Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction
This part will cover all the related concerns and area about the project title: Learning
molecular structure in chemistry using augmented reality approach. In this chapter, is all the
resources needed for developing this project.
2.1 Learning
2.1.1 Learning definition
Learning is one of the most important activities in which humans engage. In general learning
is the core of educational process, although most of what people learn occurs outside the
school. Learning defined as changes in behaviour that effect from knowledge or
mechanistically as changes in organism that result from experience (Houwer J. D., Holmes D.
B. and Moors A., 2013). In other words, learning is defined as an effect of experience on
behavior.

2.1.2 Learning style
A learning style is a students regular way of responding to and using stimuli in the learning
context. Keefe (1979) stated that learning styles as the mixing of individual cognitive,
affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner
perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning atmospheres. Stewart and Felicetti
(1992) define learning styles as an academic conditions under which student is most likely to
learn. Thus, learning styles concern on how they prefer to learn rather what leaners learn.
According to Vester (1998), there are four different types of learning.
Learning type 1: auditive learning (eg: by speaking and listening),
Learning type 2: visual learning (eg: by watching or through the eyes),
Learning type 3: haptic learning (eg: by feeing and touching),
Learning type 4: learning through the intellect.





2.1.3 Learning theories
There are many different theories of how people learn. A learning theory is an attempt to
define how people learn, thus helping us understand the characteristically complex method
of learning (Hill, 2002). There are three main categories in learning theories: behaviorism,
cognitivism and constructivism.
1. Behaviourism
Behaviourism was mainly developed by the behaviourist school of psychology, B. F.
Skinner (Laird 1985, Burns 1995). Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human
learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental
activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behavior. For behaviorism, learning is the achievement of new behavior through
conditioning. There are two types of conditioning:

a) Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to
a stimulus.
b) Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is
reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system.

This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable
behavior and describes several universal laws of behaviour.


2. Cognitivism
According to Piaget cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts
to explain human behavior by understanding the thought processes (Fritscher L.
2014). Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought
processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we
understand and interact with the world. According to Piaget, children progress
through a series of four key stages of cognitive development marked by shifts in how
they understand the world (Cherry. K. 2014). The four stages are:

i) Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old)The child, through physical
interaction with his or her environment, builds a set of concepts about
reality and how it works. This is the stage where a child does not know
that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight.
ii) Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)The child is not yet able to
conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.
iii) Concrete operations (ages 7-11)As physical experience accumulates,
the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain
his or her physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is also possible
at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with
numbers, not just with objects.

iv) Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15)By this point, the childs
cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual
reasoning.


3. Constructivism


























2.3 Chemistry
2.3.1 Chemistry definition
According to (Helmenstine A. M), chemistry is the study of matter and energy and the
interactions between them. Chemistry focus on the properties of substances and the
interactions between matter and the reactions involving electrons. Based on (HA Campbell,
1998-2011), chemistry is a science that concerns on the following:-
The composition and characteristic of atoms(elements)
The structure and properties of compounds
The reactions between substances with their energy exchange
The laws that combine these phenomena into a complex system
Understanding chemistry will helps us understand the world around us. Almost everything
that we touch, taste or smell is a chemical. Studying chemistry can help us understand about
how things actually work.


2.3.2 Chemistry structure
A chemical structure is the combination of molecular geometry, electronic and crystal
structure of molecules. Chemistry structure refers based on arrangement of atoms inside
the molecule and the bonds that bind the atoms. The structure usually represented using a
structural formula. According to (Butlerov A.), a chemical structure is a structure with
definite order made by the combination of valency and composing atoms.

2.3.3 Molecular structure in chemistry
According to (Helmenstine A. M.) a molecule structure is a combination of two or more
atoms that binds together by a chemical bonds, such as ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
Molecular structure is a three dimensional shape or configuration of a molecule and the
shape is depend on the spatial orientation of covalent bonds to atoms having two or more
bonding partners and can be presented in 2D represantation. There are some important
definitions inside the molecular structure:
Molecule, is a neutral group of atoms that are binds by covalent bonds
Diatomic molecule, is a molecule containing only two atoms
Molecular compound, is a compound with molecules as the simplest units
Chemical formula, indicates the number of atoms for each kind of chemical
compound using atomic symbols.
Molecular formula, how the atoms types and numbers in one molecular
compound

The figure 1 below show the example of molecular structure which is water molecule
structure. Water consist of small V-shaped molecules with the molecular formula of H
2
O.


