Use of energy crops for domestic heating with a mural boiler

Juan F. Gonzlez
a,

, Carmen M. Gonzlez-Garca
a
, Antonio Ramiro
a
, Jos Gan
a
,
Antonio Ayuso
c
, Joao Turegano
b
a
Dpto. de Ingeniera Qumica y Energtica, Escuela de Ingenieras Industriales, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas s/n, 06071 Badajoz, Spain
b
Dpto. de Expresin Grfica, Escuela de Ingenieras Industriales, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas s/n, 06071 Badajoz, Spain
c
Dpto. de Cultivos Intensivos, Servicio de Investigacin y Desarrollo Tecnolgico de la Junta de Extremadura, Finca La Orden, 06187, Guadajira (Badajoz), Spain
Received 1 August 2005; received in revised form 22 September 2005; accepted 9 February 2006
Abstract
The combustion process of two residues from energy crops in a 12 kW mural boiler for domestic heating was studied. The fuels used were
common reed (Arundo donax L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and forest pellet recommended by the boiler manufacturer. A comparison with
the combustion process of two industrial residues (tomato residue and almond pruning) and other energy crop (Cynara cardunculus L.) has been
established. The experimental tests carried out in La Orden farm on common reed and sorghum cultivation revealed a production of dry biomass
of 35 and 30 t/ha, respectively. Previously, the fuels were characterised by means of the higher heating value, proximate and ultimate analyses. The
influence of the residue type, fuel mass flow, draught and residues mixture on the combustion parameters has been studied. A TESTO 300 M-I
analyzer was employed to determinate the principal parameters of the combustion process (CO
2
, CO, and O
2
contents, fumes temperature, not-
burnt gaseous and sensitive heat losses in the fumes, air excess coefficient, flow rate and velocity of the fumes, and efficiency). The behaviour
shown by the two studied residues was similar to that of the forest pellet. The boiler efficiencies obtained with the maximum fuel mass flow
(100%) and minimum draught (0%) were 84% and 85.3% for reed and sorghum pellets, respectively. The obtained efficiency with the forest pellet
was 90.5%. The optimum residue mixture assayed was almond pruning (75%) and sorghum (25%), with a boiler efficiency of 87.2% for a mass
flow and draught of 100% and 0%, respectively.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biomass combustion; Pellets; Energy crops; Efficiency
1. Introduction
To reduce the fossil fuel dependence on the energy consump-
tion of developed countries, the use of renewable energy has been
increased. In this sense, in the European Community a percentage
of 12% in the cited use must be obtained by 2010. Moreover, it is
necessary for new energy technologies to have improved effi-
ciency and minimum environmental impact. The use of renew-
able energy, including biomass, will minimize the greenhouse
effect which affects the world global climate [1]. In the future,
biomass combustion will play an important role in the production
of electrical or thermal energy. However, the variability in bio-
mass fuel properties is large and may significantly affect the
efficiency and environmental impacts associated with its utili-
zation [2]. An understanding of the physical and chemical pro-
perties of biomass residues is very important in order to establish
their behaviour in a combustion process. The physical properties,
such as moisture content and density, determine the particle
heating rate and thermal efficiency. The moisture content and
density oscillate between 560% and 4001500 kg m
3
, respec-
tively. The moisture content must not exceed 60%, since the
generated energy from the biomass would be lower than that
necessary to evaporate the water [3]. The chemical properties,
such as ultimate and proximate analyses, functional groups and
calorific value, govern the combustion process. The volatile/fixed
carbon ratio is comprised between 4 and 7 (0.5 for coal) [4].
Therefore, the sulphur and nitrogen contents are lower than for
mineral coal. This fact implies a minor amount of nitrogen and
sulphur oxides in the combustion gases and therefore less con-
tamination problems. Also the high oxygen/carbon ratio implies
that the combustion process needs less air and therefore, the gas
(fumes) emission to the atmosphere is lower. Also, the ash content
is lower than for the mineral coals (normally lower than 10%). In
Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
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E-mail address: jfelixgg@unex.es (J.F. Gonzlez).
0378-3820/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2006.02.002
biomass combustion, it is necessary to work at low temperatures
or use biomass with high melting point ashes. The average higher
heating value (HHV) of biomass is about 20 MJ kg
1
, which is
lower than for mineral coal (about 30 MJ kg
1
). Another reason to
employ biomass as an energy source is the derived problems in the
agricultural sector in Western Europe, such as producing food
surpluses, depopulation of rural areas and payment of significant
subsidies to keep land fallow [5]. Biomass is also an indigenous
energy source, available in most countries and its application may
diversify the fuel supply in many situations, which in turn may
lead to a more secure energy supply [5]. Biomass production can
generate employment and if intensive agriculture is replaced
by less intensively managed energy crops, it is likely to obtain
environmental benefits, such as reduced leaching of fertilizers and
reduced use of pesticides [5].
In the later years, several authors have justified the advan-
tages of biomass use with energy aims [2,514]. Some authors
have evaluated the possibilities and technologies of the biomass-
fired or cofired with coal [2,58]. Other authors [9,10] have used
