Module 3

Measurement and Processing of Precipitation Data

3.1 Measurement of Precipitation Data
3.2 Precipitation Gauges
3.2.1 Rain Gauges
3.2.2 Autographic rain gauge
3.2.3 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
3.2.4 Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar
3.3 Measurements Related to Snow
3.3.1 Measurement of Snow Cover and Properties by Remote-Sensing
3.4 Processing of Rainfall Data
3.4.1 Internal consistency check
3.4.2 Scrutiny of Precipitation Data by Multiple Time Series Graphs
3.4.3 Correction and completion of rainfall data
3.4.4 Spatial Consistency Check
3.5 Spatial Averaging of Rainfall Data
3.5.1 Arithmetic Average
3.5.2 Thiessen Polygon
3.5.3 Isohyetal Method
3.6 Estimation of Missing Data
3.6.1 Normal Ratio Method
3.6.2 Distance power method
3.7 Disaggregation of Rainfall Data
3.8 Estimation of mean areal precipitation in mountainous areas
3.9 Storage of precipitation data in data bank
3.10 Rain Storm Analysis

Keywords: Measurement, Precipitation, Rain Gauges, Tipping Bucket, Weather Radar, Snow,
Processing, Spatial Interpolation, Thiessen Polygon, Isohyetal, Filling-in, Normal Ratio,
Disaggregation


The objectives of this module are:
To explain the methods of measurement of precipitation data,
To discuss techniques of validation and processing of precipitation.
To explain the distribution of daily precipitation data into shorter duration. Methods of
mean areal precipitation estimation in plain and mountainous areas are explained with
illustrative example to enable participants to achieve the capability of carrying out the
analysis themselves.


3.1 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION DATA
The amount, intensity and spatial distribution of precipitation are important inputs in most
hydrological studies. The total amount of precipitation which reaches the ground in a stated
period is expressed as the depth to which it would cover a horizontal projection of the earth's
surface. If any part of the precipitation is snow or ice, its depth when melted is included (WMO,
1994). The unit of precipitation is length and daily amounts should be read to the nearest 0.1
mm. Weekly, fortnightly, and monthly amounts should, however, be read to the nearest 1 mm at
least. In India, daily observations of precipitation along with other meteorological variables are
made at 08:30 am.

3.2 Precipitation Gauges
Precipitation (which includes solid and liquid part) is measured using a gauge which consists of a
collector to delineate the area of the sample and collect it and a funnel which leads to a sample
storage device. The precipitation, after it is collected, is measured by transferring the contents to
a graduated measuring jar. Different types of gauges are used to measure liquid and solid (snow)
precipitation.

Since the size, shape and exposure affect the precipitation caught by a gauge, standard
gauges are used so that the observations can be compared and there is consistent use of data. The
Symon's rain gauge has been adopted as the standard rain gauge In India. To install the gauge, a
masonry or concrete platform is sunk into the ground and the gauge is placed on it such that the
rim of the gauge is perfectly levelled and is approximately 30 cm above the ground. In a non-
recording instrument, the precipitation measured at 8:30 am on any particular date is entered
against that date and it is understood that this precipitation has been received in 24 hours
preceding the time and day of observation.

3.2.1 Rain Gauges
Basically, there are three types of rain gauges:

Standard or ordinary rain gauges (ORG) are manually read, commonly once a day.
Self-recording rain gauges (SRRG) record the rainfall depth in the form of a continuous plot.
Automatic rain gauges with data logger. Data are stored in digital form either as rainfall at
fixed interval or as timings for each event of rainfall of fixed depth.

An ordinary rain gauge or ORG (see Fig. 3.1) is a simple device consisting of a collector
and a funnel. A standard rain gauge consists of a circular collector funnel with a brass or gun
metal rim and the rainfall collection area of either 200 cm
2
(diameter 159.5 mm) or 100 cm
2

(diameter 112.8 mm). The funnel leads to a base unit, partly embedded in the ground and
containing, a polythene or glass collector bottle. The gauge is read once (usually) or twice daily
and any rain gathered in the collector is poured into a measuring graduated measuring glass
cylinder to determine rainfall depth in millimetres.
Since rainfall received by the ORG is measured and recorded manually, errors may be
introduced by the observer in many ways. Observer may read the measuring cylinder incorrectly
or may i
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Fig. 3.1


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3.2.4 Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar
Although rain gauges are in use for a very long time, they suffer from a limitation: a rain gauge
gives the point value of rainfall but in almost all hydrologic studies, spatially averaged values are
required. Weather radars have been developed to overcome this limitation.

The word radar stands for radio detection and ranging. Weather radar sends
electromagnetic waves in all directions. When these waves collide with raindrops, an echo of the
waves is produced which is caught back by the radar. The strength of echo or returning signal
depends on the intensity of the falling rain and the time taken by the echo to reach the radar
depends upon the distance of the rainfall field from the radar.

A radar is calibrated using the data of rain gauges and relationship between the radar
reflectivity Z (mm
6
/m
3
or the sixth power of the diameter of raindrops in mm per cubic meter of
the atmosphere) and rainfall intensity R (mm/h), known as Z-R relationship is established. A
commonly used empirical equation is:

Z =200 R
1.6
(3.1)

The main advantage of the weather radar is that it can give the estimates of rainfall over
wide areas along with location and movement of storms. Weather radars can also measure
localized storms which may be missed by rain gauges. The range of radar depends on the
hardware; radars with range up to hundreds of km are common these days. The factors that
control the measurement of precipitation are its type, size of raindrops, width of the radar beam,
refraction of beam and atmospheric attenuation. Combined use of rain gauges and radars
provides much more improved rainfall estimates than what any single of them could provide.

A radar can measure precipitation over areas that are difficult to access and gives areal
coverage of rainfall distribution, it is possible to detect the movement of rainfall and most
systems are capable of automatic data processing. The spatial distribution of rainfall is
simultaneously displayed on a monitor. Due to these reasons, the use of weather radars in
precipitation measurement and warning is increasing. These have been found to be particularly
useful in flood forecasting and warning. On the negative side, the measurements from weather
radar are affected by echoes from the ground or ground clutter. In some cases, these radars have
been found to underestimate light rainfall and overestimate heavy rainfall.

Satellites are also being used to estimate precipitation over large areas and in near real-
time. Images from geostationary and polar orbiting satellites along with cloud top temperature,
shape, texture, and cloud history are used for estimation of precipitation. Another possibility is to
combine satellite images with radar data to obtain improved estimates.