Linux (Primer)

This primer is meant to serve as a comparative walk-through for many aspects of Linux.
The comparative
aspect of this primer takes into consideration that most readers will have a basic familiarity and
understanding of Windows 2000 or Windows ! and a desire to learn something challenging" fulfilling"
and rewarding.
#or every Windows action" there$s a comparative Linux action" and with every action" there$s an
operating system %&'( response. Throughout this document" )$ll explore various commands and events
that both operating systems share and )*ll show how to invoke simple processes and parallel applications.
+ecause of the distinct individuality of the various Linux distributions %,ed -at Linux" .aldera &pen Linux"
'u'/" 0ebian" and 1andrake(" this primer will take the liberty of dealing with one particular distribution.
,ed -at Linux has risen above all other flavors of Linux to become the most popular and hottest-selling
Linux product to date. This is not to play favorites or to say that one distribution is better than the other.
.hoosing one distribution as a focal point is merely a matter of convenience.
This primer is divided into individual sections2 system layout" startup and shutdown" basic file
processes" using removable and irremovable drives" the desktop" program installation" system
configuration" network configuration" maintenance" basic help systems" and dual booting. Let$s begin by
examining the system layout.
'ystem layout
The Windows system layout is a fairly straightforward. The .2 drive resides on the 0&' partition and
contains all of the system and non-system folders and files. &n the .2 drive" you*ll typically find2
3 set of folders that houses applications %!rogram #iles(.
Windows general files %Windows(.
#iles and settings users have created or chosen %0ocuments and 'ettings(.
4ser and application files created in the file tree.
Within the Windows directory" you*ll find the various system folders and files necessary for the basic
functionality of Windows. -oused within this same directory %Windows( are the .ini" .bat" .com" and
various other files that make up the heart of the Windows operation. )t is possible to make the system
unbootable" or unstable" by making changes to these files. This problem is somewhat negated in the
more recent versions of Windows by having an 3dministrator and regular users.
!age 5
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#):4,/ +
The Windows file tree structure shown here doesn*t include all existing files and folders" but it should
look familiar %Figures A and B(.
#):4,/ 3
!rior to Windows ;T" the Windows &' was a single-user
environment. Windows 9x was configured with one user who uses"
administers" and maintains the system. )n this configuration" it$s very
possible for a user to accidentally take
the system into an irreversible state.
Linux doesn$t allow this behavior. Like
4;)" Linux is based on a multiuser environment in that there is an administrator %called root( who is the
only user allowed to execute many tasks. ,oot can do such things as2
3dd users
0elete users
.reate dial-up accounts
.onfigure networking
)nstall and uninstall programs
1ake changes to global configurations
3ccess all user accounts
Windows ;T" Windows 2000" and Windows ! have added the concept of multiuser systems and the
administrator account" thus relieving many of the issues of prior versions.
!age 2
The top half of the Windows file tree structure
The lower half of the Windows file tree structure
The user" in Linux" is the everyday user. 4sers have a limited set of permissions that allow them to
execute certain tasks and control only limited environmental variables. )t$s very easy for a user to break
his or her account or desktop. -owever" if users break" or corrupt" their desktop in Linux" all other users"
including root" will still have the use of their own accounts. This design makes for a very safe and secure
environment.
The first postinstall task is to have root set up the various user accounts. )f you$re using the machine as
a single-user desktop" simply create a user that will be used for everyday computing. The new user is
created in one of two ways2 through linuxconf or at the command line. The simplest method is through
linuxconf< which is where root can create the new user" give the new user permissions" and add groups to
the user. 3t a prompt %and as root(" type linuxconf. &nce the linuxconf application has started" scroll down
to 4ser 3ccounts and choose 3dd. )n the 4sername field" provide a name for your user. #eel free to be
creative.
The only other field in this tab that you*ll need to concern yourself with is the #ull ;ame field. !rovide
the re=uested information and move to the !rivileges section. #or safety*s sake" leave the new user*s
permissions set to the minimum level. ;ow activate these changes. &nce this user is created" log out of
root and log in as the new user. The security of running under user instead of under root is well worth the
hassle of having to su to make system changes %more on su later(.
3t first" this will seem more of an annoyance than a feature. -owever" the ability to retain global
configurations and control all levels of setup" permissions" and customi>ations while being free to tinker
with user accounts will =uickly win you over to the multiuser environment. With the multiuser environment"
a single controlling unit acts as a sort of overlord to the entire system. ?es" it sounds daunting" but the
tasks of setting up devices and altering critical file systems and processes should be left to those with the
knowledge of administering a system. )f you don*t possess such knowledge" then you won$t have to worry
about harming your desktop system@it*s as simple as that.
Linux uses the concept of directories" instead of folders. This comes from the character-based roots
of Linux. 3 directory is also a collection of related files and directories. 0irectories are represented in
the Linux :4) as a folder" making the distinction mostly semantic for average users. The
administrative user will need to understand the directory concept.
;ow that you have a basic understanding of the multiuser structure" let$s look at the Linux layout. 3s
mentioned previously" instead of folders" Linux uses directories" and each directory is stored in a mount-
point. This mount-point acts as a sort of logical location so that the &' can remember where each file is
placed. The main directory for the system is simply 6. ?es" it$s that simple< 6 is where it all begins. -oused
within 6 are the following directories2 bin" dev" home" /usr/bin" /usr/sbin" var" 6boot" and /etc" among others.
-ere is a basic listing of what resides in each of these directories2
bin2 This directory contains the most essential 4;) commands" such as ls" awk" cat" chmod"
chown" cp" dd" df" mount" mkdir" rm" rmdir" and touch. These essential commands are the
backbone of the Linux64;) command environment. The bin directory is" by default" located in
the $PATH so that all commands residing within bin are global. %They can be executed from any
directory.(
dev2 This directory holds the files that communicate with the machine*s hardware. This directory
contains devices that connect your modem" your .0-,&1" your /thernet" your floppy drive" and
your hard drive to your &'. 3lmost the entire configuration of these devices is handled during the
install.
home2 Home is literally where the heart isA 3fter you have added your user account" home will
contain a subdirectory with that user name. #or example" if you added the user .huck" /home will
contain the Chuck directory. The explicit path to .huck$s home directory is /home/Chuck. 3ll of
the working directories and configurations are housed within the user*s home directory. ;ote that
!age B
a user has no access to the other users$ home directories< therefore" each user$s configuration is
local to only that user. This setup also aids in security. #or example" you have a +ob and a .huck
on your system. +ob will not be able to change directory %cd( into /home/chuck" nor will .huck be
able to cd into /home/bob. Likewise" +ob won*t be able to read .huck$s files %as long as .huck
has not set the permissions of his files to global@more on permissions later(.
/usr/bin2 This directory contains other commands" and the difference between /bin and /usr/bin is
arbitrary. The split between /bin and /usr/bin was merely a way to divide the vast number of
commands local to a 4;)-like system.
/usr/sbin2 This directory houses commands that are used only by superuser %root(. 'uch
commands include netcfg" sndconfig" linuxconf" and netconf. These commands are critical" and
improper use can bring a system to a screeching halt.
/var2 This directory contains most administrative files" including the log files used by various
utilities. These log files are invaluable tools if your system develops a problem. 3ll logins and
boots are recorded in this directory. &ne of the most useful of these files is /var/log/messages.
1ost of these files are accessible only by root.
/boot2 This directory contains the kernel and other files used during booting. )t is crucial that only
the well-versed toy with these files.
/etc2 This directory contains files used by subsystems" such as networking" network file systems
%;#'(" and mail. This directory also contains tables of networking services and mountable disks.
6opt2 This is the directory which contains many applications users will use" and install.
This is a simple@not complete@listing. /ach distribution adds various directories and files to this basic
setup %Table A(.
T3+L/ 3
Windows Linux
.2 6
!rogram files 6home6user
'ystem 6usr6sbin and 6boot
'tart menu 6usr6bin
/2 %.0-,&1( 6mnt6cdrom %when mounted(
.ontrol !anel Linuxconf
This is a simple sideb!side comparison of the Windows and "inux directories#
3gain" this is a very minimal comparison" meant only to provide an overview of the comparative
structure between Windows and Linux.
)n Linux" drives fall under a completely different naming system %Table B(.
T3+L/ +
Windows Linux
32 %first floppy drive( 6dev6fd0
+2 %second floppy drive( 6dev6fd5
/ntire first hard drive 6dev6hda
.2 %first -0 partition( 6dev6hda5
02 %second -0 partition( 6dev6hda2
/2 %.0-,&1( 6dev6cdrom
"inux drive names are $uite different than their Windows counterparts#
!age 8
'tartup6shutdown
;ow that you have a basic understanding of the Linux file structure" let$s examine how to start your
machine.
'tartup
The Linux boot process differs from the very beginning. 3fter the +)&' posts" a Linux native application
%named "%"&( starts. "%"& is a general-purpose boot manager that can boot nearly any type of &'.
Typically" "%"& will reside on the master boot record %1+,( and will be the first piece of code executed
after the +)&'. 3t the "%"& prompt" you can press CTabD to display the various operating systems
available at boot. 3s previously stated" "%"& can boot nearly any type of &'. -owever" in the case of dual
booting between Linux and Windows" the Windows &' must be installed first. %&therwise" the Windows
boot loader will overwrite "%"&' and Linux will be unbootable without the aid of a boot disk.(
)f your machine is configured to dual boot between operating systems with "%"& resting on the 1+,"
simply press CTabD at the "%"&( prompt" and you$ll get a listing of the commands to boot each &'.
Typically" the commands are as follows2
To boot Linux" either press C/nterD" or type linux and then press C/nterD.
To boot Windows" type dos and press C/nterD.
&n a properly installed Linux system" the difference in the boot process doesn*t end at the initial load.
0uring the boot process" the various file systems %listed earlier( are mounted" and the boot process stops
at either the login prompt or a graphical log in %depending on how you configured the system at
installation(.
When the boot process stops at login" you$ll be greeted with either the login( prompt or the :4).
,egardless of whether it$s text or graphical" you*ll provide your username %assuming you$ve set up a user
account( and then your password. )f this is your first install and you haven$t added a user" you will be
re=uired to type %at the login prompt( root" followed by the root password you entered during the last
phase of the installation process.
)f your machine is configured for text-based login" once you$ve logged in as user" you$ll see another
prompt2
[username@localhost username]$
This prompt accepts all the various commands %either essential or nonessential( in Linux. &ne of these
commands is startx" which starts the Linux Window 'ystem. The Window 'ystem is the application
that allows the various Linux :4)s to communicate with the &'. The Linux :4) %as a standard ,ed -at
7.0 install( has many features found in the Windows 9E environment %Table C(.
T3+L/ .
Windows Linux
Taskbar :;&1/ panel or fvwm2 taskbar
'tart menu :;&1/ menu or fvwm2 'tart button
0esktop icons 0esktop launchers
!rogram menu 4ser menus63pplication menus
0&' window .onsole terminal
1ouse pointer 1ouse pointer
.opy6!aste .opy6!aste
)an! "inux *+% and Windows features are similar#
!age E
'hutdown
The Linux shutdown process is very similar to its Windows counterpart. )f the Linux system isn*t shut
down properly" the file systems won*t be able to unmount properly" thereby forcing a check during the
next boot. This is similar to the event that Windows doesn*t shut down properly and must run 'can0isk.
To log out properly" you must go through the main :;&1/ menu and select Log &ut. &nce the Log &ut
option is selected" you will be given another set of options2 Log &ut" -alt" and ,eboot. To shut down the
system" choose -alt< to reboot the system" choose ,eboot< and to log out" choose Log &ut.
