- A functional dependency is a generalization of

the notion of a key.

- Let R be a relation schema o _ R and | _ R
The functional dependency o | holds on R if
and only if for any legal relations r(R),
whenever any two tuples t1 and t2 of r agree
on the attributes o, they also agree on the
attributes |. That is,
t1[o] = t2 [o] t1[| ] = t2 [| ]

- K is a superkey for relation schema R if and
only if K R

- K is a candidate key for R if and only if
K R, and
for no o c K, o R

- In general, o | is trivial if | _ o

- A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to
a set F of functional dependencies if for all
functional dependencies in F+ of the form
o | where o _ R and | _ R, at least one of
the following holds:
o o | is trivial (i.e., | _ o)
o o is a superkey for R

- Suppose we have a schema R and a nontrivial
dependency o | causes a violation of BCNF.
We decompose R into:
(o U | )
( R- (|o) )

- A relation schema R is in third normal form
(3NF) if for all:
o | in F+
at least one of the following holds:
l o | is trivial (i.e., | e o)
l o is a superkey for R
l Each attribute A in | o is contained
in a candidate key for R.
(NOTE: each attribute may be in a different
candidate key)

- The set of all functional dependencies logically
implied by F is the closure of F.

- We denote the closure of F by F+.

- We can find all of F+ by applying Armstrongs
Axioms:
l if | _ o, then o | (reflexivity)
l if o |, then o | (augmentation)
l if o |, and | , then o (transitivity)
- We can further simplify manual computation of
F+ by using the following additional rules.
o l If o | holds and o holds, then
o | holds (union)
o l If o | holds, then o | holds and
o holds (decomposition)
o l If o | holds and | o holds, then
o o holds (pseudotransitivity)

- a canonical cover of F is a minimal set of
functional dependencies equivalent to F,
having no redundant dependencies or
redundant parts of dependencies.

- Consider a set F of functional dependencies
and the functional dependency o | in F.
o l Attribute A is extraneous in o if A e o
and F logically implies
(F {o |}) {(o A) |}.
o l Attribute A is extraneous in | if A e |
and the set of functional dependencies
(F {o |}) {o (| A)} logically
implies F.

- testing for 3NF has been shown to be NPhard

- Let R be a relation schema with a set of
attributes that are partitioned into 3 nonempty
subsets.
Y, Z, W
We say that Y Z (Y multidetermines Z )
if and only if for all possible relations r (R )

< y1, z1, w1 > e r and < y1, z2, w2 > e r
then
< y1, z1, w2 > e r and < y1, z2, w1 > e r

( Note: that since the behavior of Z and W are
identical it follows that Y Z if Y W )

- That is, every functional dependency is also a
multivalued dependency.

- A relation schema R is in 4NF with respect to a
set D of functional and multivalued
dependencies if for all multivalued
dependencies in D+ of the form o |,
where o _ R and | _ R, at least one of the
following hold:
l o | is trivial (i.e., | _ o or o | = R)
l o is a superkey for schema R

- If a relation is in 4NF it is in BCNF

- Join dependencies generalize multivalued
dependencies lead to projectjoin normal form
(PJNF) (also called fifth normal form)

- Triggering event can be insert, delete or
update

- Triggers on update can be restricted to specific
attributes
l E.g. create trigger overdrafttrigger
after update of balance on account

- Values of attributes before and after an update
can be referenced
l referencing old row as : for deletes
and updates
l referencing new row as : for inserts
and updates

- Triggers can be activated before an event,
which can serve as extra constraints. E.g.
convert blanks to null.

create trigger setnulltriger before update on r
referencing new row as nrow
for each row
when nrow.phonenumber =
set nrow.phonenumber = null


- Instead of executing a separate action for each
affected row, a single action can be executed
for all rows affected by a transaction
l Use for each statement instead of for
each row
l Use referencing old table or
referencing new table to refer to temporary
tables (called transition tables) containing the
affected rows
l Can be more efficient when dealing
with SQL statements that update a large
number of rows

- with grant option: allows a user who is
granted a privilege to pass the privilege on to
other users.
Example:

grant select on branch to U1 with grant option

(gives U1 the select privileges on branch and
allows U1 to grant this privilege to others)


- Primary index: in a sequentially ordered file,
the index whose search key specifies the
sequential order of the file.
l Also called clustering index
l The search key of a primary index is usually
but not necessarily the primary key.
- Secondary index: an index whose search key
specifies an order different from the sequential
order of the file. Also called nonclustering
index.
o Index record points to a bucket that
contains pointers to all the actual
records with that particular searchkey
value.
o Secondary indices have to be dense

- Dense index Index record appears for every
searchkey value in the file.

- Sparse Index: contains index records for only
some searchkey values. Applicable when
records are sequentially ordered on searchkey.

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