Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 426431

Selected problems of micro-electrochemical machining

Jerzy Kozak
a,
, Kamlakar P. Rajurkar
b
, Yogesh Makkar
b
a
Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
b
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA
Abstract
The results of theoretical and experimental investigations of the relationship between the characteristic shape dimensions imported upon
the anode-workpiece surface by the micro-features of the cathode-tool electrode under given machining conditions are presented. This
research included the study of electrochemical copying of slots, mini-holes, grooves and insulating groove features. The limiting conditions
of micro-ECM are considered from the point of view of copying and micro-shaping using non-proled tool electrodes. For improving
micro-machining capabilities of ECM processes, the application of ultra-short pulse current and ultra-small gap size is recommended. The
results of investigation of pulse micro-ECM using non-proled electrodes are also discussed in the paper.
2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ECM; Anode-workpiece surface; Cathode-tool electrode
1. Introduction
Electrochemical machining (ECM) has established itself
as one of the major alternatives to conventional methods
for machining difcult-to-cut materials of and/or generat-
ing complex contours, without inducing residual stress and
tool wear. It has been applied in diverse industries such as
aerospace, automotive and electronics, to manufacture air-
foils and turbine blades, die and mold, artillery projectiles,
and surgical implants and prostheses [1]. Miniaturization of
mechanical parts and complete machines has been identi-
ed as a future technology. For example, very small gears
might nd application in medical tools as well as in sen-
sors. However, the fabrication of small parts of dimension
in micro-meter is still a challenge. Moreover, ECM with
recent advances in machining accuracy and precision can
be effectively used for micro-machining components in the
electronics and precision industries [1,2].
During the last 10 years ECM has been developed to
a successful production technology for the manufacture of
shaving heads of the well-known Philishave. In this appli-
cation, the machined area is smaller than 5 cm
2
on which
0.14 mm slots with an accuracy of 10 m are produced
with a machining time of 28.5 s. For the dimensional ac-
curacy and the close tolerances required in electrochemical
micro-machining, the interelectrode gap needs to be in the
order of 2050 m or even smaller. The process is mainly

Corresponding author. Tel.: +48-22-6288110; fax: +48-22-6607520.

E-mail address: jkozak@meil.pw.edu.pl (J. Kozak).
used for mass-production [3]. Scientists at the Fritz Haber
Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin, has been de-
veloped a simple electrochemical procedure to fabricate 3D
micro-structures. To obtain the delicate copper prism in the
middle of the hole-cavity (cross-section: 5 m 10 m;
height: 12 m), sitting on a pedestal 15 m15 m10 m,
the tool electrode of platinum wire (10 m diameter) was
used. Machining operation was performed according the
scheme in Fig. 1b using pulse voltage U = 1.6 V, pulse
current I = 0.020.03 A, pulse on time t
p
= 50 ns and
frequency of 5 MHz. The complete machining time for the
structure was 30 min [4].
This paper presents a study of detail transfer by ECM
as applicable to micro-machining capabilities. The applica-
tion of pulse micro-ECM using numerically controlled non-
proling electrode to improve micro-ECM operations is also