numerical modelling and TGA/FTIR/GCMS analysis to study
the combustion process. Some researchers have determined
kinetic parameters [11,12] and others have studied the influence
of the different operating variables such as wood fuel type and
primary air velocity [13,14].
Extremadura (SWSpain), an important agricultural and cattle
raising region, generates a great amount of agricultural and
forest residues. Moreover, some farms could be utilised to cul-
tivate plant varieties for bioenergy use, such as common reed
(Arundo donax L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench).
These plants are being investigated in this region, with respect to
biomass production, optimal ambient conditions, etc., in the La
Orden farm Investigation Center. The European Project FAIR-
CT96-2028 [15] investigates the introduction of reed as no-
alimentary plant in the UE agriculture. In Spain, the investiga-
tion of sweet sorghum for energy use was initiated in 1980 in
Andaluca [1618] and Madrid [19,20]. In Extremadura region
the cited investigation was initiated in 1994 for sorghum and in
2003 for common reed. In Mediterranean regions, both residues
require the addition of water for reasonable productivity. Recent-
ly, sweet sorghum and fibre sorghum are being considered as
potential alternative crops by their high yields in fermentable
sugars and biomass. Likewise the common reed is also of interest
due to its high biomass yield.
In this research, the optimal conditions for biomass produc-
tion in tests performed in Extremadura are described. The com-
bustion process of the two energy crops for domestic heating
with a mural boiler has been studied. The results are compared
with those obtained for forest pellets, as recommended by the
boiler manufacturer, and for other industrial and agricultural
residues studied in previous works [21,22].
2. Materials and experimental methods
2.1. Sample preparation
Two residues from agro-energy crops (common reed and sorghum) have
been used. Table 1 shows the annual biomass production and energy potential of
these residues in Extremadura. For these calculations 29.7 10
3
ha were estimated
which could be used to cultivate these energy crops. The energy potential was
estimated on the basis of whether the lands used for dry herbaceous growing
were cultivated for these energy crops [23]. The experimental tests on sorghum
and reed cultivations carried out in La Orden farm have revealed maximum
productions of dry biomass of 30 and 35 t/ha, respectively.
The forest pellets were supplied by the boiler manufacturer with dimensions
of 5 mm diameter and 20 mm length. The two biomass crops (common reed and
sorghum) were aired and dried to eliminate the moisture and then transformed
into pellets of 5 mm diameter and 20 mm length.
2.2. Boiler characteristics and experimental conditions
An ENVIROFIRE EF-II pellet boiler designed to use pressed wood with
12 kW output power was used to perform the combustion experiments. The
boiler scheme used in this work is presented elsewhere [21,22], and consists of:
1) an upper hopper with capacity for 15 kg of pellets and a worm gear to
introduce the fuel into the fireplace,
2) a control panel with a four-position potentiometer to regulate variation of
the fuel mass flow (25%, 50%, 75% and 100%),
3) an ash pan to gather the ash produced in the combustion,
4) a combustion chamber with two orifices of small diameter, one at the top
where the ignition electrode is situated and the other at the bottom for
fresh air admission,
5) a convection ventilator in the rear part of the boiler with a potentiometer
to control the hot air rate outlet situated in the control panel,
6) a ventilator for outlet of the gases with a mechanic regulator that permits
variations of the chimney draught (positions: 0%, 50% and 100%
corresponding to differential pressure values of 0.2, 0.27 and 0.34 mm
H
2
O, respectively),
7) a chimney of 10 cm-inner diameter and 1.6 m length,
8) a hot air outlet,
9) a heat-exchange body formed by tubes situated in the rear part of the
boiler that serve to exchange the heat between the fumes and the fresh air
that enters in to the boiler,
10) a TESTO 300 M-I analyzer to determine the combustion parameters, and
11) a thermocouple to measure the fireplace temperature.
Two operating variables were studied for each fuel, i.e. fuel mass flow and
chimney draught. These two variables were also studied for different mixtures of
the two energy crops with forest pellet and almond pruning (since the results
obtained by this residue in this boiler were very good, concretely in the optimal
conditions a yield of 88.3% was obtained, similar to that obtained for forest
pellet, 90.5% [22]). The fuel mixtures studied were wood pellet/pruning pellet,
wood pellet/sorghum pellet, wood pellet/reed pellet, pruning pellet/reed pellet
and pruning pellet/sorghum pellet. In all cases, three different mixtures were
tested, 50%/50%, 75%/25% and 25%/75%. Three different mass flows were
used (50%, 75%and 100%) and only 0% draught was employed, since it was the
optimum draught in the individual fuel combustion. In both cases, for each mass
flow and draught value, the experiments were performed in triplicate.
2.3. Analytical methods
The proximate analysis of the pellet samples was carried out according to
Spanish norms. The determination of moisture, volatile matter and ashes was
performed following UNE/32-001-81 (1981), UNE/32-019-84 (1984), UNE/32-
Table 1
Annual production and energy potential of the residues
Residue Production, t Energy potential, toe
a
Sorghum
b
8.9 10
5
3.4 10
5
Reed
c
10.4 10
5
4.3 10
5
a
Toe: ton oil equivalent.
b
To evaluate the energy potential of this residue 29.7 10
3
ha and a production
of 30 t/ha were considered.
c
To evaluate the energy potential of this residue 29.7 10
3
ha and a production
