Textile Research Journal Article

Predicting Seam Appearance Quality

Daniela Zavec Pavlinic1
Abstract The appearance of a garment is affected and Jelka Geršak
by the quality of the fabrics used in its manufac- Department of Textiles, Faculty of Mechanical
ture, as well as a number of factors determined by Engineering, University of Maribor, Institute of Textiles,
the technology of the garment manufacturing SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
process. Since fabric quality, as the most important
element of garment appearance, is determined by
Janez Demšar and Ivan Bratko
its mechanical properties, it is obvious that these
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Faculty of Computer
properties directly impact fabric processing prop-
and Information Science, University of Ljubljana,
erties. It can be seen through various forms of fab-
SI-Ljubljana, Slovenia
ric behavior under the loads that occur in sewing.
Investigations of the correlations of the stress and
fabric behavior are aimed at constructing a system
to predict fabric behavior in garment manufactur-
ing processes, as well as to predict the appearance
of the garment to be manufactured. The investiga-
tion presented here deals with the impact of fabric
mechanical properties on the quality of seam
appearance, as defined by seam puckering and
work-piece flotation. Machine learning methods
included in the Orange software package were used
to establish the importance of mechanical proper-
ties with respect to fabric behavior.

Key words garment engineering, mechanical

properties, garment manufacture, seam quality,
prediction, machine learning methods

Contemporary garment manufacturing asks for the appli-
cation of new technologies and usage of increasingly more
demanding fabrics. The fabrics often present serious prob-
lems in manufacturing, primarily due to the complex prop-
erties dictated by ever-changing fashion trends. Fabrics are
key components of the garment to be made, and differ by
mass, raw material content and construction parameters.
Fabrics exhibit even more diversity when their mechanical
properties are investigated in relation to load–deformation
behavior.
Loads occurring in fabric processing result in complex
mechanisms of non-linear behavior, determined by the
inhomogeneity of the fabric structure. A high degree of
deformation is often the result of even quite low loads. Fab-
rics are exposed to various levels of load in transforming
them from a two-dimensional form into the three-dimen-
sional (3-D) form of an article of clothing. It is extremely
important to be familiar with the loads the fabrics are
exposed to and the deformations that are the response of
the fabric mechanical properties to the loads. It is thus pos-
sible, knowing the fabric mechanical properties at a partic-
ular load level, to predict its reaction behavior, investigate
interactions of the parameters and their correlations, as
well as to predict potential problems in the garment manu-
facturing processes.1
The investigations described here present the continua-
tion of the development of the system for predicting seam
appearance quality. The impact of fabric mechanical prop-
erty parameters on the seam appearance quality is investi-
gated, as it is the basis of a prediction system. This system
1
Corresponding author: tel.: +38622207970; +38622207960;
fax: +38622207990; e-mail: daniela.z-pavlinic@uni-mb.si