3nother option included on the Log &ut screen is 'ave .urrent 'etup. )t is always wise to select this
check box so that your desktop will return to its current state upon logout. )n order to log out properly from
F0/" select Log &ut from the main menu" and you will be returned to the command prompt. To reboot
from the command prompt" change to the root user %run the su command by typing su and pressing
C/nterD( and then provide the root password when prompted. &nce you have root access" you will run one
of the following commands2
To reboot2
/sbin/shutdown -r now
To shut down2
/sbin/shutdown -h now
&nce the logout process is successfully executed" the &' will begin to unmount the file system and"
depending on the option selected" begin the process of shutting down" logging out" or rebooting.
+asic file processes
;ow" let$s look at the basic tasks of computing. )n Linux" there$s almost always more than one way to
accomplish a task. )n this primer" we*ll deal with both the command-line process and the :4) process.
4nderstand" however" that the command-line mode is much simpler and more efficient" but it*s often not
as user-friendly. %?ou actually have to typeA( #or the sake of this primer" we$ll deal with only the basics2
reading files" copying files" deleting files and directories" searching for files and directories" changing a
file*s permissions" and renaming files.
)n Windows" all of these commands are taken care of in a :4) environment. ?ou can perform most of
these Windows commands by right-clicking the mouse or using the drag-and-drop operation. To perform
the above-mentioned file processes in a console-type Windows environment" the computer must be shut
down and restarted in 1'-0&' mode. %) purposely do not mention the 0&' window due to its inability to
function as a true console emulator.( Linux" however" has the power to perform most of these functions in
both the console and :4) environments. Why would you want to manage these tasks with the command-
line interface when using the :4) is so simpleG )n console mode" these tasks can take on many
arguments and details that the :4) mode %in both operating systems( couldn$t possibly handle. 4sing the
command-line interface" you can pipe output to other files %meaning you can take the output from your
commands and send it to a file to be analy>ed later(. ?ou can also move around more =uickly and not
overwhelm your processor with the load of the :4). 3nother benefit to learning the command-line
structure is that it allows you to command and control machines remotely. With the help of secure shell
%or even the less secure telnet(" you can log on to a machine and run commands as if you were sitting in
front of that very box.
. 3;0 :
Throughout the following descriptions" each &' will be listed and each style will be represented with
either . %for command line( or : %for :4)(. The Windows :4) will often refer to Windows /xplorer" and
the Linux :4) will often refer to :;&1/$s :1. %:;&1/ 1idnight .ommander(.
!age 7
Let$s compare the basic manipulation of files.
,eading files
3 key difference between Linux and Windows is the versatility that Linux has in reading files. Linux can
read any file" be it binary" hex" text" doc" wpf" and so forth. The list goes on and on. Linux also has a
number of different ways in which it can read a file %Table D(.
T3+L/ 0
Windows Linux
;one less %.(
,ight-click open with %:( ,ight-click open with %:(
"inux offers different methods of reading a file#
The less command allows you to view the contents of Hust about any file. Let$s say you have a .txt file
called budget.txt. )n order to view the contents of that file" simply type less budget#txt" and the contents of
that file will appear on the screen. 3 word of warning2 Typing less budget#txt works only if the file contains
20 lines or less. )f the file is longer" you$ll have to pipe the command to more. )n basic terms" this means
you$ll add the more argument to the command. +y adding more" you$ll see the file only one screen at a
time. )n order to scroll down the listing" press any key to move down a screen. To get out of less" type $
for =uit.
Like Windows" the latest ,ed -at Linux has the :4) functionality associated with file manipulation.
Within the :;&1/ menu" there is an application called :1." which is similar to Windows /xplorer. :1.
produces the graphical interface to all files on the system. With the graphical interface" you can drag and
drop" right-click" and open files. To view the contents of a file in #ile 1anager" right-click the file and select
Iiew. This command opens the :;&1/ file viewer and displays the contents of the file. The :;&1/ file
viewer also enables you to perform string searches within a file" go to a particular line in a file" and make
a symbolic link to a file %similar to a Windows shortcut(.
)n the newer releases of Linux %i.e." ,ed -at J.5 and 1andrake J.2(" F0/2 is installed. F0/2 includes
the very powerful Fon=ueror" which is not only a Web browser %and a darn good one at that( but also a
file manager. The Fon=ueror file manager is very flexible and highly configurable@in fact" it can be set up
and used exactly like Windows /xplorer.
There are many other ways to read a file in Linux" including various text editors and word processors.
Linux runs three office suites that make any Windows user feel right at home2 Word!erfect" 'tar&ffice"
and 3pplixware. Word!erfect surpasses 1icrosoft Word in the desktop publishing battleground. 3ll three
Linux office suites behave exactly as a Windows user would expect them to behave. 'urprisingly enough"
these applications will remove a great deal of the fear from using Linux.
.opying files
.opying files in Linux can be either a simple drag-and-drop operation or a few keystrokes away. ;ot only
is the command line for copying a file simple but it$s also powerful %Table E(.
T3+L/ /
Windows Linux
;one cp %.(
,ight-click drag and drop %/xplorer( %:( C.trlD drag and drop %#ile 1anager( %:(
"inux offers different methods for cop!ing files#
!age J
3gain" let*s work with our budget#txt file. 'uppose the file currently resides in the /home/bob directory
and you want to copy it to the /home/bob/work directory. While in the /home/bob directory and at a
command prompt" type cp ,/budget#txt ,/work/" and the file budget#txt will be copied from /home/bob to
/home/bob/work. 3nd Hust what does the ,/ meanG +asically" ,/ tells your system that you are in that
particular user$s home directory. %The user is who you are logged on as.( 4sing ,/ is merely a way to
eliminate keystrokes. )f you want to avoid confusion or you don$t like to avoid keystrokes" you could type
the entire path of both directories %i.e." /home/bob and /home/bob/work(.
The cp command is not limited to the current working directory. Let$s use the same example" but we*ll
say you are in the /usr/bin directory. To copy the budget#txt file from the /home/bob directory to the
/home/bob/work directory" you$d have to type the entire path of both directories. /ven from an obscure
directory deep within your system" you could type cp /home/bob/budget#txt /home/bob/work/" and the file
would still be copied exactly as commanded.
'imilar to Windows 9x6Windows ;T" Linux is able to copy files with a simple drag-and-drop procedure.
To copy files in the :;&1/ #ile 1anager" hold down C.trlD" click the left mouse button" and drag the file
to where you want it copied. %)f you don$t press C.trlD" the file is moved and not copied.( 3nother easy way
to copy files with #ile 1anager is to highlight the file by single clicking" go to the #ile menu" select .opy"
and use the +rowse button to select your file$s destination. This menu also enables you to open" copy"
delete" and move files.
0eleting files
0eleting files with any of Linux*s graphical file managers such as :1. and Fon=ueror is similar to
deleting files in Windows /xplorer< select the file you want deleted and then select #ile K 0elete. ?ou can
also delete a file by selecting it and then right-clicking and selecting 0elete from the resulting shortcut
menu.
#rom the early stages of Linux" the command-line interface has ruled. )n order to delete files at the
command line" use the rm command. This ex=uisitely powerful command contains numerous options that
make it one of the most flexible methods of removing a file %Table F(.
T3+L/ #
Windows Linux
;one rm %.(
,ight-click K 0elete %/xplorer( %:( ,ight-click K 0elete %#ile 1anager( %:(
There are several wa!s to delete files in "inux#
To remove a file with rm" type %at a command prompt( rm filename" and the file will be deleted. This is
the most basic command. ;ow let$s look at some of the options2
rm f filename2 The force command forces the file$s removal" ignoring nonexistent files and never
asking for a prompt.
rm i filename2 The interactive command prompts you before any deletion@a very wise precaution
to take when you*re Hust getting started. ,emember" a deleted file in Linux is Hust that@deletedA
rm r directoryname2 The recursive command removes the contents of a directory recursively. What
actually happens is that the command will dive into a directory and remove its contents and will then
exit the directory and remove the directory itself. +e very careful with this command. 'hould you
execute rm rf / %as root(" your entire drive will be deleted.
rm v filename2 The verbose command provides an explanation of everything that*s being done
during the deletion.
'earching for files
!age L
The Windows #ind application is =uite a powerful tool. Windows #ind is relatively fast and accurate" and
it$s as stable as a Windows application can be. Linux has a variety of options for find-both command-line
and :4) %Table G(.
T3+L/ :
Windows Linux
#ind %:( find %.(
;one whereis %.(
;one locate %.(
;one 3fter'tep$s #ind module %:(
;one :;&1/ search tool %:(
;one F0/ find files %:(
"inux offers man! different wa!s to search for files#
Let$s examine the :4) applications first. The applications most similar to Windows #ind are the :;&1/
'earch Tool and the F0/ #ind #iles tool. ?ou can find the :;&1/ 'earch Tool in the main menu under
the 4tilities submenu. The F0/ #ind #iles tool is found in the main menu. When the 'earch Tool window
opens" you*ll see two places to input text2 The first area tells the application where to start looking" and the
second is the name of the file. +eyond the text entry is a very helpful drop-down list of addendums you
can use with the find command" such as 0on$t 'earch 'ubdirectories" #ile &wner" and many others.
These addendums expedite the process of searching a large disk. ?ou can also use both search tools to
remove files.
3fter'tep has its own version of the search tool that isn*t as elegant as :;&1/$s" but it*s Hust as
reliable and efficient. 3fter'tep$s 'earch tool is located in the ,oot menu under 1odules. When the
'earch tool opens" you*re greeted with a window containing a single text area. Type the name of the file
and select :o" and the program will find the file. )t$s not as pretty as the :;&1/ 'earch Tool" but it*s Hust
as effective.
.hanging permissions
'ince the Linux environment is a multiuser environment" it*s necessary to add permissions to the &' for
security. Windows re=uires third-party software to achieve this effect" but it attains only a fraction of
Linux$s simplicity and security. !ermissions dictate who can and cannot read" write" or execute a file
%Table H(.
T3+L/ -
Windows Linux
;one chmod %.(
;one :1. %:(
;one Fon=ueror %:(
"inux offers multiple methods of changing file permissions#
'uppose that on your desktop machine at work" you have a document that is critical for you to complete
during a given week. -owever" it is well known throughout the office that one particular Hoker is fond of
hindering your progress. To prevent this from occurring" Linux sets up each user so that he or she
declares who can edit the user$s files. )n our example" the document is called work#doc %notice the
standard Word 9J extension that a program such as 'tar&ffice can read and write(" and the user is
named .huck. 'hould .huck want to keep anyone else from reading or changing work#doc" he would
simply set the permissions so that only user %.huck( can read" write" or execute work#doc. To do this"
.huck types %at a command prompt( chmod .// work#doc. Let$s decipher this command.
!age 9
?ou issue the chmod command to change the mode of the file. The next element" .//" is a bit more
complex" but once you understand it" it$s a real time-saver. There are three types of users you want to
think about in Linux2 user" group" and other. /ach type of user is thought of in octal notation. )n other
words" think of user in hundreds" group in tens" and other in ones. /ach type of permission@read %r("
write %w(" execute %x(@is given a corresponding number that is related to the type of user assigned
%Table I(.
T3+L/ )
4ser :roup &ther
r w x r w x r w x
800 200 500 80 20 50 8 2 5
There are three t!pes of users in "inux#
3s shown in Table )" each number corresponds to both a permission %read" write" or execute( and a
user %user" group" or other(. When you decide which permissions you want to assign" you simply add the
numbers together to form a command. #or group to have only read access" the number is 80. #or group
to have both read and write access" the number is 70. #or group to have complete access" the number is
J0. #or example" .huck wants to allow group to read the file work#doc %in addition to the existing
permission set detailed above( but not to write to the file. To do this" .huck would add the number 80 to
the first number" so chmod .0/ work#doc will allow user total access to the file" but group may only read
the file. Let$s say that later" .huck wants to change the permissions to add the write privilege for group.
Typing chmod .1/ work#doc will do the trick.
There$s another" easier way to add and remove permissions. With the plus CMD symbol" a user can add
or remove r" w " or x permissions to a file. 'o" to use the above example" chmod g2rw will give group read
and write privileges. The command chmod grw will remove the privileges.