of 35 t/ha were considered.
718 J.F. Gonzlez et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
004-844 (1984) norms, respectively [2426]. The fixed carbon was calculated
by difference to 100%.
A LECO CHN 1000 elemental analyzer was used for the ultimate analysis of
the pellet samples. The higher heating value of the samples (HHV) was deter-
mined with a Parr 1351 bomb calorimeter.
The combustion parameters (CO
2
, O
2
, and CO contents in the fumes ([CO
2
],
[O
2
], and [CO]), not-burnt gaseous and sensitive heat losses of the fumes (qi and
qA, respectively), air excess coefficient (), flow rate and velocity of the fumes,
and efficiency () were analysed by means of a TESTO 300 M-I analyzer. This
analyzer has two measuring cells, one for O
2
and the other for CO, and a
thermocouple inserted in a bore of the chimney to measure the temperature of the
fumes (FT). The calculations of the different parameters of the combustion process
have been presented in previous works [21,22]. A thermocouple inserted in a bore
of the combustion chamber permits measurement of the fireplace temperature
(FPT). The air outlet temperature (AOT) was measured by the thermocouple of the
analyzer at the end of each test. The dynamic and static pressures were measured
by a Pitot tubing at the fireplace outlet using a digital electronic micro-manometer
EDM Neotronics. The hydrocarbons present in the fumes were analysed chro-
matographically using a HRGC 4000 A KONIK chromatograph with a thermal
conductivity detector and an injector connected to a Carboxen 1000 column 60/80
(mesh range) of 15 ft 1/8 in stainless steel (2.1 mm ID).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Cultivations
The tests of both cultivations were carried out in Orden farm.
3.1.1. Sorghum
The tests were carried out in a frank land during the years
1994, 1998 and 1999. The experimental fields developed in
three cycles. In 1994, three varieties of sweet sorghum (Wray,
Keller and Korall) were sowed, while one variety of sweet
sorghum, Keller (1998) and Wray (1999), and another variety of
fibre sorghum (H128) was used in 1998 and 1999. A complex
fertilizer 8:15:15 (% N, % P
2
O
5
, % K
2
O, respectively) was
applied to a dose equivalent to 60 kg N ha
1
in bottom and
NH
4
NO
3
to a dose of 60 kg N ha
1
40 days after the emergence
of the plants. The experimental design was by blocks at random.
The sowing was carried out in lines separated 0.75 m, with
0.095 m between plants. The times of sowing and emergence of
the plants were: a) 1994: 1 and 10 of June, b) 1998: 9 and 16 of
June, c) 1999: 28 May and 7 June. The weather data was
obtained in a station situated in Orden farm.
The plant sampling was performed to maxima intervals of a
month. The sampling area was 0.75 m
2
(1 m linear 0.75 m in
width). The aerial biomass obtained from the sampling area was
weighed (fresh matter). The dry matter content (DM) of stalks,
leaves, and panicles was determined by the weight of the sample
before and after being dried to 100 C.
Table 2 shows the meteorological data recorded in Orden
farm from June to October, in 1994, 1998 and 1999. The general
tendency of the weather parameters was similar in the three crop
cycles.
In the Table 3 the results of the productivity evaluation are
showed. The values agree with those obtained in various tests
carried out in the Mediterranean area. Wray and Keller (crops
of sweet sorghum) give yields of around of 30 t/ha of DM.
The fibre crops, H128, gave similar results. Important
differences were obtained between crops in 1994, Korall (a
sweet sorghum of short cycle) showed a low yield (21.8 t/ha),
reaching its physiological ripeness at the start of September.
The potential productivity of cv. Keller reported in the
literature is: 24.8 and 26.7 t/ha of dry matter in Andaluca
[18] and Madrid [20] (Spain), 25 t/ha in France [27], 30.4 t/ha
in southern Italy [28], 22.9 t/ha in Hungary [29], and 26.8 t/ha
in central Greece [30].
Fig. 1 shows the yields of aerial biomass along the three crop
cycles. The fibre sorghum crop (H128) showed rate of accu-
mulation of DM higher than sweet sorghum one. However, the
final production was similar enough due to the short cycle of
this crop. As conclusions, the results indicate that the sweet and
Table 2
Meteorological data recorded in La Orden farm
Year June July August September October
T
a
(C) 1994 37.5 37.2 38.0 33.9 27.2
1998 36.7 38.6 38.0 33.8 27.7
1999 37.0 40.1 36.9 34.0 25.6
T
m
(C) 1994 32.0 35.6 34.8 28.5 24.1
1998 31.0 35.4 36.0 29.2 24.1
1999 32.2 35.7 34.2 28.4 22.7
T (C) 1994 23.5 25.8 25.7 20.8 18.4
1998 23.0 26.7 27.4 22.9 16.8
1999 24.0 27.0 25.8 21.9 17.9
t
m
(C) 1994 15.1 16.1 16.7 13.0 12.8
1998 15.0 18.0 18.6 16.6 9.5
1999 15.7 18.2 17.3 15.4 13.0
t
a
(C) 1994 10.2 12.9 13.1 5.8 5.5
1998 10.8 11.9 13.7 11.4 3.3
1999 9.4 14.0 13.2 9.3 7.5
wv (m s
1
) 1994 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.4 1.8
1998 2.4 1.7 1.8 2.6 1.6
1999 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.4
H
r
(%) 1994 47 47 46 53 74
1998 52 48 48 60 62
1999 46 48 52 66 72
pp (mm month
1
) 1994 4.6 0.2 0 1.6 33.7
1998 0.8 0 0.5 65.6 8.6
1999 16.1 0 6.7 48.5 151
R
g
(J s
1
m
2
) 1994 309 301 273 205 121
1998 326 335 287 205 175
1999 340 324 288 208 133
ETP (mm d
1
) 1994 5.9 6.3 5.8 4.4 2.3
1998 7.1 7.2 6.5 4.4 2.7
1999 7.3 7.6 6.6 4.3 2.2
T
a
: absolute maximum temperature; T
m
: average maximum temperature; T:
average temperature; t
m
: average minimum temperature; t
a
: absolute minimum
temperature; wv: average wind velocity; H
r
: average relative humidity; pp:
precipitation; R
g
: global radiation; ETP: potential evapotranspiration.
Table 3
Aerial biomass production (t/ha of dry matter) in three crop cycles of sweet and
fibre sorghum in Extremadura
Crop Year
1994 1998 1999
Keller 29.19 28.21
Wray 31.55 26.26
Korall 21.80
H128 25.78 29.13
LSD (5%) 5.35