Textile Research Journal Vol 76(3): 235–242 DOI: 10.1177/0040517506061533 www.trj.sagepub.com © 2006 SAGE Publications
TRJ 236 Textile Research Journal 76(3)
is aimed at offering predictions for the behavior of a new,
carefully selected fabric, for which mechanical properties
have been previously determined. Having proper informa-
tion on the behavior of the fabric selected in processing,
potential problems can be eliminated in advance, which
will also contribute to the final appearance of the garment
manufactured [1].
To establish attributes that impact the quality of the
seam made, as well as further predictions of seam puckering
and flotation of the work-piece, we applied methods of
machine learning from learning examples. We primarily used
the methods of regression trees and k-nearest neighbors
(k-NN), i.e. the distance weighted k-nearest neighbors [2].
Regression trees induced from data define mappings from
the attributes’ values to possible predictions. On the other
hand, the method of distance-weighted k-NN respects the
importance of the distance of the query point to the nearest
examples. This means that nearer examples are more impor-
tant for the prediction of the class value than those faraway
in the attribute space. The k-NN method has proved to be
more adequate for our prediction task. Predictions are thus
made by the distance weighted k-NN. We used an imple-
mentation of k-NN included in the Orange software pack-
age, developed by the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory,
Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University
of Ljubljana, Slovenia [3]. During the study a high degree of
correlation was found between the important attributes
selected by the above machine learning methods, and the
attributes suggested for this prediction task by an expert in
the field of garment engineering.
Theoretical Basis
Impact of Fabric Mechanical Properties on
Seam Quality
An article of clothing is an unmistakable part of the whole-
ness of an individual, complementing his/her personality.
In addition to fulfilling the functions of use, it should be of
an appropriate visual appeal, which is in itself a result of
numerous factors occurring in the garment manufacturing
process, including the mechanical properties of the fabrics
used. The quality of a garment as a whole can be described
as a harmony of the fabrics incorporated and the proper-
ties of these fabrics, divided into basic, end-use and process-
ing properties, as well as the techniques and mechanisms
employed in processing. These can have a serious impact,
together with the fabric mechanical properties, on the full-
ness of form of the work-piece, proper drape and the fit-
ting of the garment to the body contours [4].
One of the key factors impacting the quality of garment
appearance is the visual appearance of the seams. This pri-
marily depends upon fabric behavior in sewing and upon
the technique used in re-shaping the fabric into an article
of clothing, as well as upon sewing processing parameters.
The fabric to be sewn is affected by the technology-deter-
mined forces of the sewing machine on one hand, and on the
forces depending on the process of processing the fabric.
Fabric behavior in sewing, i.e. its resistance to the loads at
the point of sewing, sewing needle penetration force and
the force originating at the toothed feed element, is prima-
rily affected by fabric elongation, surface and longitudinal
compression properties of the fabric processed [5].
On the other hand, the work-piece is exposed, in process-
ing the fabric into a 3-D shape, to more or less intensive ten-
sion, bending and shear loads, as well as to compression.
Fabric behavior in processing depends upon its formability,
bending rigidity, fabric elasticity and relaxation ability, shrink-
ability, shear rigidity, shear hysteresis and geometrical
roughness. Formability is a specific fabric property, defined
as the ability of the fabric to be re-shaped from a plane into
the 3-D form of an article of clothing. It is based on the max-
imum longitudinal compression that the fabric can stand
before buckling occurs [6]. Tension properties at low loads
were used to describe longitudinal compression [4, 7]. They
define fabric formability (F in mm2) as a ratio of fabric
elasticity (EL = EMT/LT in %), bending rigidity by a length
unit (B in cN cm2/cm), shear rigidity (G in cN/cm °) and
shear hysteresis (2HG5 in cN/cm) at the shear angle ± 5°
(equation (1)):
EMT G
F = ------------------- ⋅ B ⋅ ---------------- (1)
F m ⋅ LT 2HG5
where EMT is extension in % achieved at maximum load;
Fm = 490.35 cN/cm; and LT is linearity [8]. Seam appear-
ance quality is also affected by the ratio of fabric extension
weft wise and warp wise, denoted as α (alpha = EMT2/
EMT1). For ladies’ outerwear this value approaches 1. Seam
puckering can occur with fabrics that exhibit values of
the ratio described above that are either too high or too
low.
Seam Puckering
Investigations of the quality of seam visual appearance from
the point of view of fabric mechanical properties, have
resulted in the awareness that seam puckering occurs in
most cases because yarns in the fabric weave are pushed
aside, as the sewing needle with the thread inserted pushes
warp and weft yarns aside at each puncturing, which results
in certain degree of tension due to the fact that they have
to take up new position in the fabric. The degree depends
on the structure, construction and fineness of the fabric,
its mechanical properties, sewing needle gauge and stitch
length. When the sewing needle leaves the work-piece in
the course of stitch formation, total or partial relaxation
occurs of the warp and weft yarns in the area of the punc-
 Predicting Seam Appearance Quality D. Z. Pavlinic et al.
Figure 1 Seam puckering as a det-
rimental factor of garment appear-
ance.
turing aperture. It depends upon the elastic properties of
the warp and weft yarns, since, due to abrasion forces in
the interlocking area of the needle and catcher thread, the
work-piece compacts in the area of the puncturing aper-
ture at the moment of tightening the stitch. The deforma-
tion created in this way, which is reduced in the direction
of the stitch center, can cause additional tension in warp or
weft yarns. During repeated puncturing, the sewing needle
must make its way between individual warp and weft yarns,
and the yarns are again pushed aside. As in sewing needle
puncturing the puncturing point is changed at each stitch
formed, in principle by the stitch length, namely 2 to 5 mm,
the same system of the warp and weft threads is established
at the distance of the technologically determined puncturing
point, e.g. stitch length. Due to repetitious pushing of the
warp and weft yarns, construction deformation occurs in
the textile surface. If the tension caused is higher than the
margin of elasticity they are seen as plastic deformation of
the fabric [9]. The deformation is reflected as seam puckering
and has a detrimental impact on the quality of the seam,
as well as on the appearance of the article of clothing as a
whole (Figure 1).
The fabrics in plain weave are more prone to seam
puckering, due to higher density of warp and weft yarns,
which cause higher values of shear properties, primarily
shear hysteresis (2HG) at the shear angle ± 0.5°.
Seam Flotation
Investigations of the seam flotation, from the point of view
of fabric mechanical properties, are affected by the values of
bending and shear properties, the formability of the fabric
in question, as well as by extension. Low bending rigidity is
detrimental to the seam appearance because of the resist-
ance the fabric offers to the bending. However, too low
formability prevents the fabric from adapting to the forces
occurring within it. The seam, as a joining element, causes
fabric shearing deformation in the area of the seam, due to
the mass of the thread interlocked in the stitch. The shear
deformation of the fabric caused in this way results in fab-
237 TRJ
ric extension in the area of the seam, which is reflected as a
gain in longitudinal length. Seam flotation is a deformation
of the seam that occurs because of the interaction of the
shear load (affecting the fabric through the sewing thread)
and fabric extension in the area of the seam [10, 11].
Statistical methods
Fabrics respond in different manners to the loads occurring
in garment manufacturing processes. It is extremely impor-
tant to have an understanding of the interactions of the
fabric mechanical properties, to be able to study and
understand properly the key parameters of these proper-
ties. Fabric behavior in sewing is, from the point of view of
the aesthetics of seam appearance, reflected in its smooth-
ness. The seam that is not smooth is either puckered or
floated [11]. The degree of correlation between seam
puckering and flotation can be measured by the Pearson’s
correlation coefficient, as shown in equation (2) [12]:
∑  X – X  Y – Y -
n
i=1 i i
r = ---------------------------------------------------------- (2)
( n – 1 )S x S y
where Xi and Yi are the values of variables X and Y in
experiment i, X and Y are their average values, Sx and Sy
are their standard deviations and n is number of samples.
Machine Learning Methods
Machine learning is an area of artificial intelligence that
includes procedures that, from a number of learning exam-
ples from a problem domain, discover new knowledge on
the topic. This knowledge, represented by a formal model,
is obtained from a kind of analysis and generalization of
the learning examples. The knowledge can be used to proc-
ess new, previously unseen, examples. Often such discov-
ered knowledge itself is of interest to domain experts.
Procedures of machine learning can be used to discover
TRJ 238 Textile Research Journal 76(3)
previously unknown regularities within a set of given data.
This is often referred to as data mining, or KDD – knowl-
edge discovery in data bases. In this way the rules, previously
unknown to the expert in the field, but quite meaningful,
can be discovered and statistically verified for validity. A
model thus obtained can also be tested on some other
examples that differ from those used for inducing the
model. The validity of induced models is typically meas-
ured by their classification accuracy, sensitivity, etc. Other
qualities of a model are also of interest: its interpretability
from the expert’s point of view, its brevity, etc.
In attribute-value machine learning, each learning exam-
ple is described in terms of values of attributes and the class
it belongs to. Class can be categorical (in classification prob-
lems) or numerical (in regression problems). In the case
presented here, the learning examples are the individual
fabrics; the attributes are the measured parameters of
mechanical properties, while the associated classes are the
various responses of the fabrics behavior. The task of
machine learning is to find a model, i.e. function, which
could be used to predict the response of new fabrics. Two
methods of machine learning have been used for the pur-
pose in our study: regression tree learning, and learning by
the k-nearest neighbors method (k-NN). The classification
trees method was also used in preliminary experiments, as
well as naive Bayesian classifier and locally weighted regres-
sion, which all proved to yield significantly less accurate
results than regression trees and k-NN.
Modeling by regression trees is based on recursive parti-
tioning of the example set into ever-smaller subsets, until
the variance in the class values obtained in the subsets is
below a specified threshold [13]. The division is based on
the values of attributes, chosen by heuristic that is supposed
to lead to smaller and (according to the holy grail of machine
learning, the Ockham’s principle) more accurate trees. The
induced regression trees can be shown to a domain expert,
who can then decide whether they agree with the existing
theoretical knowledge.
K-nearest neighbors method (k-NN) predicts the outcome
for an example by computing the average outcome over k
learning examples most similar to the query example, the
so-called “nearest neighbors” [2]. Neighbors’ influence can
also be weighted with regard to their distance from the query
example. Unfortunately, k-NN models cannot be visualized,
which makes their interpretation very difficult. In order to
gain some insight into such k-NN models, we conducted a
series of tests in which k-NN selected the most appropriate
attribute subset for predicting a specific response. Using
such a randomized procedure, we were able to statistically
assess the importance of individual attributes by counting
the number of trials in which they were selected. To evalu-
ate the compliance of the model with the expectations
made by experts, we compared the attribute selections by
k-NN with those made by a domain expert. Statistical com-
parison of the attribute rankings by k-NN and a human
expert was conducted using the Spearman’s rank-correla-
tion coefficient [12]:
N
∑
2
6 Di
i=1
ρ = 1– -------------------------
- (3)
N  N 2 – 1
 
where Di is the difference between the two ranks of the
corresponding values of two variables and N is the number
of pairs of values.
To assess the predictive accuracy of the induced regres-
sion trees and the k-NN classifiers, standard ten-fold cross
validation was used. Examples were randomly divided into
ten folds and each method was tried for ten times, where the
examples from nine folds were used for learning and the
remaining fold was used for testing. The accuracy of the
models induced was measured by the root of mean squared
error (RMSE), a standard measure for the evaluation of
regression models (equation (4)):
N 2
 x i – p i
∑i=1
 
RMSE = ------------------------------ (4)
N
where the pi is a predicted value; the xi is the corresponding
measured value; and N is the number of examples.
All the experiments were conducted using the compo-
nent-based machine learning system Orange [3]. It includes
a range of preprocessing algorithms (feature subset selec-
tion, categorization, and feature utility estimation for
predictive tasks), modeling techniques (classification and
regression trees, naive Bayesian classifier, k-NN, majority
classifier, support vector machines, linear and logistic regres-
sion, ensemble methods), validation procedures (cross-val-
idation, random sampling, leave-one-out) and visualization
methods.
Methodology
The research described here was aimed at investigating the
impact of parameters of fabric mechanical properties on
seam puckering and flotation of work-piece components in
the area of the seam. The aim was to construct predictive
models that can be used to predict the quality of the seams
for a new randomly selected fabric, provided its mechani-
cal properties are known.
 Predicting Seam Appearance Quality D. Z. Pavlinic et al.
Figure 2 Development of predic-
tion system.
Learning Examples
In the process of machine learning described, the attributes
were the parameters of mechanical properties for the 489
fabrics, intended for the manufacture of ladies’ outerwear,
that were analyzed. The fabrics were selected in the course
of the garment manufacturing process. They differed in raw
material content, mass, weave and construction parame-
ters. The parameters of fabric mechanical properties were
determined in the area of low loads, using the KES-FB
measuring system at standard measuring conditions [8].
The classes in the learning subset were the fabric process-
ing properties, i.e. the fabric’s responses to sewing, which
depend on the fabric’s mechanical properties. The fabric’s
responses to sewing that impact directly on the quality of
garment appearance are seam puckering (s1) and flotation
of work-piece components (s7). A control system, based on
determining the most important fabric behavior elements
for seam quality, was constructed for the purpose of deter-
mining fabric response behavior, from the point of view of
seam quality. Each element was analyzed regarding its
impact on appearance quality, e.g. smoothness of the seams,
as well as regarding the degree of roughness (non-smooth-
ness), e.g. seam puckering. This was performed by following
the regulations of the AATCC standard, as was the case for
the degree of seam flotation [14]. The grades were divided
into five classes [11]: 5, high quality seam appearance; 4,
good appearance, insignificant seam puckering or flotation; 3,
acceptable appearance, noticeable puckering or flotation;
2, below average appearance, significant puckering or flota-
tion; 1, poor appearance, unacceptable puckering or flotation
of the seam.
239 TRJ
Scheme of Research
The development of the model for predicting seam quality
was based on learning examples. The model should identify
the attributes that affect individual fabric behavior response
in sewing, and predict seam puckering and flotation of
work-piece components in the area of the seam. This is one
of the criteria of assessing the quality of garment appear-
ance. The overall picture of the development a system for
predicting seam quality can be seen in Figure 2.
Results and Discussion
Development of the system of predicting seam quality,
namely seam puckering (s1) and flotation of work-piece
components in the area of the seam (s7) included the anal-
ysis of correlation of the response of behavior described.
The correlation between the degree of seam puckering
and flotation of work-piece components in the area of the
seam, as behavior response in sewing was measured by the
Pearson correlation coefficient. A Pearson coefficient of
0.533 indicates correlation that is significant at the level
p < 0.01.
Behavior responses of the fabric were graded from 1 to
5 (no sample was graded as 1). The situation is presented in
Figure 3.
Based on the investigations of interaction of fabric
mechanical properties and their impact on seam puckering
and flotation of work-piece components, experienced experts
proposed particularly important attributes, affecting par-
ticular responses (Table 1). The attributes are given sepa-
rately for warp (mark 1) and weft wise (mark 2).
Learning sets were formed which include important
attributes for both classes as selected by the experts. The
TRJ 240 Textile Research Journal 76(3)

Table 2 Root mean squared errors of the estimates.

Prediction by Regression k-nearest

Response
average tree neighbors
s1 0.726 0.693 0.561
s7 0.784 0.897 0.569

The results obtained by the experiments for response

Figure 3 Correlation of seam puckering (s1) and flotation
of work-piece components (s7).
Table 1 Important attributes affecting seam puckering
(s1) and work-piece flotation in the area of the seam (s7).
Response Attributes selected for a particular response
s1 EMT-1, RT-1*, alpha, 2HG-2, 2HG5-2, EL-1
s7 EMT-2, RT-2*, alpha, G-2, 2HG-2, 2HG5-2, B-2
* tensile resilience in % [8]
root mean squared error (RMSE; equation (4)) of the
models constructed are given in Table 2. The models com-
pared in this table are: regression tree model, k-NN predic-
tor, and the trivial model which always predicts the average
class values.
s1, show that regression trees are marginally better than
prediction by the average value (Wilcoxon test for paired
observations shows difference with the significance < 5%).
For both responses, s1 and s7, the best learning method for
our problem seemed to be k-NN, which by far outper-
formed the other two methods.
Table 3 shows the results of the experiments in which
k-NN was run on 30 randomly selected subsets of the exam-
ples described by the initial, complete set of attributes.
To confirm the correlation between the results obtained
using the k-NN method and the attributes given by the
experts, these attributes were given rank following their
importance for a particular response. The rank of the
attributes was thus obtained. In the experts-proposed list of
attributes, the most important attribute for a particular
response was ranked as the first, and so on. When sorting the
attributes obtained using the k-NN method, the most impor-
tant one for a particular response was the one that was used
most frequently in the course of the 30 experiments. The
results thus obtained indicate that the parameter α was the
most important one for seam puckering, as it offered the
ratio of fabric elongation weftwise and warpwise. Properties
exhibited weftwise, particularly bending rigidity B, shear
hysteresis 2HG and tensile resilience RT, are the properties
that have the highest impact on work-piece flotation in the
area of the seam. The Spearman’s rank-correlation coef-
ficient was then established between the two ranks obtained
in the above manner [equation (3) (significance level p <
0.05); Table 4].
The results for the Spearman’s rank-correlation coeffi-
cient show a high degree of correlation among the attributes
selected as important by the experts and those selected by
the k-NN method. This indicates that the k-NN method is

Table 3 Number of trials (out of 30) in which the attributes were selected. The attributes that were used in less than four
times are omitted for the sake of claritya.

Responses EMT-1 EMT-2 RT-1 RT-2 a G-2 2HG-2 2HG5-2 EL-1 EL-2 B-1 B-2
s1 19 29 30 9
s7 28 18 11 28 14 28
a
Justification for this threshold is that if the probability of the attribute to be chosen at random is 0.5, the probability that an attribute is
chosen in four or more trials is less than p = 0.05. Therefore, attributes occurring in less than four trials can be considered statistically
insignificant.
 Predicting Seam Appearance Quality D. Z. Pavlinic et al.
Table 4 Spearman’s rank-correlation coefficient.
Responses Spearman’s rank-correlation coefficient
s1 0.943
s7 0.815
appropriate and can be used to find the attributes that
affect fabric behavior in sewing processes.
Conclusion
The results obtained in constructing a model for predicting
seam quality using machine learning, indicate that in solv-
ing these problems the k-NN algorithm is more appropri-
ate for the purpose than regression trees. Despite the fact
that regression trees offer, in principle, the formation of
more complex models for prediction, and that the interac-
tions among the attributes can be more clearly seen, the
trees yield poor results. The k-NN method uses learning
examples by memorizing them, and each new example
which is given its class, makes its own contribution in addi-
tion to the previous learning examples. Spearman’s rank-
correlation coefficient showed relatively high correlation
between the ranks of the attributes selected by the experts
and the k-NN. The results also confirm the conjectured
impact of the mechanical property parameters on seam
puckering and flotation of the work-piece components in
the area of the seam. It was confirmed that fabric elasticity
had the most prominent impact on seam puckering. Seam
puckering was most noticeable with inelastic fabrics, where
the tension in warp and weft threads were higher than with
elastic fabrics, due to the fact that they were pushed aside
as each sewing needle penetration. Work-piece component
flotation in the area of the seam occurred because of inad-
equate shear and bending properties, expressed as shear
and bending rigidity and the level of associated hysteresis.
In making predictions of work-piece component flotation
in the area of the seam, using the k-NN method (k = 30),
the above parameters of mechanical properties, namely
shear hysteresis 2HG and bending rigidity B weftwise, were
the most frequently selected ones in the course of 30 repe-
titions. The parameter of tensile resilience, RT, was also
frequently selected in learning (28 times out of 30 repeti-
tions). It denotes the ratio between the reversible and the
energy needed for the deformation, and has a serious
impact on the seam appearance. Elastic fabrics exhibit
lower relaxation values, meaning that work-piece compo-
nents made of such fabrics can more readily compensate
for the loads in the area of the seam, which makes these
fabrics more flexible in the end-use products, namely arti-
cles of clothing.
Investigation of the mechanical property parameters of
the fabrics analyzed and their impact on seam quality, rep-
241 TRJ
resenting one of the key criteria for assessing the quality of
garment appearance, is a proper basis for constructing the
system for predicting garment appearance quality. Using k-
NN, the software package Orange enables successful deter-
mination of the mechanical property parameters that impact
seam puckering and work-piece component flotation in the
area of the seam. The selection of important attributes is
specific for a particular response of fabric behavior, and
can be used to predict the degree of seam puckering and
work-piece component flotation, so that the proper fabric
can be selected just by knowing its mechanical property
parameters. Such an approach to solving the problem of
seam puckering and work-piece component flotation, even
before the actual process of garment manufacture has started,
is of considerable importance in the process of designing
high-quality garments. It offers, apart from savings in the
amount of the fabric to be used, clear criteria for the required
fabric quality parameters.
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