(Figure 1)

2.3.3.1 2D molecular strcuture
2D molecular strcuture is a strcuture that presented using 2D diagram usually using letter
and line. Figure 1.2 below is and example of 2D strcuture:






2.3.3.2 3D molecular strcuture
3D molecular strcuture is the real represantation of molecule structure using layout
structure and rendering. Figure 1.3 below is an example of 3D structure:


(Figure 1.3)
2.3.4 Issues in learning molecular strcuture
In education purpose, to visualize the synthesis process, chemist will draw the structures of
reactants, draw arrows, symbols and equation that explain the chemical process (Kozma et
al., 2000). The chemical representation will be an imagery of particles and their structure
will be in two dimensions. These kind or presentation using 2D (Figure 1.1) may not easily
understood and chemists need to think visually and present the information more efective
through a form of visual display (Larkin and Simon, 1987).
(Figure 1.1 water molecular structure in 2D)
This is a limitation of such formulas that are drawn on 2D paper screen, whereas molecules
strcuture have a 3D shapes. Moreover, to identify gemetric isomers, students are requires
to translate a chemical formula into its molecualar structure by visualize the possible 3D
configurations and compare these configurations. Therefore, to allow students to
understand the concept, a comphrehensive visualization of chemical representation is
critical.
2.5 Augmented Reality
Augmented Reality is a technology that enables devices to recognize live objects and then
activate video or graphics (Katherine Rosman, 2014). AR is different from Virtual Reality
(VR), a visualization technology that has been around for several decades. Unlike VR, AR
does not completely replace the real world, rather the real world is supplemented with
relevant synthetic information, and thus real and virtual objects coexist in an augmented
space (Azuma, 1997). Figure 1 and 2 below is the example of virtual reality and augmented
reality.

(Figure 1: Virtual Reality example with virtual chairs and a virtual lamp.)


(Fugure 2: Augmented Reality example with augmented plants.)
Figure 3 below is the Reality Virtuality Continuum (Milgram, P.H Takemura, 1994) the
augmented environment is closer to real world, meanwhile virtual environment is totally
simulated by computer. Between augmented reality and augmented virtuality is the Mixed
Reality environment which is a real scene and virtual scene object are present merge of the
scene into one single display.


(Figure 3.)

2.5.1 Augmented Reality components
Scene Generator
The scene generator is software or device that is use to render the scene. Rendering is not
actually a big issues in AR, because only few virtual object need to be drawn, and they did
not necessarily have to be realistically rendered in order to serve the purposes of the
application
Tracking System
The tracking system is among of the most important problems on AR systems, this is
because of the registration system. The objects in the real and virtual worlds must be
perfectly aligned with respect to each other, or the illusion that the two worlds exist will be
compromised.
Display
The technology for AR is still in development and solutions depend on design decisions.
Most of the Displays devices for AR are HMD (Head Mounted Display), but other solutions
can be found.





2.5.2 Augmented Reality software
In order to build Augmented Reality application, the following tools are needed:
FLARToolkit(Flash Augmented reality Toolkit), is a code library using flash to build
AR applications. It detects the AR marker using the webcam from device and
calculate the position through there dimensional space and generate interactive 3D
model display.
Papervision3D, is a 3D rendering engine for flash that provides 3D scenes. The
combination of FLARToolkit with papervision3D makes it possible to create an AR
system.
ARToolKit Marker Generator is used to save marker as a pattern file that is used by
the FLARToolkit to detect the 3D model.
Adobe Flex Builder, is used as a tool for coding and designing desktop and Internet
applications.


2.5.2 Augmented Reality in education
Nowadays, application designer are using Augmented Reality as an educational purpose.
Augmented Reality technology has been used in fileds such entertainment, gaming and
education (Chang G. and Morreale P.) AR is a new growing technology where the computer
generated sights and sound modified and improve our real life perspective. AR can be use
through PC or mobile application. The devices camera will detect the AR tools and generate
3D animation or video to generate learning material. The method implement AR technology
in books called AR books. Figure 2.4 below is an example of AR books that help students
with their learning.

(Figure 2.4)
SMART (System of augmented reality for teaching) is an example of educational system with
was developed in Portugal by Rubina Freitas and Pedro Campos that allow teacher to teach
2
nd
grade-level students about the concept about transportation and types of animals. The
system consist of three dimensional models and prototypes such as car, track and airplane
shown to the whole students.
2.5.3 Why use Augmented Reality?
Children nowadays are surrounded by visual images from the television, advertisements,
video games, etc. Within this context, it will be difficult to grab and hold the students
attention in teaching and learning process just by using textbook methods. The use of
visually interactive imagery may improve recall of facts, and improve experimenting with
new ideas. In education with Augmented Reality, based on the result of the students'
abilities who interacted with AR, it is suggested that students can learn better and
remember more information than students who learned from textbooks (Jeong K and Shim
Jinwook). Based on another study, it is proposed that students who not good at reading are
easy to remember information when they use AR material to learn rather than using
textbooks (R. Moreno et al., 2001).

2.3.4 Augmented Reality in chemistry education
According to (Medicherla P. S., Chang G. and Morreale P) a recent study show how
chemistry students interact with AR and the physical device and evaluate the result about
student perceptions on learning amino acids using these the two representations. The result
show even though most of the students like to use AR to learn about amino acids because it
was fun, portable, easy to use and allowed students to observe the structure in more detail
but others felt uncomfortable of using this new technology and prefer the original method
which is textbooks. The application show in Figure 2.5 below is and example of suing both
AR marker and physical device.

(Figure 2.5)
Students can chose from the AR marker or the physical device to learn about the different
type of acids.