NS NS
LSD: low significant difference, NS: non-significant.

: Significant (p0.01).
719 J.F. Gonzlez et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
fibre sorghum reach high productivity in Extremadura. The
yields in aerial biomass can be approximately of 30 t/ha of DM.
3.1.2. Common reed
In this case, two varieties of reed were used to perform the
cultivation tests: one from autochthonous material of Extrema-
dura and other supplied by the ETSIA of Madrid (variety
Rabuiese from Italy). The effect of the humidity content of the
land on the biomass production of reed (A. donax L.) was
studied. The statistical design was split-plots with three repe-
titions. Each subplot was of 45 m, with a plantation distance
of 75 cm between rows and 50 cm between plants in each row.
The sowing was performed in greenhouse trays with pieces of
stem with a leaf bud. It was transplanted to field in February/
April of 2003. In February 2004 it was harvested for the first
time with an average production of the two plantations of 14 t/
ha of dry matter (the first year all the plots were irrigated for the
implantation of the crop). Three humidity contents of the land
were studied in the second year of sampling: no-irrigation, and
irrigations of 50% and 100% of the crop evapotranspiration.
The necessary water was provided by means of trickle irrigation
installation. In February 2005:
a) no-irrigation: 15.6 and 16.7 t/ha for the autochthonous and
Rabuiese varieties, respectively,
b) 50% irrigation: 20.0 and 21.7 t/ha for the autochthonous and
Rabuiese varieties, respectively, and
c) 100% irrigation: 38.0 and 28.5 t/ha for the autochthonous
and Rabuiese varieties, respectively.
One can see that the autochthonous variety is more sensible
to the irrigation than Rabuiese variety, which would adapt better
to dry seasons. These results agreed with those obtained by
other workers in different countries of Europe [31].
3.2. Energy potential and energy crops characteristics
Table 1 shows the annual production and possible energy
potential for the two energy crops in Extremadura region. This
energy potential could produce a thermal power of 1025 MW
and an electric power of 330 MW, approximately. This fact
would contribute to palliate the energy demand of the region, to
reduce the rural unemployment (since the fallow farm could be
used with these aims), and help to improve the environmental
conditions, due to the advantages provided by the use of these
crops with energy aims.
Table 4 shows the ultimate and proximate analyses and the
higher heating value (HHV) for the two studied crops and also
for the forest pellet. The combustion process of forest pellet
has been studied in a previous work [21] and it will serve to
establish comparisons with the studied residues in this work.
The sorghum and reed residues have C and H contents and
HHV values lower than for the forest residue.
The contents of N, S and Cl are very important for the use of
these residues in combustion processes. The sorghum and reed
residues have very low contents of these elements, although are
slightly higher (except N) than for forest pellet. This fact implies
Table 4
Ultimate and proximate analyses and HHVof the residues
Analysis Residues
Forest pellet Sorghum Reed
Ultimate analysis, wt.% daf
C 46.5 34.0 40.3
H 6.8 4.5 5.3
N 1.9 0.8 0.4
S 0 0.024 0.073
Cl 0.03 0.45 0.8
O
a
44.77 60.226 53.127
Proximate analysis, %
Fixed carbon 13.8 10.3 11.4
Volatile matter 76.4 61.3 58.4
Ashes 1.0 2.7 2.2
Moisture 8.8 25.7 28.0
HHV, MJ kg
1
18.4 16.0 17.4
a
By difference.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
11-7 1-8 24-8 19-10
Wray
Keller
Korall
Year 1994
date
t/ha
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
29-7 28-8 25-9 26-10
Keller
H128
Year 1998
date
t/ha
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
15-7 2-8 17-8 9-9 14-10
Wray
H128
Year 1999
date
t/ha
Fig. 1. Aerial biomass (t/ha of DM) along three crop cycles of sweet and fibre
sorghum in Extremadura.
720 J.F. Gonzlez et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
that these residues produce low NO
x
, chlorine oxides and SO
2
emissions and, therefore, their combustion does not practically
contribute to acid rain and destruction of the ozone layer.
Moreover, the possibility to form NO
x
is practically negligible
in the combustion of these residues, due to the fact that the
temperature reached in the combustion chamber was relatively
low (b500 C).
The energy crops have lower volatile matter contents than for
forest pellet (b62%), and low ash contents (b2.7%). The two
crops present a high content of moisture (N25%), which implies
a disadvantage for the combustion processes, and therefore it is
necessary to dry previously these residues. Moreover, the melt-
ing point of the sorghum ashes is low and these ashes melt in the
combustion chamber, obstructing the orifices for air inlet. In
each combustion process, this is an important aspect to select
the fuel in a heat generation plant.
3.3. Influence of operation variables
3.3.1. Influence of fuel mass flow
The mass flow effect was studied for the three chimney
draughts (0%, 50% and 100%), but only the results for 0%
draught are discussed since the results obtained for the other two
values were similar.
Table 5 shows the power supplied by each residue to the
combustion chamber for the four positions of the potentiometer,
which regulates the fuel mass flow. As it can be observed, these
contributions change due to the different density and lower
heating value of the residues. Generally, the power supplied by
the two crops is higher in a same position than for forest pellet.
These data will be used to justify some obtained results in this
work.
In Fig. 2 the influence of mass flow on the oxygen percent-
age in the fumes is shown. As can be seen from this figure, the
oxygen percentage decreases with the increase in the mass flow,
due to the greater consumption of oxygen in the oxidation
process of the fuel. The lowest values obtained are those cor-
responding to the sorghum and the highest values to the reed.
The values are high in comparison with that expected from a
normal combustion (45%), which indicates that the air excess
coefficients used in this boiler to burn these residues are high, as
it will be seen later. The obtained values for the forest pellet
were also similar to these residues [21].
The CO concentration in the fumes for the two crops de-
creases with the increase of the mass flow, obtaining values
lower than 1000 ppm in all the runs. This is due to that an
increase in the mass flow for the same draught gives rise to an
increment in the power supplied to the combustion chamber, as
shown in Table 5, increasing the fireplace temperature (as it can
be seen in Fig. 3) and decreasing the solid and not-burnt gaseous
losses (qi).
Table 5
Energy potential supplied by the boiler depending on the different residues and
the potentiometer positions
Residue Power, kW
Potentiometer position
100% 75% 50% 25%
Sorghum 13.95 (3.14) 9.02 (2.03) 5.20 (1.17) 4.00 (0.79)
Reed 11.12 (2.30) 8.94 (1.85) 4.40 (0.91)
Forest 11.85 (2.32) 6.91 (1.35) 3.73 (0.73) 3.16 (0.62)
Between brackets the fuel mass flow, in kg/h, is given.
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25 50 75 100
mass flow, %
[
O
2
]
,

