17-Residual Stress and Distortion

world centre for materials
joining technology
17.0 RESIDUAL STRESS AND DISTORTION
17.1 WHAT CAUSES DISTORTION?
Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the
material, non-uniform stresses are set up in the component because of expansion and
contraction of the heated material.
Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal
when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat
affected zone adjacent to the weld pool. !owever, tensile stresses occur on cooling
when the contraction of the weld metal and immediate heat affected zone is resisted
by the bul" of the cold parent metal.
#he magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by
the volume change in the weld area on solidification and subse$uent cooling to room
temperature. %or example, when welding &-'n steel, the molten weld metal volume
will be reduced by approximately () on solidification and the volume of the solidified
weld metal*heat affected zone will be reduced by a further +) as its temperature falls
from the melting point of steel to room temperature.
If the stresses generated from thermal expansion*contraction exceed the yield
strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. ,lastic
deformation causes a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts
the structure.
17.2 WHAT ARE THE MAIN TYPES OF DISTORTION?
-istortion occurs in several ways.
/ongitudinal shrin"age
#ransverse shrin"age
0ngular distortion
Bowing and dishing
Buc"ling
&ontraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transvrs and
!"n#$t%&$na! shrin"age.
1on-uniform contraction (through thic"ness produces an#%!ar distortion as
well as longitudinal and transverse shrin"ing.
2elding Inspection 3+.3
4ev 5 6un 57
4esidual 8tress 9 -istortion
&opyright :557, #2I /td
joining technology
%or example, in a single ; butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal
and transverse shrin"age and rotation. #he second run causes the plates to rotate
using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum. #herefore balanced welding in a double side
; butt joint can be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion.
8imilarly, in a single sided fillet weld, non-uniform contraction will produce angular
distortion of the upstanding leg. -ouble-sided fillet welds can therefore be used to
control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one
side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced in the plate.
/ongitudinal '"($n# in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not
coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrin"age in the
welds bends the section into a curved shape. &lad plate tends to bow in two directions
due to longitudinal and transverse shrin"age of the cladding. #his produces a dished
shape.
D$s)$n# is also produced in stiffened plating. ,lates usually dish inwards
between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener attachment welds.
In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buc"ling in thin plates,
resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling. (see Figure below
Examples of distortion
Increasing the leg length of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrin"age.
17.* WHAT ARE THE FACTORS AFFECTIN+ DISTORTION?
If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion.
!owever, because the material is locally heated and restrained by the surrounding
cold metal, stresses are generated higher than the material yield stress causing
permanent distortion. #he principal factors affecting the type and degree of distortion
are.
2elding Inspection 3+.:
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
,arent material properties
0mount of restraint
6oint design
,art fit-up
2elding procedure
17.*.1 PARENT MATERIAL PROPERTIES
,arent material properties, which influence distortion, are coefficient of thermal
expansion and specific heat per unit volume. 0s distortion is determined by expansion
and contraction of the material, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material
plays a significant role in determining the stresses generated during welding and,
hence, the degree of distortion. %or example, as stainless steel has a higher
coefficient of expansion than plain carbon steel, it is more li"ely to suffer from
distortion.
17.*.2 RESTRAINT
If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve the
welding stresses. 8o, methods of restraint, such as <strong-bac"s< in butt welds, can
prevent movement and reduce distortion. 0s restraint produces higher levels of
residual stress in the material, there is a greater ris" of crac"ing in weld metal and
!0= especially in crac"-sensitive materials.
17.*.* ,OINT DESI+N
Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It can be minimised in butt
joints by adopting a joint type, which balances the thermal stresses through the plate
thic"ness. %or example, a double-sided in preference to a single-sided weld. -ouble-
sided fillet welds should eliminate angular distortion of the upstanding member,
especially if the two welds are deposited at the same time.
17.*.- PART FIT.UP
%it-up should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrin"age.