presented.
2. Experimental results and analysis of mini-detail
transfer in ECM
Electrochemical machining is employed in micro-machin-
ing for copying of mini-features of the cathodic tool elec-
trode onto the anodic surface of the workpiece, i.e. detail
transfer by ECM (Fig. 1a), and for manufacturing micro-
shapes by pulse micro-ECM using a non-proling electrode
(Fig. 1b).
In most applications, a high rate of machining is main-
tained by feeding the tool electrode towards the workpiece
0924-0136/$ see front matter 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2004.02.031
J. Kozak et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 426431 427
Fig. 1. Micro-ECM using contoured tool electrode (a) and NC pulse
micro-ECM using non-proling tool electrode (b).
with a constant feed rate. A steady state is reached in which
the machining surface maintains a xed shape as it recedes
in the direction of the tool feed. The equilibrium surface of
the anode resembles the tool shape, but is not congruent with
it. The difference in shape is particularly signicant for the
copying of mini-features.
The results of theoretical and experimental investigations
of the relationship between the characteristic shape dimen-
sions, imported upon the anode-workpiece surface by the
micro-features of the cathode-tool electrode under given ma-
chining conditions are presented. This research included the
study of electrochemical copying of slots, mini-holes, and
grooves and insulating groove features, which are shown in
Figs. 1a and 25. Mini-features are dened as those whose
dimensions are below 5S
f
(for example, b, h, d < 5S
f
),
where S
f
is equilibrium gap size in a steady-state ECM pro-
cess:
S
f
= K
V
U E
V
f
(1)
where is the electrical conductivity of electrolyte, K
V
the
electrochemical machinability coefcient, which is dened
as the volume of material dissolved per unit electrical charge,
U the working voltage, E the total over potential of electrode
processes, and V
f
the feed rate of tool electrode.
Fig. 2. Detail transfer height vs. relative groove width b/S
f
.
Fig. 3. Detail transfer height vs. diameter hole d/S
f
.
Fig. 4. Detail transfer height vs. insulating relative groove width b/S
f
.
The experimental investigations were performed on a
sinking electrochemical machine tool with a 10% NaNO
3
water solution. Workpieces of die steel (0.7% Cr, 1.6% Ni,
0.25% Mo, 0.7% Mn and 0.55% C) treated to 55 HRC hard-
ness were used for experiments. The tests were carried out
Fig. 5. Detail transfer height vs. feature relative height h/S
f
.
428 J. Kozak et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 426431
with special electrodes having different mini-features. The
tool electrode was tted with lateral walls ensuring 1D ow
of electrolyte. Design of experiments was used to determine
the effects of four signicant parameters namely the equi-
librium gap size, the characteristic feature dimensions (h, b
or d), inlet pressure p
in
and feature position on the tool elec-
trode. Graphs illustrating the most interesting relationships
for the chosen ECM parameters are shown below.
The shape details transfer and its dimensions depend not
only on the dimensional features of the tool electrode and
equilibrium gap size but also on position details in the gap
(distance to inlet of electrolyte L and slope of features to ow
direction ), working voltage, and hydrodynamic conditions.
The inuence of position details on the gap is shown in
Fig. 2. Two limiting orientation of the grooves with respect
to the ow are investigated: ow transverse to the grooves
= 0

and ow parallel to the grooves = 90

. The
difference in results for various is related to the distribution
of diffusion layer thickness on the anode surface.
The effect of voltage on copying of mini-holes on the tool
electrode is shown in Fig. 3. Under the same conditions, in
particular at S
f
= constant, intensity of heating increases as
a result of increased voltage. This factor causes a limiting
effect on the accuracy of copying of smaller features on the
tool electrode.
Figs. 4 and 5 illustrate the inuence of hydrodynamics
on copying process. The effect of inlet pressure of the elec-
trolyte is shown in Fig. 4 for copying insulating grooves.
Disturbances of copying of rectangular projections by cavi-
tation phenomena can be seen in Fig. 5.
The transfer of mini-features of the tool electrode on the
anode-workpiece is connected with problem of limiting con-
ditions of ECM from the point of view of copying. Of par-
ticular importance is the geometric limitation in copying,
i.e. the limiting dimension below which the transfer of de-
tails from tool does not occur. The limiting dimension of the
features depends mainly on its shape, the equilibrium gap
size and working voltage. In an example for copying holes,
on the tool electrode and insulating grooves, the limiting di-
mensions were found to be: d
L
= (0.71.4)S
f
in Fig. 3 and
b
L
= (0.40.6)S
f
in Fig. 4.
On the basis of these investigations it can be concluded
that ECM process includes damping of small disturbances
of primary electric elds between the electrodes. If details
on the tool electrode produce a change of intensity of the
primary electric eld at the anode below (0.070.14)U/S
f
,
the detail transfer will not take place.
Therefore, for improving the shape accuracy and simpli-
fying the tool design, the gap size during ECM should be as
small as possible. Additionally, for reducing non-uniformity
in the electrical conductivity and other physical conditions,
which are signicant for dissolution process, a more stable
gap state is needed. All these requirements limit the perfor-
mance of ECM with continuous working voltage. The min-
imum practical tool gap size is, however, constrained by the
onset of unwanted electrical discharges. These short circuits
reduce the surface quality of the workpiece, and lead to elec-
troerosive wear of the tool-electrode, and usually hinder ma-
chining progress. Intense heating, hydrogen generation and
sometimes choking phenomena and cavitation within the gap
can lead to evaporation and subsequent gas evolution. This
gas is believed to cause the onset of electrical discharge.
All these constraints in continuous ECM can be elimi-
nated; also the requirements with the point of view of ma-
chining accuracy can be achieved, by the application of pulse
voltage in the electrochemical micro-shaping and smooth-
ing [5]. Additional positive effects can be achieved by intro-
ducing special complex controlling movement of the non-
proling tool electrode (Fig. 1b). Thus, the continuous ECM
can be replaced with a discrete process, resulting in the re-
duction of gap size below 0.1 mm and improving micro-
shaping accuracy.
3. Pulse micro-electrochemical machining
The Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research,
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA, and the Micro
and Nano Technology Laboratory, Warsaw University of
Technology, Poland, has been conducting investigations
of manufacturing micro-features by the application of
pulse micro-electrochemical machining processes based on
scheme (Fig. 1b).
The pulse micro-ECM process, similar to pulse ECM,
uses a pulse generator to supply the working voltage pulses
across the two electrodes, typically in the form of pulse
strings consisting of single pulses or group pulses (Fig. 1b).
The proposed pulse micro-ECM approach results in the
localization of the electrochemical dissolution to sub micro-
meter regions, by the application of ultra-short (in s)
voltage pulses and thus maintain a very small gap between
the workpiece and the tool electrode. The anodic electro-
chemical dissolution occurs during the short pulse on time
t
p
, each ranging from 0.005 to 5 ms, for the pulse ECM
process and 55000 ns for the pulse micro-ECM process
using ultra-short voltage pulses (Fig. 1). The dissolution
products (sludge, gas bubbles and heat) can be ushed
away from the interelectrode gap by the owing electrolyte
during the pulse off time t
o
= T t
p
, where T is the cycle
time. Existing work on pulse ECM has shown considerable
improvements in dimensional controllability, shaping ac-
curacy, process stability, and simplication of tool design
[5]. These performance characteristics of pulse ECM along
with the above mentioned special circuit for localization of
electrochemical dissolution make the proposed pulse micro-
ECM a very desirable alternative for producing accurate
and complex 3D micro-components.
The purpose of pulse micro-ECM process modeling is to
predict the shape of the workpiece for a given set of ma-
chining conditions. To formulate the mathematical model,
a general case is considered which describes the changes
in electrochemically generated shape of a workpiece, using
J. Kozak et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 426431 429
Fig. 6. Scheme for modeling pulse micro-ECM process.
a wire tool electrode. It is assumed that a coordinate sys-
tem is attached to the workpiece, which is stationary during
machining. The workpiece surface at a given point in time
(Fig. 6a) is described as: z = Z(x, y, t).
Following are additional assumptions that have been made
in developing the mathematical model of the pulse micro-
ECM process:
electrolyte ow rate between the two electrodes is high
enough to neglect changes in electrical conductivity of
electrolyte;
workpiece material is homogeneous;
reaction products do not affect electrolyte properties;
workpiece (anode) surface is uniformly covered by elec-
trolyte;
electrical eld in the gap is quasi-stationary;
primary distribution of electrical potential in the gap, i.e.
electrode polarization is constant and is taken as an aver-
age value.
Amoving boundary simulation is required to predict the nal
shape where, at each time step, the distribution of dissolution
velocity on the workpiece surface needs to be determined.
According to electrochemical shaping theory, the evolution
of the shape of the workpiece Z(x, y, t), can be described as:
Z
t
= K
V
i
A

1 +

Z
x

2
+

Z
y

2
(2)
where K
V
is the coefcient of electrochemical machinabil-
ity and i
A
the current density on the anode surface. At the
beginning, at time t = 0, the initial space of the workpiece
surface is given by:
z = Z
0
(x, y) (3)
In the region where concentration gradient can be ignored,
Ohms law in differential form describes current density i
in the electrolyte:
i
A
=

u
n

z
(4)
Assuming that, heating and gas generation do not affect elec-
trolyte conductivity in the interelectrode gap, the distribution
of electrical potential, u, in electrolyte can be described by:

