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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Newton's Laws of Motion

These are three physical laws which provide relationships between the

forces acting on a body and the motion of the body, first compiled by Sir Isaac

Newton. Newton's laws were first published together in his work Philosophiae

Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687). The laws form the basis for classical

mechanics. Newton used them to explain many results concerning the motion of

physical objects (http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion).

The first law or the Law of Inertia states that “An object at rest will remain

at rest unless acted upon by an external and unbalanced force. An object in

motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by an external and unbalanced

force”. The net force on an object is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the

object. Newton's first law says that if this sum is zero, the state of motion of the

object does not change. Essentially, it makes the following two points: An object

that is not moving will not move until a net force acts upon it and an object that is

in motion will not change its velocity (accelerate) until a net force acts upon it

(http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion).

The second law or the Law of Acceleration states that “The rate of change

of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body


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and is in the same direction”. If mass of an object in question is known to be

constant, this differential equation can be rewritten (using the definition of

acceleration) as: .

This is the most powerful of Newton's three Laws, because it allows

quantitative calculations of dynamics: how do velocities change when forces are

applied. Notice the fundamental difference between Newton's 2nd Law and the

dynamics of Aristotle: according to Newton, a force causes only a change in

velocity (an acceleration); it does not maintain the velocity as Aristotle held

(http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/newton3laws.html).

And the third law or the Law of Action-Reaction states that “All forces

occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in

direction”. (Marion and Thornton, 1995).

Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B


simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite
direction. The strong form of the law further postulates that these two forces act
along the same line (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion).

Many people have known Newton's first law since eighth grade (or earlier).

And if prompted with the first few words, most people could probably recite the

law word for word. And what is so terribly difficult about remembering that F =

ma? It seems to be a simple algebraic statement for solving story problems. The

big deal however is not the ability to recite the first law or to use the second law
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to solve problems; but rather the ability to understand their meaning and to

believe their implications. While most people know what Newton's laws say,

many people do not know what they mean (or simply do not believe what they mean)

(http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/newtlaws/u2l3b.html.)

There are many applications of Newton's first law of motion. Consider

some of your experiences in an automobile. Have you ever observed the

behavior of coffee in a coffee cup filled to the rim while starting a car from rest or

while bringing a car to rest from a state of motion? Coffee tends to "keep on

doing what it is doing." When you accelerate a car from rest, the road provides

an unbalanced force on the spinning wheels to push the car forward; yet the

coffee (which was at rest) wants to stay at rest. While the car accelerates

forward, the coffee remains in the same position; subsequently, the car

accelerates out from under the coffee and the coffee spills in your lap. On the

other hand, when braking from a state of motion the coffee continues forward

with the same speed and in the same direction, ultimately hitting the windshield

or the dash. Coffee in motion tends to stay in motion

(http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/newtlaws/u2l1a.html).

Learning

Learning has been defined by psychologists in various ways. Learning

may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior potentiality that

occurs due to experience and reinforced practice (Bustos and Espiritu, 1996).
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Cognitive learning is a type of learning concerned with the development of

ideas and concepts. It covers much of what academic learning demands. It

includes everything from associations between stimuli and responses to the

development of problem-solving skills (Bustos and Espiritu, 1996).

Another type of learning is affective learning, which involves experiences

within which emotions and affect take precedence. It involves assimilation of

values, mental understanding, emotional reactions, the sense of pleasure and

satisfaction (Bustos and Espiritu, 1996).

Bustos and Espiritu (1996) underscored that a basic factor in motor

learning is accuracy of perception that is based on the learner’s prior

experiences. Some activities that are primarily learned through this modality are

physical education courses and vocational courses. Other activities in school,

which call for sensory-motor learning, include techniques as direction, imitation,

demonstration and drill.

It is recognized that a different technique is needed to educate

appreciation from that used to teach skills and knowledge. The most important of

these factors is the teacher. Unless the teacher is fully able to appreciate what is

being taught, students cannot be expected to develop appreciation well (Bustos

and Espiritu, 1996).

Concepts

Concepts are categories used to group objects, events and

characteristics on the basis of common properties. Concepts are elements of


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cognition that help to simplify and summarize information (Medin, 2000).

Concepts also aid the process of remembering, making it more efficient. When

students group objects to form a concept, they can remember the concept, and

then retrieve the concept’s characteristics. Students form concepts through direct

experiences with events and object in their world.

Tricks

It was the greatest physicist Albert Einstein who once quoted that “In the

matter of physics, the first lessons should contain nothing but what is

experimental and interesting to see. A pretty experiment is in itself often more

valuable than twenty formulae extracted from our minds”.