%
Forest
Sorghum
Reed
Fig. 2. Mass flow influence on the oxygen percentage in the fumes (draught:
0%).
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
25 50 75 100
mass flow, %
F
P
T
,

C

Forest
Sorghum
Reed
Fig. 3. Mass flow influence on the fireplace temperature (draught: 0%).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
25 50 75 100
mass flow, %
q
A
,

%

Forest
Sorghum
Reed
Fig. 4. Mass flow influence on the sensitive heat losses of the fumes (draught:
0%).
721 J.F. Gonzlez et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
In Fig. 4, it can be observed that an increase in the fuel mass
flow gives rise to a decrease in the sensitive heat losses (qA)
for the three residues. Given that TESTO 300 M-I equipment
determines this parameter from Sieggert equation [21,22],
which includes the fumes temperature in the numerator and CO
2
content, in the denominator, Fig. 5 shows the mass flow in-
fluence of both parameters. It can be seen that an increase in the
fuel flow gives rise to an increase not only in the fumes tem-
perature (full lines in Fig. 5) but also in CO
2
content (broken
lines in Fig. 5); however, since qA decreases, the CO
2
con-
tribution must be more influent than the fumes temperature
effect. Putting together both effects, the following sequence for
the losses is obtained: forest bsorghumbreed, which will condi-
tion the combustion process and the installation efficiency, as it
will be seen later on.
In Fig. 6, it can be observed that an increase in the fuel mass
flow yields to a decrease in the air excess coefficient (lambda, )
for the three residues, more pronounced in the case of sorghum
(principally between 2550% of mass flow). values obtained
are quite higher than those corresponding to the normal values
used for mineral carbons (1.52), the lowest values are achieved
in the case of sorghum residue. Very high air excess coefficient
values (for example, for a mass flow of 25%) do not improve the
combustion process since the fumes flow is increased, fireplace
temperature is reduced, losses due to not-burnt gaseous and
sensitive heat increase and the installation efficiency is reduced.
The increase in the fuel mass flow leads to an increase in the
air outlet temperature (AOT) of the boiler heat exchange body
for the two crops, with increases of 62150 C and 70223 C
for reed and sorghum, respectively. Since the heated air flow is
constant, the air outlet temperature should rise as the fuel mass
flow increases, because it depends on the power supplied to the
combustion chamber, and it increases as seen in Table 5.
In Fig. 7, it can be observed that an increase in the fuel mass
flow produces a rise in the combustion process efficiency, where
also the best results of previous works [21,22] have been included
(i.e. tomato and almond pruning residues). In general, the cor-
responding sequence is: tomatoNforest NsorghumNalmond pru-
ningNreed. This sequence agreed with that obtained for the HHV
of these residues. The highest efficiency values are obtained for a
fuel mass flowof 100%. In these cases, the air/fuel ratios (Nm
3
of
air per kg of fuel) used were 3.8, 6.5 and 7.6 for sorghum, reed and
forest pellets, respectively. These ratios are higher with the in-
crease in the draught and decrease in the fuel mass flow. These
values are higher than that used for fossil fuels. The air excess
proportioned in this boiler is high even for the lowest value of
draught (0%).
3.3.2. Influence of draught
Although draught influence has been studied for each res-
idue, for all fuel mass flow that can be regulated in the potenti-
ometer, as example, only the results corresponding to a mass
flow of 100% will be discussed for the two residues and wood
pellet, because this is the flow under which the greatest effi-
ciencies were reached. The draught effect observed for the other
flows was similar to that commented below.
As it was expected, a draught increase produced an increase
in the O
2
percentage in the fumes, and did not improve
combustion process efficiency. The values oscillate between
8.510% and 10.613% for sorghum and reed, respectively.
These values are lower than for forest pellet (8.615%). All
the cases show quite high values compared to those obtained
in a normal combustion, as it was mentioned above. It is not
50
100
150
200
250
25 50 75 100
mass flow, %
F
T
,

C

0
5
10
15
-

-

-
[
C
O
2
]

%
Forest Sorghum
Reed
Fig. 5. Mass flow influence on the fumes temperature and CO
2
content in the
fumes (draught: 0%).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
25 50 75 100
mass flow, %
L
a
m
b
d
a
Forest
Sorghum
Reed
Fig. 6. Mass flow influence on the air excess coefficient (draught: 0%).
0
20
40
60
80
100
25 50 75 100
mass flow, %
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
Tomato
Almond pruning
Sorghum
Reed
Forest
Fig. 7. Mass flow influence on the combustion process efficiency (draught: 0%).
722 J.F. Gonzlez et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
recommendable to use an oxygen quantity very higher than
the stoichiometric to oxidize completely the fuel, since this
oxygen excess is usually accompanied with nitrogen from air,
which steals a big amount of fireplace energy, giving rise to an
increase in the sensitive heat losses and a reduction in the
installation efficiency.
The increase in draught produced a decrease in the CO
concentration in the fumes (from 4064524 ppm and 930
486 ppm for sorghum and reed, respectively). This fact seems
logical, since a higher oxygen content in the fireplace favours
oxidation from CO to CO
2
. Also, an increase in the draught
gives rise to a slight decrease in the fireplace temperature (495
477 C and 478458 C for sorghum and reed, respectively).
The highest values of the fireplace temperature are obtained for
0% draught, as it occurred in the combustion of other residues
[21,22].
Fig. 8 shows that an increase in the draught causes a slight
increase in the sensitive heat losses for the three residues (with
higher values in the sequence forest NreedNsorghum) and a
concomitant rise especially from 0% to 50% in the case of the
forest pellet. This means that an increase in the draught leads to
an increase in these losses. In order to explain this tendency it is
necessary to observe Fig. 9, where it shows the draught effect on
the two parameters that take part in the calculation of these
losses through Sieggert equation: fumes temperature (FT) and
CO
2
content. Fumes temperature tendency (full lines in Fig. 9)
for the three residues is very similar to that corresponding to qA
losses, but the corresponding current sequence for the residues
is now: reedNsorghumNforest. A slight decrease is now ob-
served in CO
2
content of the fumes (broken lines in Fig. 9) as
the draught increases (more pronounced in the case of forest),
due to a dilution effect caused by the oxygen excess and prin-
cipally by the nitrogen of the air. According to the tendency
obtained for qA, the effect of CO
2
content is more pronounced
than that corresponding to the fumes temperature. The lowest
qA values are obtained for 0% draught, for the three residues.
The draught increase leads to a slight increase in the air
excess coefficient (), which is logical since the fuel mass flow
is maintained in a constant value. This increment was from 2.03
to 2.59 and 1.78 to 1.94 for reed and sorghum, respectively. The
values obtained were lower than those obtained for forest (1.7
3.4).
The draught increase led to a practically linear increase in the
volumetric flow and velocity of the fumes for the sorghum, with
values 3986 m
3
h
1
and 1.93.1 m s
1
, respectively. For reed,
a non-lineal increase was obtained with lower values (5569 m
3
h
1
and 1.92.4 m s
1
). It is logical that both parameters were
increased as the draught did, since as the fuel mass flow was
maintained constant, an increase in the fumes volume per kilo-
gram of fuel took place.
The draught increase produced a slight decrease on the air
outlet temperature (AOT) of the boiler heat-exchange body (from
150.3 to 147.5 for reed and 198.6 to 197.0 for sorghum). This fact
can also justify the decrease in the installation efficiency, as can be
6
11
16
21
26
31
0 50 100
Draught, %
q
A
,

%
Forest Sorghum
Reed
Fig. 8. Draught influence on the sensitive heat losses of the fumes (mass flow:
100%).
90
110
130
150
170
190
210
230
250
270
0 20 40 60 80 100
Draught, %
F
T
,

C
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-
-
-
-
[
C
O
2
]
,

%
Forest
Reed
Sorghum
Fig. 9. Draught influence on the fumes temperature and CO
2
content in the
fumes (mass flow: 100%).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 50 100
Draught, %
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
Almond pruning Sorghum
Reed Tomato
Forest
Fig. 10. Draught influence on the combustion process efficiency (mass flow:
100%).
723 J.F. Gonzlez et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
seen in Fig. 10, where the results for tomato and almond pruning
residues have been included. The most recommendable draught
to burn these residues in this boiler is 0%, and the sequence
of efficiencies is: tomatoNforest NpruningNsorghumNreed.
However, for the other two draughts tested, the corresponding
sequence is: pruningNsorghumNreedNtomatoNforest. In agree-
ment with these results, it can be stated that sorghum and reed are
also excellent substitutes for the forest pellet recommended by the
boiler manufacturer, although the efficiencies are lower the be-
haviour of the two energy crops in this boiler is acceptable.
Table 6 summarises the optimal experimental and the main
parameters for the combustion process of the two energy crops.
These conditions are reached for a fuel mass flow of 100% and a
draught of 0%. It can be observed that the fuel consumption for
sorghum is higher than for forest (for reed is similar to the used
with forest), although the efficiency of this last is higher than for
both energy crops. Sorghum combustion parameters are very
similar to those for forest. The parameters obtained from reed
are more unfavourable; this is due to its lower calorific value.
Both energy crops present a good efficiency and could also be
suitable substitutes for the forest pellet. Moreover, they would
need to be pelletized to use them in this boiler such as forest, but
these crops would be cheaper than the forest pellet.
In the biomass combustion applications, the non-burnt hy-
drocarbon gases are significant. The TESTO 300 M-I analyzer
does not analyse the hydrocarbon content in the fumes. For this,
a chromatographic analysis has been performed on the gases
exhausted for the experiments presented in Table 6 (optimal
conditions for the two crops). Thus, for the case of reed, con-
centrations of 843, 3479 and 143 ppm for CH
4
, C
2
H
4
and C
2
H
6
were detected. For sorghum, similar concentrations of hydrocar-
bons were obtained.
In Table 6, the results of this work are also compared with
those obtained in two previous works [21,22]. As can be seen,
the behaviour of each residue is different, although the obtained
efficiency for the two energy crops is similar to the almond shell.
The different behaviour of each residue is due to the used mass flow
in each case and the fuel characteristics (ultimate and proximate
analysis, lignocellulosic composition and heating value).
These results confirm that both energy crops (sorghum and
reed) can be good substitutes for the forest pellet recommended
by the boiler manufacturer. Besides, the price of these residues
would probably be lower than that of the forest pellet. In the
case of sorghum and reed pellets it would be necessary to
evaluate the cultivation and moisture elimination costs to know
their exact price and thus could be compared with the wood
pellet price. Although the sorghum pellet has the lowest HHV,
its behaviour in the boiler is good from an energy point of view
(the mass flow is the highest), however this residue has the
disadvantage of its high ashes accumulation in the combustion
chamber and low melting temperature of ash. If the ashes melt,
they can block the passing of the air necessary for the combus-
tion process. Thus they must be removed from the fireplace to
avoid their melting.
3.3.3. Influence of fuel mixture
Different mixtures with four residues (forest, almond pruning,
sorghum and reed) have been made, in order to know their
Table 6
Optimal experimental conditions and main combustion parameters for the residues
Residue Mass flow (kg h
1
) Draught (%) [O
2
] (%) [CO] (ppm) FPT (C) qA (%) FT (C) [CO
2
] (%) AOT (C) (%)