/ven simpler is the :4) of :;&1/ 1idnight .ommander %:1.(. :1. allows you to set permissions
using the right-click menu. #rom the right-click menu" click !roperties K !ermissions" and you can easily
set permissions with the click of a button. )t couldn$t be any easier.
3t first" assigning permissions may seem like an unnecessary precaution"N and on a home-user desktop"
it may be. +ut for a business that has many users" permissions can certainly save a great deal of valuable
work time and eliminate frustration.
,enaming files
The command line mv is a very easy-to-use command. 4sed with move" mv tells the &'" $$)$m moving this
file to this location and giving it this name.$$ #or instance" in order to rename the file work#doc %in the
/home/chuck director!( to workbackup#doc" you would type mv /home/chuck/work#doc
/home/chuck/workbackup#doc" or even shorter" mv ,/work#doc ,/workbackup#doc %Table J(.
T3+L/ O
Windows Linux
;one mv %.(
;one cp %.(
,ight-click K ,ename %:( :1.2 ,ight-click file K !roperties K 'tatistics
;one Fon=ueror2 ,ight-click file K ,ename %:(
3ou have several options for renaming files in "inux#
Like all good Linux commands" mv comes with a family of flags. -owever" using mv as a rename
command does not re=uire the aid of flags. ;ote2 4sing the mv command will remove the original file. )t is
wise to use the i flag to prevent overwriting important files.
!age 50
The cp command also acts as a simple renaming command without removing the original. This
command is great for making backups. To rename the above-mentioned file" type cp ,/work#doc ,/work
backup#doc" and both files will remain. When using the cp command %like the mv command( to rename
files" it$s wise to use the i flag to prevent overwriting files.
To rename files via the :4)" think of Windows /xplorer. :1. enables you to right-click a file and act
upon that file in numerous ways. To rename a file with this method" you*d right-click the file" choose
!roperties" and rename the file in the #ile ;ame dialog box.
4sing removable and nonremovable drives and media
4sing a drive in Linux is somewhat different than in Windows. )n Windows" you can select the drive and
view its contents" insert the floppy disk" and save" or you can insert the .0-,&1 and install it. Linux" on
the other hand" re=uires a few more steps %at least in most distributions( %Table K(.
T3+L/ F
Windows Linux
;one mount %.(
;one floppy6cdrom icons %:( %:;&1/ and F0/(
+sing a drive in "inux is a bit different than in Windows#
To many users" the mount command is merely another hurdle in the way of simple computing. Why
mountG Why doesn*t Linux recogni>e the drives %both floppy and .0-,&1( right awayG 1ounting a drive
is a way of telling a system %in very basic terms(" P) need to use this device" and ) want to read it from this
directory.P ?ou don$t see the true necessity of mount until you are on a networked system where users
can share a single drive by simply mounting it %one user at a time(.
+efore we get into the actual mounting commands" we first want to set up the system so that users can
mount and umount drives. 3s root" type linuxconf and scroll down to #ilesystem K 3ccess Local 0rive. )n
this configuration tool" you will be able to edit the options of both the .0-,&1 and the floppy drives.
To edit the 6dev6fd0 %floppy( drive" select the name of the drive to open the configuration tool for that
particular drive. 4nder the 6dev6fd0 tab" you$ll want to do two things2 #irst" you$ll tell the system that the
type will be vfat. +y doing this" your Linux system will automatically read and write to Windows-type disks
%thereby retaining their Windows 9x readability(. 'econd" select the &ptions tab and then click the 4ser
1ountable button so that the system does not re=uire root access to mount the floppy drive.
&nce the floppy is configured" move on to the .0-,&1 %6dev6cdrom(. -ere" you have only one change
to make2 ?ou must make the file system user mountable. ?ou handle this change in the same way as you
would the floppy drive.
The mount command also allows you to read many other types of file systems" including the Windows
9x I#3T system and the Windows ;T file system. Let$s assume that your system has either a Windows
partition or drive" as well as a Linux partition or drive. )n order for your Linux system to read the Windows
partition" you must mount the system to a directory. )n our case" we$ll first create a directory %for our
Windows needs( called win. This directory will be located in the /mnt/ directory. 3t the command line" type
mkdir /mnt/win. 0epending on where your Windows partition6drive is located" you$ll use certain names for
the drive itself. ,emember that the Linux naming system varies from the standard Windows naming
system. Typically" a Windows partition will lie under either /hda" /hdb" or /hdc. Let$s assume that your
Windows drive is housed on the same drive as your Linux drive %/had( and was installed prior to the Linux
installation. To mount the Windows drive" at the command line type2
mount t vfat /dev/hda1 /mnt/win
!age 55
;ow" to view or navigate around your Windows directories" cd into /mnt/win45" and you$ll be in Windows
9x. Linux is very powerful in that it allows you to copy to and from the Windows drive from Linux@
everything is readable. This directory is now treated like a standard Linux drive" and the typical Linux
commands will function %including cp" mv" ls" and less(.
+oth :;&1/ and F0/ offer another route to mounting various drives that allows you to mount and
unmount drives via the :4). +oth environments create desktop icons for the floppy and .0-,&1 drives
that mount the respective drives with a single click %F0/( or double-click %:;&1/(. &nce the drive is
mounted" you*re greeted with a window that shows the contents of the drive. This window allows you to
drag-and-drop and associate an application.
To unmount the system using the desktop icons" you must right-click the icon and select 4nmount
0evice. The system will sync" and the drive will unmount.
:;&1/ also allows for the mount applets to be placed on the :;&1/ !anel. These applets act as
simple buttons that you can click to mount and unmount. The applets are better suited to users who will
be doing most of their work from the command line" while the icons are designed for the :4) lover. To
add these applets" right-click the :;&1/ !anel and choose 3dd 3pplet K 4tility K 0rive 1ount. The
default drive applet is for the floppy drive" so when a second applet is added" you must change the
properties %by right-clicking( to tell the applet to mount the .0-,&1 as opposed to the floppy.
,/1/1+/, T& 4;1&4;T
When you$ve finished with the Windows drive or any mountable drive other than the Linux drive" it*s
very important to unmount this drive so the system can be shut down properly.
'ome of the more recent distributions" such as 1andrake J.2" include a utility called supermount that
allows you to access and remove floppy disks and .0s without having to run any of the cumbersome
mount commands. This" of course" is uni=ue to some distributions. )f you*re interested in this type of
functionality" you*ll want to select a distribution that includes this utility.
The desktop
Let$s first take a look at what a Linux desktop is" and then we$ll explore the particulars.
The basics
3 Linux :4)-based system has multiple layers that make up its environment. &n top of the Linux kernel
lays the Window 'ystem. The Window 'ystem acts as a mediator between the desktop :4) and the
kernel. 3ccording to the main page2
67 Window 8!stem server distributes user input to and accepts output re$uests from various client
programs through a variet! of different interprocess communication channels#99
&n top of the Window 'ystem lies the desktop environment. Two common desktop environments are
:;&1/ and F0/. #inally" on top of the desktop environment lies the window manager %W1(. 3ccording
to the official 3fter'tep site2
6A window manager :briefl!; is a program which controls the wa! various windows interact during an 7
session#99
There are many Window 1anagers available" with Linux distributions and from various individuals and
companies. 3ll of these are completely configurable environments that allow you to customi>e the
desktop to the limits of your imagination. Like other Linux components many of the Window 1anagers
include source code" which allows customi>ation at a programming level.
!age 52
)n essence" allows the desktop environment to communicate to the kernel" and the window manager
allows the user to communicate to the desktop. +y employing these components" Linux contains all of the
:4) tools that Windows has set as standard for the desktop :4) user. 'ee Table L for a comparison of
the functionalities.
T3+L/ L
Windows Linux
Taskbar Fpanel %F0/( !anel %:;&1/(
'tart button F button %F0/( 1ain menu %:;&1/(
0esktop icons 0esktop icons
0rag and drop 0rag and drop
The "inux desktop offers the same functionalit! as its Windows counterpart' with added stabilit! and efficienc!#
;ow we can compare the two popular desktops mentioned above.
F0/
F0/ has" by default" all of the elements that comprise what is considered the standard desktop
environment2
Taskbar
4ser menus
.lickable icons
.onfigurable window elements
Wallpaper and color configurations
Launchable applications via the taskbar
3 clock
Like the whole of Linux" these configurations are limited only by the imagination.
Let$s take a look at the largest visual component of the F0/ desktop2 the taskbar. 1uch like its
Windows counterpart" the F0/ taskbar$s most prominent element is the F button" which is the same as
the Windows 'tart +utton. The F button is the menu on which most F0/ applications can be found. 4sing
this menu" it is possible to conduct the entire Linux session without typing a single command on the
command line. This will make most Windows users feel more comfortable if they are migrating to a Linux
environment. Let$s run through a =uick session. This session will assume many of the components have
been preconfigured.
?ou want to check your e-mailG .lick the F button" go to )nternet" and then click Fppd" the )nternet dial-
up connection application. &nce kppd has connected to your )'!" again click the F button and choose
)nternet. This time" click Fmail or ;etscape" and you$ll be off and running with your e-mail. Fmail is the
F0/ mail client which is similar to other email clients such as /udora or &utlook.
3ll applications within the F0/ environment are run in a similar fashion. The F menu contains
everything you*ll need to run" configure" personali>e" shut down" play" browse" find" and control" all with
the click of a button. The F menu user-configurable. ?ou$ll find the primary tool for configuring the menu
within F K 4tilities K 1enu /ditor. This :4) application enables you to create new menu items within the
!ersonal menu entry that you can later add to the panel as clickable buttons.
The feel of F0/ has brought Linux as close to a Windows-es=ue environment as possible. 1uch of this
success is brought about with the aid of the F panel. The F panel is a taskbar-like element that rests at
the bottom %or top or right or left( of the screen and contains the various menus" buttons" and clocks
native to F0/. This panel is highly configurable" going well beyond its 1icrosoft counterpart. ;ot only can
the F panel contain clickable icons %like )nternet /xplorer 8" which was added to Windows 9E and was
!age 5B
then added to Windows 9L(" but it can also be hidden in multiple ways. To hide the F panel" you can take
the 1icrosoft-friendly route of using 3utohide or use the F0/ default of sliding the panel in and out.
The actual desktop space of the F environment is also very similar to its 1icrosoft counterpart.
.lickable icons are easy to use and configure" and they*re much more aesthetic than their counterparts.
3dding a new icon is as easy as a right-click2 Oust select ;ew K 3pplication and then provide the
re=uested information. F0/ has the added bonus of being able to add a clickable 4,L icon or a handy
1ailto icon. #or example" suppose you have a particular person you e-mail fre=uently" and you want to be
able to send that person an e-mail on a moment$s notice. With F0/" this is not a problem. ,ight-click the
desktop area" choose ;ew K )nternet 3ddress" give the icon a name %for example" the person$s name("
click the 4,L tab" and in the text area" type mailto(<)A%"A==><88 %where <)A%"A==><88 is the
particular address where you wish to send mail(. &nce the information is complete" click &F. ;ow every
time you click that icon" F mail will open with the recipient$s address ready to go.
:;&1/
Like F0/" :;&1/ contains many of its own uni=ue applications" utilities" and configuration tools found
on the :;&1/ main menu. 'porting the :;&1/ footprint" the main menu consists of the same menus
found in F0/" with the addition of a separate F0/ menu entry and another level %fvwm( menu entry. 'o
extensive are these menus that" after months of operation and Hust plain playing around" there are still
many menus ) have yet to discover.
3gain similar to F0/" :;&1/$s desktop contains clickable icons that simplify your experience even
more. 4pon installation" the icons are a mix of 4,Ls %mostly ,ed -at sites( and the :;&1/ #ile
1anager %:1.(. 3dding a new desktop icon is as easy as right-clicking the mouse and adding a new
launcher.
