



14.2 Hybridisation
14.2.1 Describe and bonds (2)
(sigma) bonds:
Results from the axial overlap of p orbitals in the same axis or an s orbital and a pa orbital or
even two s orbitals
bonds = single bonds
Overlapping of orbitals explains difference in bond length
(pi) bonds:
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Results from the sideways overlapping of two p orbitals (p
y
or p
z
)
The overlapping in bonds is not as great as in bonds, hence bond is not as strong
bonds occur most commonly when a multiple bond (double or triple) is formed


14.2.2 Explain hybridisation in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for
bonding (3)

Hybridisation refers to the process of mixing atomic orbitals as atoms approach each other to form
new orbitals for bonding

sp
3
hybridisation

:
Electron structure of carbon is 1s
2
2s
2
2p
2
, suggesting it is only able to form 2 bonds ( 2 p
electrons in the valence shell)
However, it is known to make four single bonds, suggesting the mixing of atomic orbitals to
produce degenerate orbitals used for bonding
The four orbitals in the valence shell of carbon, 2s, 2p
x
, 2p
y
and 2p
z
are mixed together.
Shape of an sp
3
hybrid orbital has two lobes, but one lobe is much bigger than the other
4 sp
3
orbitals are formed, and arranged in a tetrahedral shape around the central atom
Consists only of bonds




Whenever there are 4 negative charge centres around a central atom, the hybridisation of
that central atom must be sp
3
(only single bonds present)

E.g. Alkanes, ammonia (NH
3
), hydrazine (N
2
H
4
), water (H
2
O)
sp
2
hybridisation:
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Boron is an element that only forms 3 bonds
It has 3 electrons in its valence shell and will form 3 covalent bonds
The electron configuration of boron is 1s
2
2s
2
1p
1
the 2s orbital and the two 2p orbitals are
mixed
3 sp
2
orbitals are formed, and arranged in a trigonal planar shape around the central atom
Consists of 1 bond and 1 bond






Whenever there are 3 negative charge centres around a central atom, the hybridisation of
the central atom must be sp
2
(double bonds formed)

E.g. Alkenes, diazene (N
2
H
2
)

sp hybridisation:
Beryllium has only two electrons in its valence shell
The electron configuration of beryllium is 1s
2
2s
2
in order for two equal bonds to be formed,
the 2s and one 2p orbital must be mixed
Two sp orbitals are arranged in a linear shape around the central atom to minimise
electrostatic repulsion
Consists of 1 bond and 2 bonds
Whenever there are 2 negative charge centres, the hybridisation of the central atom must
be sp (triple bonds formed)

E.g. Alkynes, nitrogen (N
2
)


14.2.3 Identify and explain the
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relationships between Lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation (sp, sp
2
, sp
3
)
(3)
Method for determining Lewis structure:
1. Count the no. of valence electrons on the central atom (e.g. Phosphorus = 5 from group 5)
2. Add one electron from each attached atom for each bond
3. Count up the total number of electrons
4. Subtract the electrons used in forming the bonds
5. The no. remaining will be the extra electrons on the central atom




Hybridisation is determined by the number of molecular orbitals attached to the central
atom
E.g. PCl
3
has 4 regions of electron density, hence hybridisation is sp
3
(tetrahedral)
E.g. SO
2
only has 3 regions of electron density, therefore sp
2
hybridised (trigonal planar)
There is a remaining p orbital available to form a system with either oxygens, allowing for
bond resonance between the oxygens


14.3 Delocalisation of electrons
14.3.1 Describe the delocalisation of electrons and explain how this can account for the
structures of some species (3)
When a particular molecule can be represented as several different Lewis structures, it is
usually a hybrid (mix) of all of them
This can be represented either by using delocalised electrons, or through resonance (where
each possible structure is drawn and the actual state resonates between them)
The delocalisation of these electrons makes the molecule more stable and gives the bonds
a shorter length than would be expected