>xcessive joint gap can also increase the degree of distortion by increasing the
amount of weld metal needed to fill the joint. #he joints should be ade$uately tac"ed
to prevent relative movement between the parts during welding.
2elding Inspection 3+.(
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17.*./ WELDIN+ PROCEDURE
#his influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on the heat
input. 0s welding procedures are usually selected for reasons of $uality and
productivity, the welder has limited scope for reducing distortion. 0s a general rule,
weld volume should be "ept to a minimum. 0lso, the welding se$uence and techni$ue
should aim to balance the thermally induced stresses around the neutral axis of the
component.
17.- DISTORTION . PRE0ENTION 1Y PRE.SETTIN+2 PRE.1ENDIN+
OR USE OF RESTRAINT
-istortion could often be prevented at the design stage, for example, by placing
the welds about the neutral axis, reducing the amount of welding and depositing the
weld metal using a balanced welding techni$ue. In designs where this is not possible,
distortion may be prevented by one of the following methods.
pre-setting of parts
pre-bending of parts
use of restraint
#he techni$ue chosen will be influenced by the size and complexity of the
component or assembly, the cost of any restraining e$uipment and the need to limit
residual stresses.
Pre-setting of parts to produce correct alignment after welding
a) Pre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion
b) Pre-setting of butt joint to prevent angular distortion
17.-.1 PRE.SETTIN+ OF PARTS
#he parts are pre-set and left free to move during welding (see figure above. In
practice, the parts are pre-set by a pre-determined amount so that distortion occurring
during welding is used to achieve overall alignment and dimensional control.
2elding Inspection 3+.?
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
#he main advantages compared with the use of restraint are that there is no
expensive e$uipment needed and there will be lower residual stress in the structure.
@nfortunately, as it is difficult to predict the amount of pre-setting needed to
accommodate shrin"age, a number of trial welds will be re$uired. %or example, when
''0 or 'IA*'0A welding butt joints, the joint gap will normally close ahead of
weldingB when submerged arc weldingB the joint may open up during welding. 2hen
carrying out trial welds, it is also essential that the test structure is reasonably
representative of the full size structure in order to generate the level of distortion li"ely
to occur in practice. %or these reasons, pre-setting is a techni$ue more suitable for
simple components or assemblies.
Pre-bending, using strongbacks and wedges, to
accommodate angular distortion in thin plates.
17.-.2 PRE.1ENDIN+ OF PARTS
,re-bending, or pre-springing the parts before welding is a techni$ue used to
pre-stress the assembly to counteract shrin"age during welding. 0s shown in above
figure, pre-bending by means of strongbac"s and wedges can be used to pre-set a
seam before welding to compensate for angular distortion. 4eleasing the wedges after
welding will allow the parts to move bac" into alignment.
#he main photograph shows the diagonal bracings and centre jac" used to pre-
bend the fixture, not the component. #his counteracts the distortion introduced though
out-of-balance welding.
17.-.* USE OF RESTRAINT
Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending, restraint is the
more widely practised techni$ue. #he basic principle is that the parts are placed in
position and held under restraint to minimise any movement during welding. 2hen
removing the component from the restraining e$uipment, a relatively small amount of
movement will occur due to loc"ed-in stresses. #his can be cured by either applying a
small amount of pre-set or stress relieving before removing the restraint.
2hen welding assemblies, all the component parts should be held in the
correct position until completion of welding and a suitably balanced fabrication
se$uence used to minimise distortion.
2elding Inspection 3+.C
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
2elding with restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld,
which may cause crac"ing. 2hen welding susceptible materials, a suitable welding
se$uence and the use of preheating will reduce this ris".
4estraint is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures to hold the
parts during welding.
17.-.*.1 WELDIN+ ,I+S AND FI3TURES
6igs and fixtures are used to locate the parts and to ensure that dimensional
accuracy is maintained whilst welding. #hey can be of a relatively simple construction,
as shown in figure a below but the welding engineer will need to ensure that the
finished fabrication can be removed easily after welding.