Sorghum 3.14 0 8.5 4064 495 12 212 8.5 1.7 223 85.3
Reed 2.30 0 10.6 930 478 15.2 230 7.1 2.0 150 84
Forest
a
2.32 0 8.4 5454 527 6 97 8.6 1.6 67 90.5
Tomato pomace
a
2.42 0 10.4 2414 7 107 7.2 1.9 102 91
Olive stone
a
1.25 0 12.7 1150 8.8 106 7.4 2.5 70 89.7
Cardoon
a
2.30 0 10.1 2234 6.6 112 7.4 1.9 88 91.6
Almond shell
b
1.91 0 13.2 210 491 17.8 188 5.3 2.7 108 85
Almond pruning
b
1.91 0 8 1385 526 13.8 222 8.8 1.6 195 88.3
Almond shell peel
b
1.60 0 16.6 10000 288 21.5 145 4.1 4.8 78 78.5
Comparison with the results obtained for other residues.
a
Results obtained in a previous work [21].
b
Results obtained in a previous work [22].
Table 7
Optimum experimental conditions and the main combustion parameters for each type of fuels mixture
Mixture Mass flow, (kg h
1
) Draught 0% O
2
(%) CO (ppm) FPT (C) qA (%) FT (C) CO
2
(%) AOT (C) (%)
Forest 25% 2.213 0 10.4 889 515 13.3 195 7.2 1.98 159.2 88.0
Pruning 75%
Pruning 75% 2.830 0 8.6 2338 482 11.2 184.8 8.4 1.70 140.7 87.2
Sorghum 25%
Pruning 75% 2.005 0 12.7 211 482 17.1 196.7 5.7 2.52 143.9 86.0
Reed 25%
Forest 75% 2.521 0 12.3 1288 485 18.1 209.4 5.9 2.4 147.7 85.6
Sorghum 25%
Forest 75% 2.313 0 12.4 186 468 18.2 204.1 5.8 2.45 135.6 85.6
Reed 25%
724 J.F. Gonzlez et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 87 (2006) 717726
behaviour and to find out whether the individual combustion
conditions of each residue are improved. The assayed fuel
mixtures were forest pellet/almond pruning pellet, forest pellet/
sorghum pellet, forest pellet/reed pellet, almond pruning pellet/
reed pellet and almond pruning pellet/sorghumpellet. For the two
former mixtures, proportions of 25%/75%, 50%/50% and 75%/
25%were used for two fuel mass flows: 100%and 75%, and only
0% draught has been employed since it was the optimum draught
in the individual combustion of the residues.
Table 7 shows the optimal experimental conditions and the
main combustion parameters for each type of mixture assayed.
The results are presented according to a descending order of
efficiency.
These results confirm the wide effect of the fuel HHVon the
combustion process in the mixtures, since the optimal results
obtained correspond to the mixture where forest pellet and
almond pruning pellet participate, which are the fuels with the
highest HHV value. Also, it is necessary to comment on the
good behaviour of sorghum pellet with almond pruning pellet,
although the first one is the fuel with the lowest HHV.
Moreover, the obtained efficiency in all mixture of sorghum and
reed is higher than that obtained in its individual fuel
combustion (see Table 6).
4. Conclusions
The cultivation results demonstrate that sorghum and reed
are two energy crops which can adapt very well to the climatic
conditions in Extremadura. Productions of 35 and 30 t/ha for
common reed and sorghum have been obtained in our region.
The behaviour of the two residues (sorghum and reed pellets)
in the ENVIROFIRE EF-II mural boiler for domestic use is
acceptable. The sorghumpellet has a good behaviour but has the
disadvantage of high ashes accumulation in the fireplace which
require to be continually removed, besides their melting point is
low. The reed pellet presents the worst behaviour, although its
efficiency is slightly lower than for the almond shell pellets.
The mass flow effect on the main combustion parameters is
similar for the two energy crops studied. An increase in the mass
flow produces a decrease in the O
2
content in the fumes, in , in
qA and an increase in CO
2
content in the fumes, in the fumes
volumetric flow, in the air outlet temperature and in the com-
bustion efficiency.
Also, the draught effect on the main combustion parameters
is similar for the two residues. An increase in draught produces
an increase in the O
2
content in the fumes, in , in qA and in the
fumes volumetric flow and a decrease in the CO content and
combustion efficiency.
The fuel mixtures assayed with sorghum and reed pellets had
a good behaviour, with greater efficiency than in the individual
fuel combustion process. The mixtures with fuels of high cal-
orific value give more efficient combustion processes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the
Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologa for the financial sup-
port through projects FIT-120100-2003-114 and FIT-120000-
2004-3.
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