2
u
x
2
+

2
u
y
2
+

2
u
z
2
= 0 (5)
Fig. 7. Simulation results of pulse micro-ECM for different feed rate V
f
and duty cycle k
w
.
The boundary conditions for Eq. (5) are given by the state of
the system on the electrodes. Assuming perfectly conducting
electrodes, connected with the external source of voltage U,
the boundary conditions can be given as:
u = E
c
(i, t) on the cathode (TE)
u = U(t) E
a
(i, t) on the anode (WP)
u
n
= 0 on the insulating walls
The last condition expresses the fact that current does not
ow through an insulator. The anodic potential, E
a
and the
cathodic potential, E
c
, depend on current density, and are
determined by the sum of both the concentration and the
activation over potential for each electrode.
Eqs. (2)(5) give the relative motion of the electrode. The
governing partial differential equations have been solved by
the nite difference method for simulating the shape gen-
eration by ECMM. A small time interval, t, need to be
selected so that the interfaces can be regarded as station-
ary when calculating the electrical eld and current density
on the anode during this time interval t. After solving the
corresponding problem for a known boundary, the problem
is solved, iteratively, for a new boundary, at the next in-
stant given by t + t. The partial differential Eq. (2) can
Fig. 8. Triangular cavity made by the pulse micro-ECM process [6].
430 J. Kozak et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 426431
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram and photo of developed pulse micro-ECM system.
be further modied to represent the prole generation of
a workpiece during machining, in two sections separately,
one describing the frontal gap (Fig. 6b) and second describ-
ing the side gap (Fig. 6c). The example of received theo-
retical proles in cross-section (Fig. 6b) for U E = 5 V,
K
V
= 2 mm
3
/Amin, = 0.01 A/Vmm, S
0
= 0.01 mm,
V
f
= 20 mm/min and V
f
= 10 mm/min, d = 0.02 mm and
duty cycle k
w
= t
p
/T = 0.2 and k
w
= 1 are shown in Fig. 7.
As is shown in Fig. 7, the removed thickness at pulse
micro-ECM (at k
w
= 0.2) is 2.53 times less than for ECM
using continuous current (k
w
= 1) and many times is higher
the localization of electrochemical dissolution.
The example of machined cavity and pulse micro-ECM
experiment setup is shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. The
tool electrode of a diameter of 100 m (made by the micro-
WEDM process) has been used for machining the slots of
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
4 6 8 10 12 14
Voltage (V)
G
a
p

i
n

m
m
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
10 30 50 70 90
Vf mm/min
g
a
p

i
n

m
i
c
r
o

m
e
t
e
r
Fig. 10. The effect of voltage and the feed rate on side gap and frontal gap.
1.5 mm length on stainless steel (SS-440). The electrolyte
used is 10% solution of NaNO
3
. This micro-cavity with a
slot width 160 m has been generated with the application
of 5 V pulses of 1 MHz frequency, initial interelectrode gap
of 20 m, and tool electrode feed rate 42 mm/min.
The extensive experimental study and subsequent statis-
tical analysis indicate that the feed rate and pulse voltage
have very signicant effect on each of the performance mea-
sures. Remaining parameters do not show very signicant
effect on the performance measures. To analyze the effect of
these two factors and to verify the theoretical model further
experiments were conducted.
The results of the effect of voltage and the feed rate on
side gap and frontal gap are shown in Fig. 10. The plot
shows that with the increase in voltage, both the side gap
and the frontal gap increase. A sudden increase in the gap
J. Kozak et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 426431 431
can be observed at about the voltage 9 V, suggesting that it
is necessary to keep the applied voltage below 10 V. The mi-
croscopic examination shows that the edges of the machined
cavity are sharper at the lower voltage values.
It can be seen from Fig. 10 that both the side gap and the
frontal gap decrease with increasing feed rate. However, for
the feed rate above 63 mm/min, the sharpness of the edges
of the machined slots was observed to be less. Therefore,
for all the subsequent analysis, the tool electrode feed rate
has been kept between 21 and 63 mm/min.
A close agreement between the theoretical estimates and
experimental values at the frontal gap has been observed.
Similarly a close agreement for side gap values has also
been observed for applied voltage pulses around 8 V.
4. Summary
This paper reports application of micro-ECM processes
for generating micro-parts and micro-features. For improv-
ing micro-machining capabilities of ECM processes, the ap-
plication of ultra-short pulse current and ultra-small gap size
is recommended.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted with the support from the
NSF Grant No. DMI-9908219, NSF CRCD EEC Grant No.
9813028 and from Polish State Committee for Scientic
Research Grant No. 5T07D 010 25.
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