17.-.*.2 FLE3I1LE CLAMPS
0 flexible clamp (Fig b below can be effective not only in applying restraint but
also in setting up and maintaining the joint gap (it can also be used to close a gap that
is too wide.
0 disadvantage is that as the restraining forces in the clamp will be transferred
into the joint when the clamps are removed, the level of residual stress across the joint
can be $uite high.
a4 W!&$n# 5$#
'4 F!6$'! 7!a89s
74 Str"n#'a7:s ($t) (&#s
&4 F%!!; (!&& str"n#'a7:s
Restraint techniues to prevent distortion
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17.-.*.* STRON+1AC<S =AND WED+ES4
8trongbac"s are a popular means of applying restraint especially for site wor".
2edged strongbac"s (Fig.c above), will prevent angular distortion in plate and help to
prevent pea"ing in welding cylindrical shells. 0s these types of strongbac" will allow
transverse shrin"age, the ris" of crac"ing will be greatly reduced compared with fully
welded strongbac"s.
%ully welded strongbac"s (welded on both sides of the joint (Fig d above) will
minimise both angular distortion and transverse shrin"age. 0s significant stresses can
be generated across the weld, which will increase any tendency for crac"ing, care
should be ta"en in the use of this type of strongbac".
17.-.- 1EST PRACTICE
0dopting the following assembly techni$ues will help to control distortion.
,re-set parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control with the minimum of residual stress
,re-bend joint edges to counteract distortion and achieve alignment and
dimensional control with minimum residual stress.
0pply restraint during welding by using jigs and fixtures, flexible clamps,
strongbac"s and tac" welding but consider the ris" of crac"ing which can be
$uite significant, especially for fully welded strongbac"s.
@se an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds for restraint
techni$ues, which may need preheat to avoid forming imperfections in the
component surface.
17./ DISTORTION . PRE0ENTION 1Y DESI+N
Ds$#n 9r$n7$9!s
0t the design stage, welding distortion can often be prevented, or at least
restricted, by considering.
elimination of welding
weld placement
reducing the volume of weld metal
reducing the number of runs
use of balanced welding
2elding Inspection 3+.+
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17./.1 ELIMINATION OF WELDIN+
0s distortion and shrin"age are an inevitable result of welding, good design
re$uires that not only the amount of welding is "ept to a minimum, but also the
smallest amount of weld metal is deposited. 2elding can often be eliminated at the
design stage by forming the plate or using a standard rolled section, as shown in this
figure.
Elimination of welds b!" a) forming the plate# b) use of rolled or extruded section
If possible, the design should use intermittent welds rather than a continuous
run, to reduce the amount of welding. %or example, in attaching stiffening plates, a
substantial reduction in the amount of welding can often be achieved whilst
maintaining ade$uate strength.
17./.2 WELD PLACEMENT
,lacing and balancing of welds are important in designing for minimum
distortion. #he closer a weld is positioned to the neutral axis of a fabrication, the lower
the leverage effect of the shrin"age forces and the final distortion. >xamples of poor
and good designs are shown in the figure below.
$istortion ma! be reduced b! placing the welds around the neutral axis
0s most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis, distortion can be
minimised by designing the fabrication so the shrin"age forces of an individual weld
are balanced by placing another weld on the opposite side of the neutral axis.
2henever possible, welding should be carried out alternately on opposite sides,
instead of completing one side first. In large structures, if distortion is occurring
preferentially on one side, it may be possible to ta"e corrective actions, for example,
by increasing welding on the other side to control the overall distortion.
2elding Inspection 3+.D
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17./.* REDUCIN+ THE 0OLUME OF WELD METAL
#o minimise distortion, as well as for economic reasons, the volume of weld
metal should be limited to the design re$uirements. %or a single-sided joint, the cross-
section of the weld should be "ept as small as possible to reduce the level of angular
distortion, as illustrated in below figure.
