Social Work Material

1
UGC
NET / JRF
Social Work
Resources
Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
Madurai Institute of Social Sciences
Go to page no 7. Click on the numbers
given in the brackets to go to the links
2

The UGC, , was formally established only in November
1956 as a statutory body of the Government of India
through an Act of Parliament for the coordination,
determination and maintenance of standards of
university education in India. In order to ensure
effective region-wise coverage throughout the country,
the UGC has decentralised its operations by setting up
six regional centres at Pune, Hyderabad, Kolkata,
Bhopal, Guwahati and Bangalore.
The head office of the UGC is located at Bahadur Shah
Zafar Marg in New Delhi, with two additional bureaus
operating from 35, Feroze Shah Road and the South
Campus of University of Delhi as well.

UGC National Eligibility Test For Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) &
Eligibility For Lectureship

Genesis of National Eligibility Test (NET)
In early eighties, there was a general perception among the public and the leading educationists
that well qualified persons were not being attracted towards
teaching profession. Concerns were also expressed about the
criteria that were employed for the selection of teachers. It was
increasingly realized that quite a large number of people who
neither had the competence nor the aptitude for teaching made an
easy entry into this profession.

The Committee formed by UGC in 1983 on revision of pay scales
of teachers in the universities and colleges under the Chairmanship
of Prof. R C Mehrotra recommended the following for the post of
Lecturer:
i) Qualifying at the National test conducted for the purpose by UGC or any other agency
approved by UGC.
ii) Masters degree with at least 55 % marks or its equivalent grade.

The qualifications should not be relaxed even
for candidates possessing M.Phil/Ph.D at the
time of recruitment. The Mehrotra
Committee also found that the stipulation of
M.Phil/Ph.D. as an essential qualification for
Lecturers had neither been followed faithfully
nor did it necessarily contribute to the raising
of teaching and research standards. In fact, it
was of the view that, if at all, it had led to the
dilution of research standards on account of
the rush to get a research degree in the
shortest possible time. In view of the diversity of standards among universities, the Mehrotra
Committee recommended that passing a national qualifying examination before recruitment be
made an essential pre-condition.

In pursuance of Mehrotra Committee recommendation, The National Commission of
Teachers on Higher Education (Prof. Rais Ahmed), The National Policy on Education, 1986 ,
it was suggested in the Program of Action of National Policy of Education, 1986 that:
the teachers will be recruited on the basis of a common qualifying test, the details of which will
be formulated by UGC. Efforts will be made to move towards the objective of making
recruitment of teachers on all India basis in consultation with the State Governments.

With a view to working out the modalities for the conduct of such a test, the Commission had
constituted a Committee, which evolved strategies for the conduct of a national level
eligibility test for the recruitment of teachers in universities and colleges. Consequently, the
Government on India, through a notification in 1988 entrusted the task of conducting the
eligibility test for lectureship to UGC. Thereby, UGC has been conducting the National
Eligibility Test for Junior Research Fellowship and eligibility for Lectureship since 1989. It
had already been conducting the examination for Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) since
1984.
3

UGC Net 2010 Subjects
The list of NET subjects along with their respective codes are as given below:
Subjects related to Social work and its various specializations are marked in Red. Study
materials for these subjects will also help social work students.
01 Economics 02 Political Science 03 Philosophy 04 Psychology 05 Sociology 06 History 07
Anthropology 08 Commerce 09 Education 10 Social Work 11 Defence and Strategic Studies 12
Home Science 14 Public Administration 15 Population Studies* 16 Music 17
Management 18-45, 83-85,73, & 91 Languages 46 Adult Education/ Continuing Education/
Andragogy/ Non Formal Education. 47 Physical Education 49 Arab Culture and Islamic Studies 50
Indian Culture 55 Labour Welfare/Personnel Management/Industrial
Relations/ Labour and Social Welfare/Human Resource Management 58
Law 59 Library and Information Science 60 Buddhist, Jaina, Gandhian and Peace Studies
62 Comparative Study of Religions 63 Mass Communication and Journalism 65 Performing Arts
Dance/Drama/Theatre 66 Museology & Conservation 67 Archaeology 68 Criminology 70 Tribal and
Regional Language/Literature 71 Folk Literature 72 Comparative Literature Traditional Subjects
(including Jyotis ha/Sidhanta Jyotisha/ Navya Vyakarna/ Vyakarna/ Mimamsa/ Navya Nyaya/
Sankhya Yoga/ Tulanatmaka Darsana/ Shukla Yajurveda/ Madhva Vedanta/ Dharma Sastra/ Sahitya/
Purana-itihasa/Agama/Advaita Vedanta) 74 Women Studies 79 Visual Arts (including Drawing
& Painting/Sculpture/ Graphics/Applied Art/History of Art) 80 Geography 81 Social Medicine &
Community Health 82 Forensic Science 87 Computer Science and Applications 88 Electronic
Science 89 Environmental Sciences 90 International and Area Studies 92 Human
Rights and Duties 93 Tourism Administration and Management. * The candidates who have
completed their Masters Degree in Geography (with specialization in Population Studies) or
Mathematics/Statistics are also eligible to appear in the subject Population Studies (Code 15).

Scope of NET & SLET
a. Eligibility for Lectureship
Clearing of NET confers eligibility for lectureship upon Indian nationals, i.e. the NET qualified
candidates are eligible to apply for the post of lecturer in all Indian universities/Institutes/colleges.
It was resolved in the UGC's Commission Meeting held on 1.11.2001 that commencing from the
SET examinations scheduled in or after June, 2002, the SET qualified candidates shall be eligible
for appointment to the post of lecturer only in the universities/colleges belonging to the state from
where they have passed the SET examination. The status of SET shall remain unchanged for SET
examinations conducted prior to 1st June, 2002, that is, the candidates clearing SET were eligible
for appointment to the post of lecturer anywhere in India.
b. Junior Research Fellowship
The candidates who qualify the Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) Examination of UGC/CSIR NET
are also eligible for the post of lectureship. In addition they are also eligible to receive Fellowships
(UGC/CSIR) under various schemes subject to the candidates finding their placement in the
universities/IITs/other national organizations. The validity of the offer is two years w.e.f. the date
of issue of JRF award letter. The validity period of the offer has been raised from one year to two
years for JRF Award Letters issued on or after 1st April, 2005. However, in case the candidates
have already joined M.Phil. /Ph.D., the date of commencement of fellowship will be from the date
of declaration of NET examination result or date of their joining, whichever is later.

The National Educational Testing Bureau of University Grants Commission (UGC) conducts
National Eligibility Test (NET) to determine eligibility for lectureship and for award of Junior
Research Fellowship (JRF) for Indian nationals in order to ensure minimum standards for the
entrants in the teaching profession and research. The Test is conducted in Humanities (including
languages), Social Sciences, Forensic Science, Environmental Sciences, Computer Science and
Applications and Electronic Science.
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Paper-I (Code No.: 00)
Subject: General Paper on Teaching and Research Aptitude

The main objective is this paper is to assess the teaching and research capabilities of the candidates.
Therefore, the test is aimed at assessing the teaching and general/research aptitude as well as their
awareness. They are expected to possess and exhibit cognitive abilities. Cognitive abilities include
comprehension, analysis, evaluation, understanding the structure of arguments and deductive and
inductive reasoning. The candidates are also expected to have a general awareness and knowledge of
sources of information. They should be aware of interaction between people, environment and natural
resources and their impact on quality of life. The details are given in the following sections:
Note:
i) Each section gets equal weightage: Five questions and 10 marks from each section.
ii) Whenever pictorial questions are set for the sighted candidates a passage followed by equal
number of questions should be set for the visually handicapped candidates.

I. Teaching Aptitude
Teaching: Nature, objectives, characteristics and basic requirements; Learner's characteristics;
Factors affecting Teaching; Methods of teaching; Teaching aids; Evaluation systems.
II. Research Aptitude
Research: Meaning, characteristics and types. Steps of Research. Methods of research; Research
Ethics. Paper, article, workshop, seminar conference and symposium
Thesis writing: its characteristics and format
III. Reading Comprehension
A passage to be set with questions to be answered.
IV. Communication
Communication: Nature, characteristics, types, barriers and effective classroom communication.
V. Reasoning (Including Mathematical)
Number series; letter series; codes; Relationships; classification.
VI. Logical Reasoning
Understanding the structure of arguments; Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and inductive
reasoning Verbal analogies: Word analogy - Applied analogy Verbal classification. Reasoning Logical
Diagrams: Simple diagrammatic relationship, multi-diagrammatic relationship; Venn diagram;
Analytical Reasoning
VII. Data Interpretation
Sources, acquisition and interpretation of data; Quantitative and qualitative data. Graphical
representation and mapping of data.
VIII. Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
ICT: meaning, advantages, disadvantages and uses; General abbreviations and terminology
Basics of internet and e-mailing.
X. Higher Education System: Governance, Polity And Administration
Structure of the institutions for higher learning and research in India- Formal & distance education-
Professional/technical and general education- Value education- Governance, polity and
administration- concept, institutions and their interactions.
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Syllabus for UGC NET JRF Social Work (Code No.10)
Paper - II & Paper - III (A) (Core Group)
Introduction to Social Work
U
n
i
t

-

I

Evolution of Social Work Profession - Impact of Social Reform Movements- Factors that influenced
the emergence of method approach in Social Work Practice- Social Work Profession and Human
Rights. Philosophy and Principles of Social Work and their application - System Approach to Social
Work Practice- Role of Social Work in the Remedial, Preventive and Developmental Models.
Definition, Relevance and Scope of Integrated Approach to Social Work Practice, Skills and
Techniques. Social Work Education - Content, Training, Supervision, Problems and Challenges.
Man and Society
U
n
i
t

-

I
I

Meaning and Characteristics of Society, Community, Social Group and Social Institution - Social
Structure and Social Stratification - Theories of Social Change and Social Disorganisation. Tribal,
Rural and Urban Communities, Weaker and Vulnerable Sections and Minority Groups - Population,
Poverty, Unemployment, Underdevelopment. Problems of Developing Economies and
Consequences of New Economic Policy - Concept of Welfare State, Indian Constitution - Features,
Problems, Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles - Planning in India, Five-Year Plans.
Concept and Causative Factors of Indian Social Problems Analysis, Intervention in Social
Problems - Government and Voluntary Efforts at Micro- and Macro-levels. Role of the Social
Workers in identifying social problems and development of appropriate strategies.
Human Growth & Development
U
n
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t

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I
I
I

Human Behaviour. Human Needs, Human Motivation and Problems of Human Behaviour and
Coping Mechanisms. Human Growth and Development in the Lifespan of Individual. Learning,
Socialisation and Theories of Personality
Working with Individuals / Case Work
U
n
i
t

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I
V

Case work - Concept, Objectives and Principles. Social Case Work Process - Intake, Study, Social
Diagnosis, Treatment, Termination and Evaluation. Approaches in Case Work - Psychoanalytical,
Psycho-social, Problem Solving, Behaviour Modification, Crisis Intervention and Eclectic Approach.
Techniques and skills in Social Case Work - Interviews, Home visit, Resource Mobilisation, Referral,
Environmental Modification, Case Work Relationship, Communication - Types of Recording in Case
Work. Role of Social Case Worker in Various Settings.
Working with Groups /Group Work
U
n
i
t

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V

Concept of Group Work - Assumptions, Definition and Goals of Group Work. Principles, Skills and
Values of Social Group Work. Stages of Group Development and Use of Programmes for Group
Development - Orientation Stage, Working Stage, Termination Stage, Programme Planning,
Implementation and Evaluation. Study of Group Process - Group Dynamics, Member's behaviour.
Leadership and Role of the Worker in Various Settings. Approaches and Models in Group Work
Practice - Therapeutic / Social Treatment. Development Group and Task oriented Group.
Working with Communities /Community organization
U
n
i
t

-
V
I

Concept, Principles and Objectives of Community Organisation. Approaches in Community
Organisation - Models, Strategies and Role of Social Worker in each of the Approaches -
Community Development and Community Organisation. Social Action in Community Organisation -
Concept, Purpose and Techniques - Community Organisation as a Para-political Process -
Networking, Conscientization, Planning and Organising - Roles and Strategies of Social movements
- Types and Role of NGOs.
Social Work Research
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Paper-111(B) (Elective / Optional)
Human Resource Management/ Personnel Management /Labour Welfare
E
l
e
c
t
i
v
e

I
Labour Welfare and Human Resource Management - Concept, Principles and Approaches -
Problems concerning Industrial Labour in India - Absenteeism, Migratory Character, Indebtedness
and Exploitation. Concept of Collective Bargaining, Workers' Participation in Management and HRD
Sub-systems - Legislations - Factories Act 1948, and other Legislations relating to Trade Unions,
Industrial Disputes, Employees' State Insurance, Wages, Gratuity, P.F., Bonus, Plantation, Mines
and Others. Role of Welfare Officer - Use of Social Work Knowledge and Skills.
Medical and Psychiatric Social Work
E
l
e
c
t
i
v
e

I
I

Evolution of Social Work Practice in the field of Medical and Psychiatric Social Work in India,
Emerging Trends and Scope - Health / Mental Health Care System - Policies, Programmes, Analysis
of existing Health Policies, Major Health Concerns of Disadvantaged Groups - Social and
Psychological Factors and Physical and Mental Disorders. Role of Social Work in Health Care -
Delivery System and in Institutions for the Disabled - Social Work Practice in Hospitals, Specialized
Medical and Mental Health Institutions - Child Guidance Clinics, Stress and Crisis Intervention
Centres
Community Development
E
l
e
c
t
i
v
e

I
V

Concept, Goals, Process and Models of Community Development - Needs and Problems Related to
Urban, Rural and Tribal Development - Institution of Panchayat Raj - Philosophy, Role and
Functions - Government Programmes and Service for the Development of Tribals, Schedule Castes,
Women and Children in Urban, Rural and Tribal Areas. Role of NGOs in Urban, Rural and in Tribal
Development.
Family & Child Welfare
U
n
i
t

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V
I
I

Definition, Nature, Scope and Purposes of Social Work Research - Research Designs, Types and
Methods. Steps in Social Work Research-Problem Formulation, Operationalization of Variables,
Sampling, Tools and Techniques of Data Collection, Data Analysis and Report Writing - Role and
Responsibilities of the Researcher. Statistics - its use and limitation in Social Work Research
(measures of central tendency, chi-square test, t-test, correlation).
Social Policy & Social Welfare
U
n
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t

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V
I
I
I

Social Policy - Concept and Scope, Distinction between Social and Economic Policies, Place of
Ideology and Values. Evolution of Social Policy in India - Review of Major Policies and Programmes,
viz., Education, Health, Shelter, Environment, Social Security, Employment, Family, Child, Women
and Youth Welfare, Welfare of the Weaker Sections, Elderly and Disabled - Characteristics of Social
Welfare Organisations -Size, Nature, Design, Legal Status, Rules and Procedure and Overall Policy.
Management of Social Welfare Organisations (Government and voluntary) - Home relation.
Financial relation and Physical relation - Programme and Project Management - Identifying Overall
and Specific Needs, Project Formulation, Monitoring and Evaluation, Recording and Accountability.
Social legislation & Social Justice
U
n
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I
X

Concept of Social Justice - Its relationship with Social Legislation; Civil Rights - Human Rights and
Issues of Social Justice - Legislations pertaining to Women and Children, Social Defence, Social
Security and Social Assistance, people with Disability, and the Underprivileged - Health related
Legislations. Role of Social Worker in promoting Social Legislation and Social Justice.
Social Development
U
n
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I
X

Social Development Meaning, Concept and Indicators. Approaches and Strategies - Growth and
Equity, Minimum Needs, Quality of Life - Global Efforts for Human Development - Concept of
Sustainable Development - Social Work and Social Development - Problems of Social Development
in India.
7

E
l
e
c
t
i
v
e

V

Changes in Demographical and Social Situations of Families, Women, Youth, Aged and Children in
India - Problems of Families, Women, Youth, Aged and Children in India - Social Legislation for
Families, Women and Children - Policies, Programmes and Services for Families, Women, Youth,
Aged and Children at Government, NGO, National and International levels -Social Work Intervention
with Families, Children, Women, Elderly and People with Special Needs.
Correctional Social Work
E
l
e
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t
i
v
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V
I

Concepts of Crime and Deviance - Theories of Causation. Objectives, Forms and Justification of
Punishment - Limitations of Punishment - Correctional Services - Nature and Evolution, Adult and
Juvenile Correctional Programmes, Institutional and Community Based Treatment, Legal Provisions-
Intervention Programmes for Victims of Violence - Neglect and Abuse. Juvenile Delinquency
Nature and Causes, Juvenile Justice Law and Organisation. Role of Social Worker in Correctional
settings.

Note to readers......
Please click on the numbers given in brackets to go to the link.

Unit I Introduction to Social Work
Concepts related to Unit I
1. Social Work [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] 1A.Social Work Profession [1] 1B. Evolution of Social Work
Profession [1] [2]
2. Social Reform [1] 2A. Social Reform Movements [1] [2] [3] [4] 2B. Impact of Social
Reform Movements [1] [2]
3. Methods of Social Work Practice 3A. Approach in Social Work Practice 3B. Factors that
influenced the Social Work Practice
4. Human Rights [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] 4A. Social Work Profession & Human Rights [1]
5. Philosophy of Social Work 5A. Principles of Social Work [1] [2] [3] 5B. Application of
Philosophy and Principles of Social Work
6. System Approach 6A. System Approach in Social Work Practice [1] [2]
7. Meaning of Role 7A. Models of Social Work 7B. Remedial Social Work 7C. Preventive
Social Work 7D.Developmental Social Work
8. Definition of Integrated Approach in Social Work Practice 8A. Relevance of Integrated
Approach in Social Work Practice 8B. Scope of Integrated Approach in Social Work Practice
9. Skills 9A. Techniques 9B. Skills and Techniques of social worker
10. Social Work Education 10A. Content of Social Work Education 10B. Training for Social
Work Education 10C.Supervision in Social Work Education 10D. Problems in Social Work
Education 10E. Challenges in Social Work

Unit II- Sociology for Social Workers / Man & Society
Concepts related to Unit II
1. Meaning and Characteristics of Society [1] [2] 1A. Meaning and Characteristics of
Community [1] [2] 1B. Meaning and Characteristics of Social Group [1] [2] [3] 1C. Meaning
and Characteristics of Social Institution [1] [2] [3] 1D. Meaning and Characteristics of Social
Structure [1] [2] [3] 1E. Meaning and Characteristics of Social Stratification
2. Theories of Social Change [1] 2A. Theories of Social Disorganisation. [1] [2] [3] [4]
3. Tribal Communities 3A. Rural Communities 3B. Urban Communities 3C. Weaker Sections
3D. Vulnerable Sections 3E. Minority Groups
8

4. Population [1] [2] [3] [4] 4A. Poverty [1] [2] 4C.Unemployment 4D.
Underdevelopment
5. Problems of Developing Economies 5A. Consequences of New Economic Policy.
6. Concept of Welfare State
7. Indian Constitution [1] 7A. Features of Indian Constitution [1] 7B Problems of Indian
Constitution 7C. Fundamental Rights [1] 7D. Directive Principles [1] [2]
8. Planning in India [1] 8A. Five-Year Plans [1]
9.Concept of Social Problems [1] [2] 9A. Causative Factors of Social Problems 9B. Social
Problems in India 9C. Analysis of Social Problems 9D. Intervention in Social Problems 9E.
Government intervention at Micro- and Macro-levels 9F. Voluntary intervention at Micro- and
Macro-levels 9G. Role of the Social Workers in identifying social problems and development
of appropriate strategies.

Unit III Psychology for social Workers / Human Growth & Development
Concepts related to Unit II
1. Human Behaviour [1] [2] 1A. Human Needs [1] [2] 1B.Human Motivation [1] [2] 1C.
Problems of Human Behaviour [1] 1D. Coping Mechanisms [1] [2] [3]
2. Human Growth and Development in the Lifespan of Individual [1]
3. Learning [1] 3A. Socialisation [1]
4. Theories of Personality [1]

Unit IV-Case Work / Working with Individuals
Concepts related to Unit IV
1. Concept of Case work [1] [2] [3] 1A. Objectives of Case work 1B. Principles of Case work
2. Social Case Work Process 2A. Intake 2B. Study 2C. Social Diagnosis 2D Treatment
2E.Termination 2F. Evaluation
3. Approaches in Case Work 3A. Psychoanalytical Approach 3B. Psycho-social Approach
3C.Problem Solving Approach 3D.Behaviour Modification Approach 3E. Crisis Intervention
Approach 3F.Eclectic Approach
4. Techniques in Social Case Work 4A.Interview in Social Case Work [1] 4B. Home visit in
Social Case Work 4C. Resource Mobilisation in Social Case Work 4D. Referral in Social Case
Work, 4E.Environmental Modification in Social Case Work 4F.Case Work Relationship,
4G.Communication in Social Case Work
5. Recording in Case Work 5A. Types of Recording in Case Work
6. Role of Social Case Worker 6A. Role of Social Case Worker in Various Settings.

Unit V Group Work / Working with Groups
Concepts related to Unit V
1. Concept of Group Work [1] [2] [3] [4] 1A. Definition of Group Work 2B.Assumptions of
Group Work 2C. Goals of Group Work
2. Principles of Social Group Work 2A.Skills of Social Group Work 2B. Values of Social Group
Work
3. Group Development 3A. Stages in Group Development - Orientation Stage, Working
Stage, Termination Stage, Programme Planning, Implementation and Evaluation.
4A. Use of Programmes for Group Development
5A. Study of Group Process - Group Dynamics, Member's behaviour.
6A. Leadership and Role of the Worker in Various Settings.
7A. Approaches and Models in Group Work Practice - Therapeutic / Social Treatment.
Development Group and Task oriented Group

9

Unit VI- Community Organization / Working with Communities
Concepts related to Unit VI
1. Concept of Community Organisation 1A. Principles of Community Organisation 1B.
Objectives of Community Organisation. [1] [2]
2. Approaches in Community Organisation 2A. Models in Community Organisation 2B.
Strategies in Community Organisation 2C. Role of Social Worker in each of the
Approaches
3. Community Development and Community Organisation.
4. Social Action in Community Organisation [1] 4A. Concept, Purpose and Techniques of
Social Action [1] [2]
5. Community Organisation as a Para-political Process
6. Networking, Conscientization, Planning and Organising
7. Roles and Strategies of Social movements
8. Types and Role of NGOs. [1] [2] [3]

Unit VII Social Work Research
Concepts related to Unit VII
1. Definition, Nature, Scope and Purposes of Social Work Research [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
[7] [8]
2. Research Designs, Types and Methods.
3. Steps in Social Work Research-Problem Formulation, Operationalization of Variables,
Sampling, Tools and Techniques of Data Collection, Data Analysis and Report Writing
4. Role and Responsibilities of the Researcher.
5. Statistics - its use and limitation in Social Work Research (measures of central tendency,
chi square test, t-test, correlation). [1] [2] [3]

Unit VIII Social Policy & Social Welfare
Concepts related to Unit VIII
1. Social Policy - Concept and Scope, [1] [2]
2. Distinction between Social and Economic Policies, Place of Ideology and Values.
3. Evolution of Social Policy in India [1] [2]
4. Review of Major Policies and Programmes, viz., Education [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
Health [1] [2] [3] Shelter Environment, Social Security, Employment, Family, Child,
Women and Youth Welfare, Welfare of the Weaker Sections, Elderly and Disabled
5. Characteristics of Social Welfare Organisations -Size, Nature, Design, Legal Status, Rules
and Procedure and Overall Policy.
6. Management of Social Welfare Organisations (Government and voluntary) Home
relation. Financial relation and Physical relation
7. Programme and Project Management - Identifying Overall and Specific Needs, Project
Formulation, Monitoring and Evaluation [1] [2]
8. Recording and Accountability.

Unit IX Social Legislation & Social Justice
Concepts related to Unit IX
1. Concept of Social Justice [1] [2] 1A. Social Justice & Social Legislation 1B. Civil Rights
1C.Human Rights 1D. Issues of Social Justice
2. Legislations pertaining to Women and Children [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]
Legislations pertaining to Social Defence, 2B. Legislations pertaining to Social Security
and Social Assistance 2C. Legislations pertaining to people with Disability 2D.
Legislations pertaining to Underprivileged 2E. Health related Legislations.
10

3. Role of Social Worker in promoting Social Legislation and Social Justice.

Unit X Social Development
Concepts related to Unit X
1. Meaning of Social Development [1] [2] 1A.Concept of Social Development 1B. Indicators
[1] [2] [3] Approaches and Strategies of Social Development
2. Growth and Equity 2A.Minimum Needs [1] 2B. Quality of Life [1] [2]
3. Global Efforts for Human Development
4. Concept of Sustainable Development [1] [2] [3]
5. Social Work and Social Development [1]
6. Problems of Social Development in India.

Elective I. Human Resource Management/ Personnel Management /Labour
Welfare
1. Concept, Principles and Approaches of Labour Welfare and Human Resource
Management [1] [2] [3]
2. Problems concerning Industrial Labour in India - Absenteeism, Migratory Character,
Indebtedness and Exploitation.
3. Concept of Collective Bargaining, Workers' Participation in Management
4. HRD Sub-systems
5. Legislations [1] [2] Factories Act 1948 [1] [2] [3] relating to Trade Unions Act [1]
Industrial Disputes Act [1] Employees' State Insurance,
6. Legislations relating to Wages Gratuity [1] Provident Fund Bonus Plantation Mines
and Others [1].
7. Role of Welfare Officer Use of Social Work Knowledge and Skills.

Elective II. Medical and Psychiatric Social Work
1. Evolution of Social Work Practice in the field of Medical and Psychiatric Social Work in
India
2. Emerging Trends and Scope Health [1] [2] [3] / Mental Health Care System [1] [2] [3]
[4]- Policies, Programmes [1]
3. Analysis of existing Health Policies [1] [2] [3]
4. Major Health Concerns of Disadvantaged Groups - Social and Psychological Factors and
Physical
& Mental Disorders.
5. Role of Social Work in Health Care - Delivery System and in Institutions for the Disabled
6. Social Work Practice in Hospitals, Specialized Medical and Mental Health Institutions [1]
Child Guidance Clinics, Stress and Crisis Intervention Centres

Elective III. Community Development
1. Community Development 1A. Concept 1B. Goals 1C.Process and 1D.Models
2. Needs and Problems Related to Urban, Rural and Tribal Development
3. Institution of Panchayat Raj Philosophy, Role and Functions
4. Government Programmes and Service for the Development of Tribals, Schedule Castes,
Women
and Children in Urban, Rural and Tribal Areas.
5. Role of NGOs in Urban, Rural and in Tribal Development.
11

Elective IV. Family & Child Welfare
1. Changes in Demographical and Social Situations in India [1] [2] [3] 1A.Families [1]
2B.Women [1] [2] [3] 3C.Youth 4D.Aged [1] 5E. Children in India [1] [2]
2. Problems of Families, Women, Youth, Aged and Children in India
3. Social Legislation for Families, Women and Children [1]
4. Policies, Programmes and Services for Families, Women, Youth, Aged and Children at
Government, NGO, National and International levels
5. Social Work Intervention with Families, Children, Women, Elderly and People with Special
Needs.

Elective V. Correctional Social Work
1. Concepts of Crime and Deviance [1] [2] [3] 1A. Theories about Causation of crime.
2. Objectives, Forms and Justification of Punishment [1] 2A. Limitations of Punishment
3. Nature and Evolution Correctional Services [1] 3A. Adult and Juvenile Correctional
Programmes,
3B. Institutional and Community Based Treatment
4. Legal and Intervention Programmes for Victims of Violence [1] 4A. Neglect and Abuse.
5. Nature and Causes of Juvenile Delinquency [1] 5A. Juvenile Justice Law and
Organisation.
6. Role of Social Worker in Correctional settings [1]
S.Rengasamy. Introduction toProfessional Social Work
2
Principles, Philosophy, Ethics & History of
Professional Social Work
Profession
Definition
A professional is a worker required to possess a large body of knowledge derived from extensive
academic study (usually tertiary = University), with the training almost always formalized.
Professions are at least to a degree self-regulating, in that they control the training and evaluation
processes that admit new persons to the field, and in judging whether the work done by their
members is up to standard. This differs from other kinds of work where regulation (if considered
necessary) is imposed by the state, or where official quality standards are often lacking.
Typically a professional provides a
service (in exchange for payment or
salary), in accordance with
established protocols for licensing,
ethics, procedures, standards of
service and training / certification.
The above definitions were echoed
by economist and sociologist Max
Weber, who noted that professions
are defined by the power to exclude
and control admission to the
profession, as well as by the
development of a particular
vocabulary specific to the
occupation, and at least somewhat
incomprehensible to outsiders.
Professions Vs Trades
/ Crafts
In narrow usage, not all expertise is
considered a profession. Although
sometimes referred to as
professions, such occupations as
skilled construction work are more generally thought of as trades or crafts. The completion of an
apprenticeship is generally associated with skilled labor or trades such as carpenter, electrician,
plumber, and other similar occupations. A related (though not always valid) distinction would be that
a professional does mainly mental or administrative work, as opposed to engaging in physical work.
Many companies include the word professional in their company name to signify the quality of their
workmanship or service. (e.g., Finance Managers).
Profession: An occupation whose core element is work based upon the mastery of a complex
body of knowledge and skills. It is a vocation in which knowledge of some department of
science or learning or the practice of an art founded upon it is used in the service of others. Its
members are governed by codes of ethics and profess a commitment to competence, integrity and
morality, altruism, and the promotion of the public good within their domain. These commitments
form the basis of a social contract between a profession and society, which in return grants
the profession a monopoly over the use of its knowledge base, the right to considerable autonomy in
Historical trends
Charity and help is a characteristic of all societies
Many civilisations have a strong emphasis on authority and
social order through loyalty to family, community and
traditional structures
Medieval Europe: poverty and charity
!600s, 1700s: Renaissance, Reformation, some state assistance
Late 1800s, early 1900s: States responsible for social help
(Idealism)
Mid-1900s: welfare states (post-war, post-depression)
Late 1900s: Economic pressure on state responsibility:
managerialist, neo-conservative response
Sources of UK social work
Church, charity, dependence, public disorder
Church adapts to industrialisation, urbanisation
Municipalisation and the local bureaucratic elite
Reform, rescue and secularisation
Main origins:
Poor Law
Insurance, working-class mutual help
Charity Organisation Movement
Settlements
Emergence of social work > casework, group work, community
work
Depression, war, welfare states, cold war
Neoconservative, rationalist, managerialist policies
3
practice and the privilege of self-regulation. Professions and their members are accountable to
those served and to society.
The term profession derives from the Latin: "to swear (an oath)". The oath referred to
dictates adherence to ethical standards, which invariably include practitioner/client confidentiality,
truthfulness, and the striving to be an expert in one's calling, all three of these being practiced above
all for the benefit of the client. There is also a stipulation about upholding the good name of the
profession.
The term profession thus refers to an occupation, vocation or high-status career, usually
involving prolonged academic training, formal qualifications and membership of a
professional or regulatory body. Professions involve the application of specialized knowledge of a
subject, field, or science to fee-paying clientele. It is axiomatic that "professional activity involves
systematic knowledge and proficiency. "Professions are usually regulated by professional bodies that
may set examinations of competence, act as a licensing authority for practitioners, and enforce
adherence to an ethical code of practice.
Contents
1 Examples of the professions
2 Formation of a profession
3 Regulations
4 Autonomy
5 Status and prestige
6 Power
7 History
8 Gender inequality
9 Racial inequality
10 Characteristics of a profession
Examples of the professions
Professions include, for example: Dentists, Doctors/Surgeons, Lawyers, Accountants, Vets,
Pharmacists, Engineers, Teachers, Diplomats, Software Engineers, Commissioned Officers, Professors,
Clergy, Town & Transport Planners, Architects, Pilots, Physical Therapists, Librarians, Social Workers,
and some other specialized technical occupations.
Formation of a profession
A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms itself through "the development of
formal qualifications based upon education and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies
with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights."
The process by which a profession arises from a trade or occupation is often termed
professionalization and has been described as one, "starting with the establishment of the activity as
a full-time occupation, progressing through the establishment of training schools and university links,
the formation of a professional organization, and the struggle to gain legal support for exclusion, and
culminating with the formation of a formal code of ethics."
Regulation
Regulation enforced by statute distinguishes a profession from other occupations represented by
trade groups who aspire to professional status for their members. In all countries, professions have
their regulatory or professional bodies, whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support and
regulate the affairs of its members. For some professions there may be several such bodies.
Autonomy
Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own
affairs: "professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their
work"
4
Status and prestige
Professions enjoy a high social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high
esteem arises primarily from the higher social function of their work, which is regarded as vital to
society as a whole and thus of having a special and valuable nature. All professions involve technical,
specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as "professional expertise." Training for this work
involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is
barred (occupational closure). Training also requires regular updating of skills through continuing
education.
Power
All professions have power. This power is used to control its own members, and also its area of
expertise and interests. A profession tends to dominate, police and protect its area of expertise and
the conduct of its members, and exercises a dominating influence over its entire field which means
that professions can act monopolist, rebuffing competition from ancillary trades and occupations, as
well as subordinating and controlling lesser but related trades. A profession is characterised by the
power and high prestige it has in society as a whole. It is the power, prestige and value that society
confers upon a profession that more clearly defines it. This is why Judges, Lawyers, Clerics, and
Medical personnel enjoy this high social
status and are regarded as true
professionals.
How professions evolve
The main milestones which mark an
occupation being identified as a profession
are:
1. It became a full-time occupation;
2. Establishment of training school;
3. Establishment of university
department;
4. Establishment of local association;
5. Establishment of national association;
6. Introducing codes of professional
ethics;
7. Establishment State licensing laws.
The ranking of established professions in the United States based on the above milestones shows
Medicine first, followed by Law, Dentistry, Civil Engineering, Logistics, Architecture and Accounting.
With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to
claim professional status: Pharmacy, Logistics, Veterinary Medicine, Nursing, Teaching, Librarianship,
Optometry and Social Work, all of which could claim to be professions by 1900 using these
milestones.
Although professions enjoy high status and public prestige, all professionals do not earn the same
high salaries. There are hidden inequalities even within professions.
Gender inequality &Racial inequality
There is a long-standing and well-documented male domination of all professions, even though this
has weakened over the last forty years or so. For example, well-qualified women rarely get the same
pay as men.
Characteristics of a Profession
The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does not claim to include every characteristic
that has ever been attributed to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession:
Attributes of a profession
1. There should be tested body of knowledge, consisting
of techniques and methods communicable through an
educational discipline which should not only be academic
but practical in nature
2. Standards for training, jobs and services should be set
up.
3. There should be a sense of belonging, group
consciousness and and responsibilities, professional
ethics for every professional.
4. Profession should provide the professional with
continued occupation.
5. it should be responsive to public interest and work
towards social ends.
6. the goals should be the welfare of the people,
improved human relations, built on understanding and
tolerance Paul Chowdhry p.23
5
Characteristics of Social Work
1 It is a helping activity, designed to
give assistance in respect of problems
that prevent individuals, families, groups
and communities from achieving a
minimum desirable standard of social
and economic well being
2 It is a social activity, carried out not
for personal profit
3 It is a liaison activity, through which
disadvantaged individuals, families,
groups and communities are linked to or
enabled to access resources to meet
their needs
Paul Chowdhry p.21-22
1. Skill based on theoretical knowledge:
2. Professional association:
3. Extensive period of education & Institutional training:
4. Testing of competence:
5. Licensed practitioners:
6. Work autonomy:
7. Code of professional conduct or ethics:
8. Self-regulation:
9. Public service and altruism:
10. Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition:
11. Control of remuneration and advertising:
12. High status and rewards:
13. Individual clients:
14. Middle-class occupations:
15. Male-dominated:
16. Offer reassurance:
17. Ritual:
18. Legitimacy:
19. Inaccessible body of knowledge:
20. Indeterminacy of knowledge:
21. Mobility:
The Emergence of Social Work as a Profession
Social Work emerged as a professional activity during the late
19
th
century. Its roots lie in early social welfare activities, charity
organization movement and the settlement house movement.
Early Social Welfare organizations.
New York Society for the Prevention
of Pauperism (1818)
Association for Improving the
Conditions of the Poor(1840)
Various Child Saving Organizations
American Social Science Association
(1865) ------ Conference of Charities (1874) ------ National Conference on Charities and Correction (1879). National Conference on Charities and Corrections composed of State Bo
Charity Organization Societies.
Founded by a priest, S. Humphreys Gurteen, in 1877, expanded throughout
USA, within a short period by popularizing the techniques of investigation
and registration of the poor to eradicate pauperism. Its method of scientific charity necessitated
vocational preparation of charity workers (Friendly Visitors). The demand for trained workers led to
the gradual replacement of volunteers with professional staff.
Mary Richmond(1861-1928) a prominent leader in COS was instrumental in shaping the course of
social work profession by writing books Social Diagnosis (1917) What is Social Case Work (1922)
NewYork COS began its own publication and founded the first School of Social Work (now the
Columbia School of Social Work).
Many identify the COSs responses to individuals needs as the genesis of social case work. Interest in
understanding the family relationship, utilization of natural helping networks, emphasis on personal
responsibility (Later translated to self determination) and concern for accountability in service delivery
are some of the COSs enduring contributions to social work.
Settlement House Movement
The settlement house movement began in London .. Samuel Barnett founded Toynbee Hall ..
university students lived there with the poor families.
6
Stanton Coit established the Neighborhood Guild of NewYork City in USA
Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr established Chicago Hull House (1889)
Settlement house movement combined social Advocacy and social services.
Milestones in Professionalization
1915 Flexner, A. Is Social Work a profession? Proceedings of the National Conference of
Charities and Correction
1929 American Association of Social Workers Milford Conference examined social works
generic nature
1951 Hollis & Taylor report examined social workers role in professional practice.
1957 Greenwood re-examined the professional status of social work
1958 Social workers formed a definition of Social Work
1961 Bartlett analyzed social work by fields of practice
1969 Social workers applied general systems theory to social work
1970 Bartlett explicated the common base of social work practice
1977 Professionals examined social works purpose and objectives
1981 NASWdeveloped a working statement on social work purpose
The rise of Professional Organizations
National Social Workers Exchange & Bureau of Occupations
American Association of Medical Social Workers
National Association of School Social Workers
American Association of Psychiatric Social Workers
American Association of Social Workers
American Association of Group Workers
Association for the Study of Community Organization
Social Work Research Group All these merged into one NASW
1911
1918
1919
1926
1921
1936
1946
1949
National Association of Social Workers 1955
National Association of Black Social Workers
National Association of Puerto Rican Social Service Workers
National Indian Social Workers Association
North American Association of Christians in Social Work
National Federation of Societies of for Clinical Social Work
Society for Social Work Administrators in Health Care
National Association of Oncology Social Workers
Various groups representing Womens Rights, Gay & Lesbian issues
American Association of Schools of Social Work
National Association of Schools of Social Administration Merged into CSWE
1919
Council on Social Work Education 1952
Types of theory Formal theory Informal theory
Theories of what social work is Nature and purposes of
welfare
Moral, political cultural objectives
Theories of how to do social
work
Theories of practice Induction from particular situations
Theories of the client world Social science theories Use of experience and general social
meanings

7
NASW Code of EthicsSummary of Principles
I.The Social Worker's Conduct and Comportment as a Social Worker
A. Propriety The social worker should maintain high
standards of personal conduct in the capacity or identity of
social worker.
B. Competence and Professional Development
The social worker should strive to become and remain
proficient in professional practice and the performance of
professional functions.
C. Service The social worker should regard as
primary the service obligation of the social work
profession.
D. Integrity The social worker should act in
accordance with the highest standards of professional
integrity.
E. Scholarship and Research The social worker
engaged in study and research should be guided by the
conventions of scholarly inquiry.
II. The Social Worker's Ethical Responsibility to
Clients
F. Primacy of Client's Interests The social worker's primary responsibility is to clients.
G. Rights and Prerogatives of Clients The social worker should make every effort to foster
maximum self-determination on the part of the clients.
H. Confidentiality and Privacy The social worker should respect the privacy of clients and
hold in confidence all information obtained in the course of professional service.
I. Fees When setting fees, the social worker should ensure that they are fair, reasonable,
considerate, and commensurate with the service performed and with due regard for the client's ability
to pay.
III. The Social Worker's Ethical Responsibility to Colleagues
J . Respect, Fairness, and Courtesy The social worker should treat colleagues with respect,
courtesy, fairness, and good faith.
K. Dealing with Colleague's Clients The social worker has the responsibility to relate to the
clients of colleagues with full professional consideration.
IV. The Social Worker's Ethical Responsibility to Employers and Employing
Organizations
L. Commitments to Employing Organizations The social worker should adhere to
commitments made to the employing organizations.
V. The Social Worker's Ethical Responsibility to the Social Work Profession
M. Maintaining the Integrity of the Profession The social worker should uphold and
advance the values, ethics, knowledge, and mission of the profession.
N. Community Service The social worker should assist the profession in making social services
available to the general public.
O. Development of Knowledge The social worker should take responsibility for identifying,
developing, and fully utilizing knowledge for professional practice.
VI. The Social Worker's Ethical Responsibility to Society
P. Promoting the General Welfare The social worker should promote the general welfare of
society. NASW Code of Ethics, 1980. National Association of Social Workers, Inc.
8
Indian Values
The Bhakti movements value of
humanism, every individual has inherent
worth and dignity
Socialistic values of equality and legal,
judicial, social and economic justice for
satisfaction of basic human needs, sharing
of natural resources and access to
essential services
Sarvodayas values of Swarajya and
Lokniti, that is people have to govern
themselves in order to obtain equity and
justice.
Solidarity with the marginalised
peoples, recognizing that
marginalised people need to be
empowered
See also TISS SW Ethical frame work
Professional Values, Ethics and Principles
Value:
Values are the implicit and explicit ideas about what we cherish as ideal or preferable. Values shape
our beliefs and attitudes and in turn our beliefs and attitudes shape our values. Values make us
emotionally positive or negative about a situation.
Value system is complex networks of values that people develop either individually or collectively.
Normally a value within a value system is congruent or internally consistent.. but one should aware
that some conflicts exist within the value system.
For ex. All people are equal Vs only people who work productively is worthwhile these values reveal
inconsistency.
Poverty is the result of laziness Vs One cannot accumulate wealth if he /she is honest
Ethics:
The study of how people ought to act in order to be
moral.A moral code that guides the conduct of a group of
professionals (such as medical doctors).The branch of
philosophy that defines what is right for the individual and
for society and establishes the nature of obligations, or
duties, that people owe themselves and one another.
The word ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos,
which means "character," and from the Latin word mores,
which means "customs." In modern society, it defines how
individuals, business professionals, and corporations
choose to interact with one another.
Values are the implicit and explicit ideas about what
people consider good, ethics relates to what people
consider correct or right. Ethics generates standards that
direct ones conduct. Social work ethics are behavioral
expectations or preferences that are associated with social
work responsibility.
Professional ethics = upholding moral obligations + complying the standards of
practice
1. Historical shift in the focus of values from morality of individual clients to morality of
professional
behavior
e.g. People were poor because they refused to profit by abundant opportunities to improve their
condition. To be destitute to the point of having to ask for relief was to be guilty of a defect in
character thriftless ness and immorality.
It was settlement house movement and the Great economic depression changed our perception that
it is economic and social problems rather than individual inadequacies contribute to human sufferings.
9
Besides social work professions commitment during the formation of profession commitment to
quality of life, social justice, human dignity and worth inclusion of value sets like equality, social
justice, freeing of life styles, rightful access to social resources and liberation of self powers are also
evident
In social work literature values are explained and listed using different phrases with an underlying
uniformity.
Herbert Bisno has classified values / philosophy in to different headings
(The terms Values & Philosophy are used interchangeably)
1. Values / philosophy relating to individual.
2. Values / philosophy relating to problem
3. Values / philosophy relating to relationship.
4. Values / philosophy relating to social agency
5. Values / philosophy relating to social work practice
1. Values / philosophyrelating to individual.
Social work believes that human suffering is undesirable and should be
prevented or at least alleviated whenever possible.
Human behavior is the result of interaction between the biological
organism and its environment.
Family relationship is of primary importance in the early development of the individual.
Though humans are moral being at birth, they tend to act irrationally also.
Inherent dignity and worth of human beings, inherent and inalienable right of human beings to
choose and achieve his own destiny
2. Values / philosophyrelating to problem
There is a serious political, economic and social maladjustment in every culture.
Evolutionary type of reform is both possible and desirable. i.e. incremental development
Social workers believe in the possibility of the intelligent direction of social change and hence there is
a need for social planning.
Appreciating the multi dimensionality of the problem and its multiple consequences
3. Values / philosophy relating to relationship.
Social Work rejects the doctrine of laissez faire and survival among the fittest.
The rich and the powerful are not necessarily fit , while the poor / weak are not necessarily unfit.
In social work socialized individuals are preferred to rugged individualism
A major responsibility for the members rests with the community.
Principles of Personal Ethics
Personal ethics might also be called morality, since they reflect general expectations of any person in any
society, acting in any capacity. These are the principles we try to instill in our children, and expect of one
another without needing to articulate the expectation or formalize it in any way.
Principles of Personal Ethics include:
Concern for the well-being of others Respect for the autonomy of others Trustworthiness & honesty
Willing compliance with the law (with the exception of civil disobedience) Basic justice; being fair
Refusing to take unfair advantage Benevolence: doing good Preventing harm
Principles of Professional Ethics
Individuals acting in a professional capacity take on an additional burden of ethical responsibility. For
example, professional associations have codes of ethics that prescribe required behavior within the context of
a professional practice such as medicine, law, accounting, or engineering. These written codes provide rules
of conduct and standards of behavior based on the principles of Professional Ethics, which include:
Impartiality; objectivity Openness; full disclosure Confidentiality Due diligence / duty of care
Fidelity to professional responsibilities
Avoiding potential or apparent conflict of interest Even when not written into a code, principles of
professional ethics are usually expected of people in business, employees, volunteers, elected representatives
and so on.
10
Accepting the clients / situation as it is and working at a pace convenient for them
4. Values / philosophyrelating to social agency
Social work agencies are basically resources to solve human problems
5. Values / philosophyrelating to social work practice
Social work has a functionally dualistic approach. It attempts to solve individual problems and at the
same time simultaneously attempt to modify the social and institutional framework in required
direction.
Social work services should be provided by professionally trained workers in both public and private
agencies.
Social work accepts democracy as the fundamental ordering of the society.
Knowledge, skill, ethical standards etc
Social Work Values, Knowledge & Skills
Values / philosophy Foundational Knowledge Requisite Skills
Respect for diversity
Non judgmentalism
Confidentiality
Ethical Conduct
Professional comportment
Access to resources
Dignity & Worth
Self determination
Social Justice
Philosophy of Social Work
Theories of human behavior
Cultural diversity
Social welfare history
Family dynamics
Group dynamics
Service delivery system
Human systems
Fields of practice
Self knowledge
Thinking critically
Building relationships
Empowering process
Practice methods
Analyzing policies
Effective communication
Ethnic confidence
Computer literacy
Research
Social planning
Crisis intervention
Time management
Difference between Social and Professional relationship
Difference between Social and Professional relationship
Social Relationship Professional Relationship
Duration Open ended Ends when the problem is solved
Time Not limited Limited according to the problem
Place Home, Club, Worship places, Cinema Office or Institutions
Focus Mutual satisfaction of range of needs
emotional, social, intellectual, aesthetics
Focus on clients needs, problem
solving
Role relationship Mutual Helper and helped
11
Core values of Social Work (NASW, IFSW, CSWE)
1. Respect individuals worth and dignity, encourage mutual participation, demonstrate
acceptance, uphold confidentiality, express honesty and handle conflict responsibly.
2. Encourage individuals active participation in the helping relationship and uphold their right to
make their own decisions.
3. Assist clients in securing resources needed to enhance their social functioning.
4. Ensure that social institutions are humane and responsive to human needs.
5. Accept and appreciate diverse populations
6. Hold themselves accountable for ethical conduct, quality of their work and continuous
professional development. (Brenda Dubois, Social Work An Empowering Profession pp118 -142)
Principles of Social Work
Principles
A fundamental, well-settled accepted tenets. A basic truth or undisputed doctrine; a given proposition
that is clear and does not need to be proved. It is basically a hypothesis, an assumption so
adequately tested by observation / experience / experiment may be used as a guide for action, or as
a means of understanding. Konapka (1958), Clarke (1947), Cohen (1958), Friedlander (1958),
Perlman (1976) Piccard (1988), Morales & Sheafor (1998) explained about Social Work Principles.
Social Workers transform the abstract values of the profession into principles for practice. Then they
translate these principles into concrete actions in specific situations.
E.g.
Social Work Value Social Work Principle Positive manifestation Potential effect
Respect individuals
worth and dignity
Principle of
individualization
Affirm individuality
Appreciate diversity
Affirm personhood
Uphold confidentiality Principle of confidentiality Respecting privacy Creating trust
1. Principle of Acceptance
2. Principle of Individualization
3. Principle of Purposeful Expression of Feeling /
Social Work Values
1 Social workers believe in inherent worth and dignity of the individual
2 Each person has an inherent capacity and drive toward change which can make life more
fulfilling
3 Each person has responsibility for himself and his fellow human beings
4 People need to belong
5 There are human needs common to each person, yet each person is unique and different feom
others
6 Society must provide opportunities for growth and development that will allow each person to
realize his full potential
7 Society must provide resources and services to help people to meet their needs to avoid such
problems as hunger, inadequate education, discrimination, illness without care and inaequate
housing
8 Peole must have equal opportunity to participate in the molding of society
9 People should be treated with respect and dignity, should have maximum opportunity to
determine theeir lives, should be urged and helped to interact with other people to build a
society responsive to the needs of everyone and should be recognized as unique individuals
rather than put into sterotypes because of some particular characteristic or life experience
Armando Morales & Bradford W.Sheafor 1987
12
Principle of Meaningful Relationship / Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement /
Empathy
4. Principle of Non J udgmental Attitude
5. Principle of Objectivity
6. Principle of Self Determination
7. Principle of Confidentiality
8. Principle of Accountability
9. Principle of Access to Resources
Besides this, some authors also mentioned
Principle of Communication
Principle of Social Functioning
The concept of social functioning involves two sub concepts task and
coping. Tasks implies demands made upon people by various life situations.
These demands may pertain to issue of daily living, family life, entry into the world of work or inability
to do so, marriage and divorce, management of health, illness, finances and so on. The concept of
coping emphasizes the relative mastery of the tasks in the situation.
Principle of Tuning Behavior
Principle of Social Learning
1. Principle of Acceptance.
Acceptance originate from Greek word agape which means love which descends to misery, ugliness
and guilt in order to elevate..the love is critical and is able to transform what it loves..this love
(acceptance is not charity) is not charity which is an escape from the demands of critical love
acceptance penetrates to the inner selves of others and affirms their humanity
2.Principle of Individualization
Social Workers by their training develop a generalized understanding of people, their problems and
their environment. If one applies this to all it may lead to bias, prejudice, labeling, stereotyping and
ignoring the beauty of diversity and uniqueness. This principle emphasis that client (group /
Community) have a right to be individuals and be treated not as a human being but as this human
being with personal differencesand this transformed into start where the client / group /community
is
3. Principle of Purposeful Expression of Feeling / Principle of Meaningful Relationship /
Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement Principle of Empathy
3.Purposeful Expression of Feeling
Social workers have to go beyond the content of just the facts to uncover feelings that underlie
these facts. By listening attentively, asking relevant questions and demonstrating tolerance and non
judgmentalism social workers encourage clients to share their feelings to relieve pressure or
tension.. a cathartic or cleansing experience that enable clients to put their situation in perspective.
Empathy
Putting oneself into the psychological frame of reference of another, so that the other persons
feeling, thinking, and acting are understood and to some extent predictable. A desirable trust-building
characteristic of a helping profession. It is embodied in the sincere statement, I understand how you
feel. Empathy is different from sympathy in that to be empathetic one understands how the person
feels rather than actually experiencing those feelings, as in sympathy.
How we call a person with little or no empathy?
Any one with a high level of the trait of narcissism (an inflated self-esteem, a sense of superiority and
a feeling of entitlement) generally has little empathy or sympathy for others.
13
Controlled Emotional Involvement
Controlled emotional involvement is in no sense a hardening process. It is rather a mellowing
process which serves to steady and temper our emotional responses. Over identification with clients
impedes objectivity and neutrality.
Meaningful Relationship
Meaningful relationship begins by demonstrating the interests in client.
4. Principle of Non Judgmental Attitude
Non judgementalism presumes acceptance. Nonjudgmental social work excludes assigning guilt or
innocence, or degree of client responsibility for causation of the problems or needs but it does include
making evaluative judgments about the attitudes and standards or actions of the client.
Nonjudgementalism signifies social workers non blaming attitudes and behaviorsnot judging clients
as good or bad, or worthy or unworthy.
5. Principle of Objectivity
It is closely related to non judgementalism
6. Principle of Self Determination
Positively it means having freedom to make mistakes as well as to act wisely. Negatively not being
coerced or manipulated. Self determination acknowledges that sound growth emanates from within.
7. Principle of Confidentiality
Confidential means private or secret; something treated with trust, resulting in a feeling of security
that information will not be disclosed to other parties. An example is the confidentiality of
conversations and records between attorney and client.
8. Principle of Accountability
9. Principle of Access to Resources
1 It is essential that problems do exist and that there is no stigma attached to any maladjusted
person
2 Many problems arise out of environment and circumstances over which an individual has no
control.
3 A solution can be sought to every problem, because of the belief that conditions can be
created to help the maladjusted persons to adjust to the environment.
4 Individual / community is to be helped to help himself / themselves. His / their participation is
necessary. A social worker should act as an agent to enlist peoples support for programs.
5 Total personality of the individual is to be studied in order to help him.
6 Total needs of the individual, group, or community are to be taken into consideration while
trying to help them.
7 Relationship is the key-note of all types of work.
8 Self help programs require the use of local resources, in terms of humans, money and
material, so that dependence on outside help could be minimized, if not avoided.
9 People in need should be helped by placing them back in the community rather than sending
them to institutions except in case of mental, social, physical and emotional maladjustments
which require specialized treatment.
10 Apart from treatment of social problems, social work should also evolve ways and means of
providing preventive services, like public health and social security programs
Introduction to Social Work - Paul Chowdhry p22
14
Promote
social
justice
through
social policy
Improve the
social
service
delivery
net work
Link client
system with
needed
resources
Enchance
social
functioning
Purpose /
Goal s of
Soci al
Work
Objectives of Social Work
Objectives of Social Work
B
r
o
w
n