:;&1/ has made the task of adding desktop 4,Ls even easier. While in ;etscape ;avigator" you
only have to move the Location button to the desktop using the drag-and-drop operation. This will create
an icon that you can double-click to open the browser or right-click to alter the properties %such as the
icon itself and the name of the icon(.
The drag-and-drop operation has also been implemented into :;&1/. &n the desktop area" dragging
a file into a folder is accomplished in the same manner as in Windows. .lick the left mouse button and
drag the file into the folder. 3ll :;&1/ applications support drag-and-drop.
The :;&1/ desktop can also be configured as easily as F0/. The desktop can be rendered as close
to or as different from Windows as is desired.
0esktop configurations
/ach Linux desktop is as uni=ue as its owner. #rom the standard out-of-the-box to the fully tweaked and
twisted" Linux can please everyone. The standard Linux desktop is sure to satisfy any migratory Windows
user because it comes complete with a taskbar" a 'tart menu" and desktop icons. The fully-configured
Linux desktop will certainly please those who like their computing environment tailored exactly to fit their
needs and tastes.
#or example" using a :;&1/63fter'tep combination" you can call aterm with transparent windows and
with either tint or no tint. #or example" the command2
aterm -tr -tint yellow -fg white -bg black +sb
will call aterm with a transparent background" yellow tint" white text" black highlighting" and a scroll bar.
3lthough this seems like a lot of command typing" you can easily type this in one of the 3fter'tep menus
%or even in a launcher icon in either :;&1/ or F0/(.
This option allows you to see the wallpaper behind the window@an awe-inspiring effect indeed. The
standard :;&1/ terminal and the Fconsole can achieve the same effect of transparent windows.
!age 58
/ach window manager also allows the integration of various themes into the desktop. 3 theme"
according to 0avid .oulson %of themes.org(" is2
6###considered to be a script and images which alter the wa! in which an application' window manager'
or toolkit looks' works' and feels#99
/ach window manager such as< 3fter'tep" 'awfish" /nlightenment" Window 1aker" )ceW1" +lackbox"
#IW12" and FW1" has its own themes" which in turn" all configure the Window 1anager to different
extremes. The #IW1 window manager stands on the lighter side of configuration with backgrounds" title
bars" and taskbars" while /nlightenment goes so far as to reshape windows. /ach window manager
handles its theme installation differently. 'ome of the higher-end window managers" such as
/nlightenment and FW1" have applications that install the themes for the user. -ere$s a partial listing of
resources offering the best help on downloading various window managers and installing predefined
desktop themes2
themes.org
/nlightenment
3fter'tep
#IW1
)ceW1
F0/
Window 1aker
Take a moment to visit these sites. ?ou$ll notice how varied the desktops are. This is the very reason
why making a head-on comparison of a Linux desktop and a Windows desktop is preposterous. 3ll of the
window managers listed above will work in conHunction with Linux" and nearly all of them are
interchangeable with the various desktop metaphors %:;&1/ and F0/" for example(.
When choosing your window manager" note the resource needs of each. )t is a general rule of thumb
that #IW1 has the smallest resource re=uirements while /nlightenment has the largest. With a !entium
500 or less" you would be best to stick with the likes of #IW1. ) would rank the window managers from
least resource-intensive to most as follows %this is" of course" untested conHecture(2 #IW1" )ceW1"
Window 1aker" 3fter'tep" 'awfish" FW1" and finally" /nlightenment. 3lthough this list is untested" after
taking a =uick look at the various sites" you will likely come to the same conclusion.
/ach window manager has its own personality and way of doing things. #inding a perfect fit is simply a
matter of try-before-you-buy.
!rogram installation
To the uninitiated" installing or upgrading an application in Linux is a seemingly insurmountable task. This
is far from the truth" of course. &ne of Windows$ strengths is also one of its weaknesses. The ama>ing
user-friendliness of the Windows installation method effectively hides the entire task from you. The
closest you get to being involved with an installation on a Windows machine is choosing the directory path
and possibly the various packages native to the program being installed. Linux" on the other hand" allows
you to work as removed or as hands-on as you choose %Table (.
T3+L/ 1
Windows Linux
3utorun ;one
'etup Q clickable%:( :rpm %:;&1/( Q Fpackage %F0/( %:(
;one rpm %.(
Rip tar and ?ip
%nstalling and upgrading applications in "inux is a relativel! eas! task#
!age 5E
Let$s begin the installation by looking at the packing tools. Windows has the Rip command< Linux has
tar and ?ip. Windows$ Rip is simple< Linux$s tar can be simple. )n Windows" you download a third-party
program" usually WinRip or !FRip and usually as a trial version" and run its proprietary :4) to pack and
unpack archived applications and files. Linux has two different tools at its disposal2 ?ip and tar. +oth tools
come with nearly all distributions and are almost always cross-distribution. The biggest difference" and
most frightening to the new user" is that Linux uses the command line to pack and unpack files. 3lthough
this process is intimidating at first" it =uickly becomes second nature and is very versatile. There are also
:4) applications for pack and unpack available.
Let$s work with an imaginary file2 this@programA#A#/#tar#g?. ;otice the .g? extensionG This extension
means that this archive has been compressed to make the file smaller. &ne very misunderstood fact is
that tar does not shrink the si>e of a package< it merely takes a group of files and6or directories and
archives them into one file" hence the term packing.
)n Linux" when you come across a file that has been >ipped" you will want to first un>ip the archive.
4n>ipping" in Linux" is achieved with a simple command. 4sing our sample file" the command would be2
gunzi this!rogram-1"1"#"tar"gz or gzi $d this!rogram-1"1"#"tar"gz
This command will extract the following file2
this!rogram-1"1"#"tar
;ow you have the uncompressed archive file that is ready to be unpacked. 4npacking an archive will
explode the contents back to their original state.
Let$s say that this@programA#A#/#tar" in its unpacked form" has the following structure2 The main
application folder is named /this@program' and the following files will be housed in the application folder2
><A=)<2 3 ,/301/ file about the program and what it does
%B8TA""2 3 ,/301/ file describing the installation process
Cil
e@A2 3n application file
file@22 3n application file
file@D2 3n application file
data@file2 3 data file
this@program2 /ither the install script %compared to )nstall.exe in Windows( or the application$s run
script %compared to ThisSprogram.exe in Windows(
?ou will see the contents shown above when you execute the following command on the this@program
A#A#/#tar file2
tar %vf this!rogram-1"1"#"tar
?es" there are flags" or arguments" involved in the untarring of an application. The flags shown in the
above command are the most common of all the tar flags and mean the following2
x tells tar to extract files from the archive.
v tell tar to be verbose and display filenames.
f tells tar that the file following the flags is the file to unpack.
There are many more flags for the tar command. Thirty-one are commonly used" but the above three
are the basic flags. These arguments should get you through untarring most of your application files.
3s stated earlier" tar merely unpacks the files< it does not" however" install the application. That task is
left to you. &nce the archive is unpacked" the next step is to cd into the newly created directory %in our
example" this@program( and poke around to see what$s what. )n a Windows environment" ,/301/ files
typically tell you where to purchase upgrades or how to contact the company" and occasionally it warns of
known installation issues or bugs. Linux ,/301/ files offer a variety of information" and there is no
!age 57
standard file. Typically" a ,/301/ file will contain general information about the application" show how to
build %install( the application" explain how to run the program" contain configuration variable6file listings"
show the location of source code" and provide author contact information. )t$s good computing practice to
read ,/301/ files in Linux. Windows ,/301/ files are generally safe to ignore< Linux ,/301/ files
are not.
;ow" let*s proceed to the installation. This topic is a bit more difficult to outline because every
installation that*s not an ,!1 is different. 3lthough it would seem that you*d need near-programmer
status to install an untarred package" that is not true. :enerally" the command configure or the one-two
punch of make followed with make install is the standard. -owever" there are exceptions. 3gain" this is
where the ,/301/ files come in handy. /ven better" if the programmer is smart" he or she will include
an );'T3LL file that outlines the installation process. ;ote here a Linux convention is most files"
regardless of name" which are in all capital letters should be considered ,/301/ files.
The make command is not an installation command. )t is the command to compile an application from
the source code. Compiling translates source code into machine-readable binary files. The make
command is a convenient front end for compiling. )t reads special files that assure the same compiled
version each time. When you$ve untarred an application" what you have done is unpack all the source
code for that program. With make" the source code is then translated into something the machine can
read.
&nce the source code is compiled" the command make install takes this process one step further by
actually putting the new machine-readable code" or executable" into the default" or user specified location.
&nce make install has accomplished its mission" return to the ,/301/ file to find the executable
command. Linux does not use .exe files for executable programs< an executable file can have any name.
&ften" Linux uses wrapper files or shell scripts to execute an application. 'o" in place of
ThisSprogram.exe" as in Windows" in the program directory you will see a file called this@program. To run
the program type2
T .6thisSprogram
)n order to assure the program would be executable from anywhere" the new program directory would
need to be added to the shell variable !3T-.
rpm
The rpm utility is a very powerful application that allows you to manipulate the installation and removal of
any package that has the .rpm extension. 1any Linux distributions support the rpm utility. The rpm utility
is not limited to the installation and removal of packages. #or the developer" rpm can also build. &f
course" build is a bit beyond the scope of this document" so )$ll stick with install6remove.
With the latest distribution releases" rpm has been enhanced with nice :4) front ends. #or example"
:;&1/ has gnorpm' and F0/ has kpackage.
There is one thing you will want to be aware of when getting rpm packages to install onto your system2
rpm has many different flavors" and only one will work on your system. 3 typical ,ed -at system uses
either the iDE1#rpm or the i1E1#rpm format. 3s long as you pay attention to the following instructions" you
don*t need to worry that you may destroy a system with the wrong flavor of rpm package.
The fundamental flags for rpm are shown below in Table ;.
!age 5J
T3+L/ ;
#lag 3ction
% )nstall
v Ierbose
h !rint hash marks for progress status
$ Uuery %ask the system what version of a package is installed(
+ 4pgrade
> List the packages on which this package depends
% List files in package
There are several flags for rpm#
;ote" you must have root privileges to use rpm. )f you attempt to rpm a package as user" you will get an
error similar to this2
failed to oen //var/lib/rm/ackages"rm
error& cannot oen //var/lib/rm/ackages"rm
)f you see this error" don*t worry. ?ou can su to root and run the command again.
)nstalling with rpm
)nstalling with rpm is a very simple process. There are two ways in which to install2 :4) or non-:4). Let$s
look at :4) first.
To install a package with Fpackage" one of the :4) rpm choices" you have four options2
Locate the package you wish to install in kfm %the F file manager( and use the drag-and-drop
operation to move it to a working copy of Fpackage.
'elect a package file in kfm and start a new copy of Fpackage.
4se the &pen menu items in Fpackage.
'elect an uninstalled package in the package tree.
The simplest methods of installing packages are the first two methods using Fpackage. -ere*s how to
perform each method2
1ethod 52 With Fpackage" open as root %su to root at a bash prompt and type Fpackage(" open a
kfm window" and navigate to the package to be installed. 'elect the file you want to install and
use the drag-and-drop operation to move the file into Fpackage. &nce the file is in Fpackage"
click )nstall" and the system will run standard dependency checks. )f the package passes the
dependency checks" Fpackage will install the package. )f there are errors" the report will offer
feedback. 3lthough this method is not as =uick as using the command-line interface" it is certainly
easier than remembering all of the flags and arguments.
1ethod 22 &pen an su kfm by selecting F K 'ystem K #ile 1anager %superuser mode(, navigate to
the package to be installed" and select it. Fpackage will then proceed through the steps shown
above" starting with .lick )nstall.
The command-line option for installing rpm packages is much more versatile than the :4) front ends"
because rpm is complex and has many options. The fundamentals of rpm" fortunately" are not complex.
Let$s go back to our this@program example. 'uppose you*ve downloaded this@programA#A#/#iDE1#rpm
and are ready to install it. -ere are the basic steps" with the necessary fundamental options.
The package you want to install" this@programA#A#/#iDE1#rpm" is now located in your home directory.
The first step after opening a console is to su to root. 3s root" you will then issue this command2
rm -ivh this!rogram-1"1"#"i'()"rm
!age 5L
This line of code says is that you are going to install %i( with verbose %v( output and that you want a
printout of hash marks %h( to indicate progress. ;ow" let$s say you already have the above program
installed" you want to upgrade to a recently released" newer version. )n order to upgrade this program"
issue this command2
rm -*vh this!rogram-1"1"1"i'()"rm
The difference in the Q4 option indicates you want to upgrade an existing program.
Lastly" if you$ve found a better program" called that@program" that performs the same task as
this@program" you will probably want to uninstall this@program. +efore you run the rpm ivh on
that@program" you would uninstall this@program using the command2
rm -e this!rogram
The Qe option tells rpm to uninstall this@program.
3lthough this method may not seem like the easiest method to use" it is certainly the most efficient.
With the command line" it is also possible to rpm an entire group of packages. Let$s say you are using
:;&1/" and you want to take all the upgrades" download them" and install them. .reate a directory
called gnome and dump all of these packages into that directory" cd into that directory" and then" as root"
run the following command2
rm -*vh +rm
This command will check all dependencies and install all of the packages in the correct order and in the
right places. This is truly the most efficient means of upgrading a system. &nce all of these packages are
upgraded" it is safe to delete the rpm files to save disk space.
'ystem configuration
Within the Linux environment are many configuration tools that do many different Hobs. 'ome of these
tools are all-powerful and encompass nearly every aspect of Linux configuration" while some are limited
to only one aspect. 1ost of the tools you will see are interfaces for script-writing commands" making Linux
configuration more point-and-click as opposed to hack-and-save. The tools for Linux configuration"
assuming ,ed -at Linux" include2
linuxconf
7configurator
7CE1setup
netconf
sndconfig
netcfg
mouseconfig
timeconfig
kbdconfig
The tools are in order from top down of most functionality to least functionality. 3ll of the above tools
must be run as root and should be used with caution.
linuxconf
The linuxconf utility" is launched by root" but clicking on the icon if it has been created or issuing2
V linuxconf
!age 59
linuxconf allows the administrator to handle all aspects of system configuration" from printers and
networks" to adding users. There is no e=uivalent to linuxconf in Windows. Figures C through H show
linuxconf under ,ed -at.
!age 20
The top section of the linuxconf tool holds
man! of the networking configuration
utilities#
#):4,/ 0
&nce !ou get below the network configuration'
!ou will see the user accounts and files!stem
configurations#
#):4,/ .

!age 25
#igure /
Ge!ond account configuration within
linuxconf lies configuration sections for
miscellaneous services' peripherals' boot
mode' and cluster configuration#
#igure #
&n the second linuxconf tab' !ou will see
configuration tools for the various control
panel subsets' the mounting and
unmounting of files!stems' control files'
date/time' and features#
)n linuxconf, the most logical location to begin with is under 4sers 3ccounts K ;ormal K 4ser 3ccounts.
This is where you would add" remove" and edit user accounts. -ere" root can edit any of the existing user
accounts" add new user accounts to the system" disable user accounts" change the user*s group" change
the user*s password" add groups to a user" change the home directory" change the user shell" change the
user )0 number" change the user mail alias" add mail redirect" and change the user*s privileges. #or the
new user" the primary benefit of this section of linuxconf will be adding user accounts and changing
passwords.
3dding a new user with linuxconf is a simple matter of opening the 4sers 3ccounts section and clicking
3dd. &nce this section is open" you simply enter the proper information" such as login name and full
name. These are the only two re=uired options. There are many other options" but for this discussion
simply adding a regular user is what is needed.
&nce this information is correct" click 3ccept" which will then take you to the password prompt. 3 Linux
password must meet two re=uirements2 )t must be over five characters long" and it must not be based on
a word found in the dictionary. .apitali>ation is your friend2 P.offeeW is not a valid Linux password" but
Pc&f#e/W is valid" as is W52drink.offee.W 4se your imagination because it might be your best defense
against possible break-ins.
)t is also important to note that linuxconf offers the ability to change users* passwords. The regular
changing of passwords is a valuable security solution. )n linuxconf" changing passwords is very simple2
?ou open the same tab you were Hust using and click the user whose password you wish to change. &nce
you*re in the user*s account" click the !asswd button" enter the new password" and then reenter the new
password when prompted. )n order to enable this change" you must click 3ct6.hanges %for activate
changes(" which brings up the 'tatus &f The 'ystem tab. )n this tab" click 3ctivate The .hanges. &nce
you$ve activated the changes" you can =uit linuxconf %by clicking Uuit in the main menu and then clicking
!age 22
The final linuxconf tab contains gurus
:wi?ards; that help !ou configure various
services#
#igure -
&n the 8tatus tab' !ou can configure the
various log files within !our s!stem#
#igure :
Uuit again in the 'tatus &f The 'ystem tab(. )f you have changed your own password" you will have to
exit out of your account and log back in for the change to take effect.
;ote that it is also possible to change a user password in a terminal window" or in the console. 3 sample
console session for changing a user*s password might look like the following2
$ asswd
-hanging assword for fred
.current/ *012 assword& chum
0ew *012 assword& 3arhead
456 75889:;6& it is based on a dictionary word
0ew *012 assword& chumzilla
456 75889:;6& is too similar to the old one
0ew *012 assword& c<u=>i?l5
;etye new *012 assword& c<u=>i?l5
asswd& all authentication tokens udated successfully
?ou should note the password text such as chump and chump>illa would not be seen" they are normally
hidden. They are shown here for illustration.
The new password is now in effect. This is a much simpler method of changing a user password than
using the :4). .onsole Linux is a beast that many new users avoid learning. -owever" it is to your benefit
to familiari>e yourself with the basics of console commands and applications.
+y default the passwd command changes the current user password. 3s root it is possible to change
another user$s password. The command to change a user password is2
T passwd XusernameY
root will not need to know the current password for the user" and will be able to assign any password to
the user.
The next most popular area of linuxconf is the networking sections. The linuxconf application contains
many sections that involve networking options. 0epending on what type of networking you wish to
configure" you may have to visit various sections of linuxconf. The primary sections for basic networking
are2
-ost name and )! network devices" under client tasks2
The administrator can set up the host name of the machine< the primary name and domain name<
the )! address< the ;etmask< the /thernet device< whether the machine uses 1anual< 0-.!< or
+ootp ;etwork config mode< the )6& port< and the ),U. These settings are for L3; usage" not
dial-up.
'pecial 3ccounts" under client tasks2 The administrator can add or edit !!!" 'L)!" or !L)! dial-
up connections. The setup of this section is very similar to the netcfg application. This section
closely resembles the Windows dial up networking application.
The linuxconf application goes well beyond dial-up networking" allowing the user to configure L3;"
'amba %Windows-to-Linux connectivity(" and ;#' networking protocols. )n addition" linuxconf allows the
user to mount various file systems" configure sendmail %not for the weakhearted(" server tasks" and many
other Linux systems. Windows does not have a comparable over-all administration tool.
netconf
Launch this command2 netconf.
The netconf application is simply all of the networking configuration routines from linuxconf included in
one package" providing all network configuration tools in one place.
!age 2B
netcfg
Launch this command2 netcfg.
The netcfg application is another network configuration application that adds a few features to netconf.
With netcfg, the administrator can configure !!!" 'L)!" !L)!" /thernet" 3rcnet" Token ,ing" and !ocket
%3T!(" as well as configure !3! authentication" ;ameserver information" and ,outing information. What
is missing from netcfg is the ability to configure ;#'" 'amba" and other crucial networking services.
7configurator
Launch this command2 7configurator.
The 7configurator application gives the user or administrator the ability to configure the Windows
environment in Linux.
+efore we get into 7configurator" let$s examine itself@what it is and what it does. stands for
Window 'ystem" and does not stand for anything but . ,ead this excerpt from www.x.org %the official
Window 'ystem site(2
ZHistory
The 7 Protocol was developed in the mid A4E/9s amid the need to provide a network transparent
graphical user interface primaril! for the +B%7 operating s!stem# 7 provides for the displa! and
management of graphical information' much in the same manner as )icrosoft9s Windows and %G)9s
Presentation )anager# The ke! difference is in the structure of the 7 Protocol# Whereas Windows and
Presentation )anager simpl! displa! graphical applications local to the PC' the 7 Protocol distributes the
processing of applications b! specif!ing a clientserver relationship at the application level# The what to
do part of the application is called an 7 client and is separated from the how to do part' the displa!' called
the 7 server# 7 clients t!picall! run on a remote machine which has excess computing power and
displa!s on an 7 server# The benefit is true clientserver and distributed processing#
Definition
The 7 Protocol defines a clientserver relationship between an application and its displa!# To meet this
the application :called an 7 client; is divorced from the displa! :known as the 7 server;# 7 further provides
a common windowing s!stem b! specif!ing both a device dependent and an independent la!er' and
basing the protocol on an as!nchronous network protocol for communication between an 7 client and 7
server# %n effect' the 7 Protocol hides the peculiarities of the operating s!stem and the underl!ing
hardware# This masking of architectural and engineering differences simplifies 7 client development and
provides the springboard for the 7 Window 8!stem9s high portabilit!#H
Window is a very powerful system and so re=uires a very powerful configuration application.
7configurator is Hust that@a tool to configure the display properties of your system. The primary
configurations accomplished through 7configurator are the video card and the monitor. When running
7configurator, the administrator needs to know the following information about the system2
Iideo card
Type
1emory
1onitor
,efresh rate
,esolution
Iertical sync range
Linux can probe your system to assign default values for color depth and default resolution" and
oftentimes it*s best to go with the suggested settings. 3 big word of warning here2 .hoosing the wrong
!age 28
settings in 7configurator can do untold damage to your monitor. 4se cautionA Fnow your hardware like a
good user should.
7CE18etup
Launch this command2 7CE18etup.
3 braver cousin to 7configurator" 7CE18etup offers the user a wider array of configuration routines.
#rom mouse to keyboard to video card to video mode to monitor to server settings" 7CE18etup extends
7configuratorIs ability to configure the Window client while offering a graphical user interface.
mouseconfig
Launch this command2 mouseconfig.
The mouseconfig application is a very simple program that allows the user or administrator to configure
the type of mouse and whether or not to emulate a three-button mouse. )n Linux" the third mouse button
is the middle mouse button and is used for pasting from window to window. )f you have a two button
mouse only" Linux will emulate the third button when the left and right mouse buttons are clicked
simultaneously.
timeconfig
Launch this command2 timeconfig.
?et another minimalist configuration tool" timeconfig does one thing and does it well< timeconfig sets the
time >one for your system. +elieve it or not" there*s a huge repository of possibilities within this tool2
countries" states" >ones" you name itA There is also one other option@setting the hardware clock to
:reenwich 1ean Time or :1T.
kbdconfig
Launch this command2 kbdconfig.
This simple application allows the user to configure the type of keyboard being used. 1ost of the
options are language options" but a few alternative keyboard layouts are included.
8ndconfig
Launch this command2 sndconfg.
The final configuration tool is sndconfig. The sound configuration tool is a bit trickier than what most
people are used to because it demands that the user know a bit more information about their sound card.
Within this configuration routine" the administrator will need to know such information as type of card" )6&
ports" ),Us" and 013s. &ften the application will detect the card" but fre=uently the detection is in error
and so the card won*t work. This tool is only supplied with ,ed -at distributions.
.onfiguration files
The Linux &' has a keen sense of configuration. )n fact" configuration is one of the many aspects that
sets Linux apart from all other operating systems. ?ou$ve heard it said countless times2 P.ustomi>ation of
Linux ends with the user*s imagination.W ,arely has such a pithy =uote been so true. The Linux desktop is
a marvel of customi>able wonder. #rom shapes to colors to si>es" the flexibility of the system is endless.
+ut how is this configuration accomplishedG -ow do the thousands of hackers6users6artists commit
those changes to the operating systemG &ne very simple" and global" method is to use a configuration
file. 3 configuration file can take on many forms. 'ome of these files are resource configuration %#rc( files<
some are not. ,egardless of nomenclature" the Linux configuration files are a powerful method used to
shape your system.
!age 2E
,esource configuration files
3 collection of useful resource configuration files might look like this2
"bashrc "rocmailrc "%initrc
The above files are hidden files" and each deals with different aspects of the systems. The #bashrc file
is the individual per-interactive-shell startup file< .fetchmailrc contains the information your system needs
to retrieve mail from your )'! server< .pinrc is the configuration file for the !ine mail system< and
#procmailrc is a very powerful file for handling the various routing routines for procmail.
Let*s look at the #bashrc file in detail2
"bashrc
@ "bashrc
@ *ser secific aliases and functions
@ 8ource global definitions
if [ -f /etc/bashrc ]A then
" /etc/bashrc
fi
<18B81>CDE#
stty erase FG<F
alias 58DFcd /usr/share/afterste/start/F
The #bashrc file has long been touted for holding mystical power within the Linux environment. The
above #bashrc file is an out-of-the-box" unconfigured file. This example" of course" does not show the
power of the #bashrc file. Let$s break it down and see Hust what we can do with #bashrc.
The first three lines of this file are comments. .omments are lines of code that do not interact with the
system but give the user information about either a line of code or the file itself. The first uncommented
line
if [ -f /etc/bashrc ]A then
" /etc/bashrc
fi
is an if statement that searches the /etc directory for a #bashrc file. )f the system finds a #bashrc file in
/etc" it will use that file for the resource configuration. -owever" if the system does not find /etc/bashrc"
then it will then go to the ,/ directory and use the ,J/#bashrc file local to the user.
#ollowing the if statement are all of the user-applied configuration files. &f these files" the most useful
are history" aliases" and the ever-popular backspace configuration.
The line
<18B81>CDE#
defines the number of command lines that bash will hold in memory. %?ou$ll see these memori>ed
commands at a bash prompt when you use the up or down arrow.(
stty erase FG<F
This line from #bashrc can solve a lot of headaches in bash. The +ackspace and 0elete keys have
created much confusion in the Linux community" and with a simple hack of the #bashrc file" each bash
prompt you open will bind the erase %or delete( function to the +ackspace key %KH(.
The final line in our #bashrc example offers undoubted relief from typing the myriad of lengthy
commands used in Linux. 'ince my initiation into Linux" ) have used the command cd
/usr/share/afterstep/start countless times. )n order to shorten those keystrokes" ) put an alias into my
!age 27
#bashrc file. 3n alias" according to "inux in a Butshell %&$,eilly !ublishing2 )'+; 5-E7E92-ELE-L(" Passigns
name as the shorthand name" or alias" for command#P
Let$s say for the sake of example that instead of typing cd /usr/share/afterstep/start over and over and
over" we want to simply type A8 %we can$t use as because that is the command to call the :;4
assembler(. )n this case" go to your favorite editor and open that #bashrc file. The alias we are about to
enter will go at the end of the file %below the last entry( and will look like this2
alias 58DHcd /usr/share/afterste/startH
3s you can see" creating the alias is as simple as giving the new name a title and setting that title e=ual
to the desired command.
#xinitrc
3ccording to >unning "inux by 1att Walsh %&$,eilly !ublishing )'+;2 5-E7E92-5E5-L(" the #xinitrc file is a
Pshell script containing clients to run.P The #xinitrc file is located in the user directory
/home/+8<>BA)< and is used by Window to call user-specified programs that are to run as the
Window 'ystem boots.
When the command startx is run" the server begins its startup process and runs the commands found
in the #xinitrc file. These commands range from calling a desktop environment to calling a window
manager" to calling various programs and setting program environments %such as geometry and color(. 3
typical #xinitrc file looks like this2
I@ /bin/sh
aterm -tr -fg white -bg urle -e ine J @to startu ine at 2 boot
/sbin/ifu # J @to bring u dial-u connection at 2 boot
afterste J @to start window managers .afterste/
e%ec gnome-session @to begin deskto environment .gnome/
This file is a very basic example of the power of #xinitrc. What you see here" in order of execution" is a
call to open pine" followed by a call to start the dial-up process" followed by a call to begin the window
manager 3fter'tep" and finished with a call to begin the :;&1/ desktop. Take note of the ending
ampersand CLD characters. The L following a line in the #bashrc file tells the system to go to the next line
and not wait for the application to launch. This is a simple way to make the startx process more efficient.
The number of applications that you can begin upon starting Window %via #xinitrc( is unlimited<
however" take note that the more applications called from #xinitrc" the slower the boot process will be. The
best philosophy" with regard to #xinitrc" is to call the programs most often used or critical to the system.
With this method" the boot process will be more efficient" and Window will be ready to roll with whatever
application you need to run. The addition of the dial-up command %/sbin/ifup ppp/( within #xinitrc is a nice
touch and ensures you a connection to your )'! when your :4) begins.
.procmailrc
#or an introduction to the #procmailrc file" read W3ll the wonders of procmail" part 5W and Z3ll the wonders
of procmail" part 22 Lockfiles and nondelivering recipes.W !rimarily" that discussion focused on playing
distinct sounds when various e-mails arrived via the procmail routine. #or this discussion" we*ll focus on
using the #procmailrc file to redirect mail to specific mailboxes.
The #procmailrc file begins with the configuration of the user-defined inbox2
=51?61;D$<:=C/mail @youHd better make sure it e%ists
6CK5*?BD$=51?61;/linu% @comletely otional
@?:LK1?CD$=51?61;/from @recommended
3s a refresher" the #procmailrc sound configuration looks like this2
!age 2J
&#&
+ GB:"+linu%@techreublic"com"+
M cat NN /home/linu%/mail/linu% A esdlay O/sounds/w!strange"wav
This code tells the system" ZWhen mail comes into /home/linux/mail/linux and it is addressed to
linux[techrepublic.com" play the .wav file w@strange#wav.W This is a very simple method to alert the user
when mail has arrived from a certain someone.
Let$s make this #rc file more useful. Let$s say you*re using procmail to retrieve e-mail" and a vast
maHority of the mail is split up among mailing lists. 3 simple way to filter those lists is to use procmail to
sort them. We$ll use redhat-list[redhat.com %the ,ed -at mailing list( and gnome-list[gnome.org %the
:;&1/ mailing list( as examples.
The first task is to send all of the redhat-list mail to its own folder" which we$ll call redhat.
&#
GKrom"redhat-list@redhat"com
redhat
3nd the next example" gnome-list@gnome"org" will filter to its own folder" called gnome2
&#
+ GKrom"gnome-list@gnome"org
gnome
This particular filtering system can save a great deal of time and effort in the war against digging
through tons of mail" as well as getting rid of spam. With the procmail filtering capabilities" it*s possible to
toss known spammers into what has been called a killfile. Let$s create a little trash compactor for
spammers2
&#
+ GKrom"samers@address"com
/dev/null
Fer-flushA
3bove and beyond the resource-configuration files" Linux uses a number of other very important
utilities. The Window configuration relies heavily on a file called #7defaults. The #7defaults file allows
the user to add many %and various( configurations within one source. #rom aterm to xterm" from ;etscape
to 'tar&ffice" the #7defaults file configures them all.
-ere*s a sample from #7defaults2
I 7arts .-/ 1PP) 4y Lreg Q" 4adros g3b@cs"duke"edu
I Rou may use this file as secified under the L0* Leneral 7ublic ?icense
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
I emacs, %emacs
emacs+4ackground& 6ark8lateLray
emacs+Koreground& 9heat
emacs+ointer-olor& :rchid
emacs+cursor-olor& :rchid
emacs+bitma1con& on
emacs+font& fi%ed
emacs"geometry& (#%SE
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
I %term .and friends/
0etscae+background& black
0etscae+foreground& green
0etscae+trough-olor& green
!age 2L
0etscae+2feBool4ar+highlightcolor& yellow
0etscae+blank4ackground& black
0etscae+cell4ackground& green
%osview+background& black
aterm+scroll4ar& false
aterm+Koreground& @KKKKKK
aterm+4ackground& @######
This segment represents the beginning one-fourth of an #7defaults file that has been modified to add
;etscape" xosview %a resource monitor(" and aterm %a console emulator(. &ne of the more eccentric
aspects of the #7defaults files is the use of capitali>ation" which is crucial for any of the configurations to
take effect. Take note of the capitali>ation of the word scrollbar2 scrollGar. Without the proper syntax" the
Window 'ystem will not pick up on the configuration.
The typical setup of the configurations within #7defaults is2
alication+configuration& flag
The standard configurations for #7defaults are2 background %B-0 obHects(" foreground %text("
troughColor %scrollbar trough(" blankGackground %an empty window(" scrollGar %this is a +oolean flag@
true or false(" cursorColor %color of the cursor when in the window(" and geometr! %si>e of window(. 1any
other applications carry program-specific configurations" and they can be found in either that program*s
man page or ,/301/ file.
)t is also =uite possible to add a background image to certain console emulators< rxvt allows the use of
#xpm files as background images that can be configured with the #7defaults file. The stock #7defaults file
will not contain any references to rxvt, but putting them in is an easy matter of adding the following entry2
r%vt+background7i%ma& /ath/to/"%m
;ote that it*s necessary to implement the #xpm file format for the background image. .onfiguring the
rxvt term to behave with this attribute is an interesting way to add a bit more spice to the desktop. +e
warned" however" that this configuration will use up more of your precious resources.
The number of resources you can use to configure Window is limitless. )*ve given you only an
introduction to the vast world of user personali>ation within the Linux desktop. 3ny time a new application
is installed onto a machine" a wise user will look to see if an #rc file has been implemented into the design
scheme. )f the #rc file has been used" then configuration is a snap.
;etwork configuration
3 small home network can be assembled with the following hardware2
Two computers either preinstalled with Linux or available for a Linux installation.
Two network interface cards or ;).s. +e sure to check the compatibility of the cards you would
like to use before purchasing them. 1ost Linux distributions recogni>e most common cards" but
some will not work. 3 common card" the BcE9x will be assumed for this example.
&ne network hub or switch. 3 switch is helpful to reduce network traffic.
.ables to connect both machines to the hub or switch.
The installation of this network is a very simple process. To cover all possible scenarios" we will be
looking at both a network setup from the very beginning of the &' install and a network setup post-install.
;either method offers any advantage over the other" with the exception that one method already has a
Hump start on &' configuration and familiarity. This will not" however" be a vehicle for familiari>ation with
the &' itself. ) am making the assumption that you have a basic understanding of Linux and can run such
applications as telnet" ping" and ftp.
!age 29
!reinstall preparation
Iery little preparation is necessary for the small home network configuration. 1ost of the work will be
done during the software installation and configuration. -owever" there is one easy task that might make
things go a bit smoother. ?ou should first come up with names for your machines and then assign each
name an )! address. The )! address you want to use must be in one of the private ranges" so you$ll want
to use something like 5J2.22. %where is uni=ue to each machine on the network(. &ther ranges
include 592.57L.. and 50.0.0..
1any networking products" such as cable modems and wireless gateways" automatically default to the
592.57L.5. range. +e sure to check with your )'! or broadband provider to avoid any conflicts" or pre-
configure re=uired ranges and names.
Let$s say you have two machines you are planning to network together. &ne machine you call +uffy and
the other you call 3ngel %please forgive the reference(. )f +uffy is to be your main machine" then you might
want to assign it the 5J2.22.5.5 )! address and give 3ngel the 5J2.22.5.2 )! address. This numbering
system is simply for reference sake and makes it easier to remember that your main machine is 5 and
your secondary machine is 2. 3ctually" all this is rather pointless since we*ll eventually have the machines
set up in such a way that they will recogni>e the command ftp Guff! as opposed to needing to remember
that +uffy is 5J2.22.5.5.
&n to the install
The hardware itself is rather easy to install. Typically" these older ;).s will be either !.) or )'3 slot-type
cards and will plug in as simply as a modem. &nce the card is in and the machine is reassembled" you
can run your cable. )t$s actually easiest to have the machines side by side for testing purposes@this
saves a lot of running up and down stairs or down hallways in order to type ping Guff! or check on a load.
'o" put the machines side by side" plug in one end of the twisted pair cable" and then prepare your hub or
switch.
;ow you*re ready to run cable to the hub or switch. )nstalling the hub or switch is a simple matter of
plugging in the power and the twisted pair cables" and it is ready to accept data transfer. 0epending on
whether or not your machines are up and running at this point" you may or may not have signal lights on
your hub. 0on$t worry yet. &ccasionally you must tweak the +)&'" to disable !n! if you$re using Linux
only.
&nce the cards are installed" the hub or switch is powered up" and all of your cable is run" it$s time to
configure. The first route that we will discuss is the preinstalled system configuration. Later we will look at
configuring a net during install.
3s mentioned above Linux offers both :4) and character based configuration tools. We$ll examine
several aspects of both and a combination of the two.
The first step in configuring your network is to run netcfg. 1ost everything you will do in netcfg can be
done in linuxconf' as well.
&nce netcfg is running" the first steps will involve the )nterface tab. #rom the )nterface tab" click 3dd
and then /thernet. ;ow" do you remember the )! addresses we discussed earlierG -ere$s where you$ll
use them. #or the new device you are about to configure" you must type the )! address you wish to
assign to that particular machine in the )! text area. #or instance" you are running netcfg in +uffy you will
enter A.M#MM#A#A in the )! area. &nce you$ve entered this number" simply tab down" and the other
numbers are filled in for you. ;ext" select both check boxes to allow the interface to activate at boot time
and to allow any user to %de(activate the interface. ;ow you$re finished. .lick 0one and then 'ave %when
the next window pops up(.
The next step in configuring this simple network involves going back to that all-powerful tool" linuxconf.
!age B0
What we are going to do is set up a very basic Linux-to-Linux network. &ur goal is the ability to ftp"
ping" telnet" and perform remote login. Within this setup" we won*t be dealing with ;#' or 'amba.
/ventually" we*ll cover network printing.
The first section to focus on in linuxconf is the basic host information. -ere" you will more than likely
see the information you entered into netcfg. There are some additions to make however. Let$s double-
check our setup.
&n the first tab in the -ost ;ame 3nd )! ;etwork 0evices section" you should see the name you gave
the machine@+uffy. )f +uffy is not in the hostname box add it here. With the host name correct" move on
to the next tab@3dapter 5. )n the 3dapter 5 tab" you should see all the information for the card you set up
in netcfg2 !rimary name and domain2 +uffy< )! 3ddress2 5J2.22.5.5< ;etmask2 2EE.2EE.0.0< ;et0evice
eth0< kernel module2 BcE9. &nce all of this information is correct" activate these changes to linuxconf
and move on to the first necessary script changes.
The files you will be dealing with reside in your /etc directory" and only root can manipulate them. 3s
usual" take caution when working around as root. The files you want to edit are hosts" hosts#allow"
hosts#e$uiv" and hosts#lpd %for printing(. The first file" hosts" is a listing of hosts on your network which will
translate from the name to the )! address. The first line2
1ST"#"#"1 localhost
is necessary and is the loopback name and number. 0o not tamper with this line. #ollowing this line"
you will add in the )! addresses and names of all the machines on your network. 'o" for our example"
enter2
1TS"SS"1"1 4uffy
1TS"SS"1"S 5ngel
&nce you$ve typed these entries" save and exit the editor.
The next file we must alter is hosts#allow. This file tells your local machine which networked machines
have which privileges. 1ore than likely" this file will consist of only approximately five commented lines"
meaning that they are not read by the compiler or the application.
The line you want to add in hosts#allow is2
in"ftd, telnetd& 1TS"SS"1"1, 1TS"SS"1"S
This tells your machine that both +uffy and 3ngel have ftp and telnet privileges. )t is important to note
that this example should be used only for a local network. )f your network will interface with the )nternet"
more secure connections are available with ssh and scp. +oth telnet and ftp are considered security risks
since user name and password are transmitted as clear text.
)n order to add a bit of preventive security" set up the hosts#den! file so that outsiders cannot use the
services" local to your new network" that could wreak havoc upon your machines. The hosts#den! file is
very simple2
5??&5??
This file will keep all outsiders from using either the ftp or telnet daemons.
This method is" of course" no replacement for solid firewall or ipchain ruleset< however" it is a =uick fix
that will keep a minimum of security on your net.
;ext we add or edit the file called hosts#e$uiv. This file acts as a secondary checkpoint for your system.
When your remote machine attempts to telnet or ftp into the local machine" the local machine makes a
check on hosts#allow to see if the machine in =uestion has permission" then it makes a =uick stop at
hosts#e$uiv for a secondary check. This file will contain only the name%s( of the remote hosts@in our
case" 3ngel.
!age B5
&nce this last file is finished" you will then have to move over to the other machine %we$re calling it
3ngel( and make the same alterations" keeping in mind the correct )! address and the substitution of
+uffy for 3ngel in files like hosts#e$uiv.
The final step is getting the ftp daemon running. +y default" this process will not be in the background.
The easiest method is to download wuftpd . 4se an )nternet search engine to download the latest
version. 1ost distributions also include a native ftp and telnet daemon.
&nce the remote machine is properly set up" it$s time to test your setup. 3t this point" depending on your
hub or switch" several connection lights are probably lit" indicating working connections between the hub
and the ;).s.
;ow" for the test. 3t a command prompt" type2
ing localhost
)f all is well" you should start seeing something like2
)U bytes from 1ST"#"#"1& icm!seVD# ttlDSSE timeD#"1 ms
repeatedly displayed. )f this is working" press C.trlD. to escape.
;ow we$ll test the host names. &nce again" using ping" type2
ing 4uffy
?ou should get the same feedback" with the )! address assigned to +uffy. )f that$s the case" you are
connected to your local machine. /scape this process" and we$ll try to ping the remote machine2
ing 5ngel
should return to you the same output with the )! address assigned to 3ngel. )f so" successA
Let$s get fancy2
telnet 5ngel
)f all is well you should be greeted with a login prompt2
login&
-ere you enter the username that exists on the remote machine. ?ou$ll then be asked for the
username$s password. &nce you are logged in to that machine" you can move around and run console
processes as if you were sitting in front of the machine.
;ow comes the big test2 ftp. 3t a command prompt" type2
ft 5ngel
)f all is well" and the ftp daemon is running correctly" you should be greeted with a name2
.5ngel&USERNAME/& romt
where +8<>BA)< is the username of the machine you are working with. +e aware that ftp can
sometimes be flaky. -ere" type the username you want to use to log in and" when asked" enter the
password for that user. 'ometimes ftp will work right off" sometimes not. )f the ftp login fails" type user at
the prompt and then" when asked" enter the username and the password. ?ou should now be logged into
the remote machine via ftp.
'hould you not be able to ftp into the remote machine" you should first double-check the files that you
altered or created. )f these all check out" then more than likely the ftp daemon is not running correctly. )f
this is the case" reboot your machine to get the ftp daemon up and running. #rom here on out" the ftp
daemon should begin running at boot.
!age B2
3s ) said" ftp is rather tricky at times. The command-line structure is a bit hard to master %with get and
put(. )nstead of running a tutorial on ftp" ) will direct your attention to gftp %in the :;&1/ environment(.
With gftp" you can simply go to the ,emote section" choose the .onnect 1anager" fill in the hostname %in
our case" 3ngel(" the username" and the password" and click .onnect. &nce you are logged in to the
remote machine" it$s all click and move from there. .opying files from machine to machine couldn$t be
easier.
Without gftp %or another front end to the ftp command(" you must navigate the command line. 3ctually"
ftp is not horribly difficult to grasp. The command get %when already ftp$d into a machine( ZgetsW a file from
a remote machine to a local machine. The command put takes a file from the local machine and ZputsW it
onto a remote machine. 3 command-line ftp transaction" sending a file %thisfile#txt( from +uffy to 3ngel"
would look like this2
ft 5ngel
username& *8C;05=C
assword& 75889:;6
ftN ut .enter/
.local-file/ thisfile"t%t .enter/
.remote-file/ thisfile"t%t .enter/
There are many other aspects of networking we have not touched on. 1ost of these areas %)!
1as=uerading" ;#'( are a bit more complex and sometimes re=uire kernel manipulations. The nature of
this document" however" is a primer" so we$ll discuss these topics later.
1aintenance
'urprisingly enough %and =uite unlike its Windows counterpart(" Linux re=uires little-to-no maintenance. )n
the Windows world" routine maintenance such as defragmenting the hard disk" scanning for viruses" and
checking the hard disk is a regular task. The Linux native file system /xtension 2" or ext2 for short" was
written in such a way that it does not allow the traditional holes that the 1icrosoft #3T57 and #3TB2 file
systems allow. The ext2 file system manages to keep all file blocks contiguous so that any time a block of
data is placed back into hard disk storage" it is placed next to another file. This system keeps the hard
drive from filling up with holes@thus no fragmentation.
The Linux ext2 file system has an e=uivalent to the Windows 'can 0isk utility. This e=uivalent is called
file system check %fsck( and is used primarily by the system itself" as a background maintenance tool that
keeps blocks of data from duplicating. )t also checks for the standard errors on a disk drive. +elow is an
explanation of fsck.
fsck
3s ) said" fsck is a Linux utility used to check and repair the ext2 file system. There are many situations
that could arise to call for the invocation of fsck. 'uch problems include an unclean shutdown of the
system %i.e." a power failure( or a system crash.
#rom the fsck man page we find2
Zfsck is used to check and optionally repair a Linux file system. files!s is either the device name %e.g."
/dev/hdaA" 6dev/sdbM( or the mount point %e.g. /" /usr" /home( for the file system. )f this invocation of fsck
has several filesystems on different physical disk drives to check" then fsck will try to run them in parallel.
This reduces the total amount of time it takes to check all of the filesystems" since fsck takes advantage
of the parallelism of multiple disk spindles.W
+efore we get into outlining fsck$s ability to save a file system" let$s look at its ability to simply check a
system. )t is sometimes necessary to check the Linux file systems for consistency. Think of this check as
1'-0&'$s 'can 0isk. The fsck check will run a scan of the entire file structure and report back its
!age BB
findings. Typically" the findings will only pertain to noncontiguous" or fragmented blocks of data. There
can" of course" be other errors2 bad or duplicate blocks" incorrect block count" )node bitmap differences"
and incorrect )node counts.
)n order to run a check on your system close the window manager and log into the console as root" or
open a terminal window" and su to root. 3s root" you will have to run a check on an already mounted file
system< if any errors are found %and corrected(" you will have to reboot the system. ?ou will receive a
nasty warning message when attempting this check" so don*t proceed if you are afraid of disabling a
critical system. :enerally there should be no problems with this check< however" there are exceptions to
every rule. /xecute this command2
/sbin/fsck -t e%tS /dev/hdaE
and you will begin the following session2
7arallelizing fsck version 1"1U .P-Qan-1PPP/
eSfsck 1"1U, P-Qan-1PPP for C2BS K8 #"Eb, PE/#(/#P
/dev/hdaE is mounted"
@@@@95;010LIII ;unning eSfsck on a mounted filesystem may cause 8CWC;C filesystem
damage"@@@
6o you really want to continue .y/n/X yes
/dev/hdaE was not cleanly unmounted, check forced"
7ass 1& -hecking inodes, blocks, and sizes
6eleted inode 1)U#TT has zero dtime" Ki%YyNX yes
7ass S& -hecking directory structure
7ass '& -hecking directory connectivity
7ass U& -hecking reference counts
7ass E& -hecking grou summary information
4lock bitma differences& -S#T1 -S#TS -S#T' -S#TU -S#TE -S#T) -S#TT -P1T'U -P1T'E
-P1T') -P1T'T -P1(ST -P1(S( -P1(SP -P1('# -P1('1 -P1('S -P'))U -P'))E -P'))) -P'))T
-P'))( -)E)TTS -)E)TT' -)E)TTU -)E)TTE -)E)TT) -)E)TTT -)E)TT( -SS#E)(' -SS#E)(U
-SS#E)(E -SS#E)() -SS#E)(T -SS#E)(( -SS#E)(P -SUS)U1' -SUS)U1U -SUS)U1E $SUS)U1)
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree blocks count wrong for grou @# .E(1U, countedDE(S1/"
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree blocks count wrong for grou @11 .E(PE, countedDEP1#/"
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree blocks count wrong for grou @(# .#, countedDT/"
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree blocks count wrong for grou @S)P .)S##, countedD)S#T/"
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree blocks count wrong for grou @SP) .), countedD1#/"
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree blocks count wrong .1##ETUT, countedD1##ET(T/"
Ki%YyNX yes
1node bitma differences& -1)U#TT
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree inodes count wrong for grou @(# .1(#P, countedD1(1#/"
Ki%YyNX yes
Kree inodes count wrong .)T'T'S, countedD)T'T''/"
Ki%YyNX yes
&nce this check has run %the above check ran into some errors(" you will be given a report such as2
/dev/hdaE& +++++ K1?C 8R8BC= 958 =:61K1C6 +++++
/dev/hdaE& ((1S'/T)1(E) files .1"EZ non-contiguous/, S#'('U1/'#UU1S( blocks
)f you receive the #ile 'ystem Was 1odified report" it is crucial that you reboot the machine. &nce you
reboot the machine it is a good idea to run fsck again" to be sure all errors have been found.
!age B8
?ou can run this type of check on a regular basis" but is not necessary to do so. &ne of the ways in
which Linux is smarter than many other operating systems is that it allows only so many boots before it
forces this check upon the system. &nce you have reached that limit" you will get a message like
1aximum 1ount .ount ,eached" .heck #orced. This is standard operating procedure and should be
allowed to run its course.
+ut what if you run into a problem and you cannot boot your systemG :enerally with these problems" if
they are block errors" you will be prompted to log in as root and manually run a check. The warning"
however" does not give you all the gory details. 3lthough the first check you should run is a standard
check %simply type fsck as root(" it*s important@and sometimes imperative@to run an interactive check
as we did above. 3n interactive check allows the administrator to answer =uestions in order to fix any
problems. -owever" by running the standard check" fsck" the system will report back if there are any
block-type errors that are in need of repair. 'hould there be block-type errors" you can then run the
interactive check to take care of any problems.
Iiruses
While Windows is a victim of countless viruses" Linux rarely experiences them. )t*s very difficult for a virus
to be effective in such an environment because of the likely need for root access. There are a many files
@critical files@that only root has both read and write access to and a virus running under a regular user
account would not be able to alter them.
;eeding root access is not the only hurdle for the proliferation of a Linux virus. The primary
transportation method of viruses is in either macro or executable form via e-mail. 'ince Linux does not
use .exe files and the macro languages are not compatible with it" the spread of the common virus is even
less of a ha>ard. 3s with Windows" proper security" and regular backup are good ways to minimi>e the
damage caused by a virus.
-elp systems
'ince Linux is an &pen 'ystem &'" help systems are abundant. The primary help systems in Linux come
in the form of man pages" -ow-tos" and the Linux 0ocumentation !roHect %Table !(.
T3+L/ &
Windows Linux
-elp files 1an pages
-ow-tos
Linux 0ocumentation !roHect
There are multiple "inux help s!stems#
1an pages
1an pages are to Linux what help files are to Windows@but with a twist. 1ost programs that are installed
onto Linux include what is called a man page %manual page(. )n truth" man is a program that formats and
displays the online manual pages.
#rom the man man page %you read that correctly(2
ZThis version knows about the 13;!3T- and %13;(!3:/, environment variables" so you can have
your own set%s( of personal man pages and choose whatever program you would like to display the
formatted pages. )f section is specified" man only looks in that section of the manual. ?ou may also
specify the order to search the sections for entries and which preprocessors to run on the source files via
!age BE
command-line option or environment variables. )f name contains a /' then it is first tried as a filename" so
that you can do man #/foo#5 or even man /cd/foo/bar#A#g?.W
The man pages are somewhat of a philosophy on their own. 3ll man pages are set up with the same
information2
;ame2 The name of the command6application6program
'ynopsis2 -ow the command or application is invoked
0escription2 3 brief description of the command6application6program
&ptions2 .ommand flags and arguments that can be passed to the command6application6program
3uthor2 The writer of the man page
#iles2 ,elated files %related to the command6application6program(
'ee 3lso2 ,elated applications6man pages
&ne thing to keep in mind is that man pages are typically set up by and for those who write and develop
for the Linux &'. +ecause of this" the files seem rather cryptic. Without some knowledge of flags"
arguments" and command-line structures" the man pages will seem rather useless to the uninitiated. The
man pages" however" are a very simple beast to tame.
The primary hurdle for understanding man pages is knowing when to use them. The best reason for
using man pages is not learning the rudiments or fundamentals of a command6application6program" but
exploring the details of an application. #or instance" instead of learning how to use the command fsck" a
user would read man fsck to learn the details of the command arguments and flags.
When examining the man page for fsck" the user learns about such arguments as these2
>2 When checking all file systems with the A flag" skip the root file system %in case it$s already
mounted as read-write(.
T2 0on$t show the title on startup.
B2 0on$t execute< Hust show what would be done.
P2 When the A flag is set" check the root file system in parallel with the other file systems. This is
not safe to do" since if the root file system is in doubt" files like the eMfsck4E/ executable might be
corrupted. This option is mainly provided for those systems administrators who don$t want to
repartition the root file system to be small and compact %which is really the right solution(.
s2 'eriali>e fsck operations. This is a good idea if you are checking multiple file systems and the
checkers are in an interactive mode. ;ote2 eMfsck:E; runs in an interactive mode by default. To
make eMfsck:E; run in a noninteractive mode" you must either specify the Np or Na option if you
wish for errors to be corrected automatically or the Nn option if you do not.
O2 !roduce verbose output" including all file system-specific commands that are executed.
&f course" in order to use these flags" you must know how to run the basic command itself. 3t the
beginning of the man page" you see the following2
8R0:7818 fsck [ -5W;B07 ] [ -s ] [ -t fstye ] [ fs-otions ] filesys [ """ ]
This explanation provides a map of how to use the command and the various arguments and switches.
-ere*s the breakdown2
fsck2 This is the actual command.
P AO>TBPQ2 These are the main options for the command. :enerally a minimum of one option is
re=uired.
P s Q2 This represents the secondary options. These are typically optional.
P t fst!peQ2 The t option is set up for describing a type of file system %such as when mounting a
system(.
P fs optionsQ2 This is yet another optional argument. )n this case" it defines whether the fsck
session will be either automatic %a( or interactive %r(.
!age B7
/ach command will have a different command6argument setup because of the varying nature of the
command structures. #ortunately" the man pages are all set up in the same manner. )f you have a basic
understanding of how the Linux command line works" the man pages are a snap to translate into a
useable form.
-ow-tos
Linux has come a long way" and a big part of that evolution is due in part to the Linux -ow-tos. The Linux
-ow-tos are a large set of documents that hold the single purpose of enlightening and educating the
general public about Linux and about many of the operating system*s common problems.
The main complaint about many of the -ow-tos is that they are out of date. The problem with this
system is that a maHority of the documents were created as Linux was putting down its roots< hence" there
are a great many references to 5.x kernels or pre-E releases of many distributions. This datedness of the
material does not mean that it has worn out its welcome. Uuite the opposite is true. 3 vast portion of the
Linux -ow-tos have stood the test of time and their relevance is still strong.
The Linux -ow-tos can be found on many Web sites and come in two different types2 -ow-tos and mini
-ow-tos. The regular -ow-tos are generally longer" more detailed articles that cover more complex topics
such as2
B0fx--&WT&2 -ow to use B0fx graphics accelerator chip support
32E--&WT&2 -ow to configure 32E networking for Linux
3ccess--&WT&2 -ow to use adaptive technology with Linux
3lpha--&WT&2 &verview of 3lpha systems and processors
3ssembly--&WT&2 )nformation on programming in xL7 assembly
+ash-!rompt--&WT&2 .reating and controlling terminal and xterm prompts
+elgian--&WT&2 )nformation on using Linux with +elgian-specific features
+enchmarking--&WT&2 -ow to do basic benchmarking
+eowulf--&WT&2 )ntroduces the +eowulf 'upercomputer architecture and provides background
information on parallel programming
+oot!rompt--&WT&2 List of boot time arguments and overview of booting software
+ootdisk--&WT&2 -ow to create a boot6root maintenance disk for Linux
+usmouse--&WT&2 )nformation on bus-mouse compatibility with Linux
The mini -ow-tos are a group of topics that can be dealt with in a much more expedient fashion. The
range of topics includes2
Three-+utton-1ouse2 -ow to configure your mouse to use three buttons
30'L2 3symmetric 0igital 'ubscriber Loop %30'L(" a new high-speed digital access line
technology
30'1-+ackup2 -ow to install and use the 30'1 backup program
3)-3life2 )nformation about 3) software for Linux
3dvocacy2 'uggestions on how to advocate the use of Linux
3lsa-sound2 0escribes the installation of the 3lsa sound drivers for Linux
3pacheM''LM!-!Mfp2 -ow to build a multipurpose Web server
3utomount2 0escribes the autofs automounter" shows how to configure it" and points out some
problems to avoid
+ackup-With-1'0&'2 -ow to back up Linux machines with 1'-0&'
+attery-!owered2 -ow to reduce a Linux system$s power consumption
&ften" -ow-tos and 1ini--ow-tos can be downloaded for offline browsing and reference.
!age BJ
The Linux 0ocumentation !roHect
The Linux 0ocumentation !roHect %L0!( has become one of the largest documentation proHects to date.
The L0! is dedicated solely to documenting the Linux &'" attempting to keep the -ow-tos up-to-date and
keep the users as informed as possible. The primary feature of this site is its compilation of the various
help systems for Linux. 3t the L0!" you can read the man pages" -ow-tos" #3Us" and the Linux :a>ette
all in one sitting. The biggest problem with this particular site is its scope. 3t first glance" the uninitiated
user is overwhelmed by a barrage of text and hyperlinks. This is unfortunate for the new Windows
convert" who is used to buttons and bars. The other drawback to the site is the lack of a search engine.
,egardless of its drawbacks" the L0! is a massive undertaking that acts as the single largest repository
of Linux information.
&ther help systems
3s with any computer technology" numerous help systems are available for Linux. There are Web sites"
books" newsgroups" mailing lists" Linux 4ser :roups %known as L4:s(" maga>ines" and software
designed to aid the user. Take your pick of what is right for you. Oust be cautious that the information
you*re getting is current and that you aren*t being told to use kernel 2.0.x or any :;&1/ releases prior to
5.0.85.
.onclusion
This primer was meant to be an introduction to the Linux &'. 3lthough there is much more to know" you
should now have a foundation of knowledge about Linux.
!age BL
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Tech Tip2 'et up ,3)0 in Linux with mdadm
/valuate a switch to Linux with these resources
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