Reducing the amount of angular distortion and lateral shrinkage
2ays of reducing angular distortion and lateral shrin"age
a reducing the volume of weld metalB
b using single pass weld
6oint preparation angle and root gap should be minimised providing the weld
can be made satisfactorily. #o facilitate access, it may be possible to specify a larger
root gap and smaller preparation angle. By cutting down the difference in the amount
of weld metal at the root and the face of the weld, the degree of angular distortion will
be correspondingly reduced. Butt joints made in a single pass using deep penetration
have little angular distortion, especially if a closed butt joint can be welded (%igure
above. %or example, thin section material can be welded using plasma and laser
welding processes and thic" section can be welded, in the vertical position, using
electrogas and electroslag processes. 0lthough angular distortion can be eliminated,
there will still be longitudinal and transverse shrin"age.
In thic" section material, as the cross sectional area of a double-; joint
preparation is often only half that of a single-; preparation, the volume of weld metal
to be deposited can be substantially reduced. #he double-; joint preparation also
permits balanced welding about the middle of the joint to eliminate angular distortion.
0s weld shrin"age is proportional to the amount of weld metal both poor joint fit-
up and over-welding will increase the amount of distortion. 0ngular distortion in fillet
welds is particularly affected by over-welding. 0s design strength is based on throat
thic"ness, over-welding to produce a convex weld bead does not increase the
allowable design strength but it will increase the shrin"age and distortion.
2elding Inspection 3+.E
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17./.- REDUCIN+ THE NUM1ER OF RUNS
#here are conflicting opinions on whether it is better to deposit a given volume
of weld metal using a small number of large weld passes or a large number of small
passes. >xperience shows that for a single-sided butt joint, or a single-side fillet weld,
a large single weld deposit gives less angular distortion than if the weld is made with a
number of small runs. Aenerally, in an unrestrained joint, the degree of angular
distortion is approximately proportional to the number of passes.
&ompleting the joint with a small number of large weld deposits results in more
longitudinal and transverse shrin"age than a weld completed in a larger number of
small passes. In a multi-pass weld, previously deposited weld metal provides restraint,
so the angular distortion per pass decreases as the weld is built up. /arge deposits
also increase the ris" of elastic buc"ling particularly in thin section plate.
17././ USE OF 1ALANCED WELDIN+
Balanced welding is an effective means of controlling angular distortion in a
multi-pass butt weld by arranging the welding se$uence to ensure that angular
distortion is continually being corrected and not allowed to accumulate during welding.
&omparative amounts of angular distortion from balanced welding and welding one
side of the joint first are shown schematically in this figure. #he balanced welding
techni$ue can also be applied to fillet joints.
%alanced welding to reduce the amount of angular distortion
If welding alternately on either side of the joint is not possible, or if one side has
to be completed first, an asymmetrical joint preparation may be used with more weld
metal being deposited on the second side. #he greater contraction resulting from
depositing the weld metal on the second side will help counteract the distortion on the
first side.
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17./.> 1EST PRACTICE
#he following design principles can control distortion.
eliminate welding by forming the plate and using rolled or extruded sections
minimise the amount of weld metal
do not over weld
use intermittent welding in preference to a continuous weld pass
place welds about the neutral axis
balance the welding about the middle of the joint by using a double-; joint in
preference to a single-; joint
0dopting best practice principles can have surprising cost benefits. %or
example, for a design fillet leg length of 7mm, depositing an Dmm-leg length will result
in the deposition of C+) additional weld metal. Besides the extra cost of depositing
weld metal and the increase ris" of distortion, it is costly to remove this extra weld
metal later. !owever, designing for distortion control may incur additional fabrication
costs. %or example, the use of a double-; joint preparation is an excellent way to
reduce weld volume and control distortion, but extra costs may be incurred in
production through manipulation of the wor"piece for the welder to access the reverse
side.