Einstein is right and his claim holds true in real classroom situation

wherein it is critical to motivate students to actively participate in the lectures

(Sprott, 1996). Professor Oseroff (2005) in his website on Physics: A Magic

Experience found the challenge and merits of the demonstrations bring

excitement where students do participate. He, who has been involved for a long

time in developing new approaches to present physics to his students,

encouraged students to ask questions and to explain what they learned from

each demonstration. The families of these students, according to Oseroff, were

also involved since the students discussed what they learned at school with their

parents at home. He considered demonstrations as interesting avenues to take

advantage of the students’ fantasy and innate curiosity and to enlighten them on

the joys of scientific inquiry.


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In a research paper by Tabal and Birad (2003) results showed that a great

number of respondents who were exposed to physics tricks had scores

significantly higher than that of the respondents who were exposed on mere

lecture. Basing on these results, they concluded that the use of physics tricks

had helped the respondents in understanding the concept of magnetism. They

stressed out that teachers as well as practice teachers should not rely on pure

lecture in discussing a lesson, but also on the use of demonstration method,

most especially the use of physics tricks so as to stimulate curiosity on their

students.

A wise saying runs like this, ”The man who can make hard things easy is a

real teacher”. To become one, the teachers must be aware of the fact that the

two essential teaching skills are the ability to demonstrate and the ability to

explain (Rivera and Sembrano, 1992).

The use of demonstrations makes the learning of physics much more

enjoyable. This is what Sprott pointed out in his sourcebook for teachers of

physics, Physics Demonstrations wherein he highlighted how essential the use of

demonstrations in enhancing the teaching of physics. His book as a compilation

of many demonstrations has been used at University of Wisconsin-Madison in

the teaching of elementary physics over the years. His selected demonstrations

are especially dramatic and provocative, presented in unusual ways. This is

because he felt that it is necessary to get the attention of the students and to

convince them that physics is interesting before any learning can occur. He
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mentioned also that there seems to be little help available for the teacher who

wants to improve the quality of his or her presentation. To answer this need, he is

encouraging the physics teachers to find better ways to present old

demonstrations. He stressed out that the apparatus to be used in presentation is

important but the effectiveness on the students’ learning relies heavily on the

techniques employed by a teacher for bringing the apparatus or instruments into

life.

Research in physics classrooms indicates that students acquire

significantly greater understanding of course material when traditional lectures

are combined with interactive lecture demonstrations Interactive demonstrations

enable students to become more actively engaged in a lecture and provide

unique opportunities for critical thinking and student reflection

(http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/demonstrations/why.html)

According to Brasell, 1987, demonstrations are especially effective if they

have a surprise effect, challenge an assumption or misconception, or illustrate an

otherwise abstract concept or process. Some research indicates that students

are better able to self-correct their misconceptions after observing a demonstration

real-time (http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/demonstrations/why.html).

In addition, demonstrations employ physical models, which are smaller

and simpler in scope than the real system they mimic. This allows instructor and

students to focus in on key aspects of the system's behavior. This simplicity also
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makes it easier for students to manipulate, measure, and modify the model than

it would be in a real-world system

(http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/demonstrations/why.html).

Games

Years ago an educator named Edgar Dale, often cited as the father of

modern media in education, developed from his experience in teaching and his

observations of learners the "cone of experience" (see Figure 1). The cone's

utility in selecting instructional resources and activities is as practical today as

when Dale created it (http://web.utk.edu/~mccay/apdm/selusing/selusing_d.html).

Figure 1

Edgar Dale also added that people generally remember 90% of what is

said and done while only 10% is retained of what is read. So the best and most

desirable learning experience is the direct, purposeful experience. Thus, a


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teacher must design an activity in which the learner does a real thing. A good

example of a direct, purposeful experience is through games.

A game is a structured or semi-structured activity, usually undertaken for

enjoyment and sometimes also used as an educational tool. The term "game" is

also used to describe simulation of various activities e.g., for the purposes of

training, analysis or prediction, etc. Games are generally distinct from work,

which is usually carried out for remuneration, and from art, which is more

concerned with the expression of ideas. However, the distinction is not clear-cut,

and many games may also be considered work and/or art. An example of a

game is chess. You use your brain(s) to solve the game and win the game. Key

components of games are goals, rules, challenge, and interactivity. Games

generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games

help develop practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an

educational, simulational or psychological role. Known to have been played as

far back as prehistoric times, games are a universal part of the human culture

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game).

Instructional games are structured activities with set of rules for play in

which two or more students interact to reach clearly designated instructional

objectives. Competition and chance are generally factors in the interaction and

usually there is a winner. Although games are valuable as instructional activities,

they do not necessarily attempt to imitate real-life situations. (Brown, et.al, 1977).
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According to research findings of the Center for Social Organization of

Schools at Johns Hopkins University, that games increase students motivation to

learn. And there are strong indications that game activities, the competition

encourage the students to help each other with their school work, especially of

different races or different sexes. Students like games if they understand the

instructors’ purpose in using them. Generally, the most conspicuous contribution

of games appears to be in the affective are, since games provide motivational

support of learning and contribute in some cases to attitudinal changes. (Brown,

et.al, 1977).

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