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A Comparison of Instructional
Design Models



Becky Brown
MEDT 7461
3/17/2013



Instructional Design Models 2


Instructional design, or ID, is one of the many branches of knowledge in the world today. The
discipline began in earnest as instructional media at the beginning of the 20
th
century. But, by the
end of World War II, the discipline had subdivided into instructional media and instructional
design because of the influence of the United States military. At the time, the military had
created a considerable amount of material to aid in the training of soldiers. In particular, tests
were assembled to assess a learners capability of learning a particular skill. The results were
then used to place individuals into a particular training program to help advance the war effort.
When the war ended, there were many in the field of psychology that determined that the
military should not be the only entity using these strategies. The argument offered meticulously
explained how the same strategies could and should impact other disciplines and organizations
such as education. One psychologist who bolstered the argument was B.F.Skinner because he
began what might be called a minor revolution in the field of education. Skinner described his
ideas regarding the requirements for increasing human learning and the desired characteristics of
effective instructional materials. Skinner stated that such materials, called program instructional
materials, should present instruction in small steps, require overt responses to frequent questions,
provide immediate feedback, and allow for learner self-spacing (Reiser 2001). Another was
Benjamin Bloom and his theory presented in Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Bloom
indicated that within the cognitive domain there were various types of learning outcomes, that
objective could be classified according to the type of learner behavior described therein, and that
there was a hierarchical relationship among the various types of outcomes. Moreover, they
indicated that tests should be designed to measure each of these types of outcomes (Reiser
2001). Psychologist Robert Gagne, considered the father of modern instructional design, based
his theories also on these strategies. In the Domains of Learning, Gagne describes five types of
Instructional Design Models 3


learning events as well as the desired outcome for each type. Based in part on the Domains of
Learning, Events of Instruction details the type of instructional event that is crucial for the type
of outcome desired. Within Gagnes theory on Hierarchical Analysis, it was established that for
a learner to perform super ordinate skills, the learner would first have to master the skill
subordinate to it. By the 1990s, there was a growing interest in constructivism in the field.
The instructional principles associated with constructivism include the requiring learners to (a)
solve complex and realistic problems; (b) work together to solve those problems; (c) examine the
problems from multiple perspectives; (d) take ownership of the learning process (rather than be
passive recipients of instruction); and (e) become aware of their own role in the knowledge
construction process (Driscoll 2000).While these theories, and many others, have helped the
field to evolve from its beginning stages, it is their presence that has also been instrumental in
creating many different concrete definitions of the purpose of it.
Carl Berger, a professor in the Educational Studies department at the University of
Michigan, defined instructional design as the systematic development of instructional
specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the
entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system
to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout
and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities (1996). Robert Reiser, a professor in the
Instructional Systems Program at Florida State University and one of the foremost authorities on
instructional design in the world today, has defined ID as well. The field of instructional design
and technology encompasses the analysis of learning and performance problems, and the design,
development, implementation, evaluation, and management of instructional and non-
instructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a variety
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of settings, particularly educational institutions and the workplace. Professionals in the field of
instructional design and technology often use systematic instructional design procedures and
employ a variety of instructional media to accomplish their goals. Moreover, in recent years,
they have paid increasing attention to non-instructional solutions to some performance problems.
Research and theory related to each of the aforementioned areas is also important part of the
field (2001). For myself, I firmly believe that instructional design is a vital influence on
education. It provides learners with educational experiences that are more efficient, effective,
and appealing than in any previous generation. To create such an experience, one must first
begin with an analysis of the learner. In addition, there should be an analysis of the concept
being taught to the learner. Upon completion of this analysis, the next step is to design and
develop a plan to teach the learner about the concept. After the planning stage is complete, the
designer then implements the plan so that the learner can begin the process of acquiring the
needed information to understand the concept. After implementing the plan, the designer must
then evaluate whether or not the concept was mastered and begin to discern whether the plan was
beneficial to the learner. As an educator, my role in the process of using instructional design is as
important as the design model itself. While a psychologist can theorize to create a design model
and then present information about the effectiveness of that model, the role of the classroom
teacher in the design process it to put the theory to use and create learning experiences from the
model. As a media specialist, not only would I have to know how to generate learning
experiences in the media center but I will need to know how to teach my fellow colleagues about
not only the importance of the models but how to use them. Therefore, it is of the utmost
significance for me to not only be aware of the field but to keep abreast of the changes that occur
in it. Within the field of ID today, there are several models that assist in the process of designing
Instructional Design Models 5