17.> DISTORTION . PRE0ENTION 1Y FA1RICATION TECHNI?UES
17.>.1 ASSEM1LY TECHNI?UES
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure
but assembly techni$ues can often be crucial in minimising distortion. #he principal
assembly techni$ues are.
tac" welding
bac"-to-bac" assembly
stiffening
17.>.1.1 TAC< WELDIN+
#ac" welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be
used to resist transverse shrin"age. #o be effective, thought should be given to the
number of tac" welds, their length and the distance between them. 2ith too few, there
is the ris" of the joint progressively closing up as welding proceeds. In a long seam,
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
using ''0 or 'IA*'0A, the joint edges may even overlap. It should be noted that
when using the submerged arc process, the joint might open up if not ade$uately
tac"ed.
#he tac" welding se$uence is important to maintain a uniform root gap along
the length of the joint. #hree alternative tac"-welding se$uences are shown in the
figure below.
tac" weld straight through to the end of the joint (figure a. It is necessary to
clamp the plates or to use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tac"ing
tac" weld one end and then use a bac" stepping techni$ue for tac"ing the rest
of the joint (figure b
tac" weld the centre and complete the tac" welding by bac" stepping (figure c.
&lternative procedures used for tack welding to prevent transverse shrinkage
-irectional tac"ing is a useful techni$ue for controlling the joint gap, for
example closing a joint gap which is (or has become too wide.
2hen tac" welding, it is important that tac"s which are to be fused into the main
weld, are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately $ualified welders.
#he procedure may re$uire preheat and an approved consumable as specified for the
main weld. 4emoval of the tac"s also needs careful control to avoid causing defects in
the component surface.
17.>.1.2 1AC<.TO.1AC< ASSEM1LY
By tac" welding or clamping two identical components bac"-to-bac", welding of
both components can be balanced around the neutral axis of the combined assembly
(see figure a on next page. It is recommended that the assembly is stress relieved
before separating the components. If stress relieving is not done, it may be necessary
to insert wedges between the components (figure b on next page so when the
wedges are removed, the parts will move bac" to the correct shape or alignment.
2elding Inspection 3+.3:
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
a assemblies tac"ed together before welding
b use of wedges for components that distort on
separation after welding
%ack-to-back assembl! to control distortion when welding two identical components
17.>.1.* STIFFENIN+
'ongitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing in butt welded thin plate joints
/ongitudinal shrin"age in butt-welded seams often results in bowing, especially
when fabricating thin plate structures. /ongitudinal stiffeners in the form of flats or
angles, welded along each side of the seam (%ig just above are effective in
preventing longitudinal bowing. 8tiffener location is important. they must be placed at
a sufficient distance from the joint so they do not interfere with welding, unless located
on the reverse side of a joint welded from one side.
17.>.2 WELDIN+ PROCEDURE
0 suitable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and $uality
re$uirements rather than the need to control distortion. 1evertheless, the welding
process, techni$ue and se$uence do influence the distortion level.
W!&$n# Pr"7ss
Aeneral rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion are.
deposit the weld metal as $uic"ly as possible
use the least number of runs to fill the joint
2elding Inspection 3+.3(
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
@nfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules may
increase longitudinal shrin"age resulting in bowing and buc"ling.
In manual welding, 'IA*'0A, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to
''0. 2eld metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrode (''0, or
the highest current level ('IA*'0A, without causing lac"-of-fusion imperfections. 0s
heating is much slower and more diffuse, gas welding normally produces more
angular distortion than the arc processes.
'echanised techni$ues combining high deposition rates and high welding
speeds have the greatest potential for preventing distortion. 0s the distortion is more
consistent, simple techni$ues such as pre-setting are more effective in controlling
angular distortion.
W!&$n# T7)n$@%
Aeneral rules for preventing distortion are.