1. To provide people physical help
2. TO help them in adjustment
3. To solve their psychological problems
4. To make available the opportunities to the weaker sections for raising their standard of living
F
r
i
e
d
l
a
n
d
e
r

1. Bringing change in painful social situations
2. Development of constructive forces
3. Providing opportunities for experimenting democratic and humanistic behaviour
W
i
t
m
e
r

1. To give assistance to individuals in removing difficulties which they face in utilizing the
societys resources
2. Utilization of community resources for their welfare
E
S
C
A
P

U
N

1. Social Work seeks to see and assist individuals, families and groups in relation to many social
& economic forces by which they are affected
1. Social Work seeks to perform an integrating function for which no other provision is made in
contemporary society
2. Social Work seeks to maximize the resources available in the community by promoting social
well being
Purpose / Goals of Social Work
The NASW Working Statement on Purposedefines the unifying purpose or mission of social
work as promoting or restoring a mutually beneficial interaction between individuals and
society in order to improve the quality of life for everyone
In response to the mission of the profession,
social workers strengthen human functioning
and enhance the effectiveness of the
structures in society that provide resources
and opportunities for citizens. Social workers
strive to release human power so that
individuals can actualize their potential and
contribute to the well being of society. Social
workers at the same time initiate activities that
release the social power that creates changes
in society that in turn create changes in social
policies, social institutions and other social
structures in the society.
The dual focus of social work on people and
their social environment raises questions about
the interconnections between private troubles
and public issues. Social work acknowledges
that private troubles and public issues
intersect.
The cumulative effects of personal troubles are public issues. Likewise, individuals feel the
repecussions of public issues personally as private troubles.
15
Values vs. Ethics
Values are the implicit and
explicit ideas about what we
cherish as ideal or preferable
values determines which goals
and actions we evaluate as
good. Our values shapes our
beliefs and attitude and vise
versa.
Ethics relates to what people
consider correct or right ethics
generates standards that direct
ones conduct. Ethics represents
values in action
How Values Influence Practice
Influence forming of relationships
Influence views of situations
Influence selection of options
Diversity often signals value differences
Strengths and Needs
The mission of social work profession as well as the statements of its goals and objectives implicitly
concern human needs and human strengths.
Human needs are the substance of the social work profession the impetus for social work activities.
Human strengths are the building blocks of social work practice the source of energy for developing
solutions.
Evolving Ethics for Social Work Practice
Historical Periods of the Code
The Code has evolved over time.
Morality Period-Late 20th Century
Values Period-Appeared 1950s
Ethical Theory & Decision-Making Period-Early 1980s
Ethical Standards & Risk Management Period-1996 to current
History of the Social Work Professional Code of Ethics
1919-First attempt at drafting a Code for the profession of Social
Work-Mary Richmond credited in form of an Experiential Code
1947American Association of Social Workers created first
formal code for the profession
NASW-Established as the professional association for social
workers in 1955 and adopts the first Code five years later in 1960 as the guide to the everyday
professional conduct of social workers in the profession
Revised Five Times Since Its Creation
1979More comprehensive than first and useful for resolving ethical conflicts,
1989Eliminated Standards that prohibited the solicitation of clients to a private practice because of
a consent agreement with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and in recognition of client self-
determination,
1993Added Standards pertaining to Dual/Multiple Relationships and to impaired social workers,
1996Modified numerous areas of the Code and made it more comprehensive
2001Clarified Language around the areas of Privacy & Confidentiality
Purpose of the Code for Todays Practice
Guide Practitioners in resolving ethical dilemmas that arise
in practice
Protect the public from incompetent
To Protect the Public
To Describe the Responsibilities & Expectations of Social Workers to their Clients, Colleagues,
Employers and the Society
To Assist the Social Worker in Developing Ethical Problem and Decision Making Skills as well as
Develop Strategies to Address the Ethical Dilemma.
To Summarize the Social Work Professions Mission and Core Values
Code of Ethics
Professional Sections
Preamble-summarizes the social work profession's mission and core values
Purpose-provides an overview of Codes main functions and a brief guide for dealing with ethical
issues or dilemmas in social work practice
Principles-presents broad ethical principles, based on social works core values, that inform
social work practice
Standards-includes specific ethical standards to guide social workers conduct and to provide a
basis for adjudication
16
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
ALL HUMAN BEINGS ARE BORN FREE AND
EQUAL IN DIGNITY AND RIGHTS.
Protection of life
Right to equality
Right to autonomy
Right to a decent quality of life
Right to privacy
December 10, 1948 30 Articles http://www.un.org
Professional Code vs. State Licensure Regulations
Code applies to all degreed professionals within the
field of practice
Code is regulated by professional association
Code incorporates values, principles and standards
Code has the highest level of practice expectation
Code is directed towards the professional
State Regulations only apply to those who are
licensed
within their jurisdiction
State Regulations are minimum standards of practice
State Regulations are directed at protecting the public or consumer of the service
Identify Ethical Dilemmas
Review the Following Situational Questions
Am I having a conflict with my practice around the issue of the Law?
Am I having a conflict with my practice around the issue of My Own Personal Views?
Am I having a conflict with my practice around a Section of the Code of Ethics?
Am I having a conflict with my practice which has a lot of Gray Area?
Steps for Ethical Problem Solving
1. Determine - - Is there a conflict of values, or rights, or professional responsibilities?
2. Identify - - What meanings and limitations are typically attached to these competing values?
3. Rank - - What reasons can you provide for prioritizing one competing value/principle over
another?
4. Develop - - Have you conferred with clients and colleagues, as appropriate, about the potential
risks and consequences of alternative courses of action?
5. Implement - - How will you make use of core social work skills such as sensitive communication,
skillful negotiation, and cultural competence?
6. Reflect - - How would you evaluate the consequences of this process for those involved: client
(s); professional (s); and agency (ies)?
Case Scenario #1
In the course of treatment of a coworkers former client, a social worker learns that the client and her
former therapist were sexually involved during the same time that they had engaged in a professional
relationship. The clients report that she has not told others in the agency about the relationship. The
social worker would like to discuss the issue with her supervisor and the clients former therapist-
lover. The client prefers that the social worker not discuss this matter with her former therapist or
with supervisory staff at the agency.
Scenario Commentary #1
Competing Values:
Clients right to Self-Determination
Therapist unethical behavior with client
Agencys integrity
17
Case Scenario #2
A substance abuse treatment social worker who works with a client who has lost her license to drive
after
a recent arrest for driving while intoxicated sees the client drive to the agency for her session. During
the counseling session, the social worker comes to believe that the client is under the influence of
alcohol. The client shares with her social worker her frustration over her need to drive to work and
other essential places as justification for her decision to occasionally drive without her license.
Scenario Commentary #2
The standard exceptions to confidentiality include disclosure of information shared by a client when it
is necessary to prevent serious, foreseeable, and imminent harm to a client or other identifiable
person or when laws, such as mandatory laws to report child abuse, require disclosure without a
clients consent. A social worker should be knowledgeable about or obtain proper consultation about
relevant laws and regulations concerning disclosure. One might argue that the loss of ones drivers
permit-unlikely as a consequence of a first offense-constitutes a dangerous situation and holds the
possibility of harm to the client or an innocent other.
Following international organizations provide the basic leadership for the globalization of
social work.
International Federation of Social Workers (ifsw)
International Association of Schools of Social Work (iassw)
Council on Social Work Education (cswe)
THE PURPOSE OF FORMULATION OF GLOBAL QUALIFYING STANDARDS
Protect the consumers' or clients of social services;
Take account of the impact of globalization on social work curricula and social work practice:
Facilitate articulation across universities on a global level;
Facilitate the movement of social workers from country to another;
Drew a distinction between social workers and non-social workers;
Benchmark national standards against international standards;
Facilitate partnerships and international student and staff exchange programs;
NASW Ethical Standards
1.Social workers ethical responsibilities to clients
2.Social workers ethical responsibilities to colleagues
3.Social workers ethical responsibilities in practice settings
4.Social workers ethical responsibilities as professionals
5.Social workers ethical responsibilities to the social work profession, and
6.Social workers ethical responsibilities to the broader society
NASW Ethical Principles
1. Service: SWers primary goal is to help people in need and to address social problems
2. Social Justice: SWers challenge social injustice
3. Dignity and Worth of the Person: SWers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person
4. Importance of Human Relationships: SWers recognize the central importance of human
relationships.
5. Integrity: SWers behave in a trustworthy manner.
6. Competence: SWers practice within their areas of competence and develop and enhance their
professional expertise.
NASW Social Work Practice Principles
a. Empathy
b. Individualization: Affirms each clients unique and distinctive characteristics
c. Non-judgmentalism: Maintains unbiased attitudes toward clients
d. Objectivity: Promotes professional caring, concerns, and commitment in working with clients
18
Ethical Principles and Values Hierarchies
Loewenberg & Dolgoff Ethical Principles Screen
Loewenberg, F.M. & Dolgoff, R. (2000). Ethical Decisions for Social Work Practice(6th ed.).
To be used when an applicable code of ethics does not provide specific rules
Principle of the protection of life
Principle of equality and inequality
Principle of autonomy and freedom
Principle of least harm
Principle of quality of life
Principle of privacy and confidentiality
Principle of truthfulness and full disclosure
Social Work Values Hierarchy
Reamer, F.G. (1999). Social Work Values and Ethics (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press
Rules against basic harm to an individuals survival take precedence over rules against harms such
as lying or revealing confidential information or threats to additive goods;
An individual's right to basic well-being takes precedence over another individual's right to self
determination;
An individual's right to self-determination takes precedence over his or her right to basic well-
being;
The obligation to obey laws, rules and regulations to which one has voluntarily and freely
consented ordinarily overrides one's right to engage voluntarily and freely in a manner that
conflicts with these;
Individuals' rights to well-being may override laws, rules, regulations and arrangements of
voluntary associations in cases of conflict;
The obligation to prevent basic harms and to promote public goods such as housing, education
and public assistance overrides the right to complete control over one's property.
Medical Model Principles Hierarchy
Beauchamp, T.L. and Childress, J .F. (1989). Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Respect for autonomy;
Nonmaleficence - do no harm;
Beneficence - actively pursue the welfare of others;
Justice - allocation of resources, fairness, need
Professional Boundaries
A social worker shall not become involved in a clients personal affairs that are not relevant to the
service being provided
A social worker shall not exploit the relationship with a client for personal benefit, gain or
gratification
The social worker shall distinguish between actions and statements made as a private citizen and
actions and statements as a social worker
The social worker shall not have a sexual relationship with a client or clients relatives
The social worker shall not have a business relationship with a client
? Hugging a client, and going to lunch with a client
19
Social Work Levels of Intervention
Individuals
Members of Families & Groups
Formal Groups
Complex Organizations
Communities
Society
Social Work Intervention
3
4
1
2
5
6
Social Work Levels of Intervention 1
Members of Families
& Groups
Individuals
Intervention at the Micro Level
1
2
2
Intervention at the Midl evel
3
4
Formal Groups
Complex
Organizations
3
Intervention at the Macro Level
Society
Communities
5
6
5
6
4

Determinants of Social Functioning
Individuals Families &
Groups
Groups Organizat-
ions
Community Society World
community
Genetics
Prenatal
Health
Nutrition
Developme
-tal Disability
Disabling
Condition
Health
Personality
Mental
Health
Life
Experiences
Coping
Capacity
Self
Concept
Income /
Assets
Age
Life Style
Cultural
Heritage
Ethnicity
Developmen
tal Stage
Motivation
Cognitive
level
Size
Composition
Unity
Communica
- tion
Rules
Roles
Values
Relationship
Patterns
Natural
Support Systems
Socio
economic level
Functional
Capacity
Kinship
networks
Multi
generational
patterns
Size
Focus /
purpose
Past history
together
Developmental
Stage
Communicatio
-n pattern
Decision
making style
Overt /
covert goals
Interpersonal
relationship
Divergence
in individual
goals & group
goals
Norms /
values of group
Leadership
roles
Length of
time group will
meet
Manner of
managing
conflicts
Bureaucracy
Personnel
Management
Membership
roles
Governance
Organizational
behavior
Administrative
functions
Socialization
Committee
structure
Group
cohesion
Conflict
resolution style
Mission of
purpose
Day to day
operations
Decision
making process
Housing
Transportation
Economy
Availability of
jobs
Educational
resources
Standard
of living
Cultural
diversity
Diversity
of life style
Environmental
stress
Availability of
resources
Support
networks
Relative
social class
Urban /
rural nature
Technology
Social
values
Social
class
Stratification
Institutions
Alienation
Economic
cycles
Social Policy
Government
Theisms
Prejudice
Demographic
trends
Pop culture
Laws &
legislation
Hunger
World
poverty
Foos
shortage
Ecology
World
health
Space
exploration
Human
rights
Populati
on base
Political
climate
Energy
Power &
authoity base
Threat
of war
Internati
onal
20
DECLARATION OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL WORKERSIN INDIA
(Developed by Tata Institute of Social Sciences)
Preamble
The Declaration of Ethics for Professional Social Workers is intended to serve as a guide to the
members of the social work profession, who have obtained minimally a bachelor's degree in social work
and, thus, base their work on recognized knowledge, philosophy and skills. The Declaration is rooted in
the contemporary social reality which has a historical background and in the framework of humanistic
values, based on the intrinsic worth of all human and non-human life.
The Bhakti movement promoted the value of humanism, that is, every individual
has inherent worth and dignity, irrespective of attributes and achievements. Every
person, therefore, has an innate capability to run his/her own life. Democracy
emphasizes participatory process in the decision making of an entity and
accountability of that entity to its members.
Socialism has promoted the values of equality and legal, judicial, social and
economic justice for satisfaction of basic human needs, sharing of natural resources
and access to essential services. While equality highlighted non-hierarchy and non-
discrimination based on equal worth of every person, the growing value of equity
emphasizes recognition of differences, diversity and pluralism.
The ideology of Sarvodaya has emphasized the values of Swarajya and Lokniti, that is people have to
govern themselves in order to obtain equity and justice. This ideology accepts that people are
knowledgeable about their situation and the ways to manage them, given the necessary resources. It
acknowledges that they have the right to plan their own destinies and determine their life styles. It
appreciates that local solutions must be congruent with local resource realities.
The social work profession is committed to solidarity with the marginalized peoples. The basic
human rights are very often violated for people, who lack economic, physical, mental, social and/or
Need for Ethics
Ethical behavior is necessary for a society to function in an orderly manner. The need for ethics in
society is sufficiently important that many commonly held ethical values are incorporated into laws
Why People Act Unethically
The persons ethical standards are different from those of society as a whole
The person chooses to act selfishly.
A Person Chooses to Act Selfishly Example
Person A finds a briefcase containing important papers and Rs10, 000.
He tosses the briefcase and keeps the money.
He brags to his friends about his good fortune.
This action probably differs from most of society.
Person B faces the same situation but responds differently.
He keeps the money but leaves the briefcase
He tells nobody and spends the money.
He has violated his own ethical standards and chose to act selfishly.
Resolve ethical dilemmas using an ethical framework.
Ethical Dilemmas
An ethical dilemma is a situation a person faces in which a decision must be made about appropriate
behavior.
Rationalizing Unethical Behavior
Everybody does it If its legal, its ethical. Likelihood of discovery and consequences
21
emotional resources. Lack of resources lead to powerlessness and, thereby marginalization of people
by the social, economic and political systems. Marginalized people are vulnerable to deprivation and
exploitation by those who yield power as they have control over resources.
The profession recognizes that marginalized people need to be empowered so that they
themselves play a dominant role for their development and welfare. Empowerment is the process of
gaining control over self as well as the resources which determine power. This process aims at
reforming the nature and direction of the systemic forces which marginalize the powerless. Systemic
change is an imperative for redistributive justice.
The Declaration provides general ethical principles to guide conduct of professional social workers with
respect to self and the profession, work with the marginalized and other people in need, the society
and the state, co-workers and employing organizations and social work education and research. In its
practical application, the entire Declaration and its spirit are of importance, and must be viewed
holistically, rather than considering a particular ethical principle in isolation. This also implies that the
application of ethical principles must be judged within the context in which they are being considered.
Declaration of Ethics for Professional Social Workers
Value Framework
As a professional social worker, I pledge to promote the following values in myself, in the profession and
in the society.
1. I pledge to perceive people as having inherent worth and dignity, irrespective of their
attributes and achievements and having the capability of continuing development; and I pledge to
perceive myself and other people as part of nature, needing to live in harmony with other non-human
existence.
2. I pledge to work towards the overall well-being of all people in the spirit of Sarvodaya,
through the achievement of the following goals:
22
Equity, non-hierarchy and non-discrimination of human groups in terms of race, religion, tribe, language,
regional origin, gender, sexual orientation and other such factors, and condemning segregation /
apartheid / discrimination among them;
Social, economic, political and legal justice, ensuring satisfaction of basic needs and integrity and
security, universal access to essential resources and protective safeguards for the marginalized people;
and
People-centered development, in the spirit of Swarajya and democracy from micro- to macro-levels,
where people participate to determine their life styles and goals for development.
3. I pledge to work with people, guided by the following values:
Solidarity and partnership with the marginalized people; and Peaceful and non-violent approaches in the
spirit of Ahimsa for resolving conflicts with self, others and the environment.
Ethical Responsibility to Self and the Profession
As the first essential to social work practice, I shall constantly seek an
understanding of myself and change my attitudes and
prejudices which may affect my work.
I shall be sensitive to and respect the feelings and thinking of
others, understands behaviors, avoid stereotypes and recognize
individuality in every person.
I accept with humility and openness, the need to learn and shall
imbibe the spirit of inquiry to constantly update my knowledge
base and intervention strategies.
I shall gear my practice upon relevant knowledge and in the
changing socioeconomic, geographical and cultural context.
I shall use my knowledge, power and status as a professional,
for the well-being of all and not misuse these for personal gains.
I shall intervene into the personal affairs of another
individual only with his/ her consent, except when I must act to
prevent injury to him/her or to others, in accordance with the legal
provisions.
In order to ensure credibility and integrity of the social work
profession, I shall constantly review it and work towards its
development.
I shall work to promote networking among social work professionals, other professionals and
like-minded individuals and organizations, at the micro- and macro-levels, to work towards people-
centered development.
I shall work towards developing and strengthening of professional associations, which are
means for development of the profession.
I shall facilitate development of the new entrants to the profession.
Ethical Responsibility to the Marginalizedand Other People in Need
My primary professional response and accountability are to the marginalized and other people in need I
work with. My commitment and professional stand shall be with them.
I shall empathize with people's marginalization and thereby respect and give credence/value to
their life experiences.
I shall work towards changing the systemic and contextual forces which marginalize people,
on behalf of and in partnership with them.
The Tata Institute of Social
Sciences (TISS) was
established in 1936, as the
Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate
School of Social Work. The
first school of social work in
India, the TISS was a
pioneering effort,
characteristic of the Sir
Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT). Its
establishment was the result
of the decision of the
Trustees of the SDTT to
accept Dr. Clifford
Manshardts vision of a
post-graduate school of social
work of national stature that
would engage in a continuous
study of Indian social issues
and problems and impart
education in social work to
meet the emerging need for
trained human power. This
subsequently influenced the
direction of social work
education and social research
in India.
23
I shall respect people's right for self-determination, and shall ensure that they themselves play
an active role in relation to the course of action to be taken about their life situation.
I shall nurture a relationship of partnership with people that promote mutual reflection on our life
situation and our development.
I shall facilitate people's access to opportunities and resources and empower them for work
towards their stated goal.
I shall share with people, accurate and relevant information regarding the extent and nature of
help available to them, that is, opportunities, rights, strengths, limitations and risks associated with the
intervention offered.
I shall enable and encourage people to work with other individuals, organizations and
groups, when such collaboration is in the best interest of the well-being for all.
I shall obtain people's consent before recording or permitting third party observation of their
activities after informing them about its purpose and utility.
I shall keep confidential; all matters shared by them, and shall inform them fully about the limits of
privileged communication in a given situation.
I shall facilitate people's access to official records concerning them, if asked by them. While
doing so, I shall take due care to protect the confidence of others covered by these records.
I shall ensure that payment for services by people, if necessary, are fair and commensurate with the
intervention provided, and within the capacity for such payment of the people served.
When I perceive the need to withdraw from the helping process, I shall give consideration to all factors
in the situation and shall take care to minimize possible adverse effects on the people.
When I anticipate discontinuation of my intervention, I shall notify them promptly and seek
transfer, referral or continuation of service, with consideration to their needs and preferences.
I shall not pursue a relationship or use any coercive means to continue services, which the
people served wish to terminate, and shall offer suggestions or alternative help that they can avail of.
Ethical Responsibility to the Society and the State
It is my ethical responsibility to promote implementation of the Fundamental Rights and the
Directive Principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
I shall work towards a society and a state that promotes equity, justice, Ahimsa, Swarajya
and Lokniti.
I shall advocate changes in social systems and the State policies and legislation to promote
the above values.
I shall encourage informed participation by the people in shaping State policies, legislation,
and programs.
I shall respond and offer my professional services in events of emergencies at micro- and
macro-levels.
Ethical Responsibility to Co-Workers and Employing Organizations
It is my ethical responsibility to respect the inherent worth and dignity of all my co-workers, that include
social workers, other professionals, auxiliary workers, volunteers and all those involved in the
development process, within and across organizations
I shall cooperate with my co-workers towards development, accepting and respecting our
personal and professional differences.
I shall contribute to the process of collective reflection and democratic decision-making when
working as a team.
I shall acknowledge my co-workers' attributes and achievements and will be willing to learn from them.
I shall respect confidences shared by my co-workers in the course of their professional
relationships and transactions.
I shall promote a practice of mutual evaluation with co-workers for our professional
development.
When I am an employer or supervisor to my co-workers, I shall ensure clarity of goals in delegation of
roles and responsibilities, provide opportunities for growth, give them due credits and jointly review
their performance on the basis of goals and clearly enunciate criteria.
24
I shall act to promote humanistic values and ethical practices in my employing organizations policies
and practices.
I shall ensure that the organizations resources are used judiciously and for the purpose they are
intended.
I shall periodically monitor and evaluate the organizations policies and programs by maintaining
records, self reflection on people's feedback and feedback from the co-workers.
Ethical Responsibility to Social Work Education and Research
When teaching and training, it is my ethical responsibility to be conversant with the learners' needs,
readiness and goals.
I shall keep my knowledge update about social work and the subjects I teach through field experience,
reading and training.
While teaching and training I shall impart knowledge, inculcate attitudes and develop skills within the
value framework of the profession.
I shall recognize the importance of partnership between practitioners and educators for the purpose of
social work education and training.
I shall develop a nurturing relationship with students, encouraging openness and self study and
facilitating sharing and discussions in a learning situation.
I shall, whenever possible, undertake demonstration of people-centered field action projects for the
purpose of research and documentation, training and replication.
I shall share the knowledge I gain with other social work educators and practitioners.
I shall contribute to the knowledge base of social work education through my practice wisdom,
documentation as well as research.
I shall expose the students to the professional associations and orient them about their role in
developing and strengthening them.
When carrying out a research, I shall carefully select the topic for research considering its possible
consequences for human beings within the value framework of the profession and towards the goals of
people-centered development.
I shall consider the informants of my research as my co-partners in understanding the phenomenon. I
shall, therefore, share my research objectives with them and get their informed and voluntary consent,
respect their knowledge and attitude about their life situation, and share/interpret the findings with
them.
I shall not cause them inadvertent physical or mental discomfort, distress or harm, through my
research.
I shall protect the confidentiality of the information shared by them and use the findings for their
benefit, by revising policies and programs concerning them.
I shall provide information services to them, as and when necessary, during the process of data
collection.
I shall acknowledge in my paper, the published as well as unpublished material and personal
discussions that have directly influenced my paper.
Background ofthe Declaration
This `Declaration of Ethics for Professional Social Workers' has been prepared by the Social Work
Educators' Forum (SWEF) at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences. The SWEF is a forum for social work
educators at the Institute to undertake meetings and activities with a goal to strengthen social work
profession and education. In the meetings scheduled by the SWEF in 1991, a need was felt to formulate
a document on ethics for professional social workers. An initial draft prepared by a sub-committee was
discussed and revised through several in-house meetings. The draft was also circulated for feedback at
the National Workshop on Social Work Practice and Education held in May 1993 and discussed at a
Workshop in February 1995 along with the members of the faculty of the College of Social Work at
Nirmala Niketan and the members of the Bombay Association of Trained Social Workers. It was also sent
to some senior social work educators. Feedback obtained from all are incorporated in this Sixth Draft.
25
Foundation of Social Work Practice in India
Religio Philosophical Foundation
Though social work is not practiced in its present form, serving the people and helping the needy has
been considered almost a moral duty to everyone. In this regard several prescriptions are also laid
down for the individuals to follow. Traditionally social work in India is more person based and not
institution based.
Religio philosophical foundation of social work in India is better understood to the following three
major titles.
1. Social welfare during Vedic Period
2. Hinduism and the philosophy of social welfare.
3. Buddhism and the philosophy of social welfare.
4. J ainism and the philosophy of Social Welfare
1. Social welfare during Vedic Period
The Vedas are the scriptures derived from the Vedic period (c. 1500-700 BC)
Communitarian (a social order in which individuals are bound together by common values that
foster close communal bonds. A model of political organization that
stresses ties of affection, kinship, and a sense of common purpose and
tradition, as opposed to the meager morality of contractual ties
entered into between a loose conglomeration of individuals) republics
existed during the early Vedic period. In communitarian social order
the whole business of helping people in need was everybodys business
mainly handles in a collective way. Thus every body was client and
agent both an different occasions and for different purposes. In early
days of Indian civilization both social life and social welfare were
almost inseparable
2.Hinduism and the philosophy of social welfare.
According to Hindu philosophy human beings should revere, respect
and love all, because, God, the supreme being pervades all and
immanent in all things and beings. The goal of life is to realize the self,
which is nothing but GOD, for this one needs to rise into higher
spheres of thinking, feeling and acting and help others to achieve the same.
The rules and regulation prescribed to achieve self realization are known as Manushya Dharmas. It is
elaborated as yamas (actions to be avoided) and niyamas (actions to be followed)
These virtues are enriched by the additional virtues of Dana, Daya and Kshanthi
Dana: it is understood as charity in the form of alms giving to the deserving.
Daya means compassion to all
Kshanthi patience and forgiveness
The popular Hindu saying expresses Janata Seva is Janardana Seva. The service of man is the service
of God. Janata Seva means helping the people. Serving his fellow human beings is an instrument to
realize Self God or Janardana. The reward for Janata Seva is the enlargement of the self.
At later days, Mary Richmond, a social work pioneer, while explaining the underlying philosophy of
social work, mentioned about wider self. The concept of wider self match the Hindu concept of larger
or greater self.
Stand up, be bold, be strong. Take the whole responsibility on your own shoulders, and know
that you are the creator of your own destiny. All the strength and succor you want is within
yourselves. Therefore, make your own future. - Swami Vivekananda
26
3. Buddhism and the philosophy of social welfare.
By the performance of acts of punna (punyam) and the avoidance of acts (pavam)
of papa one contributes to social welfare while gradually transforming oneself in
such a way that noble qualities of mind conducive to produce the maturity and
insight that bring full liberation of the mind could sooner or later be attained. Until
such time as one attains the final liberation, acts of punna protect a person from
falling into unhappy rebirths and furnishes one with all the desirable material
conditions of living. Buddhism provides a great incentive to believers by
emphasizing the effects of punna_deeds to engage in acts of social welfare. The
concept of punna is connected with the doctrines of kamma and rebirth. These
doctrines appeal to the concern of everyone with one's own interest and have the effect of preventing
people who have faith in them to avoid engaging in any conduct that is productive of suffering to
others and encouraging them to do positive good to others which is productive of beneficial effects to
themselves.
It is to be noted that the Buddhist notion of social welfare is wider than a purely mundane notion in
such a way that it includes an awareness of the material needs that are necessary for the promotion
of social welfare. The welfare of people can be promoted only when all their needs are adequately
fulfilled. Humanist psychologists have pointed out that human beings have a hierarchy of needs. xv
They do not attain their real humanity unless certain higher and uniquely human needs are also
satisfied. Buddhism can fully agree with that view, for Buddhism recognizes the necessity to attend to
the basic material needs of man not as an end in itself, but as a means to an end which is much
higher than that. The greatest happiness that a human being can attain by becoming entirely free
from the corruptions of mind is considered in Buddhism as the highest in the hierarchy of human
needs

4. Jainismand the philosophy of social welfare.
Jains believe that all living beings possess a soul, and therefore great care and
awareness is required in going about one's business in the world. Jainism is a
religion in which all life is considered worthy of respect and it emphasizes this
equality of all life, advocating the protection of even the smallest creatures. This
goes as far as the life of a fly. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis
on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors.
Yama and Niyama
Yama is a "moral restraint" or rule for living virtuously. Ten yamas are codified in numerous scriptures, including
the Hatha Yoga Pradipika compiled by Yogi Swatmarama, while Patanjali lists five yamas, and five niyamas
(disciplines) in the Yoga Sutra.
The ten traditional yamas are:
Ahimsa: Nonviolence. Abstinence from injury, or harm to any living creature in thought, word, or deed. This is
the "main" Yama. The other nine are there in support of its accomplishment.
Satya: Truthfulness in word and thought (in conformity with the facts).
Asteya: No stealing, no coveting, no entering into debt.
Brahmacharya: Divine conduct, continence, celibate when single, faithful when married.
Kshama: Patience, releasing time, functioning in the now.
Dhriti: Steadfastness, overcoming non-perseverance, fear, and indecision; seeing each task through to
completion.
Daya: Compassion; conquering callous, cruel and insensitive feelings toward all beings.
Arjava: Honesty, straightforwardness, renouncing deception and wrongdoing.
Mitahara: Moderate appetite, neither eating too much nor too little; nor consuming meat, fish, shellfish, fowl or
eggs.
Shaucha: Purity, avoidance of impurity in body, mind and speech.
Patanjali's five yamas, or moral restraints, are ahimsa (non-injury), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-
stealing), brahmacharya (continence or chastity) and aparagriha (abstinence from avarice). He also lists five
niyamas, or disciplines, which include shauca (purity), samtosha (contentment), tapas (asceticism),
svadhyaya (study), and ishvara-pranidhana (devotion to the Lord).
27
5.Islam
Islam is the name of a religion founded by Muhammad in ancient Arabia in the 7th century. People
who follow Islam are called Muslims. They believe in only one God, That God is called Allah, which is
the Arabic phrase for "the (only) God". Islam has more followers than Roman Catholicism with 1.3
billion followers which makes it the worlds largest religion dating today. It is also the fastest growing
religion in the world.
The Five Pillars of Islam
There are five things that Muslims should do. They are called "The Five Pillars
of Islam".
1. Faith: The Testimony (al-Shaada in Arabic) is the Muslim belief that there is
no god but Allah Himself, and that Muhammad is His messenger.
2. Prayer: Muslims pray five times at special times of the day.[2]
3. Charity: Muslims who have money must give alms (Zakah or Zakat in
Arabic) to help poor Muslims in the local community.
4. Fasting: Muslims fast during Ramadan, They do not eat or drink from
sunrise till sunset for one lunar month.
5. Hajj (Pilgrimage): Muslims in general who can afford or who have made the Hajj must buy an
animal according to the Islamic criteria to sacrifice and cook as food or give away to the poor, if they
have the money for it.
6.Christianity
Christianity is a faith based on the believed life and teaching of Jesus. Christians believe by faith that
all who sin (disobey God) even once wouldn't go to heaven, even if they did good
things, so God gave His own Son, Jesus, to die, so that Christians can "substitute"
Jesus' sinless life for themselves. Christians believe that no matter how many sins
or how much evil a person has done, they will still go to heaven by taking Jesus as
a substitute for his/her own sin. It is a unique religion in the sense that the
believer's good or bad deeds do not determine their eternal salvation. Rather, it is
the sinless life of Jesus and the sacrificial death of Jesus that is the way to heaven.
Thus, Jesus is their "Savior" and they are "saved" by Him, and not because of
anything they did on their own.
Charity - Showing love for people
The word "Charity" gets its roots form the Latin word "caritas", meaning love. In 1 Peter 4:8a (King
James Version), Peter writes; "And above all things have fervent "charity" among yourselves." Simply
put, this verse says that a Christian is to have complete love to each other. And in Mark 12:31b (King
James Version) Jesus, when asked what was the greatest commandment, replied that first is to love
the Lord, "And the second is like, namely this, Thou shalt "love" thy neighbor as thyself. There is
none other commandment greater than these." So in Jesus' own words, it is vital to the Christian
belief, that a Christian, have Charity (or love), to each other.
28
Contributions of Ancient Indian Kings to Social Welfare
Ashoka, the Great
As the third emperor of the Mauryan
dynasty, Ashoka was born in the year 304
B.C. His greatest achievements were
spreading Buddhism throughout his empire
and beyond. He set up an ideal government
for his people and conquered many lands,
expanding his kingdom.
H. G. Wells wrote of Ashoka:
In the history of the world there have been
thousands of kings and emperors who
called themselves 'their highnesses,' 'their
majesties,' and 'their exalted majesties' and so on. They shone for a brief
moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a
bright star, even unto this day.
Kanishka
Kanishka was a king of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia, ruling an
empire extending to large parts of India in the 2nd century of the common
era, famous for his military, political, and spiritual achievements. His main
capital was at Peshawar (Purushpura) in northwestern Pakistan, with
regional capitals at the location of the modern city of Taxila in Pakistan,
Begram in Afghanistan and Mathura in India.
GuptaChandra Gupta
Ghatotkacha (c. 280319) AD, had a son named Chandra
Gupta. In a breakthrough deal, Chandra Gupta was married to
a Lichchhavithe main power in Magadha. With a dowry of the
kingdom of Magadha (capital Pataliputra) i, conquering much
of maghada, Prayaga and Saketa. He established a realm
stretching from the Ganga River (Ganges River) to Prayaga
(modern-day Allahabad) by 321.
Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate refers to the many Muslim dynasties that ruled in India from 1206 to 1526.
Several Turkic and Pashtun ("Afghan") dynasties ruled from Delhi: the Mamluk dynasty (1206-90),
the Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), the Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and
the Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526). In 1526 the Delhi Sultanate was
absorbed by the emerging Mughal Empire.
Deccan sultanates
The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim-ruled late medieval
kingdoms-Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-
central India. The Deccan sultanates were located on the Deccan
Plateau, between the Krishna River and the Vindhya Range. These
kingdoms became independent during the breakup of the Bahmani
Sultanate. In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by
Bijapur and Berar in the same year. Golkonda became independent in
1518 and Bidar in 1528. In 1510, Bijapur repulsed an invasion by the
Portuguese against the city of Goa, but lost it later that year.
29
Mughal Rule
India in the 16th century had numerous unpopular rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, with an absence of
common bodies of laws or institutions. External developments also played a role in the rise of the
Mughal Empire. The circumnavigation of Africa by the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498
allowed Europeans to challenge Arab control of the trading routes between Europe and Asia. In
Central Asia and Afghanistan, shifts in power pushed Babur of Ferghana (in present-day Uzbekistan)
southward, first to Kabul and then to India. The Mughal Empire lasted for more than three centuries.
The Mughal Empire was one of the largest centralized states in pre modern history and was the
precursor to the British Indian Empire.
International Federation of Social Workers
History
The International Federation of Social Workers is a successor to the International Permanent
Secretariat of Social Workers, which was founded in Paris in 1928 and was
active until the outbreak of World War II. It was not until 1950, at the time
of the International Conference of Social Work in Paris, that the decision was
made to create the International Federation of Social Workers, an
international organization of professional social workers.
The original agreement was that the IFSW would come into being when
seven national organizations agreed to become members. After much preliminary work, the
Federation was finally founded in 1956 at the time of the meeting of the International Conference on
Social Welfare in Munich, Germany.
Aims of the IFSW
The Constitution of the IFSW provides that the aims shall be:
to promote social work as a profession through international co-operation,
especially regarding professional values, standards, ethics, human rights,
recognition, training and working conditions;
to promote the establishment of national organizations of social workers or
professional unions for social workers and when needed national coordinating
bodies (collectively "Social Work Organizations") where they do not exist;
to support Social Work Organizations in promoting the participation of social workers in social
planning and the formulation of social policies, nationally and internationally, the recognition of
social work, the enhancement of social work training and the values and professional standards of
social work.
In order to achieve these Aims the Federation shall:
encourage co-operation between social workers of all countries;
provide means for discussion and the exchange of ideas and experience through meetings,
study visits, research projects, exchanges, publications and other methods of communication;
Establish and maintain relationships with, and present and promote the views of Social Work
Organizations and their members to international organizations relevant to social
development and welfare.
30
The International Association of Schools of Social Work
IASSW, is the worldwide association of schools of social work, other tertiary level social work
educational programs, and social work educators. The IASSW promotes the development of social
work education throughout the world, develops standards to enhance quality of social work
education, encourages international exchange, provides forums for sharing social work research and
scholarship, and promotes human rights and social development through policy and advocacy
activities. IASSW holds consultative status with the United Nations and participates as an NGO in UN
activities in Geneva, Vienna and New York. Through its work at the UN and with other international
organizations, IASSW represents social work education at the international level.
The office of IASSW is located in the office of the President, Abye
Tasse at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. IASSW is governed by the
Board of Directors under a Constitution approved by the biennial
General Assembly. The mission of the association emphasizes the
promotion of world wide excellence in social work education and
engagement of a community of social work educators in international exchange of information and
expertise.
IASSW carries out its purposes through:
A biennial conference of social work educators, the IASSW Congress
Publication of a newsletter
Representation at the United Nations
Co-sponsorship, with IFSW and ICSW of the journal International Social
Work
Activities of Committees and Task Forces
Funding of small cross-national projects in social work education
Important recent policy documents include the Definition of Social Work; Global Standards for Social
Work Education and Training; and Ethics in Social Work:
Statement of Principles (all developed with the International
Federation of Social Workers).
IASSW was founded in 1928 at the First International
Conference of Social Work, held in Paris. It was initially
comprised of 51 schools, mostly in Europe, and was known as
the International Committee. Revitalized after World War II,
the organization expanded its membership to include a wider
range of countries and was renamed the International Association of Schools of Social Work. The
association has member schools in all parts of the world; 5 regional organizations in Africa; Asia and
the Pacific; Europe; Latin America; and North America and the Caribbean are affiliated with the
IASSW and represented on the Board of Directors.
Membership is open to tertiary level social work schools, individual social work educators, and others
specifically interested in social work education.
The Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB) is the association of boards that regulate social work.
ASWB develops and maintains the social work licensing
examination used across the country and in several Canadian
provinces, and is a central resource for information on the legal
regulation of social work. Through the association, social work
boards can share information and work together. ASWB is also
available to help individual social workers and social work students with questions they may have
about licensing and the social work examinations.
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National Association of Professional Social Workers in India
Aim:
To advance excellence in education, training and practice of professional social work through -
Education, Research, Training, Networking, Advocacy, Resource
Development Objectives
Increase awareness about social work
profession at various levels
Promote the highest professional standards
and ethics in the practice of professional social
work
Advance the knowledge and practice base of
social work interventions that enhance quality
of life and a standard of living of persons, their family and environment.
Faster communication and foster support among professional social workers.
Promote social change, empowerment and liberation of people to enhance their well-being adhering
to a principles of human rights and social justice.
Promote research, action and other forms of continuing education for knowledge up- gradation of
members.
Advocate for programs and policies to meet the needs of social work fraternity and its various
clientele groups.
INDIA - Social Work Today
1.Social Work Today
Social work in India today has lost direction. This is not new. Many have
talked about social work being in crisis for over thirty years now. The
starting point for this Manifesto, however, is that the crisis of social work
can no longer be tolerated. We need to find more effective ways of
resisting the dominant trends within social work and map ways forward for
a new engaged practice.
Many of us entered social work and many still do out of a commitment
to social justice or, at the very least, to bring about positive change in
peoples lives. Yet increasingly the scope for doing so is curtailed.
Instead, our work is shaped by managerializm, by the fragmentation of
services, by financial restrictions and lack of resources, by increased
bureaucracy and work-loads, by the domination of care-management
approaches with their associated performance indicators and by the
increased use of the private sector. While these trends have long been
present in state social work, they now dominate the day-to-day work of front line social workers and
32
shape the welfare services that are offered to clients. The effect has been to increase the distance
between managers and front line workers on the one hand, and between workers and service users
on the other. The main concern of too many social work managers today is the control of budgets
rather than the welfare of service users, while worker-client relationships are increasingly
characterized by control and supervision rather than care.
Unless the fundamental direction of social work changes, then neither a new social work degree nor
new bodies such as the Social Care Councils will do anything to improve the current situation. These
are no more than technical fixes for deep-rooted problems. So attempts by individual local
authorities to alleviate the staffing crisis by offering cash incentives the so-called golden hellos
simply move the problem around.
In the absence of an organized response to these trends, people understandably react in different
individual ways. Some social workers may leave the profession, but for many this is not an option.
Some workers have found ways within their workplaces to occupy spaces where they can practice a
more rounded social work in the voluntary sector, for example, or in more specialist projects - but
this option is not available to most. Even in the voluntary sector the trends are increasingly mirroring
the managerialist pattern of the statutory agencies.
And yet, the need for a social work committed to social justice and challenging poverty and
discrimination is greater than ever. In our view, this remains a project that is worth defending. More
than any other welfare state profession, social work seeks to understand the links between public
issues and private troubles and seeks to address both. It is for this reason that many who hold
power and influence in our society would be delighted to see a demoralized and defeated social work,
a social work that is incapable of drawing attention to the miseries and difficulties which beset so
many in our society. This alone makes social work worth fighting for.
The current degraded status of social work as a profession is inextricably related to the status and
standing of those we work with. Social work clients are amongst some of the most vulnerable and
impoverished in our society, and have benefited least from New Labors social welfare reforms. In
fact, under New Labor we have witnessed not only greater levels of material inequality, but also an
intensified demonisation of asylum seekers, young people and poor families, the very groups that
social workers engage with. Too often today social workers are often doing little more than supervis-
ing the deterioration of peoples lives.
So in opposition to those who would be happy to see a defeated and silenced social work occupation,
we are seeking a social work that has prevention at its heart and recognizes the value of collective
approaches. At the same time we also recognize that good casework has also suffered as a result of
the trends referred to above. We are looking to a social work that can contribute to shaping a
different kind of social policy agenda, based on our understanding of the struggles experienced by
clients in addressing a range of emotional, social and material problems and the strengths they bring
to these struggles.
2.Anethical career
The enduring crisis of social work in India has taught us many things. It has brought us to a state of
affairs that nobody in their right mind could possibly view as acceptable. It has taught us that there
can be no return to a past of professional arrogance and that progressive change must involve users
and all front line workers. As agents of change senior managers have had their day. It has reminded
us that budget dominated welfare systems are cruel and destructive of human well-being. The
casualties are everywhere in the social work system amongst clients and users and social workers.
These years of turmoil have highlighted that social work has to be defined not by its function for the
state but by its value base. Above all it has been a stark lesson in the need for collective organization,
both to defend a vision of social work based on social justice and also to defend the working
conditions that make that possible.
As we noted at the start of this Manifesto, in the past many people entered social work because it
seemed to offer a way of earning a living that did not involve oppressing or exploiting people, but on
33
the contrary could contribute, even in a small way, to social change. It was, in other words, an ethical
career. That potential for social change has all but been squeezed out of social work by the drives
towards marketization and managerialism that have characterized the last decade and a half. Yet
overwhelmingly it is still the case that people enter social work not to be care-managers or rationers
of services or dispensers of community punishment but rather to make a positive contribution to the
lives of poor and oppressed people. If it is the widening gap between promise and reality that breeds
much of the current anger and frustration amongst social workers, it is also the awareness that social
work could be much more than it is at present that leads many of us to hang on in there.
We note that the organization People and Planet includes social work within its Ethical Careers
Service. If that progressive promise is to be realized even in part, then we need to coalesce and
organize around a shared vision of what a genuinely anti-oppressive social work might be like.
This Manifesto is a small contribution towards the process of developing that vision and that
organization.
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA
Professional training in social work in India was initiated by Dr. Clifford Manshardt, an American
protestant missionary. He came to India in 1925 through the American Marathi mission, a Protestant
Christian organization. This organization worked in slum communities of Bombay and founded the
Nagapada Neighborhood House in 1926, headed by Dr.Clifford Manshardt as its first Director. The
agency was similar to Settlement House in its objective and activities. It was located in an area,
which had many social problems including poverty, gambling and prostitution. Such problems were
the result of the fast changing social structure, which had weakened the family bond and community
togetherness. Manshardt mooted the idea of developing a school of social work to meet the need for
trained manpower to work in Indian conditions. With financing from the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, the
first school founded in 1936 was known as Sir Dorabji Graduate School of Social Work later renamed
as Tata Institute of Social Sciences in 1944.
Since then, Social work education in India has spawned seven decades during which it has attracted a
large number of youth to pursue a formal degree in Social Work, develop human service values and
work for the betterment of society. The journey has not been without its fair share of bumps and
jerks, but challenging and exciting, nevertheless. The problems these trained social workers confront
are common in Indian subcontinent. In order to ensure excellence in education, training and practice
of professional social work, we need very active professional associations. Though India has fairly a
long history of social work education as compared to other South Asian countries, professional
associations were formed much later in order to play huge proactive roles. Our existing associations
are yet to get permanent affiliation or membership in International Federation of Social Workers
(IFSW). As professionals we have a responsibility for making professional organizations vibrant. In
past, we had several associations such as
Labor Welfare Officers Association, Probation Officers Association, Association of Alumni of Schools
of Social Work in India, etc. There are few regional level associations as well, such as, Bombay
Association of Trained Social Workers (BATSW), Maharashtra Association of Social Work Educators
(MATSWE), Karnataka Association of Professional Social Workers (KAPSW), Professional Social
Workers Forum, Chennai (PSWFC), etc. The ambit of their activities rarely reaches beyond local level
meetings, seminars and they do not have much say or authority at the national level. The
professional bodies of social workers that function at the national level are mainly three, namely,
ASSWI, ISPSW and NAPSWI. Associations of Schools of Social Work in India (ASSWI) ASSWI was
established in 1959 at Baroda. It is a professional organization engaged in the promotion of standards
of social work education in the country. It has represented the profession by taking up social issues
and concerns related to social work education at the national level since the early sixties. This
association is functioning through its elected executive committee. Most of the members of ASSWI
are from Schools of Social Work/Departments of Social Work which were established during the
second half of the 20th century.
34
The Indian Society of Professional Social Work (ISPSW)
The Indian Society of Professional Social Work (ISPSW) is the oldest association of professional social
workers in India. It has been geared towards the goal of Empowering Society for Social Development.
The Society was formerly known as Indian Society of Psychiatric Social Work. It was established in
the year 1970 by Dr. R.K.Upadhyaya and his staff of the Dept of Psychiatric Social Work, Central
Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi. The present name of the Society was considered in the year 1988,
because of an increased representation of the trainers, practitioners and researchers of all
specialization of Social Work. The association primarily focuses on uniting the professional social
workers to debate, discuss and develop conceptual frameworks and feasible indigenous interventions
of social work for practice in India. In order to facilitate this purpose, the Society has conducted many
annual Conferences seminars and symposia on various social issues, all over India. Many of the life
members of this Society are representing various reputed National and International organizations,
Universities and other agencies all over the World. The Society regularly identifies and felicitates
esteemed personalities from the Social Work and its related fields.
National Association of Professional Social Workers in India (NAPSWI)
NAPSWI is a non profit, non- political, national level organization dedicated to the promotion of
standard and status of social work profession in India. The association received legal status as a
society under the Society Registration Act XXI of 1860 on 9th September 2005. This national
association comprises social work institutions, schools and departments, educators, practitioners as
well as students from every state in the country. Senior citizens are also provided membership.
NAPSWI intends to fulfill the twin purpose of promoting the social work profession across the country
with the aim of improving the quality of services in the social welfare and social development sectors
on one hand and to protect interests of social work professionals on the other hand. NAPSWI aims to
advance excellence in education, training and practice of professional social work through -
Education, Research, Training, Networking, Advocacy and Resource Development. Objectives of
NAPSWI are as follows:
Increase awareness about social work profession at various levels;
Promote the highest professional standards and ethics in the practice of professional social work;
Advance the knowledge and practice base of social work interventions that enhance quality of life
and standard of living of persons, their family and environment;
Faster communication and support among professional social workers;
Promote social change, empowerment and liberation of people to enhance their well being adhering
to the principles of human rights and social justice;
Promote research, action and other forms of continuing education for knowledge up- gradation of
members; and Advocate for programs and policies to meet the needs of social work fraternity and its
various clientele groups.
With the launching of social work program by dint of Open and Distance Learning in India through
IGNOU, a new chapter has been opened for professional social workers in the Indian sub-continent
since 2004.This initiative of IGNOU has taken social work education to the door steps of the un-
reached in far flung areas i.e. from Kashmir to Campbell Bay in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and all
the states in the North-East. There is flexible admission procedures adopted by IGNOU: any one
having the required entry qualification can pursue social work education at Bachelors, Masters and
Doctoral level without restrictions on age, place of residence and occupational status. The Annual
National Seminar being organized by IGNOU in collaboration with NAPSWI is a meeting place for
professional social work educators, practitioners and students from any state and union territory in
the country. This annual event is gaining momentum with the support of ASSWI, several universities
and international organizations.
35
Critical Social Work/ Radical Social Work
Critical social work is the application of social work to address social injustices, as opposed to
focusing on individual people's problems. Critical theories explain social problems as arising from
various forms of oppression. This theory is like all social
work theories, in that it is made up of a polyglot of theories
from across the the humanities and sciences, borrowing
from many different schools of thought.
Introduction
Social workers have an ethical commitment to working to
overcome inequality and oppression. For radical social workers this implies working towards the
transformation of capitalist society towards building social arrangements which are more compatible
with these commitments. Mullaly & Keating (1991) suggest three schools of radical thought
corresponding to three versions of socialist analysis; social democracy,
Revolutionary Marxism and evolutionary Marxism. However they work in institutional contexts
which paradoxically implicates them in maintaining capitalist functions. Social work theories have
three possible aims, as identified by Rojek et al (1983). These are:
The progressive position. Social work is seen as a catalyst for social change. Social workers work
with the oppressed and marginalised and so are in a good position to harness class resistance to
capitalism and transform society into a more social democracy or socialist state. ( Bailey & Brake,
1975[2], Galper, 1975, Simpkin, 1979, Ginsberg, 1979)
The reproductive position. Social work seen as an indispensable tool of the capitalist social order.
Its function is to produce and maintain the capitalist state machine and to ensure working class
subordination. Social workers are the soft cops of the capitalist state machine. (Althusser, 1971,
Poulantzas, 1975, Muller & Neususs, 1978)
The contradictory position. Social work can undermine capitalism and class society. While it acts
as an instrument of class control it can simultaneously create the conditions for the overthrow of
capitalist social relations. (Corrigan & Leonard, Phillipson, 1979, Bolger, 1981)
History
Critical social work is heavily influenced by Marxism, the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory
and by the earlier approach of Radical social work, which was focused on class oppression. Critical
social work evolved from this to oppose all forms of oppression. Several writers helped codify radical
social work, such as Jeffry Galper (1975) and Harold Throssell (1975). They were building on the
views expounded by earlier social workers such as Octavia Hill, Jane Addams & Bertha Reynolds, who
had at various points over the previous 200 years sought to make social work & charity more focused
on structural forces.
Focus of critical social work
Major themes that critical social work seeks to address are:
Poverty, unemployment and social exclusion
Racism and other forms of discrimination
Inadequacies in housing, health care and education
Crime and social unrest (although it should be noted that the critical approach would be more
focused on the structural causes than the behaviour itself)
Abuse and exploitation
Sub-theories of critical social work
As critical social work grew out of radical social work, it split into various different theories. They are
listed below, with a selection of writers who have influenced the theory.
1 Introduccin
2 History
3 Focus of critical social work
4 Sub-theories of critical social work
5 Dialectic explanations of free will
6 Practice models
36
Structural social work theory ( Ann Davis, Maurice Moreau, Robert Mullaly)
Anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive social work theory (Neil Thompson, Dalrymple & Burke)
Post- colonial social work theory (Linda Briskman)
New structural social work theory (Robert Mullaly)
Critical social work theory (Jan Fook, Karen Healy)
Dialectic explanations of free will
While critical social work has a strong commitment to structural change, it does not discount the role
of free will. Critical analysis in social work looks at competing forces such as the capitalist economic
system, the welfare state or human free will as all affecting individual choices. Therefore, according
to critical theory the aim of social work is to emancipate people from oppression and allow individual
liberty to prevail.
A dialectical approach to social work avoids the simplistic linear cause-effect notion of historical
materialism and the nave romanticism associated with the notion of totally free human will." (Mullaly
and Keating, 1991).
"Dialectical analysis helps to illuminate the complex interplay between people and the world around
them and to indicate the role of social work within society (Mullaly, 2007:241)
Practicemodels
Some of the practice theories that critical social work utilises include:
Working collectively
Building cooperation and consciousness
Helping people to understand the social consequences of the market system
Helping people deal collectively with social problems rather than individualising them
Making alliances with working class organisations and recognise social workers as workers
themselves
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK

DEFNITION OF SOCIOL WORK:
Social work may be defined as an art, a science, and a
profession that helps people to solve personal, group, and community problem and
attain satisfying personal, group, and community relationships through social work
practice.
PRINCIPLES:
A problem exists everywhere
Every person is unique and environment has an effect on the person
Any situation can be changed
Trained social worker
It is professional
Social work is possible to some extent only with community cooperation
PROCESS OF SOCIAL WORKER:
Intake - Analyses the problem that is present in a situation.
Study - Learn the problem , about its cause etc.,
Social Diagnosis (analyzing a problem) - analyses what is the problem
and situation. Plan what is to be done to solve the problem plan the
treatment
Treatment
Support
Clarification (doubts of the social worker about the client
will be clarified)
Insight ( finding the root cause of a problem)
Identification (Finding an actual problem maker/reason
responsible for the problem)
Resources utilization
Evaluation (To check our progress whether we are going
in a correct way this was done periodically at every stage )
Environmental modification(change the surrounding
environment of the affected person)
Rehabitation (to help the person to come to a normal life after
treatment)
International Association of schools of social work International Federation of
social work profession promotes social changes, problem solving in human
relationship and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing
utilizing theories of human behavior and social system. Social work intervenes at
the point where people interact with their environment, principles of human rights
and social justice or fundamental of social work.
Social work should be deal like profession. It has its own techniques.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT:
History of social work started from USA and UK in 1200.
1531 HERRY VIII identification of beggars.
Beggars were banned in public and give a separate place for them.
Able body homes were formed and people were give jobs.
1601 Elizabeth.
USA 1776 war of independence church main agency for social services.
1800 1900 Adam smith theory.
1900 onwards committee William committee.
Profession of social work started to flourish in Europe with starting of charity
organization/association.
1898 New York school of Philanthropy.
1917 NY school of social work.
1929 Economic depression Federal emergency relief act need of trained
social worker.
1935 Social security act.(in USA)
1939 PG first introduced in American school of social work. USA National
council on social work education started .
1960 Anti-poverty Martin Ruther King USA National council on social work
education was started.

IN INDIA:
Started from joint family system in rural areas.
Annie Besant, Raja Ram Mohan Roy given enlightment about social work.
Mumbai NGO American Marathi mission.
Clifford Marshal 1925 started his work in slums founder of Nagpada
neighborhood house
approach Tata group 1936 Sir Doraliji Tata School of social science 1944
changed to Tata institution of social science.
1947 School of social work started in Gujarat and Varanasi.
Gujarat Vidhyapeed, Khesi Vidhyapeed.
1948 Delhi school of social work.
1950 Baroda school of social work.
1960 Madras school of social work.
1962 Psg school of social work.
1970 Madurai school of social work.
1980 Bishop college Trichi. Screed hearts college in Tirupatur.

ETHICS OF SOCIAL WORK:
- Given by National Association of social workers {1980}
Social worker:
Propriety
Competence and professional development
Service
Scholarship and research
Social workers ethical responsibility to client
Giving importance to clients interest
Like and prerogatives to clients
Confidentiality and privacy
Fees
Social workers ethical responsibility to colleagues
Respect, Fairness and Courtesy
Social workers ethical responsibilities to employer and employer
organization
Commitment
To social work profession
Maintain the integrity of the profession
Community service
Development of knowledge

To society
Promoting the general welfare.
SOCIAL SERVICE AND SOCIAL WELFARE:
DEFNITION OF SOCIAL SERVICE:
Rendering of beneficial to other out of religious or rituals
favor or by an in and urge to do something for others without a desire for material
rewards
- S.DASDUPTHA.
It is a curative measure not a preventive measure.
It is tempravery.
There is no need to learn an recourse to do social work.

DEFNITION OF SOCIAL WELFARE:
Social welfare is the service intended to meet special needs of
individuals and groups who are in disadvantage position need for help
- PAUL CHAUDRU
It is not tempravery .It should be carry on in a particular
situation/time.
It is mainly done by government and NGOs through different
schemes.
Main idea of social welfare is to rehabilitate the needy.
Proper planning is required for social welfare.
It is an organized form.
SOCIAL WORK PROFESSIONAL:
Professional is a worker required to process a large body of knowledge
delight from extensive academic study with the training almost always formulized
PROFESSIONAL FORMULATED:
The thing which professional should have:
Ethics
Values
Providing Training
Thought through Education
Regulation
Association to regulate
Autonomy(Independent)
Social status
Power

This are been present in the social work so it is called as
professional.

ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL WORK AS PROFESSIONAL:
Purpose
Value,Ethics,Standerds
Sanction
Knowledge
Skills
ATTRIBUTES:
Body of knowledge (no limit)
Continued occupation
Standardized occupation
Responsible public respect and relation
METHODES OR TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL WORK:
Social work
Social group work
Community organization and development
Social welfare administration
Social action
Social work research
SOCIAL GROUP WORK:
Social group work is a psychological process which is
concerned with developing leadership with ability and cooperation than with
building on the interest of the group of social purpose

During 1906, Chicago school of civics was organizing some of guidance programs.
Initially, it comes into existent in school of applied social science .
Western Reserve University in the name of group service in 1920.
Started in USA the first group work on 1937 in Western Reserve University.
Grace Choir explained group work and made it into more systematic.
Group psych trophy specialized groups depression etc. provide psych trophy.
Group work and psych trophy coincide.
Clara Kaiser worked with first group work project.
Konapka - written book on group work.
1950 Journal for social work began to come out .Group work courses started to
spread to other countries.
APPROACHES TO GROUP WORK:
Long term/short term
Individual/group oriented
Crisis intervention
Closed/open groups

COMMUNITY OREGANISATION:
HISTORY:
Elizabeth poor law comes into existence. They are mainly done in
settlement houses.
USA was the pioneer of the community organization.
Charity organization society was formed in 1877 in the influence of
London charity organization society.
Community chest and community council was formed in 1917-1935.
American association for community organization was formed in
1918. Its name was later converted into community council.
National conference of social work on 1938-1939 gave initiative to
take community organization as on in social work.
National conference of social work In Buffalo on 1940 organized
association of study of community organization.
Community organisation was recognized and include as a method of
social work in American school of social work in 1950.
Association of study of community organisation was merged with 6
professional association and national association for social worker on 1955.
Community organisation for social work was a book by Wayne Mc
Milens in1945 it was first book in community organisation.
INDIA:
Community development and organisation in India is mainly done
with help of reform movements among them main reform movement is done by
Mahatma Gandhi according to them forming community organisation is to achieve
the goal of a community or a society.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Banerjee were the other pioneers.
But the shape to community organisation was mainly given by TATA
Institution for social science.
MEANING:
Community organisation means organizing community to achieve a
community goal. Community development is an long process this cannot in short
term, it is goal oriented thing it will take long tenure. This can be achieved by only
through community organisation.
One day awareness program will be called as a community
organisation.
This can be done only by NGOs and Government.
PRA Participatory rural appraisal.
This is the important tool to organize a community organizational
developmental program.

SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH:
This is a systematic critical investigation of question in the social
welfare field with the purpose of yielding answers to the problem of social work
and of extending and generalizing social work knowledge and concept.
Pure theoretical
Applied systematical
STEPS FOR SOCIAL WORK RESARCH:
Selection of state
Constitution of work research
Investigation and study of material related to
problem
Collection of data
Analyses and interpretation of data
Conclusion
CONCEPT:
Social work is an applied research
Social work addressed to problems
Main function is to produce knowledge
To improve and enlarge the techniques of
diagnosis and treatment
To develop the efficiency of social work agency
To apprise and measure the community need to
add to the general knowledge

AREA OF RESEARCH:
Any personalized executive of an company about job satisfaction, training,
evaluation, etc.
In community level to diagnosis the actual problem in society.
To find effectiveness of existing program by welfare agency, government,
etc.
To find needy people in the community.
To find drawback adequate need in a social welfare agency.
Fundraising
Availability of finance resource
Technique and methods to solve a problem.
TOOLS:
Observation
Interview
Questioner
Sensex
RESERCH DESIGN: to design a path to undergo an research
SOCIAL ACTION:
Social action is mass betterment to propaganda social legislation.
A method of bringing about a change in the social environment
of the client MARY RICHMEN -1922
ELEMENTS:
Cause
Change agent
Change strategy
Change target

SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION
MEANING:
Social welfare is an institution comprising policies and laws, that are
operationalized by organized activities of voluntary and/or governmental agency
by which a defined minimum of social service, money, and other conceptions are
distributed to individuals, families, groups by criteria other than those of the
market place or those prevailing in the family system for the purpose of
preventing, alerting, or contributing to the solution of recognized social problem
so as to improve the wellbeing of the individual, groups, and communities directly.
DEFNITION ADMINISTRATION:
It is a process of defining and attaining objectives of an organisation
through a system of coordination and cooperative effort
DEFNITION - SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION:
Social welfare administration is a process of efficiently providing resource
and service to meet the needs of individuals, families, groups, communities to
facilities social relationship and adjustment necessary to social functionang
FUNCTIONS:
PRINCIPLES:
UNIT - IV
FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK
SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK:
Settlement houses social problem solving of students
First social work in school was started in Boston in New York during 19
th

century
Employ social work in 1990 in Chicago
When a job of teacher was over in school from there the social workers work
starts
It covers many areas like:
Family problem
Psychological problem
Social problem
Learning disability
IQ problem
Concept applied by school social worker:
RTI - response to interview
SEL social and emotional learning

NGO:
Registered under the act 1882(social act) and corporations society act (2002)
CHARACTERSTICS:
Requested under the body act
Ample number of programs
Service
Own purpose
Socio economic development
Fund
AREA OF WORKING:
THNGO (Technical Assistance)
CSGO (Civil Society)
TYPES:
INGO International Non government organisation
VINGO d business oriented
ENGO environment
GNGO governmental oriented
GUANGO partially autonomous Ngos
UNIT V
FIELD WORK IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION:
It is an practical learning
Training education
Implication and application of theoretical method studies(like laws)
Developing organizing skill
Developing managing skill
Developing observing skill
It equip our professional skill
Practical implementation of ethics and values in its field
To know resource present in the community it may be about person,
place, NGOs, etc.
Function of an organisation
Help to handle disability with help of empathy and not with help of
sympathy
Finding the thing lacking in the community
It make us to move freely in community
It make us to become more creative
It will give patent in every situation
It help us to solve the problem
Documentation and recording
Help in evaluating our performance
It will help to improve our own self
Fund getting from government and also from other private concern
You will become down to earth
Try to connect themselves with others

Compiled by
S.Rengasamy

S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work

2

Contents

History of Social Welfare/ Social Work .......................................................................................................................... 3
The need to understand history of social work ............................................................................................................. 3
Framework to understand History of Social Welfare / Social Work .............................................................................. 4
Understanding History through Historical Phases ....................................................................................................... 5
Photos of Walter Friedlander & Simon Patten 9who used the term social work first time) .................................... 9
The Settlement House ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various Welfare Traditions ....................................................... 11
Social Work in historical perspective ...................................................................................................................... 11
2. Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various welfare Traditions .................................................... 11
Three Social Welfare / Social Security Tradition ........................................................................................................ 11
The Poor Law tradition ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Poor Law Tradition .................................................................................................................................................. 12
The Poor Law Tradition ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Work House Conditions ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Work Houses ...................................................................................................................................................... 14
Social Insurance Tradition ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Welfare Tradition ................................................................................................................................................... 17
The Welfare State ................................................................................................................................................ 17
The Welfare State Why did it all start? ................................................................................................................. 17
Three Social Security Strategies ................................................................................................................................. 18
The Social Assistance strategy originating in the Poor law tradition .......................................................................... 18
Social Insurance Strategy ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Social Allowance Strategy ........................................................................................................................................... 18
Founders of the Welfare State-Photo Album ............................................................................................................ 19
History of Social Welfare in USA .................................................................................................................................. 20
1 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 20
3 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 23
4 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers .............................................................................................................. 25
Elizabeth Gurney Fry ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Octavia Hill .............................................................................................................................................................. 26
Arnold Toynbee ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
Jane Addams ........................................................................................................................................................... 28
Mary Richmond ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
George Orwell, John Howard Griffin, Pat Moore, Tolly Toynbee, Gnther Wallraff, Barbara Ehrenreich ............ 30
Sir William Beveridge .............................................................................................................................................. 32
Jane Jacobs (1916-2006) ......................................................................................................................................... 33
Joel Fischer .............................................................................................................................................................. 35
Understanding Social Work history by understanding the history of fields of social work ..................................... 36
Indian History Timeline ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Evolution of Social Welfare Ministry in India............................................................................................................... 38
Table: Establishing an Independent Ministry of Social Welfare Timeline ................................................................. 39
Subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment -India .............................................................. 41
Ministry of Women and Child Development -India ..................................................................................................... 42
Subjects allocated Ministry of Women and Child Development -India ....................................................................... 43


3

History of Social Welfare/ Social Work
The need to understand history of social work

.

The need to understand history of social work
The diversity of social work represents a great challenge for social work research, education and practice in
the rapidly internationalizing and globalizing world. This challenge can be met successfully only with a deep
philosophical and historical understanding of the characteristics of a particular country - and welfare regime
including the specific traditions of welfare systems and the position and role of social work within them.
Research into the philosophy and history of social work strengthens this understanding through analyzing the
conceptual and genealogical fundamentals of the traditions of social work. This kind of research contributes to
the theoretical self-conception of social work which is necessary for the development of social work as
a modern professional system, a scientific discipline and a research-based activity. The development of social
work as a modern social system depends on its intellectual capacity based on this kind of theoretical self-
conception.
Issues within the philosophy of science, political philosophy and the general theory of social action play an
important role in the philosophy of social work. Philosophical analyses are closely connected with the history of
concepts of social work, but also contribute to the history of social work as a professional social system and
social work practices in individual countries. There are several specific areas in practical social philosophy
dealing significantly with the theoretical self-conception of social work, for example the philosophy of family,
educational philosophy, the philosophy of law, and the theory of human rights. In addition to this, issues of
philosophy of science are of great importance for the development of the science of social work.
http://eris.osu.eu/index.php?kategorie=35174&id=5176

to reach an understanding of
what Social Welfare / Social Work
is?.. the issues it should address..
how it should be carried out?
social workers travelled a long
pathand it is worth knowing

IN AN ERA OF CHANGE

4

Framework to understand History of Social Welfare / Social Work

Framework to understand
History / evolution of
Social Welfare / Social
Work can be understood in
several ways
Understanding history through historical phases /
Chronological history
Understanding history by understanding different
Welfare traditions
Understanding the Social Welfare / Social Work
history in UK & USA that shaped the global history
Understanding history by understanding
contributions of pioneers of Social Work
Understanding William Beveridge Contribution that
shaped global welfare policies
Understanding the historical development of
various fields of social work Medical &
Psychiatric Social Work, School/Correctional
Social Work etc
Understanding the evolution of Social Welfare in
India, largest democratic & welfare state in the
world

5

Understanding History through Historical Phases

Prior to
1600
Toflers Agricultural Society: special values about caring for individuals evolve. Emergence of
unconditional charity toward individuals in times of hardship
1084 Almshouses for the poor and handicapped are established in England.
1300s Bubonic plague kills nearly 1/3 of European population. Labor shortages force the State to
intervene. Laws passed to compel all able-bodied men to accept employment. Alms to able-bodied
beggars were forbidden.
1313 Christianity legalized by Roman Emperor, Constantine. Church sanctioned to use donated funds to
aid the poor. Charitable attitudes and behaviors expected of the rich; redistribution of wealth not
part of charitable principles
1348 The Statute of Laborers is issued in England, requiring people to remain on their home manors
and work for whatever lords want to pay. Begging and Almsgiving is outlawed except for the aged
and those unable to work. For the first time, a distinction is made between the "worthy poor" (the
aged, handicapped, widows, and dependant children), and the "unworthy poor" (able-bodied but
unemployed adults).
1500 Henry VIII in England broke from the Roman church. State confiscates Church wealth, leaving it
without means to carry out charity expectations. Spain introduces first State organized registration
of the poor.

History of Social Work UK & USA
Social Work during primitive stage (before 1200 AD)
Social Work during 1200 -1500 A.D
Social Work during 1500 1600 A.D.
Social Work during 1500 1600 A.D.
Social Work during 1600 -1800 A.D.
Social Work during 1900 onwards

1600 - 1800
1600s Poor Law principles introduced to New World by Plymouth colonists. Poor and unfortunate
divided into two groups: "deserving" sick, disabled, widows, orphans and thrifty old;
and "undeserving" offenders, unmarried mothers, vagrants, unemployed and the old
without savings.
1601 The Elizabethan Poor Law is established. Built on the experiments of the earlier Henrician
Poor Law (1536) and the Parish Poor Rate (1572), this legislation becomes the major codification
of dealing with the poor and disadvantaged for over 200 years. It also becomes the basis for
dealing with the poor relief at the colonial level, taxes people in each parish pay for their own
poor, establishes apprentice programs for poor children, develops workhouses for dependant
people, and deals harshly and punitively with able bodied poor people.
1650 The influence of Luther, Calvin, and others has become established and manifested as the
Protestant ethic, a philosophy that becomes influential in England, parts of Europe, and American
colonies. It emphasizes self-discipline, frugality, and hard work and leads many of its adherents to
frown on those who are dependant or unemployed.
1662 The Law of Settlement and Removal is established in England as one of the worlds first
"residency requirements" in determining eligibility to receive help. Municipal authorities to help
only poor local citizens and to expel from their jurisdictions anyone else who might become
dependant for assistance. This law causes authorities to evaluate people as to the likelihood of
their becoming poor. Thus, though the law is basically harsh and punitive, some efforts too look at
the causes of poverty are codified.

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1697 The workhouse system is developed in Bristol and soon spreads throughout England and parts
of Europe. It is designed to keep down poor taxes by denying aid to anyone who refuses to enter
a workhouse. These institutions are usually managed by private entrepreneurs who contract with
the legal authorities to care for the residence in exchange for the residence in exchange for using
their work. Residence - including very young children, the handicapped and very old people are
often given minimal care and are worked long hours as virtual slaves.
1700 Humanitarian groups in Quebec establish centers for the relief of the poor; Nova Scotians
adopt English Poor Laws.
1782 The Gilbert Act is passed in England, enabling humanitarians, appalled by the exploitation of
workhouse residence, to institute reforms in many English jurisdictions. Many workhouses are
closed, assistance to the poor in their own home is established, and children under 6 are placed
with families. Many private entrepreneurs are replaced by municipal employees as managers of
the remaining workhouses.
1795 Speemhamland system establishes earliest "poverty line" based on the price of bread and
number of dependents in a workers family; subsidization provided when wages dipped below the
poverty line.

1800-1900
1800s Reforms to Elizabethan Poor Laws. Denigrating principles of "less eligibility" and "perception of
need" imbedded in societys attitudes toward the poor and less able bodied. Reform activists work
for the abolition of illiteracy, preventable diseases, sweated labor, slums and overcrowding,
unemployment and poverty.
Charity Organization Societies (COS) form in England with an emphasis on detailed
investigations.
Volunteers recruited to befriend applicants, make individual assessments and correct their
problems.
Thomas Malthus, British East India Company economist, documents population numbers
multiplying faster than production of goods to meet their needs. Coincides with Darwins theory of
evolution based on natural selection. Applied to human condition by Herbert Spencers declaration
that poverty was part of natural selection; helping the poor would only perpetuate unfit laziness
and non industriousness.
Protestant Ethic emphasizes self-discipline, frugality and hard work; encouraged disapproval of
dependence on others.
Feminists in America convene to declare the goal of equal rights for women; suffrage, equal
opportunities in education and jobs, and legal rights.
1819 Scottish preacher and mathematician Thomas Chalmers assumes responsibility for Glasgows
poor. He develops private philanthropies to help meet the economic needs of the poor and
organizes a system of volunteers to meet individually and regularly with disadvantaged people to
give them encouragement and training.
1833 Antoine Ozanam established in the Saint Vincent de Paul Society in Paris, using lay volunteers
to provide emergency economic and spiritual assistance to the poor.
1834 The new Poor Law is established in England to reform the Elizabethan Poor Law (1601). The
underlying emphasis of the new law is on self-reliance. Public assistance is not considered a right,
and government is not seen as responsible for the unemployed. The principle of "less eligibility" (a
recipient of aid can never receive as much as does the lowest-paid worked) is enforced.
1844 1844: The first YMCA is established in London, England.
1867 1867: The British North America Act created a political union between New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,
Canada East, and Canada West -- the Dominion of Canada. Responsibility for social welfare given to
the provinces. Welfare was not seen as a major function of governments.

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1883 Chancellor Bismarck of a newly united Germany introduces first national health insurance
system.
1887 Royal Commission on the Relations of Labor and Capital reported on conditions for workers in
the Dominion of Canada.
1889 In Chicago, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr open Hull House, which becomes one of the
most influential social settlement houses in the United States.
1898 The first school for social workers is established. The New York School of
Philanthropy (later to become the Columbia University School of Social Work) grows
out of a series of summer workshops and training programs for volunteers and
friendly visitors and offers a one-year educational program. Faculty member and COS
administrator Mary E. Richmond publishes Friendly Visiting Among the Poor.
1897 Herbert Ames' study of the poor in Montreal was published.

Social Work during 1900 onwards
1900 - 1950
1900 Educator Simon N. Patten coins the term "social workers" and applies it to friendly visitorsand
settlement house residences. He and Mary Richmond dispute whether the major role of social
workers should be advocacy or delivering individualized social services.
1910-21 Jane Addams and Mary Richmond trade leadership positions in the National Conference of
Charities and Corrections (NCCC). Later renamed National Conference of Social Work.
1911 Great Britain passes the National Insurance Act, which organizes a health and compensation
program paid for by contributions from workers, employees, and public.
1914 Canadas first school of social services at the University of Toronto; emphasis of first
curriculum on social economics, social psychology and social ethics theories; practice emphasis on
social settlements and community work, penology, medical social services, recreation,
immigration, labor, and child welfare.
Canadas first womens right to vote legislation in Manitoba.
1915 Einsteins special law of relativity; forerunner of quantum physics and subsequent sciences of
complexity in the 20th century.
In an address to the National Conference on Social Welfare, Abraham Flexner declares that
social work has not yet qualified as a profession, especially because its members do not have a
great deal of individual responsibility and because it still lacks a written body of knowledge and
educationally communicable techniques.
1917 Mary Richmond publishes Social Diagnosis. Social workers use her book as a primary text and
as an answer to Flexner.
The first organization for social workers is established. The national Social Workers Exchange
exists primarily to process applicants for social work jobs.
1919 The 17 schools of social work that exist in the United States and Canada form the
Association of Training Schools for Professional Social Work to develop uniform
standards of training and professional education. This group is later renamed the
American Association of School of Social Work (AASSW), eventually becoming the
Council on Social Work Education (CSWE).
Social workers employed in schools organize as the National Association of Visiting Teachers.
The Charity Organization Societies (COS) becomes oriented increasingly toward helping
families. Many local societies change their names to Family Welfare Agency. The National Alliance
for Organizing Charity is renamed the American Association for Organizing Family Social Work. By
1946 this Organization is known as the Family Service Association of America (FSAA), renamed
Family Service America (FSA) in 1983.
1927 Canada introduces social security; subsidized old-age pension program for over 70 year old
citizens, based on a strict and often humiliating means test -- Old Age Pensions Act

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1928 International Permanent Secretariat of Social Workers founded; Canada is a charter member;
spear headed by Dr. Rene Sand, Belgian advocate of social medicine; predecessor to International
Federation of Social Workers (IFSW).
1928 The Milford Conference convenes to discuss whether social work is a disparate group of
technical specialties or a unified profession with more similarities than differences among its
specialties. In 1929 the report of the conference is published as Social Case Work: Generic and
Specific.
1929 Famous Five women from Alberta (Murphy, McClung, Parlby, Edwards, McWhinney) win
approval from Privy Council in England that women are included as "persons" making them
eligible for appointment to Canadas Senate.
Stock market crashes and Great Depression begins.
1930 Gordon Hamilton extends Richmonds "man in his environment" concept to "person-in-
situation" within a organist context; Bertha Reynolds saw social work in a "between client and
community" context.
1931 Social worker Jane Addams becomes co recipient of the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize.
1937 The AASSW declares that beginning in 1939 the requirement for social work accreditation will
be a two-year masters degree program. The MSW becomes a requirement to be considered a
professional social worker
1939 American Association of Schools of Social Work, the accrediting body for social workers,
declared MSW degree as the minimum requirement to be a professional social worker.
1940 Mary Parker Folletts posthumous book Dynamic Administration is published; it becomes an
influence in the field of social welfare administration.
1941 Atlantic Charter; historical meeting between Churchill and Roosevelt, formulated as one of its
agreements citizen rights to social security.
1942 The Beveridge Report is issued in Great Britain, recommending as integrated social security
system that attempts to ensure cradle-to-grave economic protection for its citizens. Many of the
reports recommendations go into effect after World War II.
1945 World War II ends. On October 24, the United Nations is established.
1946 Great Britain establishes its National Health Service.

Social Work during from 1935 onwards
1950 - Present
1950 Canada has 8 graduate schools of social work offering two-year professional programs
Maritime School, Laval, University of Montreal, McGill, St. Patricks, Toronto, Manitoba and UBC.
1952 The CSWE is formed through a merger of the AASSW and the NASSA the two competing
organizations that had been setting standards for schools of social work. CSWE is soon granted
the authority to accredit graduate (MSW) schools of social work.
1954 In social casework, the so-called "diagnostic" and "functional" schools begin to merge and lose
their separate identities. The functional school had been oriented toward a highly focused, goal-
oriented approach to casework intervention. The diagnostic school had been influenced by
Freudian theory, but adherents of this approach develop more of a psychosocial orientation in the
1950s.
1955 On October 1, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is created through
the merger of seven organizations the AASSW, plus the American Association of
Medical Social Workers (AAMSW), the American Association of Psychiatric Social
Workers (AAPSW), the National Association of School Social Workers (NAASW), The
American association of Group Workers (AAGW), the Association for the Study of
Community Organization (ASCO), and the Social Work Research Group (SWRG).
Membership is limited to members of the seven associations and subsequently to
masters degree-level workers graduating from accredited schools of social work.

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Photos of Walter Friedlander & Simon Patten 9who used the term social work first time)

1958 Working Definition of Social Work Practice, headed by Harriett Bartlett, defines person-in-
environment as social works comprehensive domain of practice; published in 1970 by Bartlett in
Common Base of Social Work; reaffirmed in two special issues of Social Work on conceptual
frameworks in 1977 and 1981.
1959 Social Work Education Curriculum Study, headed by Werner Boehm, claimed a broad-based
orientation for social work that recognized five specialization methods: casework, group work,
community organization, administration, and research.
1962 NASW organises the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW), restricted to NASW members
with accredited MSW degrees, two years agency experience under certified social work
supervision, and adherence to the NASW Code of Ethics. ACSW membership requirements are
subsequently revised to include testing and professional recommendations.
CSWE recognizes community organization as a legitimate specialization for social work
education.
1966 Canada Assistance Plan introduced; a cost-sharing conditional grant from federal government
on an open-ended basis: 50% of provincial expenditures for welfare and social services of all
kinds.
1972 Canadian Association of Schools of Social Work (CASSW) becomes Canadas accrediting
body for social work education.
1974 Council of Social Work Education, social works new accrediting body in the U.S., revises former
standard to include the BSW as a professional social worker.
1975 CASW reorganized into a federated structure of 11 organizational members: 10 provincial and 1
territorial associations.
1977 CASW develops comprehensive code of ethics, based on Canadian Bar Association guidelines;
revised in 1983; accepted as a national standard in 1984; updated in 1994.
1982 Global definition of social work approved by the 44 nation members of IFSW; Members from
Canada and Spain had the special honor of preparing and presenting the final draft to the
federations General Meeting for approval.
1983 NASW establishes the National Peer Review Advisory Committee and trains social workers to
evaluate the work of other social workers to promote accountability and to meet quality control
requirements of government and third-party funding organizations. The CSWE issues a Curriculum
Policy Statement for baccalaureate as masters degree programs in social work education. BSW
education is recognized as the first level of professional social work education.
1987 The NASW Center for Social Policy and Practice is established to co-ordinate the exchange of
information, education, and policy formulation pertaining to social work and social welfare in the
United States.

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Walter Friedlnder
(1891- 1984)

1900 Educator
Simon N. Patten
coins the term "social
workers" and applies
it to friendly visitors
and settlement house
residents. He and
Mary Richmond
dispute whether the
major role of social
workers should be
advocacy or
delivering
individualized social
services.

10

The Settlement House

The settlement house, an approach to social reform with roots in the late 19th century and the Progressive
Movement, was a method for serving the poor in urban areas by living among them and serving them directly.
As the residents of settlement houses learned effective methods of helping, they then worked to transfer
long-term responsibility for the programs to government agencies. Settlement house workers, in their work to
find more effective solutions to poverty and injustice, also pioneered the profession of social work.
The term "neighborhood center" (or in British English, Neighbourhood Centre) is often used today for similar
institutions, as the early tradition of "residents" settling in the neighborhood has given way to professionalized
social work.
The first settlement house was Toynbee Hall in London, founded in 1883. The first American settlement house
was The Neighborhood Guild (later the University Settlement), founded by Stanton Coit, begun in 1886.
The best-known settlement house is perhaps Hull House in Chicago, founded in 1889 by Jane Addams with
her friend Ellen Starr. Lillian Wald and the Henry Street Settlement in New York is also well known. Other
settlement houses, like Both of these houses were staffed primarily by women, and both resulted in many
reforms with long-lasting effect and many programs that exist today. Other individuals known as settlement
house leaders include John Lovejoy Elliott and Mary Simkhovitch.
Mary McDowell, Alice Hamilton, Florence Kelley, Francis Perkins, John Dewey and Eleanor Roosevelt
are among the many women and men connected at some point in their careers with settlement houses.

The settlement House

11

Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various Welfare Traditions

Any religion that professes to be concerned with the souls of men and is not concerned with the slums
that damn them, the economic conditions that cripple them, is a dry-as-dust religion

Social Work in historical perspective

2. Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various
Welfare Traditions
Three Social Welfare /
Security Traditions
The Poor Law tradition
The Social Insurance tradition
The Welfare State tradition
The modern welfare state is a
European invention - in the
same way as the nation state,
mass democracy, and
industrial capitalism. It was
born as an answer to
problems created by capitalist
industrialization; it was driven
by the democratic class
struggle; and it followed in the
footsteps of the nation state
(Flora 1986: XII)
Social Work in Historical Perspective
Historic Shift
Historically the social welfare needs of individuals were handled by
less formal means.
Everyone knew each other and problems were more visible than they
are today.
With the rise of the industrial society that changed.
A need for a different model of delivering social welfare services was
required.
The Business of Social Welfare
When the less informal means of meeting social welfare needs were
inadequate the business of social welfare evolved.
Liberalism Vs Conservatism
Liberalism
Democrat
Institutional View of Social
Welfare
Encourage moderate
change.
Government regulation and
intervention is necessary and
required.

Conservatism
Republican
Residual View of
Social Welfare
Resistance to change.
Individuals are
autonomous
Government regulation
and intervention should be
avoided

Is there a middle, or more
rational, way?
In the 20
th
Century there
was a move towards developing
a middle, and more rational,
approach to the polar opposites
of liberalism & conservatism.

12

Poor Law Tradition

Debate
The Residual versus Institutional View of Social Welfare
The debate between the residual and institutional views of social welfare has been in existence
throughout history it is as old as humankind.
The debate will continue.
There is probably no right or wrong answer to the debate both sides have their positive aspects.
Intelligent people, people of good intent can and do differ on their views in this area.
The Institutional View
Social welfare is an acceptable, and legitimate,
function of modern industrial society in helping
individuals achieve self-fulfillment.
Difficulties are often beyond the persons
immediate control.
Social Insurance programs such as Old Age,
Survivor, and Health Insurance are examples of
institutional programs as are public assistance
programs.

The Rugged Individualism Approach
Funds and services are not a right (something
you are entitled to) but a gift.
Whoever receives that gift has certain
responsibilities and obligations.
Usually associated with wanting to help the
deserving poor.
General belief that, in general, a persons
misfortunes (with few notable exceptions) are of
their own making.
A societal stigma attached to receiving
services.

The Poor Law Tradition
It originates from the secularization
of poor relief stated in the English
Poor Law Acts from 1598 and 1601
under the reign of Queen Elizabeth
the 1st.
It is rooted in economic liberalism
and Christian values, with respect to
the principle of individual
responsibility and work ethics.
It distinguishes between ''deserving
poor'' (=orphans, aged, disabled)
and ''undeserving poor''
(=vagrants and beggars)
The Poor Law Tradition
represents important values in
social welfare and service
delivery today:
Rugged individualism and self
reliance or self sufficiency: public
assistance should be a last resort
Importance of the family in
supporting its own members
Legal residence and duration of
settlement is still an issue for
immigrants and refugees. The latter
are given short time limited benefits
on arrival which are cut off after one
year when they are on their own.
Fear of a powerful central
government leads to de-
centralization of services and great
variability in programs, and benefit
rates

ELIZABETH I 1558-1603
The daughter of Henry VIII and Anne
Boleyn, Elizabeth was a remarkable woman,
noted for her learning and wisdom. From
first to last she was popular with the people
and had a genius for the selection of
capable advisors. Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins,
the Cecils, Essex and many many more
made England respected and feared. The
Spanish Armada was decisively defeated in
1588 and Raleigh's first Virginian colony was
founded. The execution of Mary Queen of
Scots marred what was a glorious time in
English history. Shakespeare was also at
the height of his popularity. Elizabeth never
married.


13

Feudalism
Three elements existed and characterize the
period: lords, vassals and fiefs. Feudalism is
defined by how these three elements fit together.
A lord was a noble who owned land. A vassal
was a person who was loaned land by the
lord. The land was known as a fief. In
exchange for the fief, the vassal would
provide military service to the lord. The
obligations and relations between lord, vassal
and fief form the basis of feudalism.

Decline of Feudalism
By the thirteenth century Europe's economy
was involved in a transformation from a mostly
agrarian system to one that was increasingly
money-based and mixed.
Industrialism, trade, and money were
Replacing land.
Many people were displaced from the land and
their communities

Events of the middle ages:
Famines
Wars
Crop failures
Pestilence
Breakdown of the feudal system.
Former methods of providing for relief (church,
family, etc.) were ineffective.
Widespread begging ensued.

The Early Middle Ages
All societies develop ways to meet the needs
of those who are unable to do it for themselves.
Societies do this for humanitarian as well as
utilitarian (Genuine interest in relieving suffering
& Interest in avoiding social unrest) reasons:
As the Church became steadily more powerful
In the Middle Ages it developed and provided a
variety of human services.
Monasteries served as sanctuaries, refuge,
and places of treatment for the mentally ill.
Belief that the wealthy or those with
adequate resources had a duty to help the less
fortunate.
Little interest in finding out the cause of
poverty or other social problems.
People were helped simply because they
needed the help.

The Elizabethan Poor Law
England passed several Poor Laws between
the mid-1300s and the mid-1800s.
The most significant was the Elizabethan Poor
Law of 1601 enacted during the reign of Queen
Elizabeth I.
The fundamental provisions of this law were
incorporated into the laws of the American
Colonies.
Fundamental purpose was NOT to alleviate
poverty but to eliminate, or at least control,
widespread begging.
Who Received Relief?
Three categories of relief recipients were
established.
1. Able-bodied Poor
Given low-grade employment, and citizens were
forbidden to offer them financial help. Anyone
who refused help was placed in stocks, or in jail.
2. The Impotent Poor
People unable to work. This included the
elderly, blind, deaf, mothers with young children,
and those with physical or mental disability.
They were placed together in an almshouse
unless they had a place to reside, and it was
cheaper for them to stay there.
People living outside the almshouse were
given outdoor relief usually in kind (food,
clothing, and fuel).
3. Dependent Children
Children with parents or grandparents unable
to support them were apprenticed out to other
citizens.
Boys were taught a trade and had to serve
until their 24
th
birthday.
Girls were brought up as domestic servants
and were required to remain until they were 21 or
married.
How It Worked
People were ineligible if parents, spouse,
children, or other relatives were able to provide
for them.
The parish (town or community) was
assigned
the responsibility of implementing the provisions
using donations and tax revenue.
Residency requirements: The parish
responsibility extended only to its residents
(usually being born there or residing there for 3
years)


14

Work House Conditions

Work Houses

ocial Insurance Tradition

Management of Work Houses - Pamphlet issued during that period

Before 1834, poor people were looked after by buying food and clothing from money collected from
land owners and other wealthy people.
The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, ensured that no able-bodied person could get poor relief
unless they went to live in special workhouses. The idea was that the poor were helped to support
themselves. They had to work for their food and accommodation.
Workhouses were where poor people who had no job or home lived. They earned their keep by
doing jobs in the workhouse. Also in the workhouses were orphaned (children without parents) and
abandoned children, the physically and mentally sick, the disabled, the elderly and unmarried
mothers. Workhouses were often very large and were feared by the poor and old.
A workhouse provided:
*a place to live * a place to work and earn money *free medical care *food *clothes
*free education for children and training for a job.
The staff of a workhouse included:
*a Master *a Matron *a Medical Officer *a Chaplain *a porter *a school-teacher
Workhouses provided almost everything that was needed onsite:
Why were workhouses feared by the poor and old?
The government, terrified of encouraging 'idlers' (lazy people), made sure that people feared the
workhouse and would do anything to keep out of it.How did they do that?
What were workhouses like?
Women, children and men had different living and working areas in the workhouse, so families
were split up. To make things even worse they could be punished if they even tried to speak to
one another! The education the children received did not include the two most important skills of
all, reading and writing, which were needed to get a good job. The poor were made to wear a
uniform. This meant that everyone looked the same and everyone outside knew they were poor
and lived in the workhouse. Upon entering the workhouse, the poor were stripped and bathed
(under supervision).The food was tasteless and was the same day after day.
The young and old as well as men and women were made to work hard, often doing unpleasant
jobs. Children could also find themselves 'hired out' (sold) to work in factories or mines.