an educational plan. The three most popular used by educators is the cognitive design model,
prescriptive design model, and the constructivist design model. Each is endowed with
information to provide designers with instructions in how to create a plan specifically designed
for whichever learning experience and learning outcome is desired.
Cognitivism is a learning theory and design model that attempts to answer how and why
people learn. It attributes the process of learning by the cognitive activities created instead of the
response to an antecedent and the consequences. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental
activities-opening the black box of the human mind is valuable and necessary for
understanding how people learn. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental
constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learners schemata. A response to
behaviorism, people are not programmed animals that merely respond to environmental
stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose
actions are a consequence of thinking (Cognitivism, 2007). Some of the most influential
cognitivist models are Advanced Organizers by David Ausuble, Cone of Experience by Edgar
Dale, Information Processing by George Miller, Dual Coding Theory by Allan Paivio, and
Concept Mapping by Joseph Novak. In my career as an educator, I have used a few of these
theories but the one I would advocate for my fellow colleagues to use is concept mapping. Jon
Lanzing stated that concept mapping is a technique for presenting knowledge in graphs.
Knowledge graphs are networks of concepts (1997). Concept maps are graphs. Indeed, it is a
set of graphs that help the creator or user to visualize the relationship between concepts. But a
concept map also relies on the innovation of the learner to generate ideas and induce creativity.
A concept map also blends prior knowledge with new knowledge to expand the understanding of
the creator/user. As a result, there is an infinite number of ways for one to use a concept map.
Instructional Design Models 6


One could use it for brainstorming ideas for a story, to express complex ideas, or to evaluate
understanding as well as to diagnose misunderstanding. I particularly enjoy using a concept map
because I am able to have a visual representation of what I am designing. It also helps me to
organize my thoughts and ideas into something that is easy for me to understand. For example, I
used a concept map to plan out a unit on the Middle Ages. The first version detailed the major
themes that needed to be addressed for my students to understand the role that this time period
played in the evolution of Western Civilization. Within each theme, I then added subheading to
help explain the importance of each theme. From this, I had an outline of the unit as well as a
guide for the lesson plans that I then created from the subheadings.
On the other hand, Prescriptive design models are quite different from the Cognitivist
theories. Prescriptive models use a particular set of conditions and desired outcomes to prescribe
the best method to design learning experiences for students. Within this branch of ID, there are
five basic phases-analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. A few of the
more used prescriptive models is ADDIE designed at Florida State University, ASSURE by
Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino, Conditions of Learning by Robert Gagne, The 4C-ID
Model by Jeroen von Merrienboer, Dick and Carey ID Model by Walter Dick and Lou Carey,
and Criterion Referenced Instruction by Robert Mager. Almost every prescriptive model is in
some way based on Gagnes Conditions of Learning. However, in my opinion, the theory that
seemed most beneficial to use was the ASSURE model. In the ASSURE Model, the designer
first begins the planning process by analyzing the learner. The analysis can be accomplished by
conducting surveys or pre-tests taken by the learner but it could also be determined through
general characteristics such as gender, race, or interests. The next step is to determine the state
standards that are required to be meet for the subject matter as well as outlining the objectives for
Instructional Design Models 7


the learning experience. Then, the designer must then determine the strategies, technology,
media, and materials that are needed to teach. After that, the designer must utilize the
technology, media, and materials chosen in the previous step to create the learning experience
and then require learner participation. After the completion of the learning experience, the
designer should then evaluate whether the plan was successful. There are several ways to
accomplish this. The first is to evaluate learners through some type of assessment. The second
is an evaluation of the plan. The designer must determine what was positive and negative about
the learning experience. After this determination, the designer must then revise the learning
experience to correct any problems. While this model has many fine points, there are several
which I believe make it worthwhile for classroom use. The first being that planning for
instruction begins by preparing for the learner and in doing so an in-depth evaluation is
conducted to determine the needs of each learner. By doing this, the designer is able to present
the concept in the best possible way for every learner. The second worthwhile reason is that
clear objectives are established and presented so that every participant understands the
expectations being placed on the learning experience. Another valuable reason is the fact that the
use of technology and media are not only encouraged but essential for the model to function at
its highest level. The final reason is the final step of the process, evaluation and revision because
it allows for reflection by the designer. Dr. Sharon Smaldino stated that once you have
completed the design and instruction and gathered the data about the outcomes and impressions
from your learners, you need to take the time to consider what went well and what could be
changed in that particular instructional event. This information will help you re-design that
instructional event for future opportunities. But, this information also guides you on how to
better address your learners in instruction beyond this particular instructional event (2013).
Instructional Design Models 8


While Prescriptive design models are developed based on the desire for learning
experiences to contain certain set of conditions and outcomes, Constructivist models are based
on the idea that learners are responsible for their own learning and that teachers are just guides or
facilitators in the learning process. It is in fact a reaction to didactic approaches such as
behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that learning is an active,
contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is
constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners
continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different
interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula
rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation (Constructivism, 2013).
There is also a specific type of learner that benefits from design models based on the
constructivist views. The type of learner is self-directed, creative, and innovative. The purpose
in education is to become creative and innovative through analysis, conceptualizations, and
synthesis of prior experience to create new knowledge. The learning goal is the highest order of
learning: heuristic problem solving, metacognitive knowledge, creativity, and originality
(Constructivism, 2013). The most popular constructivist theories that envelope these
characteristics are Discovery Learning by Jerome Bruner, Inquiry Teaching by Allan Collins and
Albert Stevens, Problem Based Learning, The Project Method by William Heard Kilpatrick and
John Dewey, and Observational (Social) Learning by Albert Bandura. While each theory has
elements that are desirable, the most advantageous for learners in my opinion is the model for
problem based learning, or PBL. In a PBL, according to the Buck Institute of Education,
students go through an extended process of inquiry in response to a complex question, problem,
or challenge. While allowing for some degree of student "voice and choice," rigorous projects
Instructional Design Models 9


are carefully planned, managed, and assessed to help students learn key academic content,
practice 21st Century Skills, and create high-quality, authentic products & presentations (2013).
Problem based learning Problem based learning begins with presenting learners with a realistic
problem to solve. Learners then must construct an answer to the problem using prior knowledge,
guidance from the teacher, and research material to answer the problem. In the course of
answering this problem, students acquire not only new learning and understanding but also a
sense of worth because the process of self-discovery embedded within the project. As a learner, I
thoroughly enjoy using the PBL process. Through the process, I am enabled to understand the
topic in a way that I probably would not have had if it had been presented to me in a different
format. Students gain a deeper understanding of the concepts and standards at the heart of a
project. Projects also build vital workplace skills and lifelong habits of learning. Projects can
allow students to address community issues, explore careers, interact with adult mentors, use
technology, and present their work to audiences beyond the classroom. PBL can motivate
students who might otherwise find school boring or meaningless (What is a PBL? 2013). As a
teacher, I also enjoy using the PBL process because I can use it in a variety of ways. Some
teachers use PBL extensively as their primary curriculum organizer and instructional method.
Others use PBL occasionally during a school year. Projects vary in length, from several days to
several weeks or even a semester. PBL can be effective at all grade levels and subjects (What
is a PBL? 2013). But, within this type of learning experience, it is vital that the role as a
facilitator or instructor to "not relinquish control of the classroom or student learning but rather
develop an atmosphere of shared responsibility. The Instructor must structure the proposed
question/issue so as to direct the student's learning toward content-based materials. The
instructor must regulate student success with intermittent, transitional goals to ensure student
Instructional Design Models 10


projects remain focused and students have a deep understanding of the concepts being
investigated. It is important for teachers not to provide the students any answers because it
defeats the learning and investigating process. Once the project is finished, the instructor
provides the students with feedback that will help them strengthen their skills for their next
project (Project Based Learning, 2013). The results of using a PBL includes an increase in
long-term retention of content, helps students to perform as well or better than traditional
learners in high-stakes tests, improves problem-solving and collaboration skills, and improves
students' attitudes towards learning ("Project-Based Learning Research Review," 2012).
Instructional design is indeed a field that has grown and developed over the past century.
But it is also a field that must continue to do so for one simple reason-it is through instructional
design that educators design learning experiences, that the learner is taught from those learning
experiences, and that the educated learner then helps to meet the needs of society. Charles
Reigeluth stated that when we look at the ways society is changing as we evolve deeper into the
information age, we can see definite trends in the work place, the family, and decision-making
systems. From those changes, we can identify new features that an information-age educational
system should have to meet the needs of society. Educators should take this kind of needs-based,
system-design approach to improving education. Without such an approach, we will almost
certainly be condemned to a system that does not meet society's needs" (1994).



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