"eep the weld (fillet to the minimum specified size
use balanced welding about the neutral axis
"eep the time between runs to a minimum
&ngular distortion of the joint as determined b! the number of runs in the fillet weld
In the absence of restraint, angular distortion in both fillet and butt joints will be
a function of the joint geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a given cross
section. 0ngular distortion (measured in degrees as a function of the number of runs
for a 35mm leg length fillet weld is shown in the figure above.
If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for
example on double-sided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously. In butt
joints, the run order may be crucial in that balanced welding can be used to correct
angular distortion as it develops.
2elding Inspection 3+.3?
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
a Bac"-step welding
b 8"ip welding
(se of welding direction to control distortion
W!&$n# S@%n7
#he welding se$uence, or direction, of welding is important and should be
towards the free end of the joint. %or long welds, the whole of the weld is not
completed in one direction. 8hort runs, for example using the bac"-step or s"ip
welding techni$ue, are very effective in distortion control (figure just above
Bac"-step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld lengths in the
opposite direction to the general progression (a in above figure
8"ip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly spaced,
se$uence along the seam (b in above figure. 2eld lengths and the spaces
between them are generally e$ual to the natural run-out length of one
electrode. #he direction of deposit for each electrode is the same, but it is not
necessary for the welding direction to be opposite to the direction of general
progression.
17.>.* 1EST PRACTICE
#he following fabrication techni$ues are used to control distortion.
using tac" welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
identical components welded bac" to bac" so welding can be balanced about
the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds
of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and techni$ue should aim
to deposit the weld metal as $uic"ly as possibleB 'IA*'0A in preference to
''0 or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one directionB bac"-
step or s"ip welding techni$ues should be used.
2elding Inspection 3+.3C
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17.7 DISTORTION . CORRECTI0E TECHNI?UES
>very effort should be made to avoid distortion at the design stage and by
using suitable fabrication procedures. 0s it is not always possible to avoid distortion
during fabrication, several well-established corrective techni$ues can be employed.
!owever, rewor"ing to correct distortion should not be underta"en lightly as it is costly
and needs considerable s"ill to avoid damaging the component.
In this issue, general guidelines are provided on <best practice< for correcting
distortion using mechanical or thermal techni$ues.
17.7.1 MECHANICAL TECHNI?UES
#he principal mechanical techni$ues are hammering and pressing. !ammering
may cause surface damage and wor" hardening.
In cases of bowing or angular distortion, the complete component can often be
straightened on a press without the disadvantages of hammering. ,ac"ing pieces are
inserted between the component and the platens of the press. It is important to
impose sufficient deformation to give over-correction so that the normal elastic spring-
bac" will allow the component to assume its correct shape.
(se of press to correct bowing in ) butt joint
,ressing to correct bowing in a flanged plate is illustrated in %ig. 3?. In long
components, distortion is removed progressively in a series of incremental pressingsB
each one acting over a short length. In the case of the flanged plate, the load should
act on the flange to prevent local damage to the web at the load points. 0s
incremental point loading will only produce an approximately straight component, it is
better to use a former to achieve a straight component or to produce a smooth
curvature.
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17.7.1.1 1EST PRACTICE FOR MECHANICAL STRAI+HTENIN+
#he following should be adopted when using pressing techni$ues to remove
distortion.
@se pac"ing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring-bac" will
return the component to the correct shape
&hec" that the component is ade$uately supported during pressing to prevent
buc"ling
@se a former (or rolling to achieve a straight component or produce a curvature
0s unsecured pac"ing pieces may fly out from the press, the following safe
practice must be adopted.
- bolt the pac"ing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of ade$uate thic"ness to intercept the <missile<
- clear personnel from the hazard area
17.7.2 THERMAL TECHNI?UES
#he basic principle behind thermal techni$ues is to create sufficiently high local
stresses so that, on cooling, the component is pulled bac" into shape.