What were workhouses?


15

Social Insurance Tradition

Bismarck in Germany
introduced the first
rudimentary state
social insurance scheme
Social insurance
Social insurance is a program
that is implemented and
carried out by the government
with the aim of providing
economic assistance to people
who are unemployed, disabled,
injured or part of a group of
senior citizens or the elderly.
Social insurance aims to
provide economic assistance
by providing these people with
financial assistance that is
mainly obtained from the
monetary contributions of
employed individuals,
employers and those who are
paying taxes. Financial
assistance may also be taken
from the revenue of the
government.
Germany became the first nation in the world to adopt an old-age social insurance program in 1889,
designed by Germany's Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. The idea was first put forward, at Bismarck's
behest, in 1881 by Germany's Emperor, William the First, in a ground-breaking letter to the German
Parliament. William wrote: ". . .those who are disabled from work by age and invalidity have a
well-grounded claim to care from the state."
Bismarck was motivated to introduce social insurance in Germany both in order to promote the well-
being of workers in order to keep the German economy operating at maximum efficiency, and to
stave-off calls for more radical socialist alternatives. Despite his impeccable right-wing credentials,
Bismarck would be called a socialist for introducing these programs, as would President Roosevelt 70
years later. In his own speech to the Reichstag during the 1881 debates, Bismarck would reply: "Call
it socialism or whatever you like. It is the same to me."
The German system provided contributory retirement benefits and disability benefits as well.
Participation was mandatory and contributions were taken from the employee, the employer and the
government. Coupled with the workers' compensation program established in 1884 and the "sickness"
insurance enacted the year before, this gave the Germans a comprehensive system of income security
based on social insurance principles. (They would add unemployment insurance in 1927, making their
system complete.)

16

Social insurance is any government-sponsored
program with the following three
characteristics:
* The benefits, eligibility requirements and
other aspects of the program are defined by
statute;
* It is funded by taxes or premiums paid by
(or on behalf of) participants (although
additional sources of funding may be provided
as well); and
* The program serves a defined population,
and participation is either compulsory or the
program is heavily enough subsidized that
most eligible individuals choose to participate.
Social insurance has also been defined as a
program where risks are transferred to and
pooled by an organization, often
governmental, that is legally required to
provide certain benefits.
Similarities to private
insurance
Typical similarities
between social insurance
programs and private
insurance programs
include:
* Wide pooling of risks;
* Specific definitions of the
benefits provided;
* Specific definitions of
eligibility rules and the
amount of coverage
provided;
* Specific premium,
contribution or tax rates
required to meet the
expected costs of the
system.
Social Insurance Vs Private Insurance
Typical differences between private insurance programs and social insurance programs
include:
* Equity versus Adequacy: Private insurance programs are generally designed with
greater emphasis on equity between individual purchasers of coverage, while social insurance
programs generally place a greater emphasis on the social adequacy of benefits for all
participants.
* Voluntary versus Mandatory Participation: Participation in private insurance
programs is often voluntary, and where the purchase of insurance is mandatory, individuals
usually have a choice of insurers. Participation in social insurance programs is generally
mandatory, and where participation is voluntary, the cost is heavily enough subsidized to
ensure essentially universal participation.
* Contractual versus Statutory Rights: The right to benefits in a private insurance
program is contractual, based on an insurance contract. The insurer generally does not have
a unilateral right to change or terminate coverage before the end of the contract period
(except in such cases as non-payment of premiums). Social insurance programs are not
generally based on a contract, but rather on a statute, and the right to benefits is thus
statutory rather than contractual. The provisions of the program can be changed if the
statute is modified.
* Funding: Individually purchased private insurance generally must be fully funded. Full
funding is a desirable goal for private pension plans as well, but is often not achieved. Social
insurance programs are often not fully funded, and some argue that full funding is not
economically desirable.

17

Welfare Tradition

Definition of Welfare State
The Welfare State consists of a number of programs through which governments pursue
the goal of social protection against economic and social risks of life & well-being
The Welfare State
The Welfare State Why did it all start?
A long time ago.
The Welfare state began during the second
World War.
During the war, the government appointed a
committee under Sir William Beveridge to
investigate the problems of social insurance
The report said that there were five evil
giants
facing Britain which had to be destroyed
The Five Evil Giants
1. Want
Many people were living in poverty through
no fault of their own because they were sick,
widowed or unemployed.
This was attacked by the introduction of
National Insurance 1945 - 51
2. Disease
Although medical insurance had been
introduced, there was no free medical treatment
and many people could not afford to see a doctor
when they were ill.
This was attacked by the establishment of the
National Health Service. Providing free hospital
treatment for everyone.
3. Ignorance
Secondary education was only available to
those who could pay or who passed a scholarship
at the age of 11.
Most children left school at the end of
elementary education when they were 14.
This was attacked by 1944 education act
which introduced secondary education and raised
the school leaving age to 15.

4. Squalor
Although council housing had been
introduced at the end of the nineteenth century,
there was not enough and many people were still
living in slums.
This was attacked by a massive council
housing program and the New Towns Act. This
enabled the setting up of new towns in the
countryside; removed from the slums of the big
cities.
5. Idleness
At the start of the war over 10% of the
workforce was unemployed. This was however,
there own choice.
This was attacked by the government
nationalizing some industries and setting up
boards to help industries in high areas of
unemployment.
1. The Welfare State today.
The Welfare State in the UK uses National
Insurance and taxes to provide
Free education for everyone up to the age of
18, and help with university education.
Free doctors and hospitals for everyone. Help
with dentistry, opticians and prescriptions.
Payments for the unemployed
Social security so that everyone has a
minimum income.
Pensions for old people
Child benefit for children under 19 in full time
education
Housing benefits
Job centers for setting up in employment.
2. It provides training so everyone can find
work.

The Welfare Tradition
It originates in the ideas of Lord Beveridge exposed in his
reports: Social Insurance and Allied Services (1942) and Full
Employment in a Free Society (1944).
It is rooted in humanistic convictions that there is a common
responsibility of the society as a whole for the well-being of
all citizens.
It is to promote social integration and progress towards an
equal society with full employment by state intervention:
social expenditure is seen as desirable.


18

William Beveridge
Father of Social Welfare

Born
5 March 1879Rangpur, India (now Bangladesh)
Died
16 March 1963 (aged 84) Oxford, Oxfordshire, England.
Nationality
British
Education
Charterhouse School and Balliol College, Oxford.
Occupation
Economist
Title
1st Baron Beveridge
Known for
Work towards founding Britain's welfare state.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp
/hi/pds/19_07_05_beveridge.pdf

Three Social Security Strategies
From these three social security traditions emerged three types of social security strategies in Europe
The Social Assistance strategy
originating in the Poor law
tradition
The redistributive goal is to
reduce poverty that is to provide
a socially acceptable minimum
support. Vertical redistribution.
Social assistance is targeted on
individuals meeting certain
criteria of neediness.
Criticism: economists have
argued that it can discourage
labour supply because of the risk
of poverty-traps and that it can
increase costs of administration
and surveillance
Social Insurance Strategy
The redistributive goal is horizontal
redistribution from workers to
retired old, from childless to families
with children, from healthy to the
sick, etc. Benefit entitlement is
dependent on and related to past
contributions or earnings
The social security goal is poverty
prevention. It provides a social
security the market can hardly
supply.
Criticism: it leaves outside of the
coverage the non regular full-time
employees: self-employed, atypical
forms of contracts, etc.

Social Allowance Strategy
This strategy aims at universal
coverage and vertical
redistribution is considered as a
goal. It considers a guaranteed
minimum income as a right of
nation-state citizenship.
Social allowances are granted
according to demographic criteria
such as children and age.
Criticism: very expensive, today
facing financial crisis; risk of
inadequate levels of benefits with
persistent poverty; risk of
welfare-dependent underclass

19

Founders of the Welfare State-Photo Album

Edwin Chadwick
Josephine Butler
Joseph Chamberlain
Octavia Hill
Charles Booth
Ebenezer Howard
The Webbs
R.I. Morant
Lloyd George
Seebohm Rowntree
Eleanor Rathbone
William Beveridge
R.H. Tawney
Aneurin Bevan
Richard Titmuss

Sir Edwin Chadwick
1800 1890

Joseph Chamberlain
(1836 - 1914)

Josephine Butler
1828-1906

Octavia Hill
(1838-1912)

Beatrice Webb
(18581943)

Sir Ebenezer
Howard (1850-1928)

Charles Booth
1868-1921

Sidney Webb
(18591947)

David Lloyd George
(18631945)

Seebohm Rowntree
(18711954)

Eleanor Rathbone
(18721946)

William Beveridge
(18791963)

Richard Henry
Tawney (1880-1962)

Aneurin Bevan
(18971960)

Richard M Titmuss
(19071973)

R.I. Morant

Founders of The Welfare State

20

History of Social Welfare in USA
1

Puritan Beliefs and Charity-Religious
beliefs of the Pilgrims shape attitudes
Puritan beliefs became the foundation for
early America's social welfare philosophy.
These Puritans believed in an ordered,
hierarchical universe with God reigning
supreme. The world, as God's creation,
reflected this hierarchy and the presence of a
permanent underclass fit into this world view.
Believing in predestination, Puritans could
look at poverty as revealing a flaw in the poor
person's character; a sign that he or she was
out of favor with the higher power.
While acts of charity to help the needy were
an important part of religious practice, there
was not an expectation that such charitable
acts would raise the underclass out of poverty.
Charity was viewed as comfort to those
unfortunates doomed to suffer in this world,
and the charitable act a sign of the goodness
of the giver.

A New Nation -Democratic spirit and
new religious fervor
The newly independent United States of
America enjoyed great prosperity and
expansion in the early nineteenth century. An
invigorating democratic spirit influenced all
aspects of society.
Responsibility for governing was now in the
hands of the people. The nation's elite saw a

need to educate, improve, and uplift the people to best prepare them for this new
challenge. The creation of societies for civic improvement was widespread and social
movements like temperance and abolition got their start.
A similar spirit of optimism and hope was alive in the Church. A movement called "The
Great Awakening," begun in the 1700's, had challenged the deterministic view of the
Puritans. Emphasizing spiritual rebirth and salvation, this view held more hope for the
underclass.
Monarchy had relied on rigid class distinctions that allowed no upward mobility. Religion
had reinforced acceptance of a permanent impoverished class. With its space and
abundant resources, egalitarian philosophy, and a renewed religious vigor, America
enthusiastically tackled social ills.

Poor Laws of 1601 - Elizabethan laws lay the
groundwork for social policy in America.
America's foundation for social welfare comes from
the laws and traditions of England. English welfare
practices had been codified into law by Parliament
during the reign of Elizabeth.
Main principles included local control, with
administrative units made up of parishes, and select
residents of the parish designated "overseers of the
poor."
These overseers had responsibility for the poor of
the parish, including finding work, taking care of
neglected children and providing relief for "the lame,
impotent, old, blind, and such other among them,
being poor and not able to work." Emphasizing care
for the disabled and aged made a distinction
between "deserving" and "undeserving" poor.
For neglected children, whose parents were found by
the overseers to be unfit to "keep and maintain"
them, care took the form of being apprenticed to a
local tradesman.
Local control of social welfare under the Poors of
1601 also meant local financing, with overseers given
broad authority to levy taxes on parish residents
The 1601 Poor Laws were the basis of English social
policy until the mid-1800's. Their influence on
American practice, particularly in New England, was
tremendous. In fact, until recent times, New
Hampshire welfare case-workers were called
"overseers of the poor."

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21

Social Workers begun their great
journey as friendly visitors
In the 1850s, rapid urbanization &Industry-
alization, increased city social problems. Poverty
& its accompanying difficulties forced society to
address needed services. As a result, new
charities, both public and private, responded to
the challenge. As charity resources expanded,
experienced workers saw the need for improved
organization and management and they began to
to apply order to the problems in their
communities. The hardship and slow economy of
the 1870s threw millions of men out of work and
sparked riots and strikes. The strikes shut down
most of the nation's railroad traffic and, as a
result, commerce came to a halt. Elected
officials, shocked and frightened by the poverty,
destitution and general unrest, expanded local
relief efforts hoping to moderate the
depression's severity and to re-establish social
order. During this time, a new movement of
charitable organizations began to appear that we
now associate more directly with the evolution
of early social work.

The charity organizations were created to
reorganize the public and private resources that
had proliferated during the 1870s. In 1877, the
first American charity organization society was
established in Buffalo, New York. At the turn of
the century, virtually every major urban area in
America hosted some form of charity
organization society. Leaders believed poverty
could be eradicated through planned
intervention or treatment rather than by direct
relief (i.e. monetary assistance) alone. Many
were disturbed by what they saw as an
inefficient and chaotic array of urban
philanthropy. Therefore, a central record
keeping system was created to track those who
received assistance and prevented the indigent
from receiving relief from more than one agency.
Someone, though, had to perform the crucial
tasks of investigation and treatment, and that
someone was the friendly visitor, and yielded
the birth of what would be the social work
profession was born. In the early 1890s, Mary
Richmond, then director of the Baltimore Charity
Organization, began developing training
programs. In 1898, the New York Charity
Organization started the first school for social
workers. The original curriculum was designed as
a six week set of summer classes and included
formal lectures and field work.

Mary Richmond


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Early Reforms - "Outdoor" relief moves "Indoor"
The social welfare practices of colonial America and the early United States were a
legacy of English practice.
Appointed overseers of the poor in each community made provision for the needy:

securing pensions, apprenticing wayward youth to tradesmen, and, in some cases, auctioning off care of
people to the lowest bidder. The low bidder would be paid to care for an indigent person in his home, with
little financial incentive to provide quality care.
This decentralized system was called "outdoor" relief because care took place in people's homes, outside
an institution.
While at times abused by its disinterested overseers, outdoor relief was also criticized for delivering service
in homes, instead of motivating the needy to get out and help themselves.
Reformers of the time stressed the environmental factors that shaped social ills, such as poverty and
alcoholism. They built institutions to provide corrected, safe environments. Homes for the disabled, mental
institutions, even prisons grew out of this movement.
Many states created institutions for the impoverished. "Indoor" relief was born, and the era of the
poorhouse began.

The Gilded Age - Industrialized economy booms for some.
In 1869, the just-completed transcontinental railroad connected
the West to the East.
With North and South no longer at war, the nation moved solidly
in the direction of commerce. The railroad united new industries
and vast fortunes were made in steel, oil, and banking.
While some tycoons, like Andrew Carnegie and
John D. Rockefeller, would become legendary philanth
-rapists ,so-called "robber-barons" viewed the world
exclusively as a competitive arena where every possible advantage
should be exploited.
These "Social Darwinists" extrapolated the "Survival of the Fittest"
theories of Charles Darwin to mean the pursuit of individual
wealth was natural and right.
Darwin's work challenged prevailing religious views about Man's
origins. Just as some religious interpretation had led to acceptance
of a permanent underclass, this interpretation of Darwin's work
served the purpose of the wealthy

Cities and Settlement Houses - Immigration,
urbanization challenge cities.
Post-Civil War industrialization and immigration lead to enormous
city growth, as many newcomers to America were crowded into
cramped and filthy tenements.
The settlement house movement sought to relieve the pressures
of urban immigrant life by providing community social services in
an informal, neighborly setting.
The most famous example is Chicago's Hull House, founded by
social reformer Jane Addams. Less concerned with providing the
moral improvement charitable organizations sought, Hull House
offered some practical services to its community, like the first
childcare and kindergarten in Chicago.

Civil War - War redefines
balance between state and
federal.
The US Civil War was a conflict
between state and federal power.
One consequence, though
perhaps coincidental,
was a change in the
federal government's
role in social welfare,
particularly in public
health.
At the War's outset, appalling
numbers of troops succumbed to
disease, due largely to poor
sanitation. A very effective
Sanitary Commission was
established to disseminate proper
health practices.
Though it was not a government
agency, the Commission
demonstrated to federal and state
governments that a nationally led
organization could be effective in
promoting the public welfare.
It also demonstrated that some
issues, like public health, were
larger than local concerns and
required cooperation between
units of government.
The Commission also created new
roles for women by putting nurses
near the front.

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Social Security - Wisconsin economist directs effort
After the Band-Aid work of emergency relief, Roosevelt turned to developing a more
permanent safety net to keep Americans from destitution in the future.
A Committee of Economic Security was established with University of Wisconsin Professor
Edwin E. Witte as its director. Witte was an economist who had worked on Wisconsin's pioneering
unemployment insurance program. The committee devised a widespread program of social insurance that
became law in 1935, little more than a year after the committee began its work.Old age pensions and
unemployment insurance were funded by payments from both employers and employees. Funding was
provided to states to administer relief to the disabled, widowed, and to single-parent families in a
program that would become AFDC.
For the first time in US history, a certain amount of assistance was federally guaranteed to all citizens as
an "entitlement."

The Progressive - Era Government gets
involved.
Around the turn of the last century, the
excesses of the Gilded Age became politically
unpalatable. The laissez-faire style of
government that had allowed unrestricted
commerce did little to protect the rights of
workers or provide for the needy.
In Wisconsin, Bob LaFollette fought political
corruption. In Washington, President
Theodore Roosevelt broke up the trusts that
had monopolized whole sectors of the
economy. And around the country, farmers
and laborers organized for political unity.
Journalistic endeavors in this era of
muckraking shed light on dangerous work
conditions and squalid housing. Famous
examples include Jacob Riis's photography and
writing about tenement life and Upton
Sinclair's exposure of unsafe meatpacking
practices.
A 1909 White House Conference on
Dependent Children signaled a change in
government interest in children's welfare.
Previously considered a local or private
charitable concern, children's welfare received
federal attention with the creation of a US
Children's Bureau.

The Social Worker - The rise of the profession.
In 1921, at a Milwaukee conference, the American
Association of Social Workers was established. This
movement toward a more professional approach
evolved throughout the early decades of the 20th
century.
The complexity of modern life and the social ills
associated with city growth were thought too
daunting for the traditional untrained charity worker.
The social work profession devised standards and
training and advocated social research and scientific
methods.
While such professionalism lead to more consistent
and focused care for individuals in need, much of the
reformist zeal and desire for social change, so vital in
the 19th century, fell by the wayside.

The Great Depression - Millions of unemployed;
"alphabet soup" of agencies
After the 1929 stock market crash, and President
Hoover's ineffectual response, America faced its
greatest economic crisis. Millions of newly
unemployed were exhausting private relief
organizations.
In New York state, Governor Franklin Roosevelt

viewed the unemployed as a vast social problem that could only be fixed by government. An emergency
temporary relief agency delivered funds to local work projects and relief providers.
As President, Roosevelt's first major act was creation of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration
(FERA, the first of an "alphabet soup" of relief agencies) to fund locally administered unemployment relief.
The principle of locally funded, locally controlled welfare dates back to America's colonial era and the Poor
Laws of 1601. But the problems of the Depression proved too great for local governments or charities.
Federal funding came with guidelines, including the hiring of social workers. Many private charity social
workers now entered government service.


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War and Postwar - Wartime
factories retooled for prosperity
"The more women work, the sooner
we win" read this recruiting poster
from World War II.
Millions of men were away in the
military. To keep them supplied in the
field, factories hired women for jobs
that had previously been only done by
men.
After so many years of widespread
unemployment, the enormous needs
of the national war effort brought
unprecedented opportunities for
women and for minorities.
Just a few years before, aid to support
single mothers at home had been
passed as part of the Social Security
Act. Now a very different public image
of women was being projected.
Although "Rosie the Riveter" was
expected to return to homemaking
after the war, seeds of social
transformation were planted.
Wartime production gave way to
postwar prosperity, as factories turned
out consumer items for a growing
middle class. But amid the apparent
affluence and anti-Communist fever of
the postwar era, there was a growing
"Other America" rural areas and
inner cities that had not enjoyed an
economic boom.

The Great Society -War on poverty, and war in Vietnam.
Having grown up in the remote Texas Hill Country, Lyndon B.
Johnson understood the "Other America" places like
Appalachia where poverty persisted. Having seen electricity
come to the Hill Country, Johnson felt government could do
great things.
A die-hard New Deal Democrat who had idolized FDR, LBJ
wanted to make a similar mark. Taking many initiatives started
under Kennedy, Johnson created a program dubbed the "Great
Society." Central to the program was a "War on Poverty."
Although Edwin Witte was able to devise Social Security in a
matter of months, speed worked against the War on Poverty.
The crisis mentality of War meant many programs were poorly
conceived and badly administered.
Meanwhile, another war, a real one in Vietnam, consumed
more of Johnson's attention. Protests against the war and
urban rioting showed that Johnson was ineffective at providing
either guns or butter. His effort to fight Communism overseas
divided the country. A riotous underclass destroyed the image
of a prosperous, united nation. Government seemed impotent
at quelling rebellion, on one extreme, and a failure at providing
economic justice for the largely minority underclass, on the
other extreme.
While there were some Great Society successes like Head Start
and adding two-parent families to AFDC, Johnson Era programs
would become the prototype of the "Big Government"
approach neoconservatives would fight against for years to
come.

1996 Welfare Reform Bill Ending welfare as we know it.
The 1994 Congressional elections would be dubbed the "Republican Revolution," as
Newt Gingrich engineered a majority-taking election effort. Republicans united by the
"Contract with America" made welfare reform a top priority.
Core to these Republicans' philosophy was a belief in "devolution" the ceding of federal power to state
or local government. Local government should be more empowered and more responsive than a federal
bureaucracy could ever be.
History had expanded the federal role in social welfare through the Civil War, Progressive Era, and greatly
so during the Depression.
This new approach called back upon the principles of local control codified in the Poor Laws of 1601, the
original model for American social policy. As Gingrich praised the idea of orphanages, he approached the
reformist zeal of early American "indoor" relief advocates.
Negotiating with a Republican Congress, President Clinton signed the Personal Responsibility and Work
Opportunity Reconciliation Act in 1996.
Wisconsin had for many years been experimenting with programs to emphasize work over welfare. The
bill's passage paved the way for even more bold experimentation, and for states to follow Wisconsin's
lead.

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Elizabeth Gurney Fry (1780-1845) is most known for her successful reform of British prisons. It was a
complete innovation that a woman would do this kind of work. It was also new that she established a
voluntary committee of women for this work. Fry became known as the
angel of the prisons. Since 2002 she is honored for her work through
being depicted on the British five pound note.

Betsy Gurney grew up in a well off Quaker community in Norfolk, the
east of England. The Quakers had strong ideals about equality and peace.
They belong to the early opponents of slave trade and were very active in
a wide range of philanthropic projects. The death of her mother when
Betsy was 12 years old had a significant impact on the young girl and cast
a shadow over her youth. At the age of 17 she started organising a primary
school for poor children at her home. After her marriage with
Joseph Fry (in 1800) she gave birth to eleven children. Even so she
continued her social work, such as taking care of lonely sick neighbours.
It is 1813 when Elisabeth Fry First entered Newgate prison (in London,
closed and demolished early 20th century). She was shocked by the inhuman circumstances in which
women and children were imprisoned.

The reports on her conversations with the women in Newgate prison were impressive. She also invited
important people to come and visit the prison to see the poor living conditions themselves. Fry
opposed the solitary imprisonment, which was standard procedure at the time. She argued it was bad
practice for the health and mental sanity of the prisoners. Fry became the first prison reformer to
focus on the moral improvement of prisoners through personal contact, conversations, education and
work. To accomplish this work, she established a voluntary committee of women.

The method used by Elizabeth Fry had three core ingredients:
Male and female prisoners had to be separated. Guards had to be same gender as the prisoners.
This became international practice since.
For the visits of female prisoners, women committees had to be established. The volunteers had
to take care of education, paid work and support after their clients were discharged from prison.
This task developed into professional probation services.
Prisoners had to get opportunities for education and paid work.

Fry visited many prisons across the UK. Her actions were effective for her approach was (partially)
incorporated in the British prison law of 1823. She was consulted by Queen Victoria, Parliament and
became a source of inspiration for nursing pioneer Florence Nightingale. She also took her work
internationally, e.g. to the Netherlands. Thanks to the work of Elizabeth Fry, treatment of prisoners
became more humane.

To commemorate the contribution Fry made to social work, the school of social work of the university
of Stanford is housed in a building named after her.

Read more
Young, A. F., & Ashton, E. T. (1956), British social work in the nineteenth century,
http://www.steyaert.org/canonpdfs/1965,%20Young%20Ashton,%20British%20social%20work%
2019th%20century%20OCR.pdf

Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Elizabeth Gurney Fry (1780-1845)
Elizabeth Gurney Fry


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Octavia Hill
training enabling them to act as social workers. Octavia Hill works in a way that strengthens self
respect and trust in own capabilities. These days, we would call that empowerment and resilience.
She hates philanthropy that creates dependency. In 1869, she is one of the founding members of the
Charity Organization Society that aims to modernize poverty work. Its origins go back to Elberfeld,
Germany.

Octavia Hill starts advocacy work for nature in and around London in 1975. She becomes one of the
three founding members of the National Trust in 1894. The organization is still an important actor in
the maintenance of parks, castles and nature in the UK. Octavias influence is far reaching, and has
links to Amsterdam, Berlin and Chicago. Her 1883 publication The homes of the London poor
(http://www.victorianlondon.org/publications/homesofthelondonpoor.htm) helps spreading her ideas
across the world.

Although by the end of her life, interest in her thinking declined because of her great emphasis on
individual and small-scale social work, the past few decades have seen a renewed interest. Hill
refused to acknowledge that significant government intervention could be needed to deal with major
social problems such as poverty, housing and unemployment. In her thinking, government initiatives
should never replace voluntary action. With the emergence of the welfare state, her popularity
eroded. Within the current discussion about the sustainability of the welfare state, parts of Hills work
emerge again.

Octavia Hill is remarkable in the history of social work because she rejected alms. Those would only
bring curses and keep citizens at the edge of pauperism. Hill believed in a paternalistic approach that
changed the attitudes of poor people. More and better houses wouldnt help to get rid of slums: The
peoples homes are bad, partly because they are badly built and arranged, they are tenfold worse
because the tenants habits and lives are what they are. Transplant them tomorrow to healthy and
commodious homes and they would pollute and destroy them (1875)

Read more
1. Smith, Mark K. (2008), Octavia Hill: housing, space and social reform, 2. Hill, Octavia (1883), Homes of the
London Poor 3. Lewis, J. E. (1991), Octavia Hill, 1838-1912, 4. Lewis, J. E. (1991), Women and social action in
Victorian and Edwardian England, Links The Octavia Hill society (and birthplace) Wikipedia about Octavia Hill

It is 1864 when teacher and artist Octavia Hill (1838-1912) starts to work in
the poor neighborhoods of Late Victorian London (in what is now Marylebone
burough and one of the most expensive places to live). She works with people
at the bottom of the social ladder: poor, unemployed, living in cold and damp
dwellings. Housing is her main focus. Hill sees a well-maintained house,
however small, with light, air and space and with neighbours who care about
each other as life necessity

# 1. Money from the art critic John Ruskin enables her to buy three houses in
what is now central London. Each week, she personally collects the rent and
discusses issues with the tenants. Housing is the basis, but also the starting
point of other activities: development of gardens, play gardens for the
children, excursion. Octavia Hill starts living in the Marylebone borough of
London herself, and builds an accommodation behind her house to host
weekend- and evening activities for children, women and elderly persons.

As a result of careful housing management, she succeeds in having a 5%
return-on-investment. Her housing projects become an attractive investment.
She expands her work, gathers more funds and support. Many women receive
Octavia Hill (1838-1912)


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conditions. The confrontation with the harsh reality of social inequality would not only sharpen their
University Extension, an outreaching type of learning in which students worked with the poorer
parts of the population and applied their course material as a way of voluntary work. Students thus
would become more aware of daily living sense for social responsibility, but also bridge class
segregation. This idea was later labelled Practical Socialism (1888) by Toynbees think-alike and
Anglican priest Samuel Barnett. It received plenty of support in Oxford and Cambridge, from which
it gained international recognition.

After Toynbees death, Barnett continued work on the University Extension. Students would not
only work to enhance the living conditions of the poor, they would also live among them for at
least a year. The University Settlement was born. This would guarantee a stronger link between
scholars and urban slums, and achieve better results. In 1884 Toynbee Hall opened in East
London. Graduated students cam and lived there, while often working elsewhere, and contributed
to neighbourhood development. They studies the living conditions and necessities of the working
class, and organised activities to contribute to community building, (informal) education and social
liberation. They worked to achieve improvements in the poor law, better pension rights and an
overall enhancement of living conditions. Toynbee Hall quickly became an inspiring example of
community development in both the US and Europe. In the beginning of the 20th century, one of
the people to live and work at Toynbee Hall for a short period of time was William Beveridge.
(http://www.historyofsocialwork.org/details.php?id=4)

Extra Toynbee Hall celebrated it's 125th anniversary in 2009. On the 1st of June, there was a
party for the volunteers. This was also the launch of the movie "Celebrating Volunteers at
Toynbee Hall". (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fwHo55IzD6Y&)
Read more
Additional information
Barnett-Rowland, Henrietta (1913), Canon Barnett, his life, work and friends,
(http://www.archive.org/stream/canonbarnetthisl01barnuoft)
Links
Wikipedia on Arnold Toynbee (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee)
Toynbee Hall now (http://www.toynbeehall.org.uk/)
Settlements and social action centers (http://www.infed.org/association/b-settl.htm)

Arnold Toynbee (1852-1881) didnt get to live long, but was much
appreciated in his short life as a scholar. He lectured economical history in
Oxford where he was very critical about the industrial revolution he saw
emerging all around him. His key message was that: The effects of the
Industrial Revolution prove that free competition may produce wealth
without producing well-being". The biggest poverty became concentrated
in urban slums. This didnt allow for indifference. As a consequence, he
urged his students to show some real engagement.

Using the ideas of Edward Denison (1840-1970), Toynbee argued for
Arnold Toynbee (1852-1881)
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Jane Addams (1860-1935) was born in Cedarville, Illinois in a well-off Quaker family. After her studies,
she visited Toynbee Hall in London and inspired by it, she developed a very similar initiative in Chic-
ago. Together with her friend Ellen Starr, she started the first settlement house in 1889 in Near West
Side, a neighbourhood with plenty of European immigrants: Hull House. It quickly developed into a
real action centre with plenty of room for children, education for adults, culture and focus on social
progress. Addams however didnt only work with the poor but also engaged in political action aimed at
establishingnew laws to protect the poor.

Addams assembled a group of very committed young women. They became the female face of the
democratisation movement in the Progressive Era. From 1900 onwards the United States saw a wave
of interest in womens emancipation, new social laws and attention for social and racial tensions. The
Hull House group professionalised the contribution of women in social work. With their neighbourhood
work, they contributed to a more structural political focus.

They started from a profound analysis of real situations and by doing so contributed to later social
science research. In the Hull house maps and papers they reported on the effects of concentration of
different ethnicities and their living conditions, about labour circumstances in the sweatshops, about
child labour. This was work done by e.g. Julia Lathrop and Florence Kelley. This approach to mapping
contributed to the start of the famous Chicago school in urban sociology with key figures like George
Herbert Mead and John Dewey. For the academic researchers, Addams and her colleagues were just
data collectors, while for themselves their research was a tool and starting point for social action.

With the strong combination of professional interventions and structured reseach, Addams succeeded
in establishing a specific basis for American social work which raised international interest. From the
very beginning, Hull house received numerous visitors from abroad.
Many initiatives were launched from Hull house. Julia Lathrop later became the first director of the
Childrens Federal Bureau (1912). She succeeded in raising concerns about child labour and child
deaths.

The power of the settlement work translated to a broad social engagement of Jane Addams in which
she combined here work for Hull House with an at least equally passionate contribution to the peace
movement during the First World War. That earned her the nickname Saint Jane. Four years before
her death, she received the Nobel Prize for the peace (1931).
]
Extra
Jane Addams is still actively being remembered in the US. The social work department of the
University of Illinois at Chicago is named after her: Jane Addams College of Social Work.
(http://www.uic.edu/jaddams/college/)
Read more
Allen, J. D. (2008), Jane Addams (1860-1935): social worker and peace builder,
Addams, Jane (1910), Twenty Years at Hull-House,
(http://xroads.virginia.edu/%7EHYPER/ADDAMS/title.html)
Hull House museum in Chicago (http://www.uic.edu/jaddams/hull/)
The urban experience in Chicago: Hull House and its neighborhoods
(http://www.uic.edu/jaddams/hull/urbanexp/)
Jane Addams (1860-1935)
Jane Addams

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Mary Richmond

With her book Social Diagnosis from 1917, Mary Ellen Richmond (1861-
1928) constructed the foundations for the scientific methodology
development of professional work. She searched for the causes of poverty
and social exclusion in the interaction between an individual and his or her
environment. Mary Richmond can be described as the mother of social
casework.

Richmond spent her youth in Baltimore on the American east coast. Aged
4, she became an orphan. She was an intelligent young lady and was
raised by her feminist grandmother. After having worked for eight years in
a bookshop, she dedicated the rest of her live from 1889 onwards to
modernizing and professionalizing of care for the poor.
She started her career with the Charity Organization Society (COS) in Baltimore, a US branch of the
organization Octavia Hill established in the UK. Richmonds capacities didnt remain unnoticed and
soon she was offered leading position in COS in Baltimore and Philadelphia. From 1909 until her
death, she was director of the charity department of the Russell Sage Foundation in New York, an
influential fund supporting social science research.

In modern social work, about everybody agrees there is a need for diagnosis and research to happen
before care provision. It was Richmond who systematically developed the content and methodology of
diagnosis in the period around 1910. Her first principle was that care had to focus on the person
within her or his situation. Building on extensive research, she developed what she labeled as social
diagnosis. Her famous circle diagram visualized the correspondence of client and environment.
Richmond identified six sources of power that are available to clients and their social workers: sources
within the household, in the person of the client, in the neighborhood and wider social network, in civil
agencies, in private and public agencies. This is a precursor of the system theory that was so popular
in 1970s social work.

Through her approach to research, Richmond gave social work clients a voice for the first time. In this
way, she opened a new and fruitful area of social research which is up to now a cornerstone of social
work. With her broad instructions on how to gather information, interview methodologies, establishing
contact and conducting conversations, Richmond gave social casework a strong professional status. In
her second big publication What is social casework? (1922) Mary Richmond introduced the
methodology of learning from cases. She provided extensive comments to six elaborately described
practice situations. New was her plea to also cover psychological elements. First came however an
open and honest communication with clients, without encumbering formalities. Strengthening the
resilience of clients is a natural component of this approach. Richmonds plea to involve clients in the
solving of their problems still provides inspiration, even a century later.

The work of Mary Richmond was highly influential in the US, UK and internationally. There are few
countries where current social work has not been influenced by her work and thinking.
Richmond, Mary Ellen (1899), Friendly Visiting among the Poor. A Handbook for Charity Workers
Richmond, Mary Ellen (1908), The good neighbor in the modern city
Richmond, Mary Ellen (1913), A study of nine hundred and eighty-five widows known to
certain charity organization societies in 1910
Richmond, Mary Ellen (1917), Social diagnosis
Richmond, Mary Ellen (1922), What is social case work? An introductory description
Mary Ellen Richmond (1861-1928)

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George Orwell, John Howard Griffin, Pat Moore, Tolly Toynbee, Gnther Wallraff, Barbara Ehrenreich

There was a time when Eric Blair wasnt yet know as George Orwell, the
author of 1984 and Animal Farm. It was a time in which he was so poor that
he needed to move to Paris where the cost of living at the time was much
lower. He wrote up his experiences combined with those upon his return to
London and thus provided a great description of what poverty really looked
like. He provided a view on the (in)humanity behind statistics with more
vividness than any quantitative research could ever achieve.

To give one example, Orwell describes how he and his Russian friend Boris
are short of food and spent their last money on some bread and garlic. The
combination is part of their survival skills: "the point of rubbing garlic on
bread is that the taste lingers and gives one the illusion of having fed
recently." Others wrote similar accounts of poverty and injustice. Well known
examples include John Howard Griffin, a white man who decided to dye
himself black to experience society like a black. During some months in 1959,
he lived like a black citizen in the segregated deep south of the US. The
diaries he kept were published the year after as Black like me and showed
the many (ugly) faces of day-to-day racism. Griffin became a respected civil
rights activist but also received death threats and was at one time severely
beaten by members of the Ku Klux Klan. Similar to Griffins work is Pat
Moores Disguised, a true story from 1985. A student of gerontology,
Moore wanted to get a better understanding of what it meant to be a senior
citizen and started being one by applying a gray wig and e.g. blurring her
sight by applying baby oil to her eyes. Travelling through the US and Canada
in this disguised way, she organized her own excursions into the world of the
elderly. Although somewhere in the intro to her book she is described as not
being a social worker, she most definitely is.

Her project became a great example of how bad design of products (incl.
buildings, transport,...) excludes people with impairments. She also clearly
illustrated how working on social progress can go hand in hand with business
interests.

Griffin and Moore worked in North America and are not very known in Europe.
The same approach has however gained widespread fame in Europe through the
work of the German journalist Gnther Wallraff. Around the same time as Pat
Moores work, Wallraff disguised as a Turkish immigrant worker. He worked for
several companies, including Germans steal industry giant Thyssen and the fast
food champion McDonalds. His book Ganz Unten was translated in many
languages and made a great impact as it illustrated both the exploitation of
immigrant workers in the labour market as well as day to day racism from
German people.
All of the above are prime examples of the use of immersive research and role
play techniques to highlight situations of social injustice. This is not something
from the past, but still being done in our time. Examples include the UK
journalist Tolly Toynbee who worked as a low-skilled employee and published
her experiences in Hard work, the US writer Barbara Ehrenreich who did the

George Orwell, John Howard Griffin, Pat Moore,Tolly Toynbee, Gnther Wallraff, Barbara Ehrenreich

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same and published Nickled and dimed, and the French journalist Florence
Aubenas who lived for six months as a low-skilled single woman in a poor area
of the French city Caen. All three of these recent examples of immersive
research illustrate life at the bottom of society is not easy.

If three well educated woman with plenty of life experiences did not manage
to remain out of poverty when acting as a low-skilled person, how could
somebody really in that situation do it? Their research shows that society still
has not succeeded in building ladders out of poverty.

Orwell, G. (1933), Down and out in Paris and London
Griffin, J. H. (1960), Black Like Me
Moore, P., Conn, C. P., & Conn, P. (1985), Disguised: A True Story
Wallraff, G. (1985), Ganz unten, translated as 'Lowest of the low'
Toynbee, P. (2003), Hard work, life in low-pay Britain
Ehrenreich, B. (2002), Nickel and dimed, undercover in low-wage
USA
Aubenas, F. (2010), Le Quai de Ouistreham


32

Most social work in Western countries is currently provided within the context of
the welfare state, whose origins can be traced back to the work of sir William
Henry Beveridge at the time of the second World War.

Beveridge was born in 1879 in India, at that time part of the British Empire. He
studied law in Oxford and quickly became fascinated by early forms of social
security, rapidly turning into an authority on pensions and unemployment
benefits. At the beginning of the twentieth century, his thinking already had an
impact on the development of national insurance and policy on poverty in the
UK. Soon after the First World War, he was knighted. His work was greatly
influenced by the Fabian society, who clearly also liked his work for they gave
him the post of director of the London School of Economics (LSE). Early on
during the Second World War, the Minister of Health commissioned a report on
the state of social insurances in the UK and invited Beveridge to be chair. In
1942, they published their report Social Insurance and Allied Services, which
quickly simply became know as the Beveridge report. It was followed in 1944
by a report entitled Full Employment in a Free Society. Both reports were to
have far reaching consequences, way beyond the governments initial
intentions.

Beveridges work labeled the main challenges for social policy as the five
giants: avoid squalor, ignorance, want, idleness and disease. Social insurance
was but one element to address these challenges. Equally important were
education, health care, and housing and employment services. Each of these is
currently a sector where social workers are active. Beveridge argued for a
central role of the state in guaranteeing the necessary resources for the welfare
state, as well as being the main provider of services. Every citizen would
contribute to this universal system of solidarity according to his/her capabilities,
and would be able to make use of it according to his/her needs. Key to all this
was full employment.

In 1945, the Labour party won the elections and defeated Churchill. They
quickly announced the intention to build a welfare state as described by
Beveridge. This resulted in, among other things, the start of the National Health
Service (NHS) in 1948. The relevance of Beveridge was however not limited to
the United Kingdom. Many leading politicians from across the world spent time
in London during the Second World War, and were well aware of the ideas
proposed in the Beveridge report. Once peace established, the ideas were
exported e.g. by Arie van Rhijn to the Netherlands and Louis Major to Belgium.
As such, it can be said that Beverigde was the architect of the global building
plans for the welfare state.

There may have been one building plan, but it was not one welfare state that
developed. Implementation of the ideas in the Beveridge report was influenced
by local politics, and as a consequence welfare states across the world differed from each other and
from the original plans. Well known classifications of welfare states to describe this diversity have been
made by Richard Titmuss (1974) and later by Gsta Esping-Andersens (1990).
Beveridge, W. (1942), Social insurances and allied services the first 20 pages of 'the Beverigde
report' (http://www.canonsociaalwerk.eu/1942_ENG_Beveridge/1942,%20Beveridge,%20social%
20insurance%20and%20allied%20services.pdf)
Beveridge, J. (1954), Beveridge and his plan
Timmins, N. (1996), The five giants, a biography of the welfare state

Sir William Henry Beveridge
Sir William Beveridge


33

Jane Jacobs (1916-2006)

More than anyone else, Jane Jacobs (1916-2006) influenced our thinking about cities and city life
during the second half of the twentieth century. A lack of any formal education in city planning or
related subjects didnt put a brake on her influence. At a very early age, she moved to Greenwich
Village, a neighborhood in Manhattan, New York, where she had to take several different jobs to
survive amidst the economic crisis. Times of unemployment were filled with long walks through the
city. During that time, her eloquent writing and sharp analytic eye became to be noted. She married
an architect and started writing for Architectural Forum. In this way, she developed a keen interest in
cities and city life.

Jacobs published here best-known book in 1961: The death and life of great American cities. It
was a protest against the megalomaniac plans of Robert Moses, the city architect of New York. He
wanted to build huge traffic gateways through the inner city to give maximal freedom to car transport.
Jacobs was furious about these drawing board plans, and argued a city is not created on maps but
grows like a living organism. Cities are like bodies, and streets are the arteries. Through her
publications and protest actions, Jacobs together with many others succeeded in stopping the building
of the Lower Manhattan Expressway. She had been wrestling with Moses, and won.

In 1968, Jane Jacobs moved to Toronto as a protest against the war in Vietnam and to avoid military
service for her sons. Shed stay in Toronto until her death in 2006. The situation Jacobs found in
Toronto wasnt that different to New York. Plans existed to build the huge Spadina Expressway all the
way through the center of town. Jacobs became one of the most visible activists against these plans,
and again she and her companions succeeded in stopping the further planning and building of this
expressway.

In many cities across the Western world, the notion of make room for car mobility has gradually been
replaced by the notion that other transport is equally relevant and car-free zones are a benefit for the
city.

Jane Jacobs (1916-2006)

34

A few key elements in Jacobs vision on the city are still present in our present day thinking. She
argued that a mix of functions on the local level was a key element for general attractiveness of a
neighbourhood. If functions would become geographically separated, we get neighborhoods that are
only partially used, e.g. places where people only come to sleep, places where people only shop,
places that are only used during office hours. Jacobs had a strong preference to intertwine these
functions in the same locality, thus making for continuous activity.

Related to this Jacobs introduced the notion of eyes on the street. Plenty of people that make use of
the city at different hours would create a light form of social control that would enhance public safety.
Robert Putnam would later use and expand this notion in his work on social capital.

Another still very popular idea from Jane Jacobs is her saying that old ideas can sometimes use new
buildings, but new ideas must use old buildings. City development is not about destroying old
buildings and constructing new ones, but about giving old buildings a new purpose. Numerous
examples exist, such as Tate Modern in London, housed in an old power station.

To commemorate Jane Jacobs, several cities have installed Janes walks: city tours focuses on the
current live in neighborhoods, guided by citizens themselves. These give a view on the living city, not
on the historical dead city. They are also called urban safaris.

Read more
Hospers, G.-J. (2006), Jane Jacobs: her life and work, (http://www.dime-
eu.org/files/active/0/Jane%20Jacobs.pdf)
Jacobs, J. (1961), The death and life of great American cities
Sparberg Alexiou, A. (2006), Jane Jacobs, urban visionary
Flint, A. (2009), Wrestling with Moses, how Jane Jacobs took on New York's master
builder and transformed the American city.
Goldsmith, S., & Elizabeth, L. (Eds.). (2010), What We See, Advancing the Observations of
Jane Jacobs,

35

Joel Fischer

It is early 1973 when the at the time little known Joel Fischer publishes a
paper in Social Work, the journal of the US National Association of Social
Workers. After the professionalization of social work through the work of
Mary Richmond and the establishment of higher education for social work,
Fischer asks the question whether there is any indication on the
effectiveness of social casework. Are the goals one expects to reach also
reached?

To the surprise of many, research at the time indicated that social casework
was not very effective and that about 50% of the clients were worse off
after treatment than before. Fischer consequently argues social work should
not be satisfied with good intentions, but look critically into the effects of its
actions The issue of effectiveness of practice always must be of paramount
concern to the profession and cannot be brushed aside.

Joel Fischers article caused a debate in the subsequent issues of Social
Work and other scholarly social work journals. It is probably one of the most
reprinted and most cited single publication in the entire social work
literature. The article and the ensuing debate can be seen as the start of
professional doubt. No doubt in a cynical way, but as a healthy level of
scrutinizing ones work and monitor the effects of social interventions as a
foundation for continuous improvements.

Fischer did not linger in questioning the effectiveness of social work, but in
the decades after 1973 published several manuals on how to liaise science
and social work. His Evaluating practice (together with Martin Bloom and
John Orme) received its sixth edition in 2009. It focuses on the use of
single-system designs to evaluate social work practice.

Fischer had an infectious enthusiasm and optimism about science and social work growing close. He wrote
e.g. in 1993: By the year 2000, empirically based practice the new social work may be the norm, or
well on the way to becoming so. You could argue that scientific based social work is still not the norm, but
the discussion about why and how is certainly dominating a great number of discussions within the
profession.

Professional doubt as the driving force behind innovation has gained much attention since 1973. Social
work followed in the footsteps of medicine and invests in evidence based practice. Whole libraries have
been written on this subject by now and organizations such as Social Care Institute of Excellence (SCIE) or
the Campbell Collaboration (C2) make it a core part of their reason of existence to contribute to the
scientific grounding of social work.

Fischer, J. (1973), Is casework effective? a review, (http://lyceumbooks.com/pdf/Toward_Evidence-
Based_Prologue.pdf)
Bloom, M., Fischer, J., & Orme, J. (2009), Evaluating Practice Guidelines for the Accountable
Professional,
Fischer, J. (2009), Toward evidence-based practice: variations on a theme,
(http://lyceumbooks.com/iTowardEvidence-BasedPrac.htm)

Joel Fischer

36

Understanding Social Work history by understanding the history of fields of social work

Practice of Social Work with
Individuals, Families and Groups
Social Work with Organizations,
Communities and Larger Systems
Correctional / Forensic Social
Work

Gender and Social Work Practice
Addictions and Social Work
Practice
Social Work with Gay, Lesbian,
Bisexual, and Transgender
People

Psychiatric Social Work
Social Work Practice in Health-
Care Settings
Social Work with Disabled

Social Work and Familiy Welfare

Gerontological Social Work
Poverty: Opportunities for
Social Work

Rural Social Work / Community
Development

School Social Work

Social Work in Industries/ Labour
Welfare


37

Chera Empire 300 BCE200 CE
Chola Empire 250 BCE1070 CE
Satavahana 230 BCE220 CE
Kushan Empire 60240 CE
Gupta Empire 280550
Pala Empire 7501174
Chalukya Dynasty 543753
Rashtrakuta 753982
Western Chalukya Empire 9731189
Hoysala Empire 10401346
Kakatiya Empire 10831323
Islamic Sultanates 12061596
Delhi Sultanate 12061526
Deccan Sultanates 14901596
Ahom Kingdom 12281826
Vijayanagara Empire 13361646
Mughal Empire 15261858
Maratha Empire 16741818
Sikh Confederacy 17161799
Sikh Empire 17991849
British East India Company 17571858
British Raj 18581947
Modern States 1947present

Indian History Timeline
1600 East India Company is formed in England.
Gets exclusive trading rights with India.
1605 Akbar dies, and is succeeded by his son
Jehangir.
1628 Jehangir announces "Chain of Justice" outside
his palace that anyone can ring the bell and get a
personal hearing with the emperor. Jehangir dies,
and is succeeded by his son Shah Jahan.
1630 Birth of Shivaji.
1644 Shivaji takes oath of Independence at
Raireshwar.
1658 Shah Jahan completes Taj Mahal, Jama
Masjid, and Red Fort. Imperial treasuries drained by
architectural and military overexpenditures. Shah
Jahan dies, and is succeeded by his son Aurangzeb.
1659 Shivaji personally kills Adilshahi commander
Afzal Khan in a thrilling fashion.
1674 Forces led by Shivaji defeat Aurangzeb's
troops, and establishes Maratha Empire.
1680 Shivaji dies of fever at Raigad.
1681 Aurangzeb invades the Deccan
1707 Aurangzeb dies, and is succeeded by son Bahadur Shah I.
1717 Pamheiba decrees Vaishnavism as the state religion of Manipur
1719 Bajirao I is appointed the Peshwa by Maratha Emperor Shahu.
1735 Annexation of Rajputana by Peshwa Bajirao
1737 Bajirao I conquers Delhi, Mughal Emperor is spared and kept as titular head.
1740 Bajirao I annexes Bengal and Orissa.
1740 Bajirao I dies, with the distinction of winning every battle he fought. He is succeeded by
Balaji Bajirao
1757 The British East India Company's private army under Robert Clive annexes Bengal for
the company in the Battle of Plassey. Edmund Burke has Robert Clive arrested for the act.
1760 Marathas comprehensively defeat the Nizam; Maratha Empire reaches its zenith.
1761 The Marathas are defeated in the Third battle of Panipat bringing an end to their
expansion.
1766 -1769 First Anglo-Mysore War
1772 Young Madhavrao Peshwa dies of tuberculosis.
1773 Narayanrao Peshwa is murdered by his uncle Raghunathrao's wife in front of
Raghunathrao.
Indian History Timeline
This will help the students to compare Indian welfare efforts with UK & USA from 1600 AD (CE)

38

1774 Chief Justice of the Maratha Empire, Ram Shastri passes death sentence against the
ruling Peshwa Raghunathrao for murdering his nephew.
1777 -1782 First Anglo-Maratha War begins and ends with the restoration of status quo as per
Treaty of Salbai.
1779 Maratha sardar Mahadji Shinde routs the British army at the Battle of Wadgaon.
1780 -1784 Second Anglo-Mysore War begins. ends with the Treaty of Mangalore.
1789 -1792 Third Anglo-Mysore War begins.
1790 The Marathas under Holkar and General de Boigne comprehensively defeat the Rajputs
of Jaipur and their Mughal allies at the Battle of Patan, where 3000+ Rajput cavalry is killed
and the entire Mughal unit vanquished. The defeat crushes Rajput hope of independence from
external influence
1798 1799 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War begins. ends with the death of Tipu Sultan and the
restoration of the Wodeyar dynasty.
1803 1805 Second Anglo-Maratha War
1817 - 1818 Third Anglo-Maratha War begins and ends with the defeat of Bajirao II and the
end of the Maratha Empire leaving the British with control of almost the whole of India

Evolution of Social Welfare Ministry in India

For social welfare three important dates occur in the evolution of the Ministry of Social Welfare
in India. These are 14 June 1964 when the Department of Social Security was created; 24
January 1966 when the Department of Social Security was redesignated as Department of Social
Welfare; and 24 August 1979 when the Department of Social Welfare was elevated to the status
of an independent Ministry.

A memorandum was submitted on 12 May 1956 by the Indian Conference of Social Work (now
Indian Council of Social Welfare) to the then Prime Minister, urging the creation of a Central
Ministry of Social Welfare.

The Conference felt that the early establishment of a Social Welfare Ministry at the Centre was
very necessary not only to integrate the administration of social welfare in the country, but also
to provide the policy of social development with a driving force which can only be given through
a well-formulated philosophy of social progress

The Study Team on Social Welfare and Welfare of Backward Classes constituted in 1958 by the
Committee on Plan Projects of the Planning Commission under the chairmanship of Smt. Renuka
Ray pointed out inter-alia that various social welfare subjects are dealt with in different
Ministries. The Team was of the view that the plans and policies of social welfare have not had
the advantage of an integrated approach and direction. It, therefore, recommended the setting up
of a Department of Social Welfare. The Study Team further suggested that the work relating to
youth welfare, recreational services, education and welfare of the handicapped, social work
research and training dealt with by the Ministry of Education; and the work relating to beggary
and vagrancy, juvenile delinquency and probation, social and moral hygiene and rehabilitation of
persons discharged from correctional and non-correctional institutions dealt with by the Ministry
of Home Affairs, be transferred to the new Department of Social Welfare. The Study Team also
suggested that administration of a national social welfare policy; initiating, reviewing and

39

Establishing an Independent Ministry of Social Welfare Timeline
Although a separate social welfare sector has been in existence ever since the beginning of the First Five
Year Plan (1951-56), a separate Department of Social Welfare came into being only after about thirteen
years.
1956 A memorandum was submitted by the Indian Conference of Social Work (now Indian Council of Social Welfare)
to the then Prime Minister, urging the creation of a Central Ministry of Social Welfare
1958 The Committee on Plan Projects of the Planning Commission under the chairmanship of Smt.
Renuka Ray recommended the setting up of a Department of Social Welfare.
1964 The Department of Social Security was created
1966 The Department of Social Security was renamed as Department of Social Welfare
1967 Administrative Reforms Commission suggested to group various subjects with the Department of
Labor and Employment to constitute a Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Welfare -Transfer
of charitable and religious institutions from the Ministry of Law to the proposed Department and
also to transfer child welfare from Social Welfare Ministry of Health, Family Planning and Regional
Planning
1979 The Department of Social Welfare was elevated to the status of an independent Ministry
1985-
86
The erstwhile Ministry of Welfare was bifurcated into the Department of Women and Child
Development and the Department of Welfare. Simultaneously, the Scheduled Castes Development
Division, Tribal Development Division and the Minorities and Backward Classes Welfare Division
were moved from the Ministry of Home Affairs and also the Wakf Division from the Ministry of Law
to form the then Ministry of Welfare.
1998 The name of the Ministry was changed into Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment.
The list of subjects which stand allocated to the Ministry of Social Welfare would show that several
subjects or significant parts of these subjects administered by other Ministries could perhaps be
administered by the Ministry of Social Welfare, as, for instance, social education and adult education
and youth welfare activities (Ministry of Education and Culture); welfare of labor (Ministry of Labor);
legal aid to the poor (Department of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs);
and relief and rehabilitation of displaced persons (Department of Rehabilitation, Ministry of Supply
and Rehabilitation)
1999 The Tribal Development Division had moved out to form a separate Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
2007 The Minorities Division along with Wakf Unit have been moved out of the Ministry and formed as a
separate Ministry

watching implementation of social welfare legislation by State Governments; coordination of
social welfare schemes of the State Governments on a broadly uniform pattern; promotion of
social research, and constitution and administration of a Central cadre of welfare administrators
should be the other functions of the suggested Department of Social Welfare.

Table: Establishing an Independent Ministry of Social Welfare Timeline

It is not known whether the creation of the Department of Social Security in 1964 was a direct
outcome of the recommendations of the Renuka Ray Team or of other conferences and
committees. The subjects then allotted to the newly created Department of Social Security
included an assortment or items like child welfare, orphans and orphanages, education of the
handicapped, social welfare, the scheduled castes, the scheduled tribes, ex-criminal tribes and
other backward classes, unemployment insurance, social security measures, the Central Social
Welfare Board, coordination and development of village industries including Khadi and
handicraft, prohibition, Ambar Charkha, and UNICEF. Later on, certain subjects like social
security, village industries and the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes were allocated to other
Ministries.


40

In 1967 in its report, the Study Team appointed by the Administrative Reforms Commission to
examine the machinery of the Government of India and its procedures of work suggested that
rehabilitation and social welfare should be combined into a single department and the
department should then be grouped with the Department of Labor and Employment to constitute
a Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Welfare. It further recommended that considering
the tremendous influence that charitable and religious institutions can have on social welfare
programs of the Government and in molding public opinion in the field, this subject should be
transferred from the Ministry of Law to the proposed Department. The Study Team was of the
view that child welfare should not be separated from health and family planning and should be
transferred from the Department of Social Welfare to the proposed Ministry of Health, Family
Planning and Regional Planning.

ALLOCATION OF SUBJECTS
The subjects allocated to the Department of Social Welfare need also to be viewed in the context
of the consecutive Five Year Plan policies and programs. Although a separate social welfare
sector has been in existence ever since the beginning of the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), a
separate Department of Social Welfare came into being only after about thirteen years.

The Department of Social Welfare was elevated to the status of an independent Ministry on 24
August 1979 and was placed under the charge of a Cabinet Minister. This opportunity was not,
however, availed of to regroup or reallocate subjects related to social welfare from amongst
different Ministries. The subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social Welfare cover child welfare
and development, women's welfare and development, welfare of the physically handicapped,
social defence, social welfare planning and research, etc. The Ministry provides general direction
in social welfare policy formulation, promoting legislation and amendments to legislation,
review of welfare legislation, implementation of schemes, promotion and assistance to voluntary
effort and coordination.

The list of subjects which stand allocated to the Ministry of Social Welfare would show that
several subjects or significant parts of these subjects administered by other Ministries could
perhaps be administered by the Ministry of Social Welfare, as, for instance, social education and
adult education and youth welfare activities (Ministry of Education and Culture); welfare of
labor (Ministry of Labor); legal aid to the poor (Department of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Law,
Justice and Company Affairs); and relief and rehabilitation of displaced persons (Department of
Rehabilitation, Ministry of Supply and Rehabilitation).

The allocation of subjects to the Ministry of Social Welfare has thus not strictly followed any set
pattern or direction. It has over the years primarily been based on the views of policy-makers and
administrators as to which Ministry would be in a better position to discharge a particular
function.


41

Subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment -India

Subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment
Social Welfare: Social Welfare Planning, Project formulation, research, evaluation, statistics and
training
Conventions with other countries in matters relating to social defense and references from United
Nations Organization relating to prevention of crime and treatment of offenders.
Institutional and non-institutional services for the care and development of children in need
including orphans and orphanages. # Education, training, rehabilitation and welfare of the physically
and mentally handicapped
National Institute for the Physically Handicapped and Mentally Retarded
Rehabilitation of the persons with disabilities and rehabilitation of the mentally ill.
National Centre for the Blind including the Central Braille Press, Dehra Dun, Training Centre for the
Adult Deaf, and School for the partially deaf children, Hyderabad; Model School for Mentally
Retarded Children, New Delhi and other national institutes. # Social and Moral Hygiene Program #
Beggary
Research, evaluation, training, exchange of information and technical guidance on all social defence
matters.
All matters relating to alcoholism and substance (drug) abuse and rehabilitation of addicts/families
Promotion of efforts including voluntary efforts to ensure the well being of the older persons.
All matters relating to prohibition. # Educational and social welfare aspects of drug addiction
Charitable and religious endowments pertaining to subjects allocated to this Ministry
Promotion and development of voluntary effort on subjects allocated to this Department
National Institute of Social Defense # National Institute for the Physically Handicapped, New Delhi
# National Institute for the Orthopedically Handicapped, Kolkata
National Institute of Rehabilitation, Training and Research, Cuttack
National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped, Secunderabad
Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped, Mumbai
National Institute for the Visually Handicapped, Dehradun
National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation, Faridabad
Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India, Kanpur
The Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992 (34 of 1992) and Rehabilitation Council constituted
there under
The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act,
1995 (01 of 1996) # The National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy
Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999 (44 of 1999) # Chief Commissioner for
Disabilities
Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes including scholarships to students belonging to such
Castes and Classes # National Commission for Scheduled Castes
Development of Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes
Note:- The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment will be the nodal Ministry for overall policy,
planning and coordination of programs of development of Scheduled Castes and Other Backward
Classes. In regard to sectoral programs and schemes of development pertaining to these communities,
policy, planning, monitoring, evaluation etc as also their coordination will be the responsibility of the
concerned Central Ministries, State Governments and Union Territory Administrations. Each Central
Ministry and Department will be the nodal Ministry or Department concerning its sector.
Reports of the Commission to Investigate into the conditions of Backward Classes
National Commission for Safai Karamcharis and all matters pertaining thereto
Implementation of the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1995, and the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, excluding the administration of criminal
justice in regard to offences in so far as they relate to Scheduled Castes


42

Ministry of Women and Child Development -India

Ministry of Women and Child Development
The Department of Women and Child Development was set up in the year 1985 as a part of the Ministry
of Human Resource Development to give the much needed impetus to the holistic development of women
and children. With effect from 30.01.2006, the Department has been upgraded to a Ministry under the
independent charge of Minister of State for Women and Child Development.
Mandate:
The broad mandate of the Ministry is to have holistic development of Women and Children. As a nodal
Ministry for the advancement of women and children, the Ministry formulates plans, policies and
programs; enacts/ amends legislation, guides and coordinates the efforts of both governmental and
non-governmental organizations working in the field of Women and Child Development. Besides, playing
its nodal role, the Ministry implements certain innovative programs for women and children. These
programs cover welfare and support services, training for employment and income generation, awareness
generation and gender sensitization. These programs play a supplementary and complementary role to
the other general developmental programs in the sectors of health, education, rural development etc. All
these efforts are directed to ensure that women are empowered both economically and socially and thus
become equal partners in national development along with men.
Policy Initiatives:
For the holistic development of the child, the Ministry has been implementing the world's largest and most
unique and outreach program of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) providing a
package of services comprising supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check up and referral
services, pre-school non-formal education. Ministry is also implementing Swayamsidha which is an
integrated scheme for empowerment of women. There is effective coordination and monitoring of various
sectoral programs. Most of the programs of the Ministry are run through non-governmental organizations.
Efforts are made to have more effective involvement of NGOs. The major policy initiatives undertaken by
the Ministry in the recent past include universalization of ICDS and Kishori Shakti Yojana, launching a
nutrition program for adolescent girls, establishment of the Commission for protection of Child Rights and
enactment of Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act.

First Chairman, CSWB


43

Subjects allocated Ministry of Women and Child Development
Welfare of the family.
Women and Child Welfare and Coordination of activities of other Ministries and Organization in
connection with this subject.
References from the United Nations Organizations relating to traffic in Women and Children
Care of pre-school children including pre-primary education
National Nutrition Policy, national Plan of Action for Nutrition and National Nutrition Mission.
Charitable and religious endowments pertaining to subjects allocated to this Department
Promotion and development of voluntary effort on the subjects allocated to this Department
Implementation of -
Immoral Traffic in Women and Girl Act. 1956 (as amended up to 1986) .
The Indecent Representation of Women (Prevention) Act, 1986 (60 of 1986).
The Dowry Prohibition Act. 1961 (28 of 1961)
The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (3 of 1988), excluding the administration of criminal
justice in regard to offences under these Acts.
Implementation of the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Food (Regulation of Production,
Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992 (41 of 1992).
Coordination of activities of Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE)
Planning, Research, Evaluation, Monitoring, Project Formulations, Statistics and Training relating to the
welfare and development of women and children, including development of gender sensitive data base.
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)
National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development (NIPCCD)
Food and Nutrition Board
Food and Nutrition Board (FNB)
(i) Development and popularization of subsidiary and protective foods.
(ii) Nutrition extension.
Womens Empowerment and Gender Equity.
National Commission for Women.
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK)
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000 (56 of 2000).
Probation of Juvenile offenders.
Issues relating to adoption, Central Adoption Resource Agency and Child Help Line (Child line.)
The Children Act, 1960 (60 of 1960).
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (19 of 1929).

Subjects allocated Ministry of Women and Child Development -India


44

Community Organizers can differ on strategy,
tactics, even on what seem to be base
However, all organizers believe in people, in the
ability of regular folks to guide their lives, to
speak for themselves, to learn the world and
how to make it better.
C. Organizers believe in
PEOPLE CAN DO IT
PEOPLE CAN BE TRAINED TO DO IT
CONDITIONS CAN BE CREATED TO DO IT

INTRODUCTION TO
(Compiled by S.Rengasamy, Faculty Member, Madurai Institute of Social Sciences)

Understanding Community

Community is a contributor of resources and allies and provider of

Community is a place, where
1. The need for change, 2.The effort to make that change and 3. The resistance to change
co-exists
A fundamental capacity of our humanness
A state of being
Manner of people relating to one another
what is CO? What are its driving philosophy, values and goals? Who employs the strategy? What are
some examples of CO in practice? What is being accomplished? Why does it seem to be gaini
importance and use today? How does CO differ from other strategies, activities or interventions that
seek to benefit low-income people and communities?

Organization means hope for people. It means making their institutions relevant. But most of all,
organization means power. It means being able to do something about things theyve been frustrated about
all their lives. Ernesto Cortes, Industrial Areas Foundation
Community organizing explicitly seeks to build the powerbase of the poor so they can af
public policies and private market forces that create and sustain social and economic inequality.
Allen, Hyams Foundation
Jane Addams
Hull House where Jane Addams practiced
Community Organizers can differ on strategy,
tactics, even on what seem to be base values.
However, all organizers believe in people, in the
ability of regular folks to guide their lives, to
speak for themselves, to learn the world and
in

PEOPLE CAN BE TRAINED TO DO IT
CONDITIONS CAN BE CREATED TO DO IT
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY ORGANIZ
Community is a contributor of resources and allies and provider of pitfalls and opponents

Three ways to perceive a community
Perceiving Community as a community
Components of community i.e. sub communities
Groups drawn to the arena of action

Community
Geographic area, defined boundaries
Shared interest and activities
Purposeful grouping of individuals in to a
common whole
A fundamental capacity of our humanness
Manner of people relating to one another
some examples of CO in practice? What is being accomplished? Why does it seem to be gaini
income people and communities?
Ernesto Cortes, Industrial Areas Foundation
Community organizing explicitly seeks to build the powerbase of the poor so they can affect and change the
public policies and private market forces that create and sustain social and economic inequality.
Hull House where Jane Addams practiced
Community Organization
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
pitfalls and opponents
Three ways to perceive a community
Perceiving Community as a community
Components of community i.e. sub communities
Groups drawn to the arena of action
Geographic area, defined boundaries
activities
Purposeful grouping of individuals in to a
some examples of CO in practice? What is being accomplished? Why does it seem to be gaining in
fect and change the
public policies and private market forces that create and sustain social and economic inequality. Henry
Saul Alinsky
S.Rengasamy Madurai Institute of Social Sciences Community Organization

2
Notable community organizers
* Jane Addams
* Saul Alinsky
* Daniel Berrigan
* Dorothy Day
* John W. Gardner
* Samuel Gompers
* Jesse Jackson
* Mother Jones
* Martin Luther King, Jr.
* John L. Lewis
* Ralph Nader
* Barack Obama
* Wade Rathke
* Pat Robertson
The use of the term
community has remained to
some extent associated
with the hope and the wish
of reviving once more the
closer, warmer, more
harmonious type of bonds
between people vaguely
attributed to past ages
(Elias 1974)

Provider of benefits that accrue from inter-action

Types of communities
Interest community: Communities we need to know/ the people who are involved in our
particular action.
Need or benefit community: Consists of people who currently
experience the problem or could benefit from its resolution.
Action community: Consists of people who recognize or could
easily recognize that a problem exists and are willing to work to
resolve it.(change agent)
Target or response community: Consists of people whose
policies, actions or inactions somehow perpetuate the problem.
Peripheral community: The wider community

Community organization has several meanings
It refers to a structure or stage of development as in the organized and unorganized
community.
Field of practice such as Planning Social Welfare
Services, Federated fund raising etc.
As a method -A way of working on as orderly and
conscious basis to effect defined and desired objectives
and goals.
Unorganized community implies absence of certain
facilities i.e. Agencies or Institutions which seem
desirable and which one might expect to find.
Disorganized community implies presence of conflicts
so sharp that its normal life has been disrupted.
Organized community implies presence of certain
facilities and normal life.

Grassroots organizing is about networking people together to exercise their influence on the
world around them. In politics, grassroots organizing is about ordinary people doing
extraordinary work to improve the world we live in. It is about recruiting, training and
mobilizing people to raise awareness and advocate for positive change. A grassroots political
movement, inspired by the German word "Graswurzel", is a movement organized by a network
of citizens. Grassroots activists want change in the political institutions by non-violent action.
Grassroots activists reject hierarchical and ideological organization structures.
Faking a grassroots movement is known as astroturfing, after the name of a popular artificial
lawn. It is one of the shadier tactics of public relations agencies.
People working together at the community level to exercise political influence and provide an
alternative to influence from private wealth. May involve door to door canvassing, phone
banking, house parties, meetings, clip boarding, tabling, visibility and GOTV ("Get Out the
Vote").


3
CO has nourished and supported local
leadership by teaching people how to
convene meetings, conduct research,
analyze public policy positions,
negotiate with public and private
officials, register people to vote,
develop a common vision for
struggling or distressed communities,
and implement a work plan to address
and resolve important issues or
problems.
Definitions of Community Organization:
1. Community organization is a technique for obtaining a consensus concerning both the
values that are most important for the common welfare and the best means of obtaining
them Sanderson and Polson (1939).
2. Community organization is achieved
whenever a group of citizens recognizing a
need, band together to see that the need is met
Kurtz
3. Community organization means enabling
people to find satisfying and fruitful social
relationships and not for specific and
preconceived forms of relationship.
4. Community organization is concerned with
efforts to direct social resources effectively
towards the specific or total welfare needs of any geographical area.
5. Community organization has been defined as the process of bringing about and maintaining
a progressively more effective adjustment between social welfare resources and social
welfare needs within a geographic area or functional field.-Neil
6. Community organization may be described as the art and process of discovering social
welfare needs and of creating, coordinating, systematizing instrumentalitys through which
group resources and talents may be directed towards realization of group ideals and the
development of potentialities of group members.
7. Community organization is the process of dealing with individuals and groups, who are or
may become concerned with social welfare services or objectives, for the purpose of
influencing the volume of such services, improving the quality or distribution or furthering
the attainment of such objectives National Conference on Community Organization,
USA.
8. Community Organization means a process by which community identify its need or
objectives finds the resources (Internal & / or External) to deal with these needs or
objectives, takes action in respect to them, and in so doing extends and develops co-
operative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community--.Murray G Ross
9. Community organization refers to various methods of intervention whereby a professional
change agent helps a community action system composed of individuals, groups. or
organizations to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with special problems
within the democratic system of values.
This involves two major inter-related concerns
The interaction process of working with an action system which includes identifying,
recruiting and working with the members and developing organizational and
interpersonal relationships among them which facilitates their efforts and
The technical tasks involved in identifying problem areas, analyzing causes and
formulation of plans, developing strategies and mobilizing the resources necessary to
effect action Ralph M.Kramer.
10. Community organization is described as the orderly application of a relevant body of
knowledge, employing practicewisdom and learned behavior through characteristic,
distinctive and describable procedures to help the community to engage in a desirable

4
Methods of Community organization
1. Methods of Planning and Related Activities
1. Fact finding 2. Analysis 3.Evaluation 4. Planning
2. Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-operative Action
5. Meeting practice 6. Conference 7. Committee Practice 8. Negotiation
9. Organization including Mass organization
3. Methods of Communication:
10. Education. 11. Consultation 12. Public Relations 13. Formal Written Communication.
14. Formal oral communication 15.The interview.
4. Methods of promotion and social action:
16. Promotion.17.Legislative promotion. 18. Non-Legislative procedural social action
19. Direct action 20. Exerting or invoking authoritative action
5. Methods of financing and fund raising
21. Fund procurement by governmental agencies 22. Fund raising by voluntary agencies
23. Federated financial campaigning 24. Joint budgeting
6. Methods of administration:
25. Administrative activities of agencies concerned with social planning.
26. Administration of common services or community organization. 27. Recording
procedure to achieve planned change towards community improvement National
Association of Social Workers.
11. Community organization is oriented towards the achievement of social change by
improving the social provisions and strengthening of relationships and problem solving
capacities.
12. Local community organization is a form of public participation in running the local
economy and carrying out cultural and community work. Those organizations are set up,
as a rule, on the initiative of citizens who have common interests and requirements, since
they live in the same building, or street, and who carry out their activities without pay, on a
voluntary basis, being guided by social welfare considerations - USSR.

.

Methods are not neutral, just as content is not neutral. If we believe that the
participation of people is essential in the transformation of society, then our methods
must be consistent with our aim: that is participatory. If we believe that people need to
be involved in transformative action which breaks the structures of domination, then
the methods we use must enable people to unveil the values and structures which
dominate them.
Community organizing is a process through which communities are helped to identify
common problems or goals, mobilize resources, and in other ways develop and
implement strategies for reaching their goals they have collectively set.


5
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION METHODS

Definitions explain why of community organization and methods explain how community
organization is carried out.
Explanation:
A method is a distinctive way of doing something. Method in its most general meaning, is a
means of achieving an aim, a definite way of ordering in activity.
E.g. Scientific method to obtain new knowledge; Social work methods.

Methods of community organization are a distinctive way of doing community
organization.
Methods of C.O. / C.D. are focused and time limited activities designed to reach specific goals.
Underlying these methods is a complex base of assumptions, values and models. The basic role
of the community organizer is that of a professional helper and problem solver, who aids people
to articulate their needs, facilitates participative decision-making, resolves conflict among groups
and aids the search for consensus and effective action. To enact these roles, varieties of methods
are used.

Role Method
Human Relations Trainer
Social Technologist
Social Advocate
Problem Solver
Consultant
Education, Communication, Group organization
Fact finding, Analysis, Community Survey etc
Fact finding, Analysis, Direct action, Legislative promotion etc.
Mediating, Negotiation, Planning etc
Process consultant, Research consultant etc

Community organization is a process and a method. There are different methods (or distinctive
ways) of using or practicing the general methods community organization. To distinguish the
distinctive methods from general method we may call it as practice methods.

Analyzing the C.O. Methods:
1) There are many different methods.
2) Some methods like planning, Organizing and negotiation are extremely large and a
whole literature exists on each of them.
3) It is difficult to find a overall scheme of classification.
4) Many methods of community organization are also used in other areas i.e. Administration,
Public education and commercial fund raising.

General Comments on C.O. Methods;
1) Primary methods may be broken down into secondary methods.
E.g. Survey comes under the primary method of fact finding.
2) Primary and secondary methods maybe still further broken down into specific
techniques.
E.g. Survey - Method. Interview - Technique
3) Methods are often used in varied combinations
E.g. Fact finding it uses the methods of analysis, planning, conference, organization,
consultation etc.
4) Most of the methods of C.O. require group or inter group activities.

6
Lindeman on community
The aim of community life is to bring about amicable relations between men and groups of
men (1921) An ideal community should furnish to its human constituents:
1. Order, or security of life and property through the medium of an efficient government.
2. Economic well-being, or security of income through an efficient system of productive industry.
3. Physical well-being, or health and sanitation through public health agencies.
4. Constructive use of leisure time, or recreation though public health agencies.
5. Ethical standards, or a system of morality supported by the organized community.
6. Intellectual diffusion, or education through free and public institutions within the reach of all.
7. Free avenues of expression, or means by which all the elements of the community might freely express
themselves; free newspapers and public forums.
8. Democratic forms of organization, or community-wide organization through which the entire community
might express its thought and see that its will is done.
9. Spiritual motivation, or religious associations which might diffuse throughout all forms of community
organization the religious or spiritual motive. (Lindeman 1921)

5) The practice of C.O. ordinarily requires the use of a large number of widely different
methods rather than the intensive use of a few.

Models & Approaches in community organizations practice

What is a model?
It is a medium through which a person looks at the complex realities. Model is a simplistic version of a
complex situation. Models serve as a reference for the work and give us a clear understanding of what
would happen. They describe strategies for accomplishing a vision, the appropriate steps to be taken to get
there. Some models grow out of the specific ideologies of change and some in response to concrete
situations. 1. Locality development 2.Social planning 3.Social Action (Refer Table)


7
Trends in C.O. Methods:
1) Community organization has been increasingly regarded as a problem solving process and
problem solving has been suggested as a general frame of reference for community
organization methods.
2) There has been a greater emphasis on planning as one of the major aspects of community
organization.
3) More emphasis on research.
4) Community organization has accepted process goals alongside of task goals; it implicitly
accepted education as an important method.
5) New emphasis on social action and especially direct action and mass organization.
6) More emphasis on using participatory methods {Participatory Rural Appraisal}

Model A.
Locality development
Model B.
Social planning
Model C.
Social action
1.Goal category
of community
action
Self-help; Increase community
integration and capacity to
solve problems [process goals]
Problem-solving with regards
to substantive community
problems[task goals]
Shifting of power and
resources; Basic institutional
change[task or process goals]
2.Assumptions
concerning
community
structure &
problems
Community lack viable
relationships and democratic
problem solving capacity.
static traditional community
Substantive social problems in
employment, housing, health
etc
Disadvantaged population,
social injustice,
deprivation, inequity
3.Basic change
strategy
Broad cross section of people
involved in determining and
solving their problems
Fact gathering about problems
and decisions on the most
rational course of action
Crystallization of issues and
organization of people to take
action against enemy targets
4.Characteristic
change tactics and
techniques
Consensus; communication
among community groups and
interests; group discussion.
Consensus or conflict Conflict or contest;
confrontation, direct action,
negotiation
5.Salient
practitioner roles.
Enabler, catalyst, coordinator,
teacher of problem solving
skills and ethical values.
Fact-finder and analyst,
program implementers,
facilitator
Activist-advocate, partisan
broker,
Agitator, negotiator.
6.Medium of
change.
Manipulation of small task
oriented groups
Manipulation of formal
organizations and of data
Manipulations of mass organi
-zations and political process
7.Orientation
towards power
structure.
Members of power structure as
collaborators in a common
venture. Total geographic
community
Power structure as employers
and sponsors
Power structure as external
target of change action;
oppressors to be coerced or
overturned
8.Boundary
definition of the
community client
system or
constituency
Total geographic community Total community or
community segment[including
functional community
Community segment
9.Assumptionregard
ing interests of
community
subparts
Common interests or
reconcilable differences
Interests reconcilable or in
conflict
Conflicting interests which are
not easily reconcilable; scarce
resources
10.Conception of
the public interest
Rationalist and unitary Idealist & unitary Realist individualist
11.Conception of
client population or
constituency
CITIZENS CONSUMERS VICTIMS
12.Conception of
client role
Participants in interactional
problem solving process
Consumers or recipients Employee, constituency,
members

8
Social Work and Community Organization

Methods of community organization are determined by the Objectives, Values, Assumptions and
Diagnosis of problems

Social Work & Community Organization- Objectives:
Removal of blocks to growth (in individuals, groups as well as in communities)
Release of full potentialities (in individuals, groups as well as in communities)
Full use of inner resources (in individuals, groups as well as in communities)
Development of capacity to manage ones own (individual, group & community) life
Increasing the ability to function as an integrated unit

Social Work & Community Organization - Assumptions:
Inherent dignity and worth of the individual -community pace
Everyone /community possess resources to deal with his problems
The inherent capacity for growth
The ability to manage ones own affairs

Values that are needed to work with the people

Values of community organization Social work values
The essential dignity and ethical worth of the individuals, his
potentialities and resources for managing ones own life
The importance of freedom to express ones individuality
The great capacity for growth within all social beings
The right of the individual to those basic physical necessities
without which fulfillment of life is often blocked
The need for the individual to struggle and strive to improve
ones own life and environment
The right of the individual to receive help in time of need and
crisis
The importance of social organization for which the individual
feels responsible and which is responsive to individual feeling
The need of a social climate which encourages individual
growth and development
The right and responsibility of the individual to participate in
the affairs of ones own community
The practicability of discussion, conference and consultation as
methods for the solution of individual and social problems
Self help as the essential base of any program
Acceptance
Professional relationship
To start where the .
To help to overcome the
problem
Interpret the nature of the
process
Help to achieve
independence


9
Assumptions regarding the community problem
Diagnosing the problem is also based on certain values.
1. The rise of the organized industry has reduced the importance of other institutions as
integrators of society without shouldering these functions itself.
2. Urbanization destroyed the mans feeling of belongingness.
3. Industrialization and urbanization made tit difficult in maintaining the common values.
Diversity gone wild. Differences carries value only in the light of probable unity; when there
is no prospect for functional unity, diversity becomes a liability not an asset.
4. The tendency for the larger subgroups to develop cohesion as separate entities in the
community produces social tension, potentially dangerous in any community.
5. Democracy will weaken, if not perish, if supporting institutions are supported and new
institutions are developed. Sense of participation and belongingness is necessary to
strengthen the democratic values.
6. The barriers that prevent active participation in the direction of social change inhibit personal
development. Even though new institutions sprung up, participation is poor.

These are the central problems Man is overwhelmed by forces of which he is dimly aware,
which subjugate him to a role of decreasing importance and present him with problems over that
he has no means to cope.

C.O as a method of development started in the 18
th
century.
There are wide varieties of strategies and approaches are used to achieve development. These
strategies and approaches again guided by wide variety of ideological orientations. Multiple
strategies and multiple ideologies naturally confuse the understanding of social reality and the
fieldwork.
Community organization seeks to provide a conceptual and theoretical umbrella to understand
community problem.
It provides multiple models, which often share several common processes to work with the
people.
Community organization models have different emphasis in ideology, knowledge base, methods
and skills and thereby in outcomes also.
The need for community work came about through a rising dissatisfaction with purely
individualized methods to deal with problems. Some social workers thus, moved on to study the
community surroundings of their clients and ways to influence these surroundings more
Assumptions of Community Organization
1. Communities of people can develop the capacity to deal with their own problems.
2. People want to change and can change.
3. People should participate in making, adjusting, or controlling the major changes taking place in
their communities.
4. Changes in community living, which are self-imposed or self-developed have a meaning and
permanence that imposed changes do not have.
5. A holistic approach can deal successfully with problems with which a fragmented approach
cannot cope.
6. Democracy requires cooperative participation & action in the affairs of the community, &
people must learn the skills which make this possible.
7. Frequently, communities of people need help in organizing to deal with their needs, just as
many individuals require help with individual problems.


10
Three bases of Community Organization

Practice Methods & Current knowledge base of
Guide Lines relevant social sciences

Value base grounded in social justice
& Democratic participation

directly. The process was therefore then placed firmly in the context of social welfare. In this
background, community organization was considered as a process to bring about a progressively
more effective adjustment between social welfare needs and social welfare resources.

Value base of community organization
People are capable of self-determination
People are capable of articulating and
Defining their own needs
Self-determination
People can reach agreement and consensus
(But they may need skilled help to do so efficiently)

The choice they make will generally lead to the common good of themselves and those with
whom they are interdependent.
A sense of apathy and isolation is a handicap, while a feeling of involvement and belonging is an
advantage.
People are capable of rational and independent choices.
People can achieve by their own efforts some measure of improvement in their own material
conditions.

Community Organization values are optimistic affirmations. It believes in the human progress
and improvement provided certain conditions are present in the situation and certain definable
skills are applied
Addams, Jane (1860-1935)
American social reformer and Nobel laureate, born in Cedarville, Illinois, and educated at Rockford
Female Seminary and Women's Medical College and in Europe. In 1889, with Ellen Starr, Addams
established Hull House in Chicago, one of the first settlement houses in the U.S. Addams played a
prominent part in the formation of the National Progressive Party in 1912 and of the Woman's Peace
Party, of which she became chairperson in 1915. She was elected (1915) president of the International
Congress of Women at The Hague, Netherlands, and president of the Women's International League for
Peace and Freedom, which was established by The Hague congress. She was a delegate to similar
congresses held in various parts of the world. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, sharing the
award with the American educator Nicholas Murray Butler. Her works include Democracy and Social
Ethics (1902), Newer Ideals of Peace (1907), Twenty Years at Hull House (1910), and The
Second Twenty Years at Hull House (1930).

11

APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

Neighborhood organizing is one form of community organizing. This nothing but an effort by
the community to solve the day to day problems and help those in need. There are three type
approaches to neighborhood organizing.

The Social Work Approach
Political Activists Approach
Neighborhood Maintenance/Community Development Approach

1. The Social Work Approach:
In this approach, the society is viewed as a social organism and therefore the efforts are oriented
towards building a sense of community. The community organizer whose role is of an "enabler
or an advocate helps the community identify a problem in the neighborhood and strives to
achieve the needed social resources by gathering the existing the social services and by lobbying
with some in power to meet the needs of the neighborhood. This method is more consensual and
the neighborhood is seen as a collective client.
2. The political Activists Approach:
Saul Alinsky, the Godfather of community organizing is the founder of this approach. The basic
philosophy of this approach is based on his thinking that " more representative the organization
the stronger the organization."
In this approach the community is seen as a political entity and not as a social organism. Here,
the neighborhood is viewed as a potential power base capable of getting power. The role of the
community organizer is to help the community understand the problem in terms of power and
necessary steps are taken to mobilize the community. The problem of the neighborhood is
always identified as absence of power and in the interest of gaining power for the neighborhood
the organizers are faced with conflicts with groups, interests and elites. Since most of the
community organizers come from outside the community, it has faced the problems of equality
of power relations and leadership in the community.
3. Neighborhood Maintenance/Community development Approach:
This approach has emerged out of both the previous approaches namely within the same
neighborhood movements. It is seen in the form of civic associations. This association uses peer
group pressure to provide services in the community. They use this strategy to pressurize the
officials to deliver services to the community but sometimes this approach takes the form of
political activists approach as they realize that their goals can be only achieved only through
confrontations.
In this approach we see the characteristics of de-emphasis on dissent and confrontation and these
organizations view themselves as more proactive and development minded.

Approaches in C.O:
Neighborhood Development Model
System Change Model
Structural Change Model


12
Some of the steps in Neighborhood
Development Approach are:
Identifying the geographical area
for your intervention
Making our way to the community
Understand the community and
identify the felt needs
Making an appropriate program
Planning for resource mobilization
Developing a strong net-work in
the community
Planning for withdrawal from the
community

Some of the tasks in System Change
Approach are:
Understanding the deficiencies in the
system.
Communicating the findings with the
community
Making strategies to influence the
decision making bodies.
Mobilizing peoples participation and
seeking out-side support to translate
the plan in to concrete action.
Making alliances and partnerships with
other NGOS and comminutes to
demand a change.

1. Neighborhood Development Approach:
Neighborhood Model is the oldest model of community organization. This model has been
practiced in India and in some of the underdeveloped countries. It has been used in the
developmental activities. In general it is believed that
people living in a neighborhood have the capacity to
meet the problems they come across in their day to day
life through their own efforts and resources. The main
aspect here is that the community realizes its needs and
takes appropriate steps to meet the needs of the
community, which will bring greater satisfaction to all
its members both individually and collectively. The role
of the worker in this model is to induce a process that
will sensitize the community and make the community
realize its needs. Based on the value of self-sustenance
the worker energizes the community and makes the
community self-reliant, and not merely depending on the
help form outside. So rather than providing services in the community, the communities are
energized to meet its own needs. This model encourages the people to think for themselves rather
than doing things for them.

2. System Change Approach:
As the name suggests, the system change model aims
at developing strategies to either restructure or
modify the system. Thus it is termed as "System
Change approach to community work. Although we
find glimpses of this model gaining more acceptance,
this has not become very popular. We know of
various mechanisms that cater to the needs of the
society. Such as education, health services housing,
women empowerment, and employment. All these
services are rooted through various systems and all
these systems do have sub-systems. The fundamental
aspect in this model is that the due to various reasons
the systems become dysfunctional. For example the
system of education as we have it today, reveals that
the cities have better educational faculties as compared to the rural areas. This system (education
policy) of education has generated disparities in the society. i.e. access to education, lack of basic
facilities, trained staff, etc. The system instead of becoming a tool of empowering mechanism
brings disparities between people of different socio-economic condition. So the system has failed
to achieve its objectives. Thus the worker on observing this dysfunction in the community finds
it important to develop strategies to restructure or modify the system.

3. Structural Change Approach :

One of the most difficult and rarely practiced models of community work is structural change
model. The society consists of small communities and it is nothing but "a web of relationships".
These relationships of the people are formally structured by the respective countries' state

13
The special tasks involved in
Structural Change Approach:
Understanding the relationships between
macro- and micro social realities.
Adopting an alternative political ideology.
Sharing with the family members/faculty
members
Helping the communities
Helping the communities to identify a
course of action.

policies, law and constitutions and informally by its customs, traditions etc. that determines the
social rights of the individuals. The social structure in some of the societies is controlled by the
state.

Understanding the macro- structure of social relationship and its impact on the micro realities,
the worker tries to mobilize the public opinion to radically change the macro-structure. Thus the
structural change model aims to bring a new social order, an alternative form of society which
will transform the existing conditions at the micro-level. This can happen only if an alternative
form of political ideology is adopted. This form of community work may originate from a
community itself but it has wider coverage i.e. the entire society or nation. Sometimes this takes
the shape of social action, which is another method of social work profession. Since the general
situation in the developing countries is very
peculiar, it is very difficult for the community
worker to actually practice this model.

A social worker may initiate this model. But it is
very difficult to predict the success. However, he
makes attempt to saw the seeds of social change
by adopting a political ideology .It might take
decades to actually perceive any transformation in
the society nevertheless one can be proud of being
the agent of social change.

To prepare the community to sustain its interests, enthusiasm and capacity to met the strains that
may arise out of the conflict with the existing power structure.

Further Reading:
Murray.G. Ross. Community Organization Theory, Principles, and Practice
Harper & Row, New York 1967
Murray G. Ross, (1959-1970) was the founding president and vice-chancellor of York
University and its visionary and principal architect. He also held an academic appointment
as a professor of sociology. A native of Nova Scotia, he was a vice-president at the
University of Toronto from 1957 until he assumed the presidency of York University in
1960. At Yorks inception there were a few handfuls of students, faculty and staff on a
parcel of land donated by the University of Toronto (what is now Glendon College). By the end of his
term in 1970 there were thousands of students, faculty and staff on York Universitys Glendon and Keele
campuses and York was firmly established as a high quality degree-granting university. Murray Ross was
an Officer of the Order of Canada.
Dunham. The New Community Organization Crowell 1970
Mark.S.Homan.. Promoting Community Change. Making it happen in the real world
Anne Hope & Sally Timmel. Training for Transformation. A handbook for community workers.
Dr.M. Pereria. Community Organization.

Students Guide to
Methods of
Community
Organization
I AM A COMMUNITY ORGANIZER

WE ARE ONE

Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
See also the related materials on page no.5
S.Rengasamy. Methods of Community Organization

2

,

Go to the People
Live among them
Love them
Learn from them
Start from where they are
Work with them
Build on what they have.
But of the best leaders,
When the task is accomplished,
The work completed,
The people all remark:
"We have done it ourselves"
Lao Tsu


3

Contents

Fact Finding -What are the facts to be collected Model I .................................................................................. 12
Types of Community Need & its Identification ............................................................................................... 12
Analyzing Community Problems - Model I ......................................................................................................... 13
What is analyzing community problems all about? ......................................................................................... 13
Why should analyze a community problem? .................................................................................................. 13
When should analyze a community problem? ................................................................................................ 13
How should analyze a community problem?.................................................................................................. 13
Dia: Steps to analyze a community problem ................................................................................................. 14
Analysis helps to find out an effective solution. ............................................................................................. 14
Analyzing the facts / Problem identification Model II .................................................................................... 14
What is the problem? ................................................................................................................................. 14
Where does the problem exist? ................................................................................................................... 14
Who is affected by the problem? ................................................................................................................. 14
Why the problem occurred? ........................................................................................................................ 14
To what extent the problem is felt? ............................................................................................................. 14
What are the facts to be collected Model II ..................................................................................................... 15
Information requirement to understand a community ........................................................................................ 15
1.Basic community characteristics ................................................................................................................ 15
2.How the community functions to meet its needs ........................................................................................ 15
3. Unmet needs ......................................................................................................................................... 15
4. Community resources ............................................................................................................................. 15
5. Capacity for disposition towards purposeful change ................................................................................... 15
1. Basic community characteristics ................................................................................................................... 16
Population ................................................................................................................................................. 16
How the community functions? ........................................................................................................................ 16
2.1. Physical needs ......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2. Social and emotional needs ....................................................................................................................... 16
2.3. Political needs ......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.4. Economic needs ....................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5. Educational and communication needs ....................................................................................................... 16
3. Assessing the communitys unmet needs ...................................................................................................... 16
4. Community resources.................................................................................................................................. 17
5. Capacity for change and disposition to change .............................................................................................. 17
How to find out what we need to know? ........................................................................................................... 17
Look for organizations that do at least one of the following things ...................................................................... 17
Guided personal discussions ............................................................................................................................ 18
Focus groups ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Surveys and questionnaires ............................................................................................................................. 18
Collecting list ................................................................................................................................................. 18
A check list that can be used to facilitate discussion to study/ understand a community ........................................ 18
Phases/ Methods /Outcome of Community Organization..................................................................................... 19
Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business ................................................................... 20
Community Business Survey ............................................................................................................................ 20
Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business ................................................................... 20
Collection of self explanatory diagrams on Steps /Stages in Community Organization ........................................... 21
Stages & Steps in Community Organization .................................................................................................. 22
Stages in Guiding / Organizing Communities ................................................................................................. 23
Some self explanatory diagrams on Problem Solving Process.......................................................................... 24
Phases in community organization learning................................................................................................... 25
Diagrams of Phases / Steps / Stages in Community Organization .................................................................... 26
Tools that can be used at different stages and for different purposes .............................................................. 27
PRA tools for many purposes to understand and organize the communities .................................................. 28
Diagram: Problem Analysis Model ................................................................................................................ 30
Diagrams: Models - Steps / Stages in Community Organization ...................................................................... 31
Comprehensive list of Community Organization / Engagement Tools ................................................................... 32
Levels of Community Engagement Its Objectives, Outcomes & Techniques used.............................................. 33

4

Description of Tools .................................................................................................................................... 34
Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-Operative Action .............................................................................. 39
Groups in the context of Community Organization ............................................................................................. 39
Synopsis ........................................................................................................................................................ 39
Meaning of a Group: .................................................................................................................................. 40
Meaning of Decision Making ........................................................................................................................ 40
Meaning of Group Decision Making: ............................................................................................................. 40
Understanding the Groups ............................................................................................................................... 41
Stages in the development of a group. ............................................................................................................. 41
Napier and Gershenfled ................................................................................................................................... 41
Forming Stage................................................................................................................................................ 41
Beginning Stage ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Storming Stage .............................................................................................................................................. 41
Movement toward Confrontation Stage ............................................................................................................. 41
Compromise and Harmony Stage ..................................................................................................................... 41
Performing Stage ........................................................................................................................................... 41
Reassessment Stage ....................................................................................................................................... 41
Adjourning Stage ............................................................................................................................................ 41
Resolution and recycling stage ......................................................................................................................... 41
Task Roles and Relationship Roles of a Group: .................................................................................................. 41
Structure of the Groups................................................................................................................................... 42
Pairs are useful for ......................................................................................................................................... 42
Group Decision Making ................................................................................................................................... 43
Involvement / Types of decision making ........................................................................................................... 44
Difficulties in decision-making: ......................................................................................................................... 45
Fear of Consequences: ............................................................................................................................... 45
Conflicting Loyalties: .................................................................................................................................. 45
Interpersonal Conflict: ................................................................................................................................ 45
Hidden agenda: ......................................................................................................................................... 45
Blundering Methods: .................................................................................................................................. 45
Inadequate Leadership: .............................................................................................................................. 46
Clash of Interest: ....................................................................................................................................... 46
Factors, which help in making good decisions: .................................................................................................. 46
Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision- making .................................................................................... 46
Different methods of group decision-making ..................................................................................................... 46
Meeting Practice: ............................................................................................................................................ 47
Merits and demerits of parliamentary procedure ................................................................................................ 47
Conference .................................................................................................................................................... 47
Characteristics: .............................................................................................................................................. 47
Committee Practice ......................................................................................................................................... 48
Characteristics of a Committee: ....................................................................................................................... 48
Functions of a Committee ................................................................................................................................ 48
Guidelines for Organizing Committees .............................................................................................................. 48
Organization of a committee: .......................................................................................................................... 49
Chairman .................................................................................................................................................. 49
Members ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Committee Aide (Staff Assistance to committee) ........................................................................................... 49
Committee Procedures: ................................................................................................................................... 49
Agenda : ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Loophole Agenda & Hidden Agenda ............................................................................................................. 50
Minutes ..................................................................................................................................................... 50
Conflict and conflict Resolution in Community Organization ................................................................................ 51
Conflict- Meaning ........................................................................................................................................... 51
Competition Vs Conflict ................................................................................................................................... 52
Box: Community Conflict ................................................................................................................................. 52
Levels of Conflict ........................................................................................................................................ 52
Types of conflict......................................................................................................................................... 52
Economic Conflict: ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Power Conflict: .......................................................................................................................................... 53

5

Value Conflict: ........................................................................................................................................... 53
Other types of conflict: ............................................................................................................................... 53
Personality clashes: .................................................................................................................................... 53
Escalation of Conflict: ................................................................................................................................. 53
Table: Strengths and Limitations of various Approaches to Conflict Management .................................................. 54
Methods of Conflict Resolution: ........................................................................................................................ 54
Approaches to managing conflict: .................................................................................................................... 54
Two-dimensional model of conflict management: .............................................................................................. 54
Box: Levels of Conflict ..................................................................................................................................... 55
Conflict Resolution Terminologies Defined ......................................................................................................... 56
Box: Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management ......................................................................... 57
Strategies of Community Organization .............................................................................................................. 58
Methods of Conflict Resolution ......................................................................................................................... 58
Table: Four approaches in conflict resolution .................................................................................................... 58
The major elements we need to understand before deciding a strategy ............................................................... 59
NEGOTIATION ............................................................................................................................................... 59
1. Supporting Survival Needs ................................................................................................................... 60
2. Demonstrating public support and sympathy: ........................................................................................ 60
4. Conducting Behind The Scenes Discussions ....................................................................................... 60
5. Targeting pressure points:................................................................................................................... 60
6. Threatening: ...................................................................................................................................... 61
7. Waging campaigns against persons or institutions: ................................................................................ 61
Skills ............................................................................................................................................................. 61
Community Organizing Skills ............................................................................................................................ 62
Community Organizing Skills ............................................................................................................................ 62
I. Organizing and Planning Skills .................................................................................................................. 62
Leadership Skills for Community Organizers ...................................................................................................... 63
Skills for community Organizers ....................................................................................................................... 65
Information literacy .................................................................................................................................... 65
Research and inquiry .................................................................................................................................. 65
Ethical, social and professional understanding............................................................................................... 65
Communication and interpersonal ................................................................................................................ 65
Personal & intellectual ................................................................................................................................ 65
Autonomy ................................................................................................................................................. 65


6

Geographical
Community
Governance Transport &
Connectivity

Service

Equity

Entertainment

Social &
Cultural
Economy
Housing &
Built
Environment Well
designed &
built

Well Run Well Connected
Well
Served

Environmentally
Sensitive

Fair for
everyone

Thriving

Active
Inclusive &
Safe


7

Phases in Community Organization
Phase/Steps/Stages are interrelated terminologies. These terms has been used informally. It
means a distinct time period in a sequence of events; a short unit of time, or an episode of
development or change, usually within the context of a longer period.
Study:
Application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or reflection:
Any personal effort to gain knowledge: to understand community; Something studied or to be
studied: research or a detailed examination and analysis of a subject, phenomenon, etc.
Analysis
Analysis (from Greek "a breaking up") is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into
smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it.
Assessment
Classification of someone or something with respect to its worth; appraisal; the act of judging or
assessing a person or situation or event; judgment
Decision Making
The act of making up our mind about something, or a position or opinion or judgment reached after
consideration. Decision making means selecting the best course of action from two or more
alternatives
And when people ordinarily consider their own definition of decision making, it is typical that they
consider that somehow it is a thinking process, with lots of mental activity involved in choosing
between alternatives. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to be considered,
and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to
choose the one that (1) has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (2) best fits with
our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on.
Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt about alternatives to
allow a reasonable choice to be made from among them. This definition stresses the information-
gathering function of decision making. It should be noted here that uncertainty is reduced rather than
eliminated. Very few decisions are made with absolute certainty because complete knowledge about
all the alternatives is seldom possible.
Every decision involves a certain amount of risk. But this doesn't include the way some people make
decisions for example You may have heard people saying I have a gut feeling; I know in my heart: I
feel it in my bones
Organization
Orderly arrangement of group effort; An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective
goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its
environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word (organon) meaning tool. The term is
used in both daily and scientific English in multiple ways.
Action
A process or condition of acting or moving, as opposed to rest; the doing of something; exertion of
power or force, as when one body acts on another; the effect of power exerted on one body by
another; agency; activity; operation; as, the action of heat; a man of action.
Modification
Partial or slight change in form; product of such a change; slight reduction; moderation;

Unit III -Syllabus
Phases in community organization. Study, Analysis, Assessment, Decision Making, Organization, Action,
Evaluation, Modification and Continuation. Tools and techniques used in various phases. Methods of negotiation
and conflict resolution. Skills required to handle the community organization methods.

8

Phase/Steps/Stages are interrelated terminologies. These terms has been used
informally. It means a distinct time period in a sequence of events; a short unit of time, or
an episode of development or change, usually within the context of a longer period

The following diagram explains how Steps /Stages
are used as logical sequences to guide our actions in
our planned efforts

There are many ways to
present the steps / stages
visually Circular, Ladder
staircase, milestones etc

Community Organization Related Learning Material Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
http://www.scribd.com/doc/11787871/Introduction-to-Community-Organization
http://www.scribd.com/doc/13086532/Introduction-to-Community-Organization-
Phases-and-Methods-
http://www.scribd.com/doc/13988043/Role-of-a-Community-Organizer
http://www.scribd.com/doc/13287799/Understanding-Social-Action
http://www.scribd.com/doc/13828772/Advocacy-Lobbying
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24264150/Understanding-Public-Participation


9

Arthur Dunhams Classification of CO Methods
1. Methods of Planning and Related Activities
1. Fact finding 2. Analysis 3. Evaluation 4. Planning
2. Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-operative Action:
5. Meeting practice 6. Conference 7. Committee practice 8. Negotiation
9. Organization including Mass organization
3. Methods of Communication:
10. Education 11. Consultation 12. Public Relations
13. Formal written Communication 14. Formal oral communication 15. The interview
4. Methods of Promotion and Social Action:
16. Promotion 17. Legislative promotion 18. Non Legislative procedural social action
19. Direct action 20. Exerting or invoking authoritative Action
5. Methods of Financing and Fund Raising:
21. Fund procurement by governmental agencies
22. Fund raising by voluntary agencies 23. Federated financial campaigning
24. Joint budgeting
6. Methods of Administration:
25. Administrative activities of agencies concerned with social planning.
26. Administration of common services or community organization
27. Recording.

Some Popular Trends in Community Organization
Participatory
Action Research

10

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Study:
Application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or
reflection: Any personal effort to gain knowledge: to understand community; something
studied or to be studied: research or a detailed examination and analysis of a subject,
phenomenon, etc.
Analysis
Analysis (from Greek "a breaking up") is the process of breaking a complex topic or
substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it.
Assessment
Classification of someone or something with respect to its worth; appraisal; the act of
judging or assessing a person or situation or event; judgment
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Decision Making
The act of making up our mind about something, or a position or opinion or judgment
reached after consideration. Decision making means selecting the best course of action
from two or more alternatives
And when people ordinarily consider their own definition of decision making, it is typical that
they consider that somehow it is a thinking process, with lots of mental activity involved in
choosing between alternatives. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices
to be considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these
alternatives as possible but to choose the one that (1) has the highest probability of success
or effectiveness and (2) best fits with our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on.
Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt about
alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be made from among them. This definition
stresses the information-gathering function of decision making. It should be noted here that
uncertainty is reduced rather than eliminated. Very few decisions are made with absolute
certainty because complete knowledge about all the alternatives is seldom possible.
Every decision involves a certain amount of risk. But this doesn't include the way some
people make decisions for example You may have heard people saying I have a gut feeling;
I know in my heart: I feel it in my bones
Organization
Orderly arrangement of group effort; An organization is a social arrangement which pursues
collective goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating
it from its environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word (organon) meaning
tool. The term is used in both daily and scientific English in multiple ways.
Action
A process or condition of acting or moving, as opposed to rest; the doing of something;
exertion of power or force, as when one body acts on another; the effect of power exerted
on one body by another; agency; activity; operation; a man of action.

Evaluation/ Modification /Replication
Evaluating ones action and based on that learning partial or slight change of our actions;
product of such a change; slight reduction; moderation; further improving our approach.
Replication means broadening our learning /actions if it is correct


11

The first step in organizing the community is to understand it. Understanding the community
involves certain tasks. These tasks are variously outlined as Fact finding, Need assessment,
Problem identification depending upon the objectives of intervention

Fact- finding
Fact-finding includes activities designed to aid the discovery, ascertainment, assembling,
compilation and recording of facts.
Most community problems are sustained by a wide variety of factors, and some are more
influential than others. The challenge is to locate the major factors that have an effect on the
problem requiring correction. To meet this challenge effectively, it is essential to gather relevant
facts regarding the background of the problem.
In gathering information on the problem, the Community Organizer may be faced with two
difficulties: obtaining too much information that may prove to be irrelevant; identifying too little
information from normal sources. Good judgment must be used to distinguish noise
(meaningless data) from information that helps in analyzing a problem. Similarly when
information is not easily available, concerned individuals may be required to use ingenuity,
functioning like good investigative reporter by checking out leads. With the advice of the
knowledgeable researchers, special studies may need to be conducted as part of the fact-finding
process.

Following are the techniques
normally adopted for fact finding.
Documentation (Recording /
Compilation of information),
Formal Hearing (to find out how
representative citizens think on a
particular issue or proposal), Action
Research (Research combined with
some other type of action programs), Demonstration projects (to find out whether a certain
program will work or how effective a particular type of program) and keeping abreast of new
developments and new information in regard to certain subjects

Need assessment / Problem identification a crucial first step in program development is a
systematic verification of the existence, prevalence, location, and importance of a social problem
as it is expressed in needs for service.

Problem identification: Social programs are developed to address social problems. Obviously
community organizers have to study and document the existence of the social problem before
developing a program

Why we need Community Organization
http://www.vcn.bc.ca/citizens-handbook/
We need more active citizens and CO is the way to do it
A way of tackling large public issues
Community Organization - A way of solving local problems
Community Organization - A way of improving liveability
Community Organization - A bridge to strong democracy
Community Organization is a recognized route to better health
Community Organization is a way of rekindling community


12

Principles of Organizing
Experienced organizers know that the
process of organizing is seldom "tidy"
it doesn't always happen in neat,
predictable steps. It can be thought
of as a process guided by principles
that repeat in a cyclic, rather than
linear, way:

Fact Finding -What are the facts to be collected Model I

Types of Community Need & its Identification
Normative Need:
It means a desirable standard---if the individual or
community falls short of this desirable standard then they
are being in need. Middle class standard ---A is in need
of B and B is incompatible with the values held in
society C and therefore B should be changed.
Felt Need:
Equated with wants---Felt need is limited by the
perception of the people. People may ask for help
without really needing it. Exaggerate it or inflate it.
Comparative Need:
Relative Need--- this need can be assessed by studying
the characteristics of the people who are receiving a
particular service. Community A is in receipt of
service, because it has the similar characteristics of AB;
Community B also has similar characteristics, but not
in receipt of that service. So Community B is in need.
Expressed Need:
Expressed need is demanded.
E.g. Phone Facilities: USA-450 per1000; Europe-380 per
1000; Singapore-100 per 1000(?); INDIA-- 4 per 1000 (?) (Highest number indicate normative
condition)
Comparative Need My neighbor has a phone.
Felt Need I am willing to be wait listed
Expressed Need I paid deposit for getting phone connection

What are the facts to be collected?
1. External conditions and factors
Levels of socio-economic development and its relationship to the area Location advantages Govt
policies & Programs
2. Characteristics of the area
Land resources Soil & Water Human Resources Quantitative---Age, Sex, Religion, Education, Literacy
3. Social & Institutional Structure
Familial Corporate Units (Families-House) Associational Corporate Units (Caste) Territorial Corporate
Units (Panchayat Raj, Categoric Units (Religion)
4. Delivery System For Social & Economic Services
Economic i.e. Extension, Credit, Marketing Education, Health, Family Planning, Nutrition
5. Infrastructure Facilities for Production and Marketing
Road, Electricity, Irrigation, Telecommunication

13

Analysis:
Analysis is the application of the
six basic analytical questions i.e.
what, whom, where, when, why
and how?
What is the problem?
Where does it exist?
Who is affected by it?
When does it occur?
What degree it is felt?
Analysis lies midway between fact
finding and planning. It involves
collection of data, exploring the content
of the data, breaking up the content or
problem, examining the inter
relationships between the
constituencies. The purpose of analysis
is to gain insight, and understanding.
Planning can scarcely exist without
analysis. A sound plan normally implies
that the planner has the facts and that
the facts and the problem have been
analyzed as a basis for the formulation
of the plan.

Analyzing Community Problems - Model I
There's no official definition of a community problem; but
the criteria below should give you a start.
The problem occurs frequently. (Frequency)
The problem has lasted for a while. (Duration)
The problem affects many people. (Scope or range)
The problem is disturbing, and possibly intense. (Severity)
(It disrupts personal or community life.)
The problem deprives people of legal or moral rights.
(legality)
The problem is perceived as a problem. (Perception
What is analyzing community problems all about?
In a nutshel, analyzing community problems is a way of
thinking carefully about a problem or issue before acting on
a solution. It first involves looking for possible reasons
behind a problem, and checking out whether those reasons
are true. Then (and only then) does it involve identifying
possible solutions, and implementing the best ones.
The techniques for analyzing community problems are easy
to state. They require simple logic, and sometimes the
collection of evidence. But sometimes these techniques
elude us in practice.
Why should analyze a community problem?
* To better identify what the problem or issue
* To understand what is at the heart of a problem....
* To determine the barriers and resources associated with addressing the problem.
* To develop the best action steps for addressing the problem.
When should analyze a community problem?
Always. At least, almost always.
Every community problem should benefit from analysis. The only possible exception is when the problem
is an immediate crisis that requires action this very moment. And even then, analysis should help later.
However, there are conditions when analysis is especially important. And these are:
1. When the community problem is not defined very clearly
2. When little is known about the community problem, or its possible consequences
3. When you want to find causes that may improve the chance of successfully addressing the problem
4. When people are jumping to solutions much too soon
5. When you need to identify actions to address the problem, and learn what persons or groups could
best collaborate in taking action.
How should analyze a community problem?
And of course, that is the heart of this section.
The answer is there's no one way to do it. There are many ways to understand the problem better
and to deal with it more effectively. These are the goals of any problem analysis. So the method you
choose should accomplish those goals for you
Steps to analyze a community problem
1. State the problem, in general terms 2. Give specific examples of the problem
3. Think of reasons for the problem 4. Find the most probable reason
5. Identify solutions 6. Choose the best one
7. Implement the solution 8. Evaluate the solution


14

Dia: Steps to analyze a community problem

Community problems, it is true, are generally more complicated than changing light bulbs. But the same
type of analysis can apply to them as well, frequently with similarly -successful results.
Analysis helps to find out an effective solution.
How did you find the most probable reason? A likely answer is that you did some checking around. You
collected some facts about events in the past, and related those facts to the accident patterns now. In
other words, you collected some evidence. And then you used logic. In other words:
Analysis of community problems involves collecting evidence, and using logic to interpret
that evidence.

Analyzing the facts / Problem identification Model II

What is the problem? Deteriorating Public Health
Where does the problem exist? In the sanitary division No. 36 of Madurai Corporation
Who is affected by the problem? More than 5000 families residing in the 36 division
{geographic} area
When does the problem occur? For the last two years.
Why the problem occurred? Poor drainage facilities; increase in the wastewater
cover.
To what extent the problem is
felt?
35% of the patients who attended the local
Medical practitioners are affected by malarial fever
Problem statement: In the past two years, the incidence of malarial fever increased 35% in
the sanitary division No.36 Madurai Corporation. 5000 families are affected due to this public
health deterioration.

Community Survey:
The term survey derived from two words i.e. SUR (to see a particular thing) and VOR
(From a high place) Community Survey is a method by which quantitative facts are collected
about the social aspect of a communitys position and activities.
Find the most probable
reason.
The fuse isn't blown.
The switch is new.
The bulb is old.
So it's probably the bulb
Give some examples.
When I turn on the light switch, nothing happens.
.
State the problem.
The room is dark.
1 2
Think of reasons.
(a) I might have blown a fuse.
(b) The switch could be defective.
(c) The light bulb might have blown.
3
4
Identify solutions.
(a) Replace the fuse.
(b) Replace the switch.
(c) Replace the bulb. .
5
Choose the best one.
I'll try changing the bulb; it's simplest and
cheapest. (If the bulb has really blown, that's
probably the only solution there is.)
6
Implement it.
I can change a bulb with
the best of them
7
Evaluate it.
Good. I've got some light now
8

15

By survey method the Community Organizer can assess existing services and resources in an
area of need as well as gaps in service. Surveying both service agencies and community
residents, asking them how they perceive their unmet needs can identify potential demand for
service.
Steps in Community Survey:
Planning the survey
Executing the survey

What are the facts to be collected Model II
Information requirement to understand a community
1. Basic community characteristics
[Physical features and population particulars]
2. How the community functions to meet its needs
[Physical needs /Social and Emotional needs / Political needs / Economic needs / Educational
and communication needs]
3. Unmet needs
4. Community resources
[Natural/Tangible human made things / Systems of serving people / Social relationships/Major
institutions / Financial service /Human values / Skills and talents / Knowledge availability e
5. Capacity for disposition towards purposeful change

What's a community?
In the physical world, communities are typically groups of people (a village, town) held together by
some common identity or interest. The same holds true for virtual or online communities in that
they, too, are comprised of people with shared identity or interests coming together for a shared
purpose.
This shared interest or intent offers a strong forum for members of the community to build
relationships and affiliations out of which they can learn from one another and make an impact on
the society or culture around them.
Coming from two Latin words meaning "with gifts," the term community suggests a general sense of
altruism, reciprocity, and beneficence that comes from working together. Communities help generate
a shared language, rituals and customers, and collective memory of those that join the group.
Encyclopedia Americana defines a community as, "A relatively small, isolated center with a stable
population, in which all economic and social services necessary to life can be maintained. The
community is one of the oldest forms on human social organizations... The ideal type of community
emerges as an intellectual concept when social change threatens to destroy a locality's isolation,
traditionalism, and solidarity.... [This] leads to a newer form -- including occupational and professional
groups, neighborhood groups, and ethnic and political groups -- becomes the functional equivalents of
the older, ecological, isolated community and they make it possible for their members to avoid the
problems of a multidimensional mass society. Their members can find a focus for their social relations,
loyalties, and interests."

16

Understanding a Communitys
Agriculture
Agricultures Role in the
Community
1. Environmental Role
2. Economic Role
3. Cultural Role
Laws that Protect Agriculture
Understanding Specific Aspects of
Farming
1. Timeliness and Seasonality of
Farming Practices
2. Manure Management
3. Odors and Noise
4. Use of Roads
5. Use of Pesticides
6. Animals in Pastures
7. Changing nature of farming

1. Basic community characteristics
Size [small or big] * Common places * Landmarks * Look [dirty or clean] * Natural features
Population
Number*Demographic break down [male female /married /
unmarried/old/young/] * Population density * Nature of
families [joint/nuclear/male and female headed/family
members]
How the community functions?
[Function means community attempt to meet its needs]
2.1. Physical needs
Access to adequate needs * Affordable medical care *
Adequate and safe transport system * Adequate waste and
drainage system * Clean environment * Routine
maintenance
2.2. Social and emotional needs
Safety and security * Pride in the community * Confident
of their own and others abilities * Caring by others *
Groupings * Handling of deviants
2.3. Political needs
Ability to work together * Participation in decision-making
* Formal/Informal process of making community decisions * Formal government structures and
leadership positions
* Recognizing community problems * Dominants [vocal] and passive [silent]
* Basis of community power * Carrying out decisions
2.4. Economic needs
Access to goods and services * Income and occupational levels * Opportunities available
[plenty/limited] * Earnings [inside/outside] * Production centers * Forces which influence
economic health
2.5. Educational and communication needs
Ways of learning about the things happening in the community /world * How people decide
about what is true? * Whom they listen and their credibility? * Schools and training programs *
Formal provider of news-their philosophical and editorial basis
Informal methods of providing news * Interest in communicating with one another
3. Assessing the communitys unmet needs
When a community cannot meet its goals or sustain it self, the community has unmet needs
Needs are often undiscovered, undeclared or considered unimportant by those who could do
something about them Recall *Normative need/Comparative need/Expressed need/Felt need
Symptoms of need and solution to need one should not mistake this as a need it self
E.g. Over crowded clients-inadequate chairs - Symptom
Putting adequate chairs - Solution [Both may be wrong]
Timely service may be the solution


17

Six stages of effective community
organizing:
Assess the community
Create an action team
Develop an action plan
Mobilize to action
Implement
Evaluate
It's extremely important that one get to know the
community where one will be working in, and the
history of the issue one will address. Allow two to
three months to become familiar with the community,
its history, make-up, demographics, geography and
political leadership. Continue to learn about the
community by going door knocking and conducting
one-to-one discussions ". The organizer must learn
what community members concerns are and find out
what they identify as problems, not tell the
community what the problem is.
4. Community resources
A need arises not because of the absence of resource. Allocation of resources and our inability to
recognize and develop resources may result in need. In order to meet the need, collect the
required information about the resources
available in a community.
Natural resources - Land, Water, Trees etc.
Tangible human made things --E.g. Libraries,
bridges, cars etc
Systems of serving people Local
government, grievance procedure, games, health
etc
Social relationships Family, friends,
business associations etc
Major institutions Temples, schools,
government departments etc
Financial services Money, barter etc
Human quality and values Honesty,
determination, passion etc
Skills and talents Carpentry, plumbing etc
Knowledge availability Science, history etc
Resources that can be used in multiple ways Temples, meeting places etc
Resources that can be combined to produce new resources Storage place that can be used
to collect used books

5. Capacity for change and disposition to
change
The desire for change often involves correcting
injustices, but it is not limited to this. It can also
involve providing new opportunities or
challenges, escaping the boredom of the routine
All communities have some capacity to change,
though some have more constraints than others.
E.g. Public employees legally limited to take
political action.
Each community also differs in its disposition
to change E.g. Some communities are happy
with the existing conditions

How to find out what we need to know?
Library/Census/City directory/Community profile/Publications/News paper files/Local
magazines/Year books/Resource directories / Impact or issue publications /Lists of local clubs
and organizations/Travel or tourism books/Economic profiles/Community trend profiles etc

Look for organizations that do at least one of the following things
Sell your community: Chamber of Commerce, Tourism organizations etc
Sell in or from your community: Provision stores, Retail estate associations, Business concerns

18

Serve your community: Schools, Temples, Churches, Service providers
State a particular concern about your community: Environmental organizations, Police,
Transport
Study your community: Universities,
Planning bureaus, consulting
companies.
Guided personal discussions
Focus groups
Surveys and questionnaires
Collecting list
Membership lists *Donor lists *List of
officers or board of directors
Officers of political parties *Creating
our own lists

A check list that can be used to facilitate discussion to study/ understand a community

A check list that can be used to facilitate discussion. Adapt it to local conditions
For each of the following statements, please indicate your response using the following key:
Strongly agree -5, Agree- 4, Disagree 3, Strongly disagree 2, Dont know -1
1 This community feels like home to me 5 4 3 2 1
2. I can get help from my friends when I need it. 5 4 3 2 1
3. If I need information to make an important decision I know where to find that information. 5 4 3 2 1
4. The community is able to respond to important issues 5 4 3 2 1
5. I think of myself as similar to the people who live here 5 4 3 2 1
6. People here are confident about the future of our community 5 4 3 2 1
7. I am able to get the services I need in my community 5 4 3 2 1
8. I shop locally whenever I can 5 4 3 2 1
9 The community has strong local leadership 5 4 3 2 1
10 There is a strong sense of cooperation and community pride 5 4 3 2 1
11 Our community is highly regarded in the region 5 4 3 2 1
12 I stop and chat with my neighbors 5 4 3 2 1
13 I feel my concerns and opinions about local issues can be heard 5 4 3 2 1
14 The local businesses support the community 5 4 3 2 1
15 I feel safe in my community 5 4 3 2 1
In the past 3 years
16 Have you ever joined a local community action to deal with an emergency? YES/NO
17. Have you ever taken part in a community project? YES/NO
18. Do you help out a local group as a volunteer? YES/NO
19. Have you ever been part of a project to organize a service in your area? YES/NO
20. Have you taken part in any education or training program? YES/NO
21 What do you think are the three most important issues for this community?
22 Is there anyone else you think would be interested in doing this survey?
23
Is there anyone else you think would be interested in doing this survey?

24 Would you like to make any comments about your community?

Qualities of a good Community Organizer
Community organizers think strategically about their work
while always keeping the final goal in mind and continually
making contributions to the goal. This is especially
important in community organizing campaigns to enact or
change policies. Qualities include:
Imagination Sense of Humor Blurred vision of a
better world An organized personality
Strong ego/sense of oneself A free, open mind, and
political relativity
Ability to create the new out of the old
(Saul Alinsky, 1971)

19

Phases/ Methods /Outcome of Community Organization
Based on the syllabus content

Project planning tools, Group
decision making, Negotiation,
conflict resolution, Appraisal 6
2
4
5
5
Community Organization
Phases
Methods
Tools &
Outcome
1 2 3
4
6
1 3
Phases /
Steps in
CO

Methods

Outcomes
Study Analysis Assessment
Understanding the Community / Issue / Problem
1 2 3
Planning & Decision
Making

4
Implementation -
Organization &
Action

5
6
Base line
surveys,
Community
Profiling,
Observation,
PRA Tools,
Need
assessment,
Field consultations, Focus group, Stakeholder workshops ,
Meeting, Conference, Committees, Problem & Need analysis
Negotiation,
consultation, PRA
Tools, Workshops,
Group decision
making, SWOT
Analysis,
Prioritization
matrix,
Understood problems & needs, assessed context, created databases, more awareness about
the problems & stakeholders, community assets,
Consensus on how to act &
mobilize, developed
indicators, visible outputs,
Professional management,
Scheduling & Monitoring
Evaluation tools, resource
mobilization, Financial Mgt,
Cooperative action
Co management
capacity, Visible
out puts. User
groups,
Developed regulations,
cooperation &
integration,
Professional management, Scheduling
& Monitoring Evaluation tools,
Evaluation /
Modification / Replication

20

Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business
Community Business Survey

Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business
Community Business Survey (Adapt It to Local Conditions)
Category of Business............. Number Employed: Years Established . . . . .
Are you a member of any local business organization? YES NO
If YES which organization/s?
Which of the following best describes how you run your business? (One or more)
A. Provision of essential service to customers B. Provision of competitive service and seek customers
Provision of competitive, quality services and
have loyal customers
Provision of specialized services so customers seek us
out
Provision of specialized service and people are referred to us Trying new ways of winning business
Reaching customers through advertisements Sponsoring one major local activity
Sponsoring several local activities Employing trainees
Technology and your business: Is there a role in your business for information technology?
Which of the following best describes the technologies you use?
Manual bankcard/credit card facilities Electronic banking for our business needs
Basic computing- word processing and spreadsheets Commercial software packages
Software for stock and inventory control Industry specific software
Internet address and website Using industry specific technologies
About your potential business growth
Which of the following business strategies do you have in place at the moment?
Planning to grow our business Having a working business plan
Having a marketing plan Having a contingency plan for financial
emergencies
About the Business Community:
5. Yes, completely satisfactory 4. Yes, but not completely satisfactory 3. Somewhat, but
need attention to be satisfactory 2. No not at all. Not satisfactory 1. Dont know
How do you feel about each of the following issues in the business community?
The business sector works together well 5 4 3 2 1 We work to reduce that leakage 5 4 3 2 1
The community supports its local businesses
5 4 3 2 1
work together to promote the benefits of shopping
locally 5 4 3 2 1
Businesses work together to maximize
opportunities for the future 5 4 3 2 1
The business sector is optimistic about the future
5 4 3 2 1
The business sector promotes customer service
5 4 3 2 1

Business, Council and the Community
A spirit of mutual assistance and cooperation in the
community 5 4 3 2 1
There is a strong working relationship between the
Council and the business community 5 4 3 2 1
A high level of optimism in the community
5 4 3 2 1
There is a strong level of pride in the community
5 4 3 2 1
You as a member of the community
Are you involved in any community organizations
outside work?
Do you undertake any voluntary work/ service in
the community?
What you do and how many hours each week you are involved in community work ?


21

Collection of self explanatory diagrams on Steps /Stages in Community Organization

A look at the series of diagrams given in the following pages will help to understand how the
steps and stages in community organization is differently described. This is not to confuse the
readers but enable them to appreciate the complexity associated with community organization
process.
8. Plenary Primary &
Secondary
Stakeholders

Start
13. Co management
formalized
1. Situation
Analysis
2. Stakeholder
Analysis
3.Household
Census
4. Problem Census
with Individual
stakeholder groups
5. Consolidated
problem ranking
by facilitators
6. Plenary to
agree problems
7. Solution & Impact
Analysis with Individual
Stakeholders
10. Develop
detailed plan of
action
9. Development of
community organizations &
Institutions
11. Review &
agree mitigation
12. Implement action plan
including rules &
monitoring

22

Stages & Steps in Community Organization

When to do it?
Situation that need improvement
Decided to work
Available
Resources
Existing
opportunities
Success
stories
Areas of
improvement
What to do?
Where to do?
it?
Who will do it?
Required
resources
Planning
Implementatio
n
Evaluation
Situation
Assessmen
t
Learnings
Impact of
project
Suggestions
for the future

Analyze the issue or problem
What is the issue or problem?
Identify Stakeholders
Who is involved?
Know your target group
Whom you want to reach?
Determine objectives &
outcomes
What you want to achieve?
Design your methods
What methods should you use?
Consider funding
How much will it cost & Wholl pay?
Make an action plan & implement
it
Specify Who,What,When,Where?
Monitor & Evaluate
How will you know if its been
successful?
S
T
A
G
E

2


23

Stages in Guiding / Organizing Communities


24

Some self explanatory diagrams on Problem Solving Process

Steps in Problem Solving


25

Phases in community organization learning

Phases in
Community
Organization
Learning

26

Diagrams of Phases / Steps / Stages in Community Organization

Steps /Phases in Community Organization


27

Tools that can be used at different stages and for different purposes

Major Phases / stages Appropriate tools
1. Understanding the
Community
1. Study
2. Assessment
3, Diagnosis
Social Map, resource Map, Seasonal Calendar, Wealth ranking, Venn diagrams,
Consultations, focus-group discussions, Community Profiling, , transect walk,
Demographic profiles, Asset mapping, Referring secondary sources
2. Project Planning 4. Planning &
Decision Making
Focus group discussions, Stakeholders workshops & meetings Data-gathering tools
such as stakeholders' analysis, Problem ranking and prioritization, Project Appraisal &
Scheduling techniques, SWOT & Force Field Analysis, PERT & CPM, Professional
Management techniques relevant to Project administration, Logical Framework
Analysis (LFA)
3. Resource mobilization,
Financial Management,
Monitoring & evaluation
5.Implementation
& Action
Fund raising methods, Budgeting, Financial Management Techniques, Gantt chart,
Monitoring tools, Alternative technologies or methods like micro-finance, sustainable
agriculture, alternative medicine, co-operative, indigenous forest management,
appropriate technologies for livelihoods
4. Evaluation, 6. Evaluation
Modification /
Replication
Stakeholders workshops & meetings, community-based evaluation tools,

Action /Implementing
Action Planning
Nominal Group Technique
Deciding
Card Technique
Interrelationship Diagrams
Stakeholders Workshops
Exploring
Brain storming
Cause effect Diagrams
Mind Mapping
Visioning
Social & Resource mapping
Semi structured Interviews
Seasonal Diagrams
mapping
Analyzing
Venn Diagrams
Historical Analysis
SWOT Analysis
Force Field Analysis
Matrix Analysis
Wealth Ranking
Priority Ranking
Experience
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

Conceptualization
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n


28

PRA tools for many purposes to understand and organize the communities
PRA tools for many purposes to understand and organize the communities
Gaining ideas
Brainstorming can be applied to gain as
many ideas as possible without getting caught
up in detailed discussion.
Analyzing factors, steps, relationships
A conceptual model is a diagram of a set of
relationships between certain factors that are believed
to impact or lead to a target condition.
With flow diagrams you can map out steps that need
to be taken and the factors that need to be taken into
account
Force Field analysis is a tool for systematically
analyzing the driving and restraining forces in a situation
Interrelationship diagrams are used to examine if
factors are caused by or a cause of the other factor, and
to show relations between factors with arrows.
Issue analysis is identification of major issues that
have been raised from a range of other tools (focus
groups, semi-structured interviews) and grouping these
into major themes.
Matrix analysis can be used for ranking the value of
a particular activity or item according to a range of
criteria
SWOT is the identification of Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats
Organizing and ranking ideas, factors,
issues
Cause and effect mapping can be used to
brainstorm on and organize causes for a
particular problem
Card techniques are an easy way to
cluster, organize and rank information.
The Delphi technique can be used to
categorize ideas, issues or questions with a
group
Mind mapping is a good exploring tool to
cluster similar ideas and see links.
Nominal group techniques enable a
group to quickly develop a ranked list of
problems, issues or actions
Collecting information
Focus groups discussions take place with
a small group of selected people to collect
information about an issue.
With historical narratives you can create
personal testimonies of past events and
conditions.
Questionnaires and surveys are a
structured way to gather quantitative
information.
By semi-structured interviewing we
mean guided conversations where broad
questions are asked and new questions are
allowed to arise as result of discussion.
Participatory learning tools
With historical analysis you create a table with dates
and topics which can be filled in with a group to create
understanding about history and background.
Locality mapping is drawing on the knowledge of
local people to develop a map of the local area.
A timeline is a widely used participatory tool to
understand a kind of history of a community
A time trend helps to understand and analyze the
fluctuation situation of development progress and their
reasons during a certain time interval.
An empowerment circle aims to generate
information from stakeholders about the progress of
their empowerment situation after project intervention.
With institutional linkage or Venn diagrams you can
visualize institutions and organizations and their
influence for example.
Rich picturing is a kind of group work (4-8 persons)
to visualize a situation on a large sheet of paper with
symbols, pictures and words.

Planning
Visioning is a nice tool to let people think
about and describe how they would like things
to be in the future Action plans are tables with
tasks, resources, due date and responsible
persons


29

Phases /Steps in Community Organizing


30

Diagram: Problem Analysis Model

Example of Problem Analysis

High Infant
Deaths
Too Young
Mothers
(<18 yrs)
Close spacing
of births
(<2 yrs)
Too many
Births
(>5)
High risk birth
arrives too late
at hospital
High incidence
of infection
(sepsis)
Midwives use
unhygienic
practices
Intermittent
use of Family
Planning
Methods
Mothers are
living in far
flung areas

Non use of
Family Planning
methods
Mothers dont
know their
pregnancy is
high risk
Short Breast
feeding
practice
Religious
belief forbids
use of Family
Planning
Children are
living on the
streets
Pregnancy

due to rape

31

Diagrams: Models - Steps / Stages in Community Organization

Phases /Steps in Community Organizing


32

Comprehensive list of Community Organization / Engagement Tools

It is a challenge to list out community organization/engagement - 1. steps/stages and
2.tools and techniques matched to each stage /phase. The choice of steps and techniques will
depend on a number of factors, including:
. The purpose of organization / engagement
. Legal requirements for organization / engagement
. Who is to be consulted?
. The environment in which engagement is being carried out (political, social, cultural normal,
conflict ridden, emergency)
. Money, time and skills available.
List of Community Organization /
Engagement Tools
Advisory committee
Background papers see Written information
Charette
Citizens jury
Citizens panel
Commission of inquiry see Public hearing
Community information and feedback session
Consultative committee see Advisory
committee
Design workshop see Charette
Discussion forums see Website
Discussion papers see Written information
Face-to-face interview see Meeting
Facilitation .
Feedback see Written information
Focus group
Inquiry by design see Charette
Meeting
Mediation meetings see Meeting
Newsletter see Written information
Open day see Community information and
feedback session
Planning focus meeting
Policy round table see Planning focus meeting
Precinct committee
Pre-lodgment meeting see Meeting
Post-determination meeting see Meeting.
Public forum see Public meeting .
Public hearing
Public meeting
Public notices
Research panel see Citizens panel
Questionnaire
Regional forum
Search conference
Threaded discussion groups see Website
Website
Workshop see Focus group
Written information


33

Levels of Community Engagement Its Objectives, Outcomes & Techniques used

Level Objectives Promise to the public Major techniques
I
N
F
O
R
M

To provide the public with
balanced and objective
information to assist them in
understanding the problem,
alternatives, or
solutions
We will keep you
informed
Meeting
Public notice
Written
Website

C
O
N
S
U
L
T

To obtain public feedback on
analysis, alternatives, or
decisions
We will keep you informed,
listen to and acknowledge your
concerns, and provide
feedback on how public input
influenced the decision
Citizens panel
Community information
and feedback session
Facilitation
Focus group
Meeting
Public hearing
Questionnaire
I
N
V
O
L
V
E

To work directly with the public
throughout the process to
ensure that public and private
concerns are consistently
understood and considered
We will work with you to
ensure that your concerns and
issues are directly
reflected in the alternatives
developed and provide
feedback on how public input
influenced the decision
Facilitation
Planning focus meeting
Precinct committee
C
O
L
L
A
B
O
R
A
T
E
To partner with the public in
each aspect of the decision
including the development of
alternatives and the
identification of the preferred
solution
We will look to you for direct
advice and innovation in
formulating solutions and
incorporate your advice and
Recommendations into the
decisions to the maximum
extent possible
Advisory committee
Charette
Facilitation
Policy round table
Regional forum
Search conference
E
M
P
O
W
E
R
To place final decision making
in the hands of the public
To place final decision making
in the hands of the public
Citizens jury
Search conference


34

Description of Tools

MEETINGS
This is a cost effective, relatively informal technique for information sharing that can be a good
alternative to public meetings
Description
Small or one-on-one meetings and interviews are a popular way to inform or consult with interested
parties and members of the community. Being less formal than large meetings, they are a way to engage
those who may be under-represented in public forums. They offer a more focused opportunity to discuss
a planning issue or project with an individual or group.
PUBLIC NOTICE
This is one of the least expensive information giving techniques, although costs will vary according to the
methods used.
Description
A public notice is a means of providing information to the public about a proposal or key community
engagement activity associated with a planning or development assessment process. A public notice
usually appears:
. in a local or national circulation newspaper . as a sign in a public place
. on land or buildings that may be affected by a planning or development
assessment process . on a public notice board.
A public notice describes the proposal or event, for example, local environmental planning process, public
hearing, exhibition. Its purpose and objectives are stated briefly, including:
. the name of the authority or organizers for an event . the place, time and date of the event
. the timeframe for the process.
It may also state that the public can make submissions during a specified submission period.
Public notices are mandatory for specified steps of some statutory planning and development assessment
processes. In some cases not only the contents, but the size of the notice is specified.
WRITTEN INFORMATION
The written word is a widely used and cost effective method of providing information and encouraging
input. Costs will vary depending on the nature of the written information.
Description
Written information is a widely used, traditional consultation method. When associated with consultation
on plan making and development proposals, it takes many forms. These include:
. discussion, issues and background papers . Reports on processes . records of meetings . questionnaires
. articles . advertisements . media releases
. brochures and newsletters publicizing planning proposals and associated community engagement
strategies.
Written material is used to:
. provide information about policies, strategies, services, plans, proposals and forthcoming events
. encourage broad discussion and response to policies, strategies, plans and proposals
. provide feedback to participants in the consultation process or the community generally


35

CITIZENS PANEL
Although this technique is costly to establish in both time and money, it offers ongoing value as a resource
for a range of engagement techniques.
Description
Standing citizens panels, research panels, or similar techniques have been widely used. They are large
scale consultative groups (10002500 participants) weighted for gender, age, ethnic background and
occupation to be representative of the community. This technique provides a relatively permanent forum
that can be surveyed on a regular basis about issues or services. One advantage is that it provides a large
sample from which it is possible to gauge changes in attitudes, knowledge and behaviors over time.

Participants normally serve on a citizens panel for a period of two to four years.
A citizens panel is a 'deliberative' form of participation. Deliberative participation differs from normal public
consultation or public participation because it does not seek 'snapshot' answers on predefined questions
framed by policy makers. Instead the emphasis is on getting citizens to think about their experiences and
priorities, to look at the problems of providing public services, and to frame their own suggestions and
recommendations for policy makers to consider. In short, people are asked to deliberate, listen to
evidence, and get involved in a far more extensive way with the issues under consideration.
The motivation for establishing a citizens panel comes from several sources:
. the intelligence of the electorate should not be underestimated
. it is difficult for public officials to have as much information about citizens' situations as the citizens do
themselves
. the interconnections between problems from the citizens' point of view are often subtle
and yet very important for the way that policy decisions work or do not work.
COMMUNITY INFORMATION AND FEEDBACK SESSION
This technique itself takes little time yet requires significant expenditure of resources to prepare.
Description
A community information and feedback session is usually a day on site at a nominated venue where
participants will:
. view plans for a proposed development
. discuss issues with the sponsoring organization
. provide comments or written feedback about the project.
FACILITATION
This technique involves some additional expenditure of preparation time and money to cover the cost of
the facilitator but can deliver outcomes that would not be possible without facilitation.
Description
Facilitation is a technique used to enhance the effectiveness of other community engagement techniques.
It involves a neutral person, or facilitator, steering an event such as a forum, workshop or public meeting
to ensure that all views are voiced and heard and that the environment is conducive to the open
expression of needs and concerns. A facilitators role is also to lead participants towards identifying
common ground and mutually acceptable options. Facilitation is a vital tool when dealing with contested
issues or where there is potential conflict between parties over outcomes. This can occur in almost any
issue.
Cole-Edelstein (2001) has identified some of the fundamental principles of facilitation:
. trust and integrity . transparency and accountability . flexibility to reflect the directions of the process .
responsibility to process, not outcomes.
FOCUS GROUP
This technique can be relatively resource intensive, especially when a wide range of special interest
groups are targeted, however, it is an effective way to engage groups who may be under represented in
larger forums.
Description
Focus groups can help develop a program or consider a proposal by incorporating views from groups that
have a specific interest or concerns. Focus groups target members of a specific population or special
needs group.

36

It is useful to seek advice from individuals or organizations with local expertise when selecting
appropriate groups. Because focus groups tend to involve small numbers, around eight to twelve, all
participants have a chance to contribute.
The advantages of focus groups are that they:
. allow for brainstorming ideas . can include those who may usually be excluded
. allow in depth discussion.
Weaknesses include:
. possible cost . lack of confidentiality . qualitative information only . difficulty in prioritising issues
PUBLIC HEARING
Description A public hearing is held in response to a submission for a hearing to discuss concerns about a
draft local environment plan. A council has the discretion as to whether or not to hold a public hearing.
The concerned authorities may arrange a public hearing to enable the community to comment on a
particular aspect, or on the entire draft of a planning policy.
Some advantages of a public hearing are:
. the public is allowed, by prior arrangement, to speak without rebuttal
. available evidence can to be worked through systematically
. comments are put on record.
Weaknesses include:
. it does not foster dialogue
. an adversarial mood can be created
. minority groups and those who do not like public speaking are not easily included
. people with the confidence or resources to make a case tend to be favoured.
QUESTIONNAIRE
This technique can be a valuable way to obtain information that will inform the engagement process
although it takes significant resources.
Description
A questionnaire or survey is a face-to-face, postal or electronic set of pre-determined questions designed
to obtain information, views and concerns associated with a planning or development process.
The advantages of a questionnaire include:
. those who might not attend meetings are engaged
. statistically valid results can be more acceptable to the public and decision makers.
Weaknesses include:
. resource intensive . low response rate . limited detail.
PLANNING FOCUS MEETING
This technique is a cost effective way of resolving issues at the pre-lodgment stage and involves relatively
few resources.
Description
The planning focus meeting includes one or more meetings between the development proponent and
authorities. It provides a forum for proponents to introduce projects and explain various components and
considerations. It also acts as a contact point for various government agencies including councils in those
areas the development will be, to identify key issues of concern. From this point, the authorities are able
to advise on which key issues the proponents should analyze and assess.
Planning focus meetings are valuable because they deal at an early stage with matters that might
otherwise hold up the assessment process. They help clarify the main standards, criteria and guidelines
that will be used by authorities in assessing and determining projects.
Their purpose is to establish a sound basis that ensures projects are adequately described and their
implications are properly identified and addressed. It is not a forum for making decisions about whether a
project can be approved or for setting conditions
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
This technique requires ongoing commitment and resource support.
Description
Advisory committees generally comprise members of community groups and government or non-
government agencies with expertise in a specific field. They can be formed to monitor

37

issues in relation to:
. various government programs
. planning processes place-based strategic planning or development of a specific local government area
. specific issues advising on Aboriginal peoples needs/concerns
. specific matters such as access for people with disabilities, and community safety.
In a consultation process, they can offer advice on appropriate changes to programs, policies or plans or
recommend the introduction of specific services. Advisory committees can help produce more appropriate
policy and reduce criticism from interest groups.
Although similar to task forces, advisory committees function as an ongoing structure while task forces
tend to be formed on a short term basis to focus specifically on the development of a particular proposal.
CHARETTE
This is a resource intensive technique that can deliver concrete outcomes very quickly and cost
effectively.
Description
A charette or inquiry by design workshop is an intensive workshop where stakeholders are brought
together to suggest solutions for complex planning issues. Such solutions include trying to balance
planning, economic and social factors as well as urban design and sustainability considerations. A
charette should include representatives from interest groups although it is not limited to these groups. It
involves a rapid and dynamic interchange of ideas between planning practitioners, stakeholders and the
general community. Concrete results are produced rapidly with meaningful and well placed involvement
of the community. It is a cost effective means of envisioning the outcomes at an early stage and
assessing the planning proposals at the final stage. It is important that both the consent authority and
the participants in the charette understand its role in decision-making.
REGIONAL FORUM
This technique is an important way of promoting cooperation and coordination in regional planning. It
requires ongoing commitment of resources and is an implicit component of planning.
Description
A regional forum promotes cooperative and coordinated regional planning and provides comprehensive
advice to the govt. It brings together key government and community based interests in a region and
coordinates preparation, maintenance and implementation of regional strategies. This task also includes:
. streaming information management
. developing consistent, whole-of-government guidance to local councils on implementing regional
strategies.
SEARCH CONFERENCE
This technique is a resource intensive, effective means of creating a partnership with the community. It
can be used for developing and gaining broad commitment in a strategic planning process. Its success
depends on a strong commitment to follow through with conference outcomes.
Description
Search conferences were pioneered in England in 1959. They are usually held early in a planning process
to develop a broad vision for a particular project or organization. Search conferences focus on first
identifying desirable futures and then concentrating on ways to achieve them. Search conferences are
intensive events, usually taking place over two days and two nights (Roulier 1997). Sometimes called
future search conferences, they involve a large group of people, selected because they have power or
information on the topic at hand or are affected by the outcomes. The ideal number is considered to be
64 people, as this breaks down into eight groups of eight. People from similar interest groups are usually
placed together for some or all of the conference to take part in a highly structured process covering five
stages:
1. Review the past
. Each participant writes key events in the history of themselves, the community and the world onto three
parallel time lines.
2. Explore the present
. A mind map is made of trends affecting the local community.
. Specific interest groups identify important trends and what they would like done about them.

38

. Groups share what they are proud of and sorry about in their community.
3. Create ideal futures
. Mixed small groups develop visions.
. Barriers to the visions are identified.
. Each group acts out its vision to everyone else.
4. Identify common ground
. First the small groups, then the whole group, work out:
- the common ground or shared vision
- identify projects to achieve it
- identify any unresolved differences.
5. Make action plans
. Self selected action groups plan projects and publicly commit to their action.
CITIZENS JURY
A citizens jury is a time, labour and cost intensive exercise that requires expert facilitation.
Description
In a citizens jury, a randomly recruited and demographically representative panel of citizens meets for
three to five days to carefully examine an issue of public significance. The jury usually consists of 12 to
20 individuals, and serves as a microcosm of the community. Jurors are often paid a stipend for their
time. Childcare, specialist support and travel expenses should also be offered to jurors. They hear from a
variety of expert witnesses and are able to deliberate together on the issue. On the final day of their
moderated hearings, the members of the citizens jury present their recommendations to the public.
The charge is the task facing the jury. It typically takes the form of a question or series of questions that
the jurors address and answer during deliberations. A citizens jury is a transparent process that involves
experts, ordinary citizens, service providers, interest groups and the decision makers on a specific topic of
community concern.


39

Characteristics of good & bad decisions
Good decisions
Informed
Supported by best evidence
Compatible with patients values
Considers patients preferences
Weigh pros and cons
Practical
Poor decisions
Objective data inadequate
Too few options considered
Alternatives unclear
Values and preferences unexplored
Roles unclear
Communication is poor

Different Types
of Decisions
Irreversible
Reversible
Delayed
Quick decisions
Experimental
Trial and Error
Conditional

Decision
Making Styles
Authoritative
Facilitative
Consultative
Delegative

Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-Operative Action
Groups in the context of Community Organization
The work of the organizations is largely the work of the groups. Most of the stuff of community
organization discussing, planning, and decision -making and camaraderie occurs in groups.
Building a successful organization
demands an understanding of the
functioning of successful groups.

Community organizers see group
methods of ensuring authentic
participation as a means towards
transformation. Groups are seen as
preparing ground for participation. Trust
and dialogues are pre requisite for group
process.

Founded on love, humility and faith,
dialogue becomes a horizontal
relationship of mutual trust. Trust is
established by dialogue; it cannot exist
unless the words of both parties coincide
with their actions.

Nor can dialogue exist without hope.
Hope is rooted in our human
incompleteness, from which we move out in constant search, which can be carried out only in
communion with other people.

Group decisions require an intense faith in human beings; founded on love, humility and faith,
group decision-making process develops mutual trust. (It requires intense faith in human being;
Synopsis
Groups in the context of Community Organization
The importance of Groups
Meaning of a Group & Decision Making
Meaning of Decision Making
Meaning of Group Decision Making
Understanding the Groups
Stages of Group Formation
Johnson & Johnson / Napier & Greshenfeld
Task roles and Relationship roles
Improving the efficiency of the Groups
Providing proper learning climate
Deciding the size
Group Decision Making
Involvement / Types of decision making
Difficulties in decision-making
Making good decisions
Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision making
Forms of group decision-making
Meeting practice
Conference practice
Committee practice

40

requires love and humility; requires hope, which is rooted in human incompleteness; involves
critical thinking)

Issues facing the people are often complex and no expert has all the answers. On the other hand
no body is totally ignorant. To discover valid solutions everyone needs to be both a learner and a
teacher. A may provide a fact; B may provide a premise; C may provide a value judgment;
D may provide a complete alternative; E may provide second alternative. This may lead to
valid solutions. To discover valid solutions, everyone needs to be both a learner and a teacher.
Groups provide an environment for mutual learning process.

Meaning of a Group:
Two or more people who interact with and influence each other towards a common purpose.
(Who interact with one another; psychologically aware of one another; who perceive themselves
in a group)
Meaning of Decision Making:
Selection of a preferred course of action from or more alternatives
Meaning of Group Decision Making:
When two or more people who interact and influence each other attempt to select a preferred
course of action from two or more alternatives.
Group decisions emerge from group meetings. These meetings may be called as conferences,
committees, staff meetings etc

An example of Personal Decision Making


41

Understanding the Groups
Stages in the development of a group.
The following stages are identified in the life cycle of a group.
Tuckmen and Jenson Napier and Gershenfled
1. Forming Stage
Members are unsure of themselves and the
group. They try to figure out where they fit
in with these new relationships
1. Beginning Stage
This stage is a period of watching, waiting and testing
how to act
2. Storming Stage
It is characterized by rebellion as members
assert their individuality and resist
authority
2. Movement toward Confrontation Stage
After people have dropped their polite facades and begin
acting more like themselves. Questions arise over who
makes decision and how. Members try to firmly establish
their place in the group seeking prestige and influence.
This bound to cause some conflict
3. Norming Stage.
Members establish procedure and a sense
of how they should act in the group
3. Compromise and Harmony Stage
The group starts reversing confrontative trend realizing
that if continues the group will disintegrate. This period of
goodwill, tolerance for different behaviors and more
acceptance of individuals. Collaboration is increased and
competitiveness is reduced. There is a pressure to
preserve the spirit of harmony
4. Performing Stage
The group concentrates on the tasks to be
achieved
4. Reassessment Stage
The group starts feeling that the pressure to preserve
superficiality makes them to ignore the members personal
needs, suspicions and realize that it stands in the way of
accomplishing goals. The group realizes that survival
depends on increasing shared responsibility as well as
personal accountability. This in turn increases the trust
and individual risk taking
5. Adjourning Stage
When the group completes its work, which
results in a change in the relationship
among its members
5. Resolution and recycling stage
The group realizes that periods of harmony are normal
and conflicts are handled easily and quickly.
Task Roles and Relationship Roles of a Group:

TASKS AND RELATIONSHIP NEEDS IN ANY GROUP
In every group some one is needed to play each of the following roles if the group is to accomplish its
tasks and keep good relationships among its members. Any action that strengthens the task or
relationship level can be considered a leadership action.
Task Needs
Task Component: any action the group undertakes
to accomplish its purpose / goal. If task component
receives little attention, the group wont accomplish
very much.
Relationship Needs
Relationship or Maintenance Component:
Actions not directed at the working of the, but to
enhance the harmony among individuals and the
group. Maintenance component includes the
ability of the group members to work well
together, to effectively manage their conflicts and
to feel good about them. This necessary after a
sequence of intense task activities or otherwise
the group will probably fall apart

42

Decision Making Modes

Low
Goal Ambiguity
/Conflict
High
L
o
w

Rationale Mode Political Mode
T
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
l

U
n
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
t
y

Emotional Mode Anarchy Mode

H
i
g
h

1. Starting the discussion or helping the group
to begin a job.
2. Asking for information. Asking group
members what information they have and / or
where the information can be found on the topic
being discussed
3. Giving information. When group member do
not have particular facts that are relevant to the
topic.
4. Asking what people think. Getting group
members opinion is for good decision-making. It is
also important for people to be willing to share
what they think.
5. Explaining. Giving practical examples to make
a point clear.
6. Summing up. Repeating what has been said
clearly in few words.
7. Checking to see if everyone agrees
8. Analyzing the problems under discussion
9. Making creative suggestions to resolve the
problems
10. Having clear process for making each
decision
11. Evaluating. Looking at the strengths and
weaknesses of the groups work and seeing how it
can be improved
1. Encouraging. Being friendly, responding to
and building suggestions made by others.
Showing acceptance and appreciation of others
and their ideas.
2. Giving every one a chance to speak
3. Asking what people feel. Sharing what one
fells and checking group feelings
4. Encouraging shy members, especially young
women or those who less formally schooled
5. Resolving arguments
6. Encouraging creativity in the group.
7. Sharing responsibilities
8. Developing the confidence and skills of all
members
9. Setting standards. E.g. shall we agree that
nobody speaks more than twice
10. Diagnosing difficulties E.g. may be some
of us are afraid of the consequences of this
decision
11. Relieving tension. By bringing it out into
the open, putting a problem in a wider context, or
making a well timed joke

To use groups as a tool for Community
transformation, Community Organizers
have to concentrate on the following aspects
1. Structure of the Groups
2. Improving the efficiency of the Groups
3. Providing proper learning climate
Structure of the Groups
Deciding the size:
Majority of people find it difficult to speak
in a big group of strangers. Also there is
usually not enough time for everyone to
speak. Therefore if everyone is to
participate actively, small groups are
essential.
Pairs are useful for
Interviews, intimate sharing, practicing
some skills, ti stir a passive sleepy group in to action.
3s are very useful for
Getting everyone thinking and participating actively
Testing out an idea one is hesitant to present to the big group. If two people think it is
worthwhile, one might risk saying it to the whole group


43

4s, 5s, 6s is useful for,
Good size for a planning team or discuss about more complex situations. The bigger the group
gets, the longer the discussion time needed and the longer it will take to make decisions.
6-12
This is a good size for sharing ideas and insights when the group has plenty of time. But the
group is bigger than this, it need an appointed animator or leader. All members should try to be
sensitive to the needs of the group (task and relationship needs)
30s
An ideal size to develop the sprit of a community. But it is also necessary with groups of this size
to break into smaller groups of different kinds for different purposes.
30 200 >
Useful to inform new ideas and policy. But these groups should be broken in to small groups and
animators or facilitators are needed to break the passivity.
Group Decision Making
Community organizers frequently use a number of small group process in decision-making /
problem solving process. The use of decision-making groups typically called Committees is
common in almost all community organization settings. Decision-making is defined as the
selection of a preferred course of action from two or more alternatives. Group decision-
making has several advantages over individual decisions making. They are:
Greater knowledge
Greater number of approaches to the problem
Greater acceptance of the solution through participation and support
Better comprehension of the decision.

Community
is a great place
to work
Steps,
Strategy, tools
& techniques
Communities
can be
transformed,
made liveable

44

Involvement / Types of decision making
It is neither possible nor desirable to involve everybody in every decision. One of the main skills in
democratic leadership is deciding who should be involved in making which decisions. The basic rule is
that the more deeply people are affected by a decision, the more important it is they should share in
making it.
If we analyze how many people were actively involved in making a decision, we will find they all fall
somewhere along the following line

The plop:
Here the group makes a decision by not making a decision. Not to decide is to decide. Some one
makes a suggestion but drops like a stone into a pond and no one pays any attention to it all. If the
person who made the suggestion really felt enthusiastic about it, the fact that it was totally ignored
could make that person withdraw or resist later suggestions.
The one-person decision:
This is quickly made, but later when the decider depends on free or voluntary support from others to
implement it he /she may find himself / herself carrying it out alone.
The hand Clasp:
One person makes a suggestion. Another says, what a marvelous idea, and without further
discussion, the matter is decided. These decisions are more frequent than one thinks, and often
passed unnoticed at the time, but resentment comes to the surface later.
The Clique:
Decisions are made by a small group who plan beforehand to get their way, because they are better
organized than those who disagree. They are often successful on the immediate issue, but they bring
a spirit of rivalry rather than the co-operation in to the group. Sometimes groups of people who have
formerly been excluded or silent form a caucus in order to present a common agenda. This can be a
positive action and check-and- balance to a dominant group.
It is a healthy sign in a participatory democracy.
Minority: these decisions are not consciously organize as those of the clique, but a few powerful
personalities dominate the group, often unconsciously and later they wonder why the others are
apathetic.
Majority Vote:
In big groups this is often the most effective way to make a decision. However, one may lose the
interest or the loyalty of the minority who voted against a decision, especially if they feel that their
point of view was not heard.
Silent Consensus:
Some groups aims at unanimous decisions. These are good, if genuine, but they are rarely achieved
completely on certain issues. Unanimous agreement is some times assumed, when some members
have not felt free to disagree and kept silent.
Consensus
This as an agreement, often involving compromise or the combination of various possibilities, after all
opinions have been heard. Disagreements and minority viewpoints are discussed fully. It takes time
and care to build a climate in which all feel free to express themselves, but this method does build
unity, cooperation and commitment. It does not mean listening to people and then doing what we
were going to do in the first place. It means adapting to accommodate the concerns of all. It may
take longer to make a decision this way, but it will often be carried out more quickly and
wholeheartedly.

Plop Hand Clasp Minority Majority Vote True Consensus
One Person Clique Silent Consensus

45

Difficulties in decision-making:
Every group, to achieve its goal is constantly involved in making decisions. These decisions may
be big, little, easy, hard, right or wrong.

Decision making forms a continuing pattern of relationships among members of a group: a
pattern in which every individual member has some influence. It is amazing to note that a bit of
information may change the mood of the group, a loud objection, an expression of approval or
hostility, envy or admiration, contempt or condescension, can have an impending decision.

So it is little wonder that group after group has difficulty making the decisions. Some become
paralyzed when confronted with a decision: some argue over a minor point: others rush into a
vote only to reverse their decision later on or fail to carry out the plan: others appoint a
committee to save them from having to decide.

Most of the difficulties encountered by a group in making decisions center around one or another
of the following factors.

Fear of Consequences:
In some groups the possible outcomes of an impending decision may bring divisions and
disagreements. Frank acknowledgement of these fears often suggests how they can be dealt with
effectively. E.g. being in a group, this is not liked by the superiors.

Conflicting Loyalties:
When one person is a member of number of groups, this frequently leads to divided loyalties
about decisions. An atmosphere in which it is possible for these conflicts to be brought out into
the open without the threat to the individual is a help in resolving them. E.g. I would like to help
this community project, but I hardly get any time to spend with my wife and children these days.

Interpersonal Conflict:
In group of any size personal differences occur which provoke feelings of affection or dislike
among members and which interfere with sound decision making. When two different people
each trying to get things done in their own way, struggle erupts. Often another member who is
not involved in the interpersonal conflict can bring the real problem into the open.

Hidden agenda:
One person may try to get the group to make certain decision, which he /she wants for reasons
which he / she will not share with the group.

Blundering Methods:
A group may be bound by rigid procedures (e.g. always addressing all remarks to the
chairperson) that there is little chance for free expression of differences. or a group may allow
itself to substitute personal opinion for adequate information. Or a group may approach the
decision making process without testing for consequences.


46

Inadequate Leadership:
A leader may hinder good decision making if he / she restricts the expression of opinion or
discussion on issues too soon. Leaders also may fail to provide assistance in selecting
appropriate methods for decision-making or be insensitive to the factors causing difficulty in the
group.

Clash of Interest:
Sometimes different group or individuals within an organization do have opposing interest (e.g.
workers wanting higher wages and owners wanting higher profits).

Factors, which help in making good decisions:
a. Clear goal
b. Clear understanding of who has responsibility for the decision.
c. Good means of stimulating and sharing ideals
d. Effective leadership and structures to deal with the size of the group.
e. Effective way of testing different suggestions offered.
f. Commitment of the leader to genuine group involvement in making the decision.
g. Agreement on the procedures on what procedures will be most appropriate. (e.g. consensus,
majority vote, secret ballot etc )
Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision- making
Advantages Disadvantages
Greater knowledge
Diversity of ideas
Diffuses the responsibility
Better comprehension
Participation hence acceptance
Greater number of solutions
Protects individuals from embarrassment
Intense pressure to go along with others.
Slow and time consuming
Risky shift
Passing the buck
Strong vocal minority opinion overrides majority
opinion.
Group think [norm for consensus overrides the
Realistic appraisal of alternative of alternative
solution; hesitation to disagree with others]

Different methods of group decision-making

Meeting Conference Committee
Meeting may be defined as any
gathering, assembly or coming
together of two or more persons
for the transaction of some lawful
business of common concern
Conference means an
informal group discussion
by three or more persons,
with the object of carrying
out open minded
exploration and usually of
achieving consensus or
integration of thinking on
a subject or problem
Committee may be defined as a
group of persons, limited in
membership, by selective appointment,
usually appointed by some superior
authority and having joint
responsibility for inquiry, deliberation,
decision, action or related activities in
regard to matters assigned to them
Properly convened [by formal
authority] Properly constituted
[quorum & chairmen] Proper
procedure [Agenda & minutes]
DO
Face to face contact

Participation
DO

Specialists in the subject matter
Just to discuss matters
When there is conflict of interest
To get majority idea
To get consensus
To generate group idea
To explore the problem
Both to decide & act
To take joint responsibility

47

Meeting Practice:
A meeting may be defined as any gathering, assembly or coming together of two or more
persons for the transaction of some lawful business of common concern.
The proper functioning of any association of persons, large or small requires that the members of
the association come together from time to time discuss matters of common concern and take
decisions by common consent by the majority.

Meeting may be classified as public meeting and private or business meeting. It is a statutory
requirement for a registered community organization to conduct regular and proper meetings to
transact its business. A registered organization has to conduct executive committee meeting,
annual general body meeting and extraordinary general body meeting.

These meetings should be properly convened (i.e. by proper authority, by proper notice)
properly constituted (i.e. quorum and chairman) and follow proper procedures (meeting
procedure, agenda).

The method of meeting practice usually adopts parliamentary procedure to make decisions.
Parliamentary procedure is based on the democratic principles of majority rule, which requires
that the minority abide by the will of the majority. In turn, the acceptance of the majority rule by
the minority is based on the willingness of the majority to permit the minority to express its
views before action is taken.

Merits and demerits of parliamentary procedure

Merits Demerits
It provides rules and regulations for the
orderly conduct of the business.
Decisions must be made in the fact of
conflicting interests among members
It increases the belief in the organization
It is much too formal method
It decreases the losing factions commitment to the
decisions
It discourages exploration of innovative
ideas in a free and open manner because people
tend to take sides early in the discussion.

Conference
The term conference means informal group discussion by three or more persons, with the
object of carrying on open minded exploration and usually of achieving consensus or
integration of thinking on a subject or problem.

Consensus is a co-operative effort to find a sound solution acceptable to everyone. Consensus
occurs after all members have had an opportunity to voice their opinions and can then arrive at a
decision that almost everyone can support. It ensures that each individuals concerns are heard
and understood and then a sincere attempt is made to take them into consideration in searching
for a resolution. This resolution may not reflect the exact wishes of each member, but since does
not violate the deep concerns of anyone, it can be agreed upon by all.

Characteristics:
1) It is carried out by a group.

48

2) Conference normally involves a face-to-face meeting of the group.
3) Conference implies general participation.
4) Conference uses informal group discussion.
5) Conference has some definite subject for discussion.
6) Several groups Committees Boards, study groups, use conference method.
7) Members should open-mindedly discuss the subject; they should also show interest in
reaching consensus.
8) Conference aims to create a group idea (Not majority idea), which will be better than any one
of the members ideas alone moreover which will be better than all the members idea added
together.
9) Conference method is not appropriate for large bodies.

Committee Practice
The committee is to community organization as the interview is to casework
1. A committee may be defined as two or more people associated for some purpose towards
which they function as an organizational entity.
2. A committee may be defined as a group of persons, limited in membership, by selective
appointment, usually appointed by some superior authority, and having joint responsibility
for inquiry, deliberation, decision, action, Sponsorship, or related activities in regard to
matters assigned to them.

Characteristics of a Committee:
1) A group with limited membership.
2) Membership is based on selection.
3) Appointed by some superior authority.
4) Joint responsibility.
5) Working on the matters referred to it

Functions of a Committee
Functions of the committee depend upon for what
purpose it is constituted. The most common
functions of committees are as follows.
1) Studying the problem. 2) Reporting information.
3) Coordinating work.
4) Distributing work. 5) Solving problem. 6) Making decisions.
5) Monitoring.

Guidelines for Organizing Committees
1) A clear statement of the objectives and functions of the committee.
2) There should be a written assignment or terms of reference.
3) There should be appropriate selection of members.
4) The committee should have competent leadership and adequate executive and clerical
service.
5) There should be appropriate arrangements for follow up after meetings of the committee.
6) There should be appropriate procedures at meetings.
7) There should be adequate preparation for follow up after meetings.
8) The committee should have adequate records.

49

Organization of a committee:
1. Chairman, 2. Members, 3. Committee Aide / Secretary.
Chairman
- Official head of the committee in both internal and external relationship.
- Decides when meetings should be held.
- Preside the meetings of the committee. As a president, he has to keep the committee on the
track; he has to preserve an atmosphere of freedom and vitality of participation.
- Officially presents the reports to the superior authority.

Members
- The members should be reasonably well equipped for the work of the committee or should be
willing to raise their level of competence.
- The membership should be interested and willing to serve and should have sufficient time,
health and strength.
- The committee membership should adequately represent the interest that needs to be
represented.
- The members should be able to work together as a group.

Committee Aide (Staff Assistance to committee)
Committee aide is a technical resource; he supplies professional assistance to the committee, he
helps the committee in the following ways:
Program Service - He helps the committee to develop its programs.
Organizational Service - Provides the necessary manpower.
Administrative Service - Planning meetings and agendas in consultation with the chairman -
making physical arrangements for the meetings , sending notices, writing reports and handling
correspondence.
The basic task of committee aide involves working with and strengthening the position of the
chairman. He is to facilitate the work of the committee, to help or enable it to perform its task
effectively, but never to dictate or determine its course of action nor to usurp the functions of the
chairman.
Committee Procedures:
1. Agenda 2. Minutes.
Agenda :
A Committee meeting needs a written agenda. The world Agenda literally means things to be
done. It refers to the programme of Business to the transacted at a meeting. Agenda is essential
for the systematic transaction of the business of a meeting in the proper order of impotence. It is
customary for all organizations to send an agenda along with the notice of meeting to all
members. Usually routine items are placed first and controversial items later.
The business of the meeting must be conducted in the same order.
Items for agenda may be drawn from:
- Unfinished business from the last meeting.
- Items previously scheduled by the committee for consideration on this date.
- Matters suggested by a member of the committee.

50

- Communications from outside the committee requiring consideration by the committee.
- Matters which the chairman, committee aide or a member of the committee feels important to
be discussed by the committee.
Loophole Agenda & Hidden Agenda
It means any other business with the permission of the chair. This provides an opportunity for
the members to discuss on matters, which has not been specifically included in the agenda.
Minutes
Minutes may be defined as the permanent, official record of the proceedings of a meeting. It
serves as a reminder of the subjects previously dealt with and the conclusions reached. Once
approved and signed they are acceptable in a court of law as evidence of the proceedings.
The Minutes should begin by identifying the body that is meting; the date, hour and place; name
of the presiding officers, members absent. The Minutes should generally be chronological,
following the actual order of events.


51

The word conflict carries negative
connotations. It is often thought of as the
opposite of co-operation and peace, and is
most commonly associated with violence, the
threat of violence or disruptive (nonviolent)
disputes. This view of conflict as negative is
not always helpful. In non-violent settings it
can often be seen as a force for positive social
change, its presence being a visible
demonstration of society adapting to a new
political, economic or physical environment.
Synopsis
Conflict.
Competition
Aggression
Conflict theory
Conflict handling modes
Conflict resolution
Functional Vs Dysfunctional
Positive Vs Negative
Competition Vs Conflict
Basic properties incompatible goals, emotional hostility, antagonistic interaction
Levels of Conflict intra personal (approach, avoidance types), interpersonal, group conflict, organizational
conflict.
Types of conflict economic conflict, power conflict, value conflict
Conflict due to personality clashes, conflict due to different needs, roles, goals, interest.
Different needs,
Stages in conflict antecedent conditions, perceived / felt conflict; manifest behavior, conflict resolution or
suppression, resolution aftermath.
Escalation of conflict causes.
Methods of conflict resolution promoting pro-social behavior, approaches to manage conflict (win-win,
win-lose, lose-lose), withdrawing, smoothing, compromising, forcing, third party consultation (arbitration,
mediation)
CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Conflict and conflict Resolution in Community Organization
Conflict- Meaning
Conflict is usually defined as a social situation in
which incompatible goals and activities occur
between two or more parties (individuals or groups)
who hold antagonistic feelings towards each other
and attempt to control each other.
Conflict exists whenever incompatible
activities occur.
Conflict occurs when an individual is
motivated to make two or more
mutually incompatible responses.
Conflict is a tension between two or more entities (individuals, groups or larger
organizations), which arise from incompatibility of actual or larger responses.

Competition implies an opposition in the goals of the interdependent parties such that the
probability of goal attainment for one decreases as the probability of other increases.
Aggression is a form of behavior intended to inflict injury to a person or object.

52

Community Conflict
The potential for community conflict exists whenever and
wherever people have contact. Communities faces increasing
community conflicts due to the cultural, linguistic and ethnic
diversity associated with its changing population. Communities
and government services are being redefined and, at the same
time, neighbors are facing unfamiliar lifestyles in their
neighborhoods. Stresses caused by economic or social change
can impact community resources, leaving groups feeling that
they are being denied government services at the expense of
other groups. Law enforcement, schools and local government
officials are increasingly affected by resulting tensions and need
to be prepared when serious conflict erupts.
Community conflict also can occur when individuals or groups
perceive or experience discriminatory behavior directed at them
by an agency or its representative, by members of another
group, or by members of their own group. For example, a high-
profile case of police misconduct, an incident of violence on a
college campus, a hate crime or case of discrimination can
polarize a community. All of these events can produce stress on
community residents, often resulting in disagreements over what
should be done to solve these problems. This stress can even
lead to open conflict within the community.
Conflict Theory. A theory that views community and society as an arena in which various
groups compete to attain maximum gain for themselves.
Conflict (or alienation) approach. A theory of society, which argues that fundamental tensions
or built in contradictions exist between the powerful and the powerless and these problems, can
be resolved only through radical changes in society.
Conflict handling modes / conflict resolution. Settlement of disputes that are mutually
satisfactory and that receive a long-term commitment from both the parties.

If there is a possibility to enjoy social justice without recourse to physical violence in any society
then there will be less conflict in that society.
Systems that handle conflict openly and productively can maximize the benefits while reducing
the conflicts
One has to examine both the goals and the means of conflict in order to judge its acceptability.
Functional Vs Dysfunctional Conflict
Positive Vs Negative Conflict
Competition Vs Conflict

Competition Conflict
No direct action of one party to interfere with the ongoing
activities of another e.g. track and field events
Competition occurs within a set of agreed upon rules.
E.g.hockey
Conflict interferes

There is no agreed upon rules. All
is fair in conflict
Box: Community Conflict
Basic properties of conflict:
Incompatible goals.
Emotional hostility
Antagonistic interaction

Levels of Conflict
intra personal (approach,
avoidance types), interpersonal,
group conflict, organizational
conflict.
Types of conflict
economic conflict, power
conflict, value conflict
Conflict due to personality
clashes, conflict due to different
needs, roles, goals, interest.
different needs,
Economic Conflict:
It arises due to competing
motives to obtain scarce
resources. Each group wants to
maximize its gain at the cost of
other party. Economic conflict will not be resolved by improving communication, but by
difficult and detailed negotiations among the parties.

53

Power Conflict:
Power conflict arises when each party wishes to maximize the influence it has. This type of
conflict usually ends in a victory for one party and a defeat for another, or in a stand off that
involves a continuing state of tension. The crucial issue is not resource scarcity or differences in
basic values, but simply a question of control and related matters such as pride, recognition and
future material rewards that power may bring.
Value Conflict:
It involves incompatible principles and
practices that people believe in- their
ideology, religion, political system and
culture. E.g. Marxist Vs Capitalist, Religious
conversion etc.

Since the value conflicts lie at the very heart
of a person / peoples identity, they are
extremely difficult to resolve.

Most conflict involve a mixture of realistic
economic, power or value differences as well as unrealistic ingredient of misperception and
miscommunication. Usually a conflict may begin from one source but broaden to include other
elements.

Other types of conflict:
The more our lives overlap with others, the more likely it is that there will at times be conflicts.
So one can identify different types of conflicts.

Personality clashes:
It occurs when two people who have to see each other frequently cause negative feelings and
reactions in one another. Often these people share common goals, but they cannot get along. E.g.
he hurts me
Different needs:
Roles: Role expectation can cause conflict
Goals: lack of clarity or disagreement about the goals of the program
Conflict of interest: e.g. higher wages

Escalation of Conflict:
Human beings behave in ways calculated to maximize their goals and minimize their loses. The
behavior of each party in conflict imposes constraints on the potential satisfaction of the other.
This tends to escalate conflict. Unless it resolved at an early stage, it become more intense and
hostile to proliferate more issues and involve stronger and more destructive attempts to control.
Ways of dealing with conflict / opposition
Give in
Turn away
Flight or run away
Division/disunity
Anger
Counter anger
Negative Response
Increased anger
Negative Feelings
Attempt to hear other persons
Involvement with other persons
Understanding each other ideas


54

Escalation usually feeds on fear, defensiveness, selective and distorted perception, attributing
negative intentions on others

Table: Strengths and Limitations of various Approaches to Conflict Management

Strengths and Limitations of various Approaches to Conflict Management
Traditional & Customary Legal Alternative Conflict Management
Strengths Limitations Strengths Limitations Strengths Limitations
Respect for
local values
and
customs
Not all people
may have
equal access to
the conflict
resolution
Well-
defined
procedures
Tend to
neglect
indigenous
knowledge
Contributes to
process of
community self-
reliance
&empowerment
May not be able
to overcome
power
differences
Provides
familiarity
& past
experience
Courts have
supplanted
local authority
Decisions
are legally
binding
Inaccessible
to the
marginal
&poor groups
Encourages
participation &
respects local
customs and
values
Decisions are
not legally
binding

Methods of Conflict Resolution:
Promoting pro-social behavior:
Human beings have at least as much potential for caring, sharing and cooperating as they do for
aggression, competing and destroying. Pro social behaviors are activities that have positive social
consequences for others.
Approaches to managing conflict:
Ones approach to manage conflict differs as per ones assumptions 1) people, 2) about conflict, 3)
characteristic attitudes, 4) behaviors and typical outcomes.

The Win-Win approach is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the gains of both
parties through collaborative problem solving.
1. Forcing- an antagonistic, competitive approach that pushes for an all or nothing solution

Lose-Lose approach is characterized in many ways
1. Avoidance of conflict is preferred to open competition and half loaf is better than one loaf.
2. Withdrawing- avoiding conflict by retreating or remaining silent
3. Smoothing- playing down differences, emphasizing commonalities and avoiding discussions
on contentious issues
4. Compromising- a simple splitting of differences through negotiation

Two-dimensional model of conflict management:
This model states that assertiveness (to satisfy others concerns) and cooperativeness (to satisfy
others concerns) are both necessary to understand peoples approach and behavior towards
conflict. This model yields five conflict modes


55

Box: Levels of Conflict


56

Conflict resolution is a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict
resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution. Processes
of conflict resolution generally include negotiation, mediation and diplomacy. The processes of arbitration, litigation are
usually described with the term dispute resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." Processes of
mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution.
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by
which people handle grievances standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be
wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat
predicted and explained by the social structure. Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict
resolution
Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for
individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative
dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among
nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called
negotiation theory. Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators. Professional negotiators are often
specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators or may work
under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
Mediation, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more)
disputants in reaching an agreement. The parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached rather
than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties) states, organizations, communities,
individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the outcome.
Advocacy is the pursuit of influencing outcomes including public-policy and resource allocation decisions within political,
economic, and social systems and institutions that directly affect peoples current lives.
Advocacy can be seen as a deliberate process of speaking out on issues of concern in order to exert some influence on behalf
of ideas or persons. Based on this definition, Cohen states that ideologues of all persuasions advocate to bring a change in
peoples lives. However, advocacy has many interpretations depending on the issue at stake, which can be different from this
initial value-neutral definition.
Diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find mutually acceptable solutions to a common
challenge, one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non-confrontational or polite manner.
Activism, in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change. This action is in
support of, or opposition to, one side of an often controversial argument.
The word "activism" is often used synonymously with protest or dissent, but activism can stem from any number of political
orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning,
economic activism (such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing preferred businesses), rallies, blogging and street marches,
strikes, both work stoppages and hunger strikes, or even guerrilla tactics.
In some cases, activism has nothing to do with protest or confrontation: for instance, some religious, feminist or
vegetarian/vegan activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than persuade governments to
change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and
generally does not lobby or protest politically.
Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach that attempts to help students question and challenge domination, and the beliefs
and practices that dominate. In other words, it is a theory and practice of helping students achieve critical consciousness.
Critical pedagogue Ira Shor defines critical pedagogy as "Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath
surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichs, received wisdom, and mere
opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action,
event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse."
Conflict Resolution Terminologies Defined


57

Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management.
Intra micromicro conflicts:
Disputes over land and resource ownership, e.g. between private and communal land owners;
Disputes over land boundaries between individuals or groups;
Latent family and relationship disputes;
Disputes due to natural resource projects being captured by lites and/or those who happen to own
Resources of a higher quality;
Breaking of CPR constitutional or operational rules, such as protection agreements for grazing areas,
fish net sizes, forests, or misappropriation of funds, etc.;
Disputes over the unfair distribution of work and profits.
Inter micromicro conflicts:
Conflict between land-owners and resource users;
Conflict between indigenous CPR groups, and more recent settlers;
Disputes generated by jealousy related to growing wealth disparities;
Lack of co-operation between different community groups;
Disputes over renewal arrangements for leased land;
Internal land ownership disputes ignited by the speculation activities of commercial companies;
Resentment built up due to lack of representation on village committees.
Micromacro conflicts:
Contradictory natural resource needs and values, e.g. between wildlife habitat protection and local livelihood
security;
Cultural conflicts between community groups and outsiders;
Disputes over project management between community groups and outside project-sponsors;
Disputes caused by political influence (national, provincial or local);
Disputes arising from differences between the aspirations of community groups and expectations of NGOs or
commercial companies;
Box: Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management.

Third
Party

Consultation:
Arbitration: Involves a third party judgment that is arrived at by considering the merits of the
opposing cases and their imposing a settlement.
Mediation: Involves a skilled third party who attempts to help clients reach a compromise on
specific issues that are amenable for negotiation

58

Strategies of Community Organization
Methods of Conflict Resolution
A strategy is the general framework of or orientation to the activities undertaken to achieve a
goal. It is not a particular action but rather a series of actions that take in to account, the
anticipated maneuvers of people. [Supporters as well as opponents]
A strategy is an orchestration of individual attempts that brings together and consciously blends
a variety of different components of action. A strategy takes in to account the actions and
reactions of key allies and adversaries as they bear upon achievement of the proposed goal.
There are four strategic approaches pursued in community organization

Table: Four approaches in conflict resolution

Confrontation Negotiation Co-operation Co-optation
It involves bringing
the demands of one
party to the attention
of another and forcing
compliance
It is a process of
bringing parties with
different needs and
perspectives to an
agreement
It exists when parties
share resources to
accomplish a common
goal
It results when parties
share common beliefs
about matters and
when success or
failure of one party
produces similar
feelings
Situation for which a particular strategy may be appropriate
Target refuses to
meet with us.
Target is
unresponsive.
Need to crystallize or
dramatize the issue.
Need to energize the
issue.
Need to attract the
allies.

Unable to sustain
confrontation
effectively.
Unable to neither
convince nor force the
respondent into full
compliance with our
demands.
To see progress
toward accomplishing
some gain.
When the opponents
have recognized the
legitimacy of the
demands.
When both sides want
to gain or build
relationship.

The respondents have
resources we need
and from which we
can benefit.
When we have
resources to offer.
Situation of mutual
benefit.
Want to increase the
respondents
dependence on us.
Respondent is O.K
and we want to work
together.
Opposite group is
uncooperative and is
not a good target for
confrontation.
Key individuals in the
opposite group are
amenable to some
sort of affiliation.
Weakening the
opposite by putting
them in our agency
where their opinion is
silenced.
Strengths of a Particular strategy
* Fighting with an
external opponent
may strengthen group
* Likely to end up
more favorable
condition, even if you
*Combined resources
* More people to work
* More dependence of
* Silencing a
potentially harmful
critic

59

cohesion
* Winning provides
tremendous emotional
uplift
* Mere threat of
confrontation may be
sufficient to
accomplish our
purpose
dont get everything
you want
* Other sides ability
to gain some thing
makes them more
accepting of your gain
* Positive relationship
may develop

others may alter the
balance of power

* Gain some insights
into the working of
the competition
* Gaining access to a
community that has
been closed to you
Limitations of the strategy
* Loss can be
discouraging
And may lead to
internal puckering
* Non cooperation
from the other side
* Settle for to little
that may weaken the
future demands

* More energy is
needed to maintain
the relationship
* Loss of autonomy
* Others may take
credit for the success
* Letting a fox in the
hen house
* Co-opted members
may manipulate your
transparency

The major elements we need to understand before deciding a strategy

Elements Things to know
Issues Basic facts; causes and effects of problems; solutions applied in other places;
rights and obligation of parties
Target Probable reaction to specific tactic; principal decision makers; degree of
rationale for support or opposition; strengths and vulnerabilities; cohesion
Your Troops Degree of commitment; numbers; probable reactions to opponents tactics;
cultural norms; strengths and vulnerabilities; cohesion
Other Resources Awareness of needed additional resources; availability and location of
resources; steps required to gain additional resources

NEGOTIATION

In trying to solve certain problems, community Organizations often find it necessary to Negotiate
with other parties. Negotiation is an attempt to hold discussion with those who evidence
varying degrees of resistance, in the hope of ultimately arriving at an agreement. This is
the essence (i.e. arriving at an agreement through discussion) and the end point of the
negotiating process. In this context a negotiant is anyone whom the community organization is
trying to influence. A negotiant can be undecided, neutral or hostile.
E.g. Strike by the govt. staff. Activism against lock up deaths.

The common element in all these examples is that the community organization attempts to hold
discussions with those who evidence varying degrees of resistance in the hope of ultimately
arriving at an agreement. Thus negotiation implies a conflict and the promotion of a cause or
certain interests.


60

In successful negotiation both parties ideally perceive that they have given up something of
limited value to gain something of major value. If one party feels defeated then that party wont
show any interest in making the agreement stable and may be
provoked into laying plans for future retaliation.

Problems in Negotiation:
Many community organizations do not always heave within
their capacity the power to gain success to decision- makers.
Unlike in industrial negotiation, community groups lacking
power frequently find themselves prevented from the
negotiation process. So community organizations have to
develop their position and power that allows them to sit at the
negotiating table
To gain access to negotiations and enhance their bargaining
positions, community organizations use a variety of tactics.
Tactics to strengthen the Negotiating power of the
community organizations
1. Supporting Survival Needs
Eg.Helping politicians in their campaigns
Supporting local departments to get more budget
allocations.
Assisting in find raising campaigns.
2. Demonstrating public support and sympathy:
It means demonstrating the decision- makers that they espouse
a cause, which has widespread community support
Eg. Holding mass rallies.
Conducting letter-writing campaigns.
Circulating petitions.
Increasing membership.
Obtaining editorial support.
Organizing leading citizens to contact their legislators.
Signature campaigns.
3. Forming Alliances:
Alliances can be formed with other organizations whose members have similar values. Broader
the base of the alliance more power can be exerted in the negotiating process.
E.g. - Demands one NGO supported by other NGOs.
4. Conducting Behind The Scenes Discussions
In most of the political situations certain people bear major responsibility for what happens.
Through quite discussions with these persons, the key decision- makers can be convinced to
carryout a course of action promoted by the community organization. In fact these key leaders
sometimes become the crusaders of the cause, and the initiating community organization may
have to be satisfied with little credit even through their objective is achieved.
5. Targeting pressure points:
Selecting targets that are vulnerable to the special kinds of pressure a community organization
can bring to hear.
Eg. Road Blockade

61

Agitation during assembly session
Wearing Black Badge.
6. Threatening:
Negotiation often involves a degree of threat. The fact that rewards can be with held or
punishment inflicted constitutes a threat.
E.g. Threat of a Lawsuit.
Threats to withdraw support or boycott.
7. Waging campaigns against persons or institutions:
Direct action.

Skills

G
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V
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i
o
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g


62

Community Organizing Skills
Undergraduate C.O.D. Program at Hunter College

I. Organizing and Planning Skills
Ability to develop and engage people in groups
Capacity to organize and run a meeting
Ability to represent the organization
II. Interpersonal Skills
Capacity to work with different types of people
Capacity to understand how to motivate and involve people in change
Capacity to observe, listen, and hear
III. Analytical Skills
Capacity to understand the issues, philosophy, and styles of the organization
Capacity to gather and use data and information able to understand different types and models of
organizing and advocacy
IV. Administrative Skills
Capacity to keep records
Capacity to communicate verbally and in writing
Capacity to use time productively
V. Political Tactics and Strategies
Capacity to understand and analyze power structures
Capacity to understand and develop relevant tactics
Capacity to understand the impact of gender, race, ethnicity, sexual. orientation on organizing process
and outcomes
VI. Personal Characteristics and Professional Values
Capacity to take initiative and self-directed
Capacity to ask for help, support, guidance
Capacity to make responsible decisions
Capacity to demonstrate integrity
Capacity to identify with clients/community/constituency

Community Organizing Skills

63

INDICATORS OF LEADERSHIP SKILLS IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS
http://www.povertycafe.org/pcweb/archives/December/training_on_basic_community_orga.htm
1. Problem Solving Skills
Leaders are able to:
- Identify group problems
- Analyze problems
- Set priorities
- Set general and specific objectives
- Set action strategies
- Implement action strategies
- Evaluate action strategies
2. Organization Skills
- Prepare/organize meetings
- Prepare agenda/keep records
- Conduct meetings
- Create necessary committees
- Carry committee work effectively
- Communicate verbally to other members and residents on the importance of having viable
organizations, etc.
- Motivate members to attend meetings
- Formulate goals for the organization
3. Relationship Skills
- Express positive and negative feelings about self and others
- Express positive and negative feedbacks to members
- Receive positive and negative feedbacks
- Express need for others
- Volunteer needed help to others
- Determine various ways of creating positive relationships amongst members
- Accept feelings of self and others
- Identify and analyze conflict situation clearly
- Demonstrate excellent interpersonal skills
- Self-discovery
- Self-disclosure
4. Community Management Skills
- Assesses community needs, values, expectations
- Analyze constraints
- Formulate objectives
- Identify, sequence and scheduled activities/resources needed in implementing projects
- Set up a system/procedure in the implementation of identified projects

Leadership Skills for Community Organizers


64

Skills


65

Skills for community Organizers

G
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General Skills Required for Community Organization
I
n
f
o
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m
a
t
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o
n

l
i
t
e
r
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y

Information literacy
Information technology literacy
Information research
R
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a
n
d

i
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q
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y

Problem solving
Analysis
Critical thinking
E
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,

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a
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p
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Social
perspective
Professional perspective
Ethical perspective
Dissemination
C
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Non-verbal communication
Written communication
Oral communication
Teamwork

Networking
Leadership
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Independent learning
Goal skills

Self-management
Leading
Change
Project Program effectiveness
Systems Thinking
Community Building


66

R
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What skills topics are covered?
A Popular Skill Development module for Community Organizers in USA covers a range of
skills which includes an introduction to direct action organizing which includes; power
analysis, strategic planning, public speaking, planning a variety of public events, fundraising
for justice, working with local media, becoming your own media, coalition-building, and
transforming conflicts.

67

Social Welfare Administration
Administrative arrangements for Social Welfare in India
S.Rengasamy

2

S.Rengasamy.
Social Welfare Administration. Administrative Arrangements for Social Welfare in India

CONTENT
Concept, Objectives and Principles of Social Welfare Administration
Definitions of Social Welfare Social Welfare is centered around two basic concepts

Administration
Social Welfare / Work Administration Social Welfare / Work administration distinguishing
characters.
Purpose: Nature of Services Representation Values Content

Principles of Social Work Administration
Acceptance Democratic involvement in formulation of agency policies and procedures
Open communication Principles as explained by Trecker

Functions and Scope of Social Welfare Administration

Social Welfare Administration requires
Faith in the Philosophy and methods of Social Welfare Knowledge about social legislation
Familiarity with social work practice.

Functions of Social Welfare Administrators/Agencies
Institutional level (Higher level)
Managerial level (Middle level)
Technical level (Lower level)
Rosemary Sarri /Dunham
Personality requirements for a Social Welfare Executive
Knowledge required for an executive

Attitudes &Skills required for an executive

Subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social
Justice & Empowerment
Subjects allocated to Ministry of Women and
Child Development

Administrative Arrangement for Social Welfare in Tamilnadu

Social Welfare based on the Policy Note (Govt of Tamilnadu)
Womens Welfare Programs for Economic Development of
Women
Marriage Assistance Programs
Dr. Muthulakhsmi Reddy Ninaivu Mahapperu Nidhi Uthavi Thittam Institutional Care
Partnership with Non-Governmental Organizations Other Schemes for Women
Tamilnadu Social Welfare Board
Tamil Nadu Commission for Women
Women Recreation Centers
Tamilnadu Corporation for Development of Women
Limited
Vocational Training Programs [VTP - NORAD - STEP]
Entrepreneurship Development [EDP] Program for
Women

Child Welfare
Tamilnadu Integrated Nutrition Project
Adolescent Girls Program
Pre-School Program
Karunai Illams
Children in Need of Care and Protection
Tamil Nadu Govt. Welfare Scheme for the Girl Child
Adoption Services
NGO Partnership for the Welfare of Children
Puratchi Thalaivar MGR Nutritious Meal Program Integrated Child Development Scheme
Government Rehabilitation Homes [Leprosy]
Government Care Camp [Beggars] Melappakkam, Chennai

3

S.Rengasamy.

Rehabilitation of the Disabled
Special Education of the Disabled

Social Defense
Juvenile Welfare Boards
Juvenile Courts
Drug Abuse Prevention

Institutions Established Under Juvenile Justice Act.1986
Vigilance / Protective Homes under Immoral Traffic [Prevention]
Act.1956.
Scheme for Providing Night Shelter for the Street Children Other
Schemes for Children

Associated Organizations of Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

Social Welfare & Welfare State
Etymology
The development of welfare states
Debating the welfare state
The welfare state and social expenditure

4

S.Rengasamy.

Enterprise builds society while charity builds character
Social Welfare Administration

Concept, Objectives and Principles of Social Welfare Administration

Definitions of Social Welfare:
Social Welfare is an institution, comprising policies and laws, that are operationalized by
organized activities of voluntary (private) and / or government (public) agencies, by
which a defined minimum of social services, money and other consumption rights
are distributed to individuals, families and groups, by criteria other than those of the market
place or those prevailing in the family system, for the purpose of preventing,
alleviating or contributing to solution of recognized social problems so as to improve
the well being of the individuals, groups and communities directly.

Social Welfare . organized provision of resources and services for the society to deal with
social problems

Social Welfare: All social interventions that are intended to enhance or maintain the social
functioning of human beings may be defined as social welfareRalph Dolgoff

All collective interventions to meet certain needs of the individual and / or to serve the wider
interests of society is called as social welfare -Richard Titmuss

In a narrow sense, social welfare includes those non-profit functions of society, public or
voluntary, that are clearly aimed at alleviating distress and poverty or ameliorating the
conditions of causalities of society.

Social Welfare includes all programs whose explicit purpose is to protect adults and
children from the degradation and insecurity of ignorance, illness, disability, unemployment
and poverty --Amy Gutmann

Social Welfare generally denotes the full range of organized activities of voluntary and
governmental organizations that seek to prevent, alleviate or contribute to the solution of

Social : Group interaction/ Non commercial/ Philanthropic. Non-commercial action
that does not strictly fall within the public competitive market process of sales and
purchase.
Welfare: A state of faring or doing well
Positive: Enjoyment of health, prosperity etc. Negative: Freedom from clamity,
sickness etc.
Welfare originated to help those individuals who could not purchase their needs in
the market according to the commercial exchange rate. It is a reaction to the
commercial base. The term social thus historically signified those services provided
outside the market forces and for promoting integration.

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recognized social problems or to improve the well being of individuals, groups and
communities. NASW

Social Welfare is a system of laws, Programs, benefits and services which strengthen or
assure provision for meeting social needs recognized as basic for the welfare of the
population and for functioning of the social order -Elizabeth

Social Welfare is centered on two basic concepts
1. Social Problem
2. Ways in which the Society responds to its problem (Related to policy, legislation, procedure
etc.).

Administration:
Administration is the universal process of efficiently getting activities completed with and
through others.
Administration is a process of defining and attaining objectives of an organization through
a system of coordinated and cooperative effort.
Administration may be defined as the sum total of all activities which relate to:
1. Determination of objectives, plans, policies and programs.
2. Securing resources men, materials and machinery.
3. Putting all these resources in to operation through sound organization.
4. Controlling their performance to ensure achievement of ends
5. Providing sense of achievement to the workers in the operation through financial and non-
financial incentives

Social Welfare/Work Administration is the process of transforming social polices into
social services.
Social Welfare Administration is the process of efficiently providing resources and
services to meet the needs of the individuals, families, groups and communities to facilitate
social relationship and adjustment necessary to social functioning.
Social Welfare/work Administration may be thought of as the action of staff members
who utilize social processes to transform social policies of agencies into the delivery of social
services.

Conceptualization of Social Welfare
Social problems are
many
Resources to solve
problems are limited
Social Development
Vision
Identification of Population whose social
needs and demands to be met
Identification of the type of services / needs to
be provided / in order to meet the needs of the
identified Population
Specification of the type of instruments
(administrative arrangements that will
be required to carry out the welfare
activities
This is
expressed in
the form of
Social Policy
Statements

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Principles of Social Work Administration
Acceptance: Leaders and staff members are encouraged to accept one another and to act
accordingly. This does not rule out criticism and evaluation and suggestions for improvement but
does mean that all staff members feel a basic security as individuals, with rights as well as
responsibilities.
Democratic involvement in formulation of agency polices and procedures: This implies
participative management to perform better.
Open communication: This indicates sharing of ideas and feelings within the agency; acting
and reacting with honesty and integrity.

Principles as explained by Trecker
1. The Principle of Social Work Values: The values of the profession are the foundation
upon which services are developed and made available to persons who need them.
2. The Principle of community and client needs: The need of the community and the
individuals within it are always the basis for the existence of social agencies and the provision
of programs.
3. The Principle of agency purpose: The social purpose of the agency must be clearly
formulated, stated, understood and utilized.
4. The Principle of cultural setting: The culture of the community must be understood in as
much as it influences the way needs are expressed and the way services are authorized,
supported, and utilized by the people who need them.
5. The Principle of purposeful relationship: Effective purposeful working relationship must
be established between the administrator, the board, the staff and the constituency.
6. The Principle of agency totality: The agency must be understood in its totality and
wholeness.
7. The Principle of professional responsibility: The administrator is responsible for the
provision of high quality professional services based on standards of professional practice.
8. The Principle of participation: Appropriate contributions of board, staff and constituency
are sought and utilized through the continuous process of dynamic participation.
9. The Principle of Communication: Open channels of communication are essential to the
complete functioning of people.
10. The Principle of leadership: The administrator must carry major responsibility for the
leadership of the agency in terms of goal attainment and the provision of professional
services.
11. The Principle of planning: The Process of continuous planning is fundamental to the
development of meaningful services.
Social Welfare / work administration has much in common with administration in
business and Government. It also has distinguishing characters.
Purpose: To meet the recognized needs of the community
Nature of Services:
Restoration of impaired social functioning, Provision of resources for more effective social
functioning.
Prevention of social dysfunctioning.
Representation: Committee/Board generally represents the community
Values: Avoiding using disproportionate amount of their resources for survival.
Content: Consists of large professional Social Work component.

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12. The Principle of organization: The work of many people must be arranged in an
organized manner and must be structured so that responsibilities and relationships are clearly
defined.
13. The Principle of delegation: The Delegation of responsibility and authority to other
professional persons is essential
14. The Principle of co-ordination: The work delegated to many people must be properly
coordinated.
15. The Principle of resource utilization: the resources of money facilities and personnel
must be carefully fostered, conserved and utilized in keeping with the trust granted to the
agency by society.
16. The Principle of change: The Process of change is continuous, both within the community
and within the agency.
17. The Principle of evaluation: Continuous evaluation of processes and programs is essential
to the fulfillment of the agencys objectives.
18. The Principle of growth: The growth and development of all participants is furthered by
the administrator who provides challenging work assignments, thoughtful supervision, and
opportunities for individual and group learning.
These Principles can be grouped as follows for the sake of understanding.

Principles related to
Professional values
Principles related to
Administrative function
General Principles
Social work values
community & Client Needs
Cultural setting
Purposeful relationship
Professional responsibility
Participation
Evaluation
Agency purpose
Planning
Organization
Delegation
co-ordination
Resource utilization
Leadership
Agency totality
Change
Growth

Functions and Scope of Social Welfare Administration
Social welfare Administration, like any other administration (Government / business) requires
clear objectives and policies and an efficient organizational structure with precise staff
organization, sound methods of selection, recruitment and promotion of personnel, decent
working conditions, and fiscal accounting and control to guarantee for responsible management.
Nevertheless, there are important differences between social service administration and other
types of government administration.

Social Welfare administration requires.
Faith in the Philosophy and methods of Social Welfare
Knowledge about social legislation
Familiarity with social work practice.

Functions of Social welfare Administrators/Agencies.
Rosemary Sarri, Warham, and Kidneigh identified various functions to be performed by the
executives of Social Welfare agencies.
According to Warham, Social Welfare administrators are supposed to perform the following
functions

1. Formulating the Agencys objectives
2. The Provision of a Formal structure
3. The promotion of co-operative Efforts
4. Finding and Deploying Resources
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5. Supervision and Evaluation

John Kidneigh classified the functions of Social Welfare administration under two headings, i.e.
Enterprise Determination and Enterprise Execution.

Enterprise Determination Enterprise Execution
Fact finding Setting up organizational
Analysis of social conditions and services to
meet human needs.
Staffing the Agency
Decisions on the best ways of reaching the
objective
Supervising and controlling personnel and
finances
Planning and allocating resources Recording and Accounting
Supplying financial resources.
Rose Mary Sarri listed out the following functions.
Deciding about the problem to be addressed
Establishment of the organizational domain
Determination of organizational boundaries
Management of organization-environment relations
Reporting and interpretation to the community
Development of a particular public image
Mediation between clients and professionals
Procurement and allocation of resources
Direction and co-ordination of the staff.
Overall recruitment, selection, training & supervision
Performing technical activities like counseling referral, teaching, provision of material
resources
Selecting/experimenting viable technologies to attain organizational goals
Continuous staff development.

* Performing technical activities like counselling
referral,teaching, provision of material resources
* Selecting/experimenting viable technologies to
attain organisational goals
*Continuous staff development.
* Mediation between clients and professionals
* Procurement and allocation of resources
* Direction and co-ordination of the staff.
* Overall recruitment, selection, training & supervision
*Deciding about the problem to be addressed
* Establishment of the organisational domain
* Determination of organisational boundaries
* Management of organisation-environment relations
* Reporting and interpretation to the community
* Development of a particular public image

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Rosemary Sarri/Dunham listed out the following activities of Social Welfare Administration.
1. Translation of Social mandates into operational policies and goals to guide organizational
behavior.
2. Design of organizational structures and processes through which the goals can be achieved.
3. Securing of resources in the form of materials staff, clients and social legitimation necessary
for goal attainment and organizational survival.
4. Selection and engineering of the necessary technology
5. Optimizing organizational behavior directed toward increased effectiveness and efficiency
6. Evaluation of organizational performance to facilitate systematic and continuous problem
solving.

Personality Requirements of a Social Welfare Executive
Personality means the distinguishing traits and characteristics behavior of a person; the sum total
of a persons somatic, mental, emotional and social traits; An executives personality is the
outcome of his knowledge/understanding, his attitude his skills and actions
Knowledge
Attitude
Skills All these four constitute personality
Action

Attitudes:
Attitudes are predispositions to act and are intertwined with the feelings of people, which are
essential to build satisfactory relationship with staff and community. Significant attitudes that
are necessary for an executive to be successful are given below (Skidmore)
Genuine respect for each staff member as an unique individual
Recognize that no person is perfect and accepts this premise regarding staff and self
Knowledge required for an executive:
Adequate knowledge of administration is essential for an executive to be effective. Following
are the brief descriptions of some of the salient areas of knowledge. (Trecker, Skidmore)

Knowledge of self and meaning of being and executive feeling about authority and
responsibility
Adequate knowledge of the agencys goals polices services and resources.
Basic knowledge of the dynamics of human behavior
1. Understanding of the individuals who make up the agency, their needs, abilities and
motivations
2. Understanding of how the individual receives basic satisfaction from his work, how to
provide recognition for genuine accomplishment.
Comprehensive knowledge of community resources especially those related to the agency.
Knowledge of organizational theory/ Group dynamics
1. Understanding of groups, i.e. board, staff, constituency, how they define their function
and approach to their work.
2. Understanding of kinds of help the group need in doing its work; how group asks for
and accepts help
3. Understanding of how the group relates and work with other groups in the agency
and in the community
Adequate understanding about the social work methods used in the agency.
Acquaintance with the professional associations in social work/welfare.
Adequate knowledge of evaluation process and techniques.

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Willingness to provide a physical setting and emotional climate that will help bring out the
best in each staff member
Respect for values
Being open and receptive to new ideas and facts
Recognize that the welfare of the agency is of more importance than any worker, including
himself.

Skills required for an executive:
Skill means expertness or mastering over certain activities, which give a sense of
accomplishment, and lends color to the personality. An executive is expected to have the
following skills
Skill in selection of the staff
Skill in defining purposes and objectives of the agency
Skill in helping the staff organize for effective work
Skill in developing a work methodology
Skill in helping individual members.

Action:
An executives knowledge, attitude and skills are automatically expressed in the form of
following activities.
Accepting, caring, creating, democratizing, trusting, approving, maintaining equilibrium,
planning, organizing, prioritizing, delegating, interacting with community and professional
persons, decision making, facilitating, communicating, building and motivating.

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For social welfare three important dates occur in the evolution of the Ministry of Social Welfare at
the Centre. These are 14 June 1964 when the Department of Social Security was created; 24
January 1966 when the Department of Social Security was redesignated as Department of Social
Welfare; and 24 August 1979 when the Department of Social Welfare was elevated to the status
of an independent Ministry.

A memorandum was submitted on 12 May 1956 by the Indian Conference of Social Work (now
Indian Council of Social Welfare) to the then Prime Minister, urging the creation of a Central
Ministry of Social Welfare.

a well-formulated philosophy of social progress

a well-formulated philosophy of social progress.

The Study Team on Social Welfare and Welfare of Backward Classes constituted in 1958 by the
Committee on Plan Projects of the Planning Commission under the chairmanship of Smt. Renuka
Ray pointed out inter-alia that various social welfare subjects are dealt with in different Ministries.
The Team was of the view that the plans and policies of social welfare have not had the
advantage of an integrated approach and direction. It, therefore, recommended the setting up of
a Department of Social Welfare. The Study Team further suggested that the work relating to
youth welfare, recreational services, education and welfare of the handicapped, social work
research and training dealt with by the Ministry of Education; and the work relating to beggary
and vagrancy, juvenile delinquency and probation, social and moral hygiene and rehabilitation of
persons discharged from correctional and non-correctional institutions dealt with by the Ministry
of Home Affairs, be transferred to the new Department of Social Welfare. The Study Team also
suggested that administration of a national social welfare policy; initiating, reviewing and
watching implementation of social welfare legislation by State Governments; coordination of
social welfare schemes of the State Governments on a broadly uniform pattern; promotion of
social research, and constitution and administration of a Central cadre of welfare administrators
should be the other functions of the suggested Department of Social Welfare.

It is not known whether the creation of the Department of Social Security in 1964 was a direct
outcome of the recommendations of the Renuka Ray Team or of other conferences and
committees. The subjects then allotted to the newly created Department of Social Security
included an assortment or items like child welfare, orphans and orphanages, education of the
handicapped, social welfare, the scheduled castes, the scheduled tribes, ex-criminal tribes and
other backward classes, unemployment insurance, social security measures, the Central Social
Welfare Board, coordination and development of village industries including Khadi and handicraft,
prohibition, Ambar Charkha, and UNICEF. Later on, certain subjects like social security, village
industries and the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes were allocated to other Ministries
.
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In 1967 in its report, the Study Team appointed by the Administrative Reforms Commission to
examine the machinery of the Government of India and its procedures of work suggested that
rehabilitation and social welfare should be combined into a single department and the

department should then be grouped with the

Department of Labor and Employment to constitute
a Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Welfare. It further recommended that considering the
tremendous influence that charitable and religious institutions can have on social welfare
programs of the Government and in molding public opinion in the field, this subject should be
transferred from the Ministry of Law to the proposed Department. The Study Team was of the
view that child welfare should not be separated from health and family planning and should be
transferred from the Department of Social Welfare to the proposed Ministry of Health, Family

ALLOCATION OF SUBJECTS
The subjects allocated to the Department of Social Welfare need also to be viewed in the context
of the consecutive Five Year Plan policies and programs. Although a separate social welfare
sector has been in existence ever since the beginning of the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), a
separate Department of Social Welfare came into being only after about thirteen years.

Establishing an Independent Ministry of Social welfare:
The following events are important in the evolution of the Ministry of Social Welfare at the
Centre.
Indian Conference of Social Work (now Indian Council of Social Welfare) Suggested to create
a Central Ministry of Social Welfare.
Study Team on Social Welfare and Welfare of Backward Classes Suggested to create
Department of Social Welfare combining the subjects handled by different ministries.
Creation of Social Security Dept 1964
1. 14 June 1964 - when the Department of Social Security was created Death of Nehru
2. 24 January 1966 - when the Department of Social Security was redesignated as
Department of Social Welfare;
Administrative Reforms Commission (1967) suggested to group various subjects with the
Department of Labor and Employment to constitute a Ministry of Labor, Employment and
Social Welfare -Transfer of charitable and religious institutions from the Ministry of Law to the
proposed Department to transfer child welfare from Social Welfare Ministry of Health, Family
3. 24 August 1979 - when the Department of Social Welfare was elevated to the status of an
independent Ministry.
4. 1985-86 - the erstwhile Ministry of Welfare was bifurcated into the Department of Women
and Child Development and the Department of Welfare. Simultaneously, the Scheduled
Castes Development Division, Tribal Development Division and the Minorities and Backward
Classes Welfare Division were moved from the Ministry of Home Affairs and also the Wakf
Division from the Ministry of Law to form the then Ministry of Welfare.
5. May, 1998 - the name of the Ministry was changed to the Ministry of Social Justice &
Empowerment.
6. October, 1999 - the Tribal Development Division had moved out to form a separate
Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
7 In January, 2007, the Minorities Division along with Wakf Unit have been moved out of the
Ministry and formed as a separate Ministry
8. The Child Development Division has gone to the Ministry of Women & Child Development.
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The Department of Social Welfare was elevated to the status of an independent Ministry on 24
August 1979 and was placed under the charge of a Cabinet Minister. This opportunity was not,

however, availed of to regroup or reallocate subjects related to social welfare from amongst
different Ministries. The subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social Welfare cover child welfare
and development, women's welfare and development, welfare of the physically handicapped,
social defence, social welfare planning and research, etc. The Ministry provides general direction
in social welfare policy formulation, promoting legislation and amendments to legislation, review
of welfare legislation, implementation of schemes, promotion and assistance to voluntary effort
and coordination.

The list of subjects which stand allocated to the Ministry of Social Welfare would show that
several subjects or significant parts of these subjects administered by other Ministries could
perhaps be administered by the Ministry of Social Welfare, as, for instance, social education and
adult education and youth welfare activities (Ministry of Education and Culture); welfare of labor
(Ministry of Labor); legal aid to the poor (Department of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Law, Justice
and Company Affairs); and relief and rehabilitation of displaced persons (Department of
Rehabilitation, Ministry of Supply and Rehabilitation).

The allocation of subjects to the Ministry of Social Welfare has thus not strictly followed any set
pattern or direction. It has over the years primarily been based on the views of policy-makers
and administrators as to which Ministry would be in a better position to discharge a particular
function.

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Subjects allocated to the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment
Social Welfare: Social Welfare Planning, Project formulation, research, evaluation, statistics and
training
Conventions with other countries in matters relating to social defense and references from United
Nations Organization relating to prevention of crime and treatment of offenders.
Institutional and non-institutional services for the care and development of children in need including
orphans and orphanages. # Education, training, rehabilitation and welfare of the physically and
mentally handicapped
National Institute for the Physically Handicapped and Mentally Retarded
Rehabilitation of the persons with disabilities and rehabilitation of the mentally ill.
National Centre for the Blind including the Central Braille Press, Dehra Dun, Training Centre for the
Adult Deaf, and School for the partially deaf children, Hyderabad; Model School for Mentally
Retarded Children, New Delhi and other national institutes. # Social and Moral Hygiene Program #
Beggary
Research, evaluation, training, exchange of information and technical guidance on all social defence
matters.
All matters relating to alcoholism and substance (drug) abuse and rehabilitation of addicts/families
Promotion of efforts including voluntary efforts to ensure the well being of the older persons.
All matters relating to prohibition. # Educational and social welfare aspects of drug addiction
Charitable and religious endowments pertaining to subjects allocated to this Ministry
Promotion and development of voluntary effort on subjects allocated to this Department
National Institute of Social Defense # National Institute for the Physically Handicapped, New Delhi
# National Institute for the Orthopedically Handicapped, Kolkata
National Institute of Rehabilitation, Training and Research, Cuttack
National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped, Secunderabad
Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped, Mumbai
National Institute for the Visually Handicapped, Dehradun
National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation, Faridabad
Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India, Kanpur
The Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992 (34 of 1992) and Rehabilitation Council constituted
there under
The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act,
1995 (01 of 1996) # The National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy
Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999 (44 of 1999) # Chief Commissioner for
Disabilities
Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes including scholarships to students belonging to such
Castes and Classes # National Commission for Scheduled Castes
Development of Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes
Note:- The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment will be the nodal Ministry for overall policy,
planning and coordination of programs of development of Scheduled Castes and Other Backward
Classes. In regard to sectoral programs and schemes of development pertaining to these communities,
policy, planning, monitoring, evaluation etc as also their coordination will be the responsibility of the
concerned Central Ministries, State Governments and Union Territory Administrations. Each Central
Ministry and Department will be the nodal Ministry or Department concerning its sector.
Reports of the Commission to Investigate into the conditions of Backward Classes
National Commission for Safai Karamcharis and all matters pertaining thereto
Implementation of the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1995, and the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, excluding the administration of criminal
justice in regard to offences in so far as they relate to Scheduled Castes

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Ministry of Women and Child Development

The Department of Women and Child Development was set up in the year 1985 as a part of
the Ministry of Human Resource Development to give the much needed impetus to the
holistic development of women and children. With effect from 30.01.2006, the Department
has been upgraded to a Ministry under the independent charge of Smt. Renuka
Chowdhury, (Now it is Smt. Mirakumar) Minister of State for Women and Child
Development.
Mandate:
The broad mandate of the Ministry is to have holistic development of Women and
Children. As a nodal Ministry for the advancement of women and children, the Ministry
formulates plans, policies and programs; enacts/ amends legislation, guides and
coordinates the efforts of both governmental and non-governmental organizations working in
the field of Women and Child Development. Besides, playing its nodal role, the Ministry
implements certain innovative programs for women and children. These programs cover
welfare and support services, training for employment and income generation, awareness
generation and gender sensitization. These programs play a supplementary and
complementary role to the other general developmental programs in the sectors of health,
education, rural development etc. All these efforts are directed to ensure that women are
empowered both economically and socially and thus become equal partners in national
development along with men.
Policy Initiatives:
For the holistic development of the child, the Ministry has been implementing the world's
largest and most unique and outreach program of Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS) providing a package of services comprising supplementary nutrition,
immunization, health check up and referral services, pre-school non-formal education.
Ministry is also implementing Swayamsidha which is an integrated scheme for
empowerment of women. There is effective coordination and monitoring of various sectoral
programs. Most of the programs of the Ministry are run through non-governmental
organizations. Efforts are made to have more effective involvement of NGOs. The major
policy initiatives undertaken by the Ministry in the recent past include universalization of
ICDS and Kishori Shakti Yojana, launching a nutrition program for adolescent girls,
establishment of the Commission for protection of Child Rights and enactment of Protection
of Women from Domestic Violence Act.
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Subjects allocated Ministry of Women and Child Development

Welfare of the family.
Women and Child Welfare and Coordination of activities of other Ministries and
Organization in connection with this subject.
References from the United Nations Organizations relating to traffic in Women and
Children
Care of pre-school children including pre-primary education
National Nutrition Policy, national Plan of Action for Nutrition and National Nutrition
Mission.
Charitable and religious endowments pertaining to subjects allocated to this Department
Promotion and development of voluntary effort on the subjects allocated to this
Department
Implementation of -
Immoral Traffic in Women and Girl Act. 1956 (as amended up to 1986) .
The Indecent Representation of Women (Prevention) Act, 1986 (60 of 1986).
The Dowry Prohibition Act. 1961 (28 of 1961)
The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (3 of 1988), excluding the administration
of criminal justice in regard to offences under these Acts.
Implementation of the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Food
(Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992 (41 of 1992).
Coordination of activities of Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE)
Planning, Research, Evaluation, Monitoring, Project Formulations, Statistics and Training
relating to the welfare and development of women and children, including development of
gender sensitive data base.
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)
National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development (NIPCCD)
Food and Nutrition Board
Food and Nutrition Board (FNB)
(i) Development and popularization of subsidiary and protective foods.
(ii) Nutrition extension.
Womens Empowerment and Gender Equity.
National Commission for Women.
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK)
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000 (56 of 2000).
Probation of Juvenile offenders.
Issues relating to adoption, Central Adoption Resource Agency and Child Help Line (Child
line.)
The Children Act, 1960 (60 of 1960).
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (19 of 1929).

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Administrative Arrangement for Social Welfare
in Tamilnadu
(Social Welfare provisions based on the Policy Note
Govt of Tamilnadu)

Womens Welfare
Programs for Economic Development of Women
1. Tailoring Societies (78 nos. 37683 members 63 lakh sets stitched)
2. Weaning Food Societies (26 nos. 1652 members 7500 food produced)
3. Stationary Societies (20 nos. 1053 members)
4. Other Societies (12 nos. 1132 members)

Marriage Assistance Programs
1. Moovalur Ramamirtham Ammaiyar Ninaivu Thirumana Nidhi Uthavi Thittam (Rs10000-
income-10Std)
2. Dr. Dharmambal Ammaiyar Ninaivu Vithavai Marumana Nidhi Uthavi Thittam (Rs.7000)
3. Anjugam Ammaiyar Ninaivu Kalappu Thirumana Nidhi Uthavi Thittam (Rs.20000)
4. Marriage Assistance for Daughters of Poor Widows (Rs.5000 income)
5. Marriage Assistance to Orphan Girls (Rs.5000 income)

Dr. Muthulakhsmi Reddy Ninaivu Mahapperu Nidhi Uthavi Thittam (Rs.500+500)
Institutional Care
1. Service Homes (6 nos. 1.Tambaram 2.Cuddalore 3.Salem 4.Karaikudi 5.Tanjore
6.Tirunelveli)
2. Working Womens Hostels (8nos. 1.Chennai [2] 2.Cuddalore 3. Madurai 4. Trichy 5. Hosur 6.
Pudukottai 7,Tuticorin)

Partnership with Non-Governmental Organizations
1. Service Homes [Kasturibai Sevashram, Gandhigram. Stree Seva Mandir, Chennai]
2. Grants for Construction of Working Womens Hostel [63 Hostels]

Other Schemes for Women
1. Guidance Bureau
2. Mahalir Mandrams [11520 mandrams]
3. Free Supply of Sewing Machines
4. Free Supply of Text Books and Note Books for the Children of Poor Widows

TamilNadu Social Welfare Board
1. Crches for the Children of Working and Ailing Mothers [217 nos.]
2. Grants to NGOs Working in Rural Areas
3. Family Counseling Centers

Tamil Nadu Commission for Women
Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women Limited.
1. Mahalir Thittam [315054 members]
2. Muttram Tamil Monthly Magazine.

Women Recreation Centers
Vocational Training Programs [VTP -NORADSTEP]
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S.Rengasamy.

Enterpreneurship Development [EDP] Program for Women

Child Welfare
Puratchi Thalaivar MGR Nutritious Meal Program [Rural 37748 Centers; 6002690
Beneficiaries Urban 2059 Centers; 461267 Beneficiaries]
Integrated Child Development Scheme [10477 Centers313122 Children; 133790 Mothers &
OAP;448912]
Tamil Nadu Integrated Nutrition Project [18526 Centers 581623 Children; 80455 Mothers &
OAP; 662078]

Adolescent Girls Program
Pre-School Program
Children in Need of Care and Protection
1. Institutional Care [25 Orphanages;5500 Children]
2. Home for the Babies. Salem [Japanese Aid]
3. Free Supply of Uniforms to School Children

Tamil Nadu Govt. Welfare Scheme for the Girl Child [Mothers with 2 girl children, if
undergo sterilization get a deposit of Rs.1500 for each child]

Adoption Services
NGO Partnership for the Welfare of Children
Karunai Illams [43 Illams-1438 Children]

Government Rehabiltation Homes [Leprosy] [10 nos.1 Paranur, Chengalpattu 2.
Ulundurpet,South Arcot
4. Bargur,Dharmapuri 4. Pudukkotai, 5.Vinnapalli, Periyar 6. Manaeripatti,Tanjore 7. Pudupatti,
Madurai
8. Mallavadi, North Arcot 9. Selliampatti, Dharmapuri 10. Deivakurichi, Salem]

Government Care Camp [Beggars] Melappakkam, Chennai

Rehabiltation of the Disabled

Special Education of the Disabled
1. School for the Visually Disabled [Govt*.11-Aided.11 Unaided 25 Total 47] *1.Coimbatore
2.Cuddalore 3.Madurai 4. Dharmapuri 5. Nagerkoil 6. Poonamalle 7. Pudukottai 8. Salem 9.
Sivagangai 10. Tanjore 11. Trichy
2. School for the Speech and Hearing Disabled [Govt*.12 - .Aided. 19 Unaided.39-Total 70] *
1.Cuddalore
Erode. 3.Dharmapuri 4. Kancheepuram 5.Chennai 6. Uthagamandalam 7.Pudukottai 8.Salem
9. Tanjore 10.Virudunagar
3. School for the Mentally Retarded [Govt*. 1.-Aided 13 Unaided 33 Total 47] *Chennai
4. School for the severely Locomotor Disabled [Govt*1 Aided 13 Unaided 36-Total 50]
*Madurai
5. School for the Leprosy Cured
6. Scholarship to the Disabled
7. Scribe Assistance to Visually Disabled Students
8. Government Regional Braille Press, Poonamlle
9. Training to the Teachers of the Special Schools
10. Training to the Disabled Persons, Guindy
11. Modern Production Workshop, Guindy
12. Govt. Rehabilitation Home with Sheltered Workshop for the Blind Women, Poonamallee
19

S.Rengasamy.

13. Placement of Trained Visually /Speech & Hearing Disabled as Special Apprentices
14. Reservation of the Disabled
15. Unemployment Allowance for the Unemployed Visually Disabled
16. Self employment Program
17. Free supply of Aids and Appliances to the Disabled [Tricycles,Wheel Chairs, Hearing Aids,
Goggles & Folding Sticks, Solar Batteries, Braille Watches, Bi-cycle with Choport foot]
18. Concessions to Normal Persons Marrying Visually Impaired [Rs.10000]
19. Concessions to Normal Persons Marrying Locomotor Disabled [Rs,5000]
20. Concessions to Normal Persons Marrying Speech and Hearing Impaired [Rs.5000]
21. Free Travel Concession to the Disabled in State owned Transport Corporation Buses
22. Maintenance Allowance to severely Disabled
23. Sheltered Homes for Adult Mentally Retarded Girls
24. Assistance to Physically Handicapped Law Graduates
25. Artificial Limb Sub-Center, Madurai
26. State Awards [Best Collector, Best Employer, Best Employee, Best Teacher, Best Social
Worker, Best Institution, Best Doctor and Best Student
27. District Rehabilitation Centers
28. Operation Polio Program
29. Comprehensive Assessment Clinics
30. National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation
31. State Co-ordination Committee
32. State Executive Committee
33. State Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities

Social Defense
Institutions Established Under Juvenile Justice Act.1986
1. Govt. Observation Homes [11 nos. 1. Chennai 2. Chengalpet, 3.Villupuram, 4. Trichy, 5.
Tanjore, 6. Karaikudi, 7. Tirunelveli, 8. Erode, 9. Salem, 10. Dharmapuri, 11.Vellore.]
2. Observation Homes run by Non-Govt. Agencies [7 nos. 1. Chennaii, 2. Nagapattinam, 3.
Dindgul, 4.Madurai 5. Virudunagar, 6. Tuticorin, 7. Coimbatore}
3. Govt. Special Homes for Boys and Girls. [Chennai, Kellys; Chengalpet]
4. Govt. Juvenile Homes for Boys [7] and Girls[1]. [8.nos.1. Chennai 2. Chengalpet, 3.Ranipet,
4.Cuddalore, 5. 6. Tanjore 6, Panchapalli, 7. Mallipudur, 8. Thattaparai]
5. Juvenile Homes run by NGO. [14 nos. 1. Chennai 9, 2. Madurai 2, 3. Coimbatore, 4.
Dharmapuri, 5. Salem.

Juvenile Welfare Boards
Juvenile Courts

Vigilance / Protective Homes under Immoral Traffic [Prevention] Act.1956. [6 nos.
1.Chennai [2], 2. Madurai, 3.Trichy, 4. Salem, 5. Coimbatore.
Educational Training
Vocational Training
After Care Homes
Juvenile Guidance Bureau
Rehabilitation Programs

Scheme for Providing Night Shelter for the Street Children [Chennai12, Madurai 3, Salem
1, Villupuram 1, Vellore 1]
Crises Intervention Center for the Prevention of Child Abuse [ICCW, Shenoy Nagar, Chennai]
Child Line [Phone 1098, 2 Centers]
Special Care Centers [2.nos]

20

S.Rengasamy.

Other Schemes for Children
1. Awarding Incentive Payments to the Inmates of Vocational Trades
2. Awarding Tools and Equipments to the Inmates Trained in Vocational Trades
3. Family Support Service Programs for Childrens Welfare
4. Eradication of Juvenile Beggary

Drug Abuse Prevention
1. Awareness and Preventive Education Camps
2. Drug Awareness, Counseling and Assistance Centers

21

S.Rengasamy.

ASSOCIATED ORGANISATIONS
MINISTRY OF SOCIAL JUSTICE & EMPOWERMENT

22

S.Rengasamy.

ASSOCIATED ORGANISATIONS
MINISTRY OF SOCIAL JUSTICE & EMPOWERMENT

1. Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped (AYJNIHH)
http://ayjnihh.nic.in/
2. Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India (ALIMCO)
http://www.artlimbs.com/
3. Dr. Ambedkar Foundation http://ambedkarfoundation.nic.in/
4. Institute for the Physically Handicapped (IPH), rechristened as Deen Dayal Upadhyay
Institute of Physically Handicapped http://www.iphnewdelhi.in/
5. National Commission for Safai Karamcharis http://ncsk.nic.in/
6. National Commission for Backward Classes(NCBC) http://ncbc.nic.in/
7. National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) http://ncsc.nic.in/
8. National Institute of Mentally Handicapped (NIMH) http://www.nimhindia.org/
9. National Institute of Visually Handicapped (NIVH) http://www.nivh.org/
10. National Institute for Orthopaedically Handicapped, Kolkatahttp www.india-
future.com/nioh
11. National Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation (NBCFDC)
http://www.nbcfdc.org/
12. National Safai Karamcharis Finance and Development Corporation (NSKFDC)
http://nskfdc.nic.in/
13. National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation
http://www.nsfdc.nic.in/
14. National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation (NHFDC)
http://www.nhfdc.org/
15. National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation
and Multiple Disabilitieshttp http://nationaltrust.org.in/
16. National Institute of Social Defence (NISD) http://www.nisd.gov.in/
17. National Institute for the Orthopaedically Handicapped (NIOH) rechristened as
18. Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee National Institute for Orthopaedically Handicapped
http://www.niohonline.org/
19. Officer of the Chief Commissioner for Disabilities http://www.ccdisabilities.nic.in/
20. Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) http://www.rehabcouncil.nic.in/
21. Swami Vivekanand National Institute of Rehabilitation, Training and Research
(SVNIRTAR), http://nirtar.nic.in/

23

S.Rengasamy.

Social Welfare
(Wikipedia)

A social welfare provision refers to any government program and which also seeks to
provide a minimum level of income, service or other support for disadvantaged peoples
such as the poor, elderly, disabled, students, unpaid workers such as mothers and other
caregivers, and minority groups. Social welfare payments and services are typically
provided free of charge or at a nominal fee, and are funded by the state, or by compulsory
enrollment of the poor themselves. Examples of social welfare services include the
following:

Compulsory superannuation savings programs.
Compulsory social insurance programs, often based on income, to pay for the social
welfare service being provided. These are often incorporated into the taxation system
and may be inseparable from income tax.
Pensions or other financial aid, including social security and tax relief, to those with
low incomes or inability to meet basic living costs, especially those who are raising
children, elderly, unemployed, injured, sick or disabled.
Free or low cost nursing, medical and hospital care for those who are sick, injured or
unable to care for themselves. This may also include free antenatal and postnatal care.
Services may be provided in the community or a medical facility.
Free or low cost public education for all children, and financial aid, sometimes as a
scholarship or pension, sometimes in the form of a suspensory loan, to students
attending academic institutions or undertaking vocational training.
The state may also fund or operate social work and community based organizations
that provide services that benefit disadvantaged people in the community.
Welfare money paid to persons, from a government, who are in need of financial
assistance but who are unable to work for pay.

Police, criminal courts, prisons, and other parts of the justice system are not generally
considered part of the social welfare system, while child protection services are. There
are close links between social welfare and justice systems as instruments of social control
(see carrot and stick). Those involved in the social welfare system are generally treated
much like those in the justice system. Assistance given to those in the justice system is
more about allowing an individual to receive fair treatment rather than social welfare.
While being involved in the justice system often excludes an individual from social
welfare assistance, those exiting the justice system, such as released prisoners, and
families of those involved in the justice system are often eligible for social welfare
assistance because of increased needs and increased risk of recidivism if the assistance is
not provided. In some countries, improvements in social welfare services have been
justified by savings being made in the justice system, as well as personal healthcare and
legal costs.

24

S.Rengasamy.

Contents
Etymology

States or nations that provide comprehensive social welfare programs are often identified
as having a welfare state. In such countries, access to social welfare services is often
considered a basic and inalienable right to those in need. In many cases these are
considered natural rights, and indeed that position is borne out by the UN Convention on
Social and Economic Rights and other treaty documents. Accordingly, many people refer
to welfare within a context of social justice, making an analogy to rights of fair treatment
or restraint in criminal justice.

Welfare State

There are three main interpretations of the idea of a welfare state:
The provision of welfare services by the
state.
An ideal model in which the state
assumes primary responsibility for the
welfare of its citizens. This
responsibility is comprehensive,
because all aspects of welfare are considered; a "safety net" is not enough, nor are
minimum standards. It is universal, because it covers every person as a matter of
right.
The provision of welfare in society. In many "welfare states", especially in
continental Europe, welfare is not actually provided by the state, but by a
combination of independent, voluntary, mutualist and government services. The
functional provider of benefits and services may be a central or state government, a
state-sponsored company or agency, a private corporation, a charity or another form
of non-profit organization.

Etymology
The English term "welfare state" is believed to have been coined by Archbishop William
Temple during the Second World War, contrasting wartime Britain with the "warfare
state" of Nazi Germany.

In German, a roughly equivalent term (Sozialstaat, "social state") had been in use since
1870 . There had been earlier attempts to use the same phrase in English, for example in
Munroe Smith's text "Four German Jurists", but the term did not enter common use until
William Temple popularized it. The Italian term "Social state" (Stato sociale) has the
same origin.

In French, the synonymous term "providence state" (tat-providence) was originally
coined as a sarcastic pejorative remark used by opponents of welfare state policies during
the Second Empire (1854-1870).
In Spanish and many other languages, an analogous term is used: estado del bienestar.

25

S.Rengasamy.

An early version of the welfare state appeared in China during the Song Dynasty in the
11th century. Prime Minister Wang Anshi believed that the state was responsible for
providing its citizens the essentials for a decent living standard. Accordingly, under his
direction the state initiated agricultural loans to relieve the farming peasants. He
appointed boards to regulate wages and plan pensions for the aged and unemployed.
These reforms were known as the "new laws," New Policies, or xin fa.

Modern welfare states developed through a gradual process beginning in the late 19th
century and continuing through the 20th. They differed from previous schemes of poverty
relief due to their relatively universal coverage. The development of social insurance in
Germany under Bismarck was particularly influential. Some schemes, like those in
Scandinavia, were based largely in the development of autonomous, mutualist provision
of benefits. Others were founded on state provision. The term was not, however, applied
to all states offering social protection. The sociologist T.H. Marshall identified the
welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare and capitalism.

Examples of early welfare states in the modern world are Sweden (Folkhemmet),
Germany, the Netherlands, and New Zealand in the 1930s. Germany is generally held to
be the first social welfare state. Changed attitudes in reaction to the Great Depression
were instrumental in the move to the welfare state in many countries, a harbinger of new
times where "cradle-to-grave" services became a reality after the poverty of the
Depression. During the Great Depression, it was seen as an alternative "middle way"
between communism and fascism. In the period following the Second World War, many
countries in Europe moved from partial or selective provision of social services to
relatively comprehensive coverage of the population.

The activities of present-day welfare states extend to the provision of both cash welfare
benefits (such as old-age pensions or unemployment benefits) and in-kind welfare
services (such as health or childcare services). Through these provisions, welfare states
can affect the distribution of wellbeing and personal autonomy among their citizens, as
well as influencing how their citizens consume and how they spend their time.

After the discovery and inflow of the oil revenue, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and United Arab
Emirates all became welfare states. However, the services are strictly for citizens and
these countries do not accept immigrants; even those born in these countries do not
qualify for citizenship unless they are of the parentage belonging to their respective
countries.

The beginning of the modern welfare state was in 1911 when David Llloyd George
suggested everyone in work should pay national insurance contribution for
unemployment and health benefits from work.

In 1942, the 'Social Insurance and Allied Services' was created by Sir William Beveridge
in order to aid those who were in need of help, or in poverty. Beverage worked as a
26

S.Rengasamy.

volunteer for the poor, and set up national insurance. He stated that 'All people of
working age should pay a weekly national insurance contribution. In return, benefits
would be paid to people who were sick, unemployed, retired or widowed.' The basic
assumptions of the report were the National Health Service, which provided free health
care to the UK. The Universal Child Benefit was a scheme to to give child benefits,
which encouraged people to have children so they could afford to keep them alive and
not for them to starve to death. This was particularly useful after the second world war,
where the population in England declined, so encouragement for new babies was
encouraged, which sparked the baby boom. The impact of the report was huge and
600,000 copies were made. He recommended to the government that they should find
ways of tackling the five giants, being Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness.
He argued to cure these problems, the government should provide adequate income to
people, adequate health care, adequate education, adequate housing and adequate
employment. Before 1939, health care had to be paid for, but because of the 1942
Berveridge Report, in 5th July 1948, the National Insurance Act, National Assistance Act
and National Health Service Act came into force, thus this is the day that the modern UK
welfare state was founded.

The concept of the welfare state remains controversial, and there is continuing debate
over governments' responsibility for their citizens' welfare.

Arguments in favor of Welfare State

Arguments against Welfare State
HUMANITARIAN - the right to the basic
necessities of life is a fundamental human
right, and people should not be allowed to
suffer unnecessarily through lack of
provision
ALTRUISM - helping others is a moral
obligation in most cultures; charity and
support for people who cannot help
themselves are also widely thought to be
moral choices.
UTILITARIAN - the same amount of
money will produce greater happiness in
the hands of a less well-off person than if
given to a well-off person; thus,
redistributing wealth from the rich to the
poor will increase the total happiness in
society.
RELIGIOUS - major world religions
emphasize the importance of social
organization rather than personal
development alone. Religious obligations
include the duty of charity and the
obligation for solidarity.
MORAL (COMPULSION) libertarians believe
that the "nanny state" infringes upon individual
freedom, forcing the individual to subsidize the
consumption of others. They argue that social
spending reduces the right of individuals to
transfer some of their wealth to others, and is
tantamount to a seizure of private property.
RELIGIOUS/PATERNALISM Some
Protestant Christians and an increasing number
of Catholics also believe that only voluntary
giving (through private charities) is virtuous.
They hold personal responsibility to be a virtue,
and they believe that a welfare state diminishes
the capacity of individuals to develop this
virtue.
ANTI-REGULATORY - the welfare state is
accused of imposing greater burdens on private
businesses, of potentially slowing growth and
creating unemployment.
EFFICIENCY - advocates of the free market
believe that it leads to more efficient and
effective production and service delivery than
state-run welfare programs. They argue that
27

S.Rengasamy.

MUTUAL SELF-INTEREST - several
national systems have developed
voluntarily through the growth of mutual
insurance.
ECONOMIC - social programs perform a
range of economic functions, including e.g.
the regulation of demand and structuring
the labour market.
SOCIAL- social programs are used to
promote objectives regarding education,
family and work.
MARKET FAILURE in certain cases, the
private sector fails to meet social
objectives or to deliver efficient
production, due to such things as
monopolies, oligopolies, or asymmetric
information.
ECONOMIES OF SCALE - some services
can be more efficiently paid for when
bought "in bulk" by the government for the
public, rather than purchased by individual
consumers. The highway system, water
distribution, the fire department, universal
health, and national defense might be some
examples.
ANTI-CRIMINAL - people with low
incomes do not need to resort to crime to
stay alive, thus reducing the crime rate.
Empirical evidence indicates that welfare
programs reduce property crime.

high social spending is costly and must be
funded out of higher levels of taxation.
According to Friedrich Hayek, the market
mechanism is much more efficient and able to
respond to specific circumstances of a large
number of individuals than the State.
MOTIVATION AND INCENTIVES - the
welfare state may have undesirable effects on
behavior, fostering dependency, destroying
incentives and sapping motivation to work.
CHARITABLE - by the state assuming a larger
burden for the financial care of people,
individuals may feel it is no longer necessary
for them to donate to charities or give to
philanthropies.
MANAGERIAL STATECRAFT - this paleo
conservative view posits that the welfare state
is part of an ongoing regime that remains in
power, regardless of what political party holds
a majority. It acts in the name of abstract goals,
such as equality or positive rights, and uses its
claim of moral superiority, power of taxation
and wealth redistribution to keep itself in
power.

Some criticism of welfare states concern the idea that a welfare state makes citizens
dependent and less inclined to work. Certain studies indicate there is no association
between economic performance and welfare expenditure in developed countries (see A.
B. Atkinson, Incomes and the Welfare State, Cambridge University Press, 1995) and that
there is no evidence for the contention that welfare states impede progressive social
development. R. E. Goodin et al, in The Real Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Cambridge
University Press, 1999), show that on some economic and social indicators the United
States performs worse than the Netherlands, which has a high commitment to welfare
provision. However, the United States leads most welfare states on certain economic
indicators, such as GDP per capita (although in 2006 it had a lower GDP per capita than
Norway). The United States also has a low unemployment rate (although not as low as
Denmark, Norway, or the United Kingdom) and a high GDP growth rate, at least in
comparison to other developed countries (its growth rate, however, is lower than
Finland's and Sweden's, two nations with relatively small populations but comparatively
high commitments to welfare provision; the United States' growth rate is also lower than
the world's overall). The United States also leads most welfare states in the ownership of
consumer goods. For example, it has more TV's per capita, more personal computers per
capita, and more radios per capita than what people would call welfare states.
28

S.Rengasamy.

Another criticism comes from Classical Liberalism. Namely, that Welfare is theft of
Property or Labor. This criticism is based upon classical liberalist ideals, wherein a
citizen owns his body & owns the product of his body's labor (i.e. goods, services, or
money). To remove money from the working citizen and give it to a non-working citizen
is argued to be theft of the worker's property and/or labor & a violation of his most basic
bodily rights.

A third criticism is that the welfare state allegedly provides its dependents with a similar
level of income to the minimum wage. Critics argue that fraud and economic inactivity
are apparently quite common now in the United Kingdom and France. Some
conservatives in the UK claim that the welfare state has produced a generation of
dependents who rely solely upon the state for income and support instead of working.
They believe that the welfare state was created (in 1948 in the UK) to provide a carefully
selected number of people with a subsistence level of benefits in order to alleviate
poverty, but that it has been overly expanded to provide a large number of people
indiscriminately with more money than the country can afford. Some feel that this
argument is demonstrably false: the benefits system in the UK hands out considerably
less money than the national minimum wage. On the other hand, benefits handed-out in
the U.S. often exceed $10 an hour (varying state-to-state), when one accounts for ALL
the free services provided (free housing, free food, free welfare checks), such that it's
wiser economically to not work, rather than accept $6 at the local retail store.

A fourth criticism of the welfare state is that it results in high taxes. This is sometimes
true, as evidenced by places like Denmark (tax level at 50.4% of GDP in 2002) and
Sweden (tax level at 50.3% of GDP in 2002).

A fifth criticism of the welfare state is the belief that welfare services provided by the
state are more expensive and less efficient than the same services would be if provided by
private businesses. In 2000, Professors Louis Kaplow and Steven Shafell published two
papers, arguing that any social policy based on such concepts as justice or fairness would
result in an economy which is Pareto inefficient. Anything which is supplied free at the
point of consumption would be subject to artificially high demand, whereas resources
would be more properly allocated if provision reflected the cost.

The most extreme criticisms of states and governments are from anarchists, who believe
that all states and governments are undesirable and/or unnecessary. Nonetheless "social
democrats and anarchists always agreed, fairly generally, on so-called 'welfare state
measures'" and "Anarchists propose other measures to deal with these problems, without
recourse to state authority."

Welfare provision in the contemporary world tends to be more advanced in the countries
with stronger and more developed economies. Poor countries, on the other hand, tend to
have limited social services.

29

S.Rengasamy.

Within developed economies, however, there is very little correlation between economic
performance and welfare expenditure. There are individual exceptions on both sides, but
as the table below suggests, the higher levels of social expenditure in the European Union
are not associated with lower growth, lower productivity or higher unemployment, nor
with higher growth, higher productivity or lower unemployment. Likewise, the pursuit of
free market policies leads neither to guaranteed prosperity nor to social collapse. The
table shows that countries with more limited expenditure, like Australia, Canada and
Japan, do no better or worse economically than countries with high social expenditure,
like Belgium, Germany and Denmark. The table does not show the effect of expenditure
on income inequalities, and does not encompass some other forms of welfare provision
(such as occupational welfare).
% of social expenditure over GDP in OECD states, 2001
The table below shows, first, welfare expenditure as a percentage of GDP for some
(selected) OECD member states, and second, GDP per capita (PPP US$) in 2001:

Nation
Welfare
expenditure
(% of
GDP)
GDP per
capita (PPP
US$)
Nation
Welfare
expenditure
(% of
GDP)
GDP per
capita
(PPP
US$)
Denmark 29.2 $29,000 Luxembourg 20.8 $53,780
Sweden 28.9 $24,180 Czech 20.1 $14,720
France 28.5 $23,990 Hungary 20.1 $12,340
Germany 27.4 $25,350 Iceland 19.8 $29,990
Belgium 27.2 $25,520 Spain 19.6 $20,150
Switzerland 26.4 $28,100 New Zealand 18.5 $19,160
Austria 26.0 $26,730 Australia 18.0 $25,370
Finland 24.8 $24,430 Slovak 17.9 $11,960
Netherlands 24.3 $27,190 Canada 17.8 $27,130
Italy 24.4 $24,670 Japan 16.9 $25,130
Greece 24.3 $17,440 United States 14.8 $34,320
Norway 23.9 $29,620 Ireland 13.8 $32,410
Poland 23.0 $9,450 Mexico 11.8 $8,430
United Kingdom 21.8 $24,160 South Korea 6.1 $15,090
Figures from the OECD and the UNDP.

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Continuous staff development.

Adequate knowledge of evaluation process and techniques.

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