'ocalised heating to correct distortion
#his is achieved by locally heating the material to a temperature where plastic
deformation will occur as the hot, low yield strength material tries to expand against
the surrounding cold, higher yield strength metal. Fn cooling to room temperature the
heated area will attempt to shrin" to a smaller size than before heating. #he stresses
generated thereby will pull the component into the re$uired shape. (8ee figure above
/ocal heating is, therefore, a relatively simple but effective means of correcting
welding distortion. 8hrin"age level is determined by size, number, location and
temperature of the heated zones. #hic"ness and plate size determines the area of the
heated zone. 1umber and placement of heating zones are largely a $uestion of
experience. %or new jobs, tests will often be needed to $uantify the level of shrin"age.
S9"t2 !$n2 or (&#.s)a9& heating techni$ues can all be used in thermal correction
of distortion.
2elding Inspection 3+.3+
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17.7.2.1 SPOT HEATIN+
*pot heating for correcting buckling
8pot heating (figure above, is used to remove buc"ling, for example when a
relatively thin sheet has been welded to a stiff frame. -istortion is corrected by spot
heating on the convex side. If the buc"ling is regular, the spots can be arranged
symmetrically, starting at the centre of the buc"le and wor"ing outwards.
17.7.2.2 LINE HEATIN+
'ine heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld
!eating in straight lines is often used to correct angular distortion, for example,
in fillet welds (above figure. #he component is heated along the line of the welded
joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the induced stresses will pull the flange
flat.
17.7.2.* WED+E.SHAPED HEATIN+
#o correct distortion in larger complex fabrications it may be necessary to heat
whole areas in addition to employing line heating. #he pattern aims at shrin"ing one
part of the fabrication to pull the material bac" into shape.
2elding Inspection 3+.3D
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
(se of wedge shaped heating to straighten plate
0part from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heating zone should be
used, (figure above from base to apex and the temperature profile should be
uniform through the plate thic"ness. %or thic"er section material, it may be necessary
to use two torches, one on each side of the plate.
0s a general guideline, to straighten a curved plate (%ig. 3D wedge dimensions
should be.
3. /ength of wedge - two-thirds of the plate width
:. 2idth of wedge (base - one sixth of its length (base to apex
#he degree of straightening will typically be Cmm in a (m length of plate.
2edge-shaped heating can be used to correct distortion in a variety of situations,
(8ee following figure.
3. 8tandard rolled section, which needs correction in two planes, (%ig. a
:. Buc"le at edge of plate as an alternative to rolling (%ig b
(. Box section fabrication, which is distorted out of plane (%ig. c
a4 Stan&ar& r"!!&
st! s7t$"n
'4 1%7:!& &# "A 9!at 74 1"6 Aa'r$7at$"n
+edge shaped heating to correct distortion
2elding Inspection 3+.3E
4ev 5 6un 57
joining technology
17.7.2.- +ENERAL PRECAUTIONS
#he dangers of using thermal straightening techni$ues are the ris" of over-
shrin"ing too large an area or causing metallurgical changes by heating to too high a
temperature. 0s a general rule, when correcting distortion in steels the temperature of
the area should be restricted to approximately to 75G - 7C5G& - dull red heat.
If the heating is interrupted, or the heat lost, the operator must allow the metal to cool
and then begin again.
17.7.2./ 1EST PRACTICE FOR DISTORTION CORRECTION 1Y
THERMAL HEATIN+
#he following should be adopted when using thermal techni$ues to remove distortion.
use spot heating to remove buc"ling in thin sheet structures
other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating
techni$ue
use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrin"ing the component
limit the temperature to 75G to 7C5G& (dull red heat in steels to prevent
metallurgical damage
in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge, penetrate
evenly through the plate thic"ness and maintain an even temperature
.
2elding Inspection 3+.:5
4ev 5 6un 57

17-Residual Stress and Distortion

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

17-Residual Stress and Distortion

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

world centre for materials

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen