826 TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL

Characterization of Roughness–Friction: Example with Nonwovens

STEPHANE FONTAINE,1 CYRIL MARSIQUET, MARC RENNER, AND MARIE-ANGE BUENO
Ecole Nationale Superieure des Industries Textiles de Mulhouse, University of Mulhouse, France

NATHALIE NICOLLETTI
Ecole Superieure des Sciences Appliquees pour l’Ingenieur, University of Mulhouse, France

ABSTRACT
In several technical applications, it is necessary to accurately determine the surface state
of materials. In order to do so, a new method to evaluate the surface state of materials has
been developed. This method gives roughness–friction criteria, based on the principle of
a “blade-disc” type tribometer, where the analyzed surface is the disc. In this study we
have demonstrated the effectiveness of the method in a study of two types of nonwovens.
The first type of nonwoven is intended for use for female or baby hygiene and the second
type for baby skincare wipes. The nonwovens compared have surfaces with different
structures and different compositions. In addition it is shown that the method is able to
distinguish fine modifications of the surface state.

The baby wipes industry needs to compare and control
softness parameters along the production process. One of
the problems is to provide a measurement method, which
is efficient and sensitive enough to control quality. This
quality must be evaluated on nonwovens with very com-
plex random surfaces.
The surface measurement of nonwovens and random
structures is not a new idea. Pourdeyhimi et al. [4, 5, 7]
proposed a large study on fiber orientation measurements
in nonwovens, using different optical methods and image
analysis to track fibers in real and artificially produced
images. First, the authors reported a “direct fiber track-
ing method that allows each fiber segment to be
tracked ”. Images were analyzed, detecting the presence
or the absence of a fiber. They have computed the ori-
entation distribution function (ODF) that evaluates the
frequency appearance of different orientation angles.
A second evaluation method has been elaborated using
“the power spectrum from a two dimensional Fourier
analysis image” [4, 5, 7]. In this method, the structure is
considered as a composition of “spatial details in the
form of brightness transitions cycling from light to dark
and from dark to light. The rate at which these transi-
tions occur is the spatial frequency linked to the fiber
orientation”. A Fourier transform (FFT) decomposes an
image from its spatial domain of intensities into a fre-
quency domain. Magnitudes of the various frequencies
are evaluated by gray scale levels on the transformed
1
To whom correspondence should be addressed: e-mail: s.fontaine
@univ-mulhouse.fr
images and represent the rate at which intensity transi-
tion occurs in a given direction.
Subsequently, the FFT enables the ODF to be evaluated
on a nonwoven. Moreover, the “equivalent Pore concept”
was used by Salvado [9] in order to quantify the ODF on
spunbonded nonwovens designed for the baby diaper in-
dustry. This method computes the cumulative length of
straight segments (fibers) in all the directions of the non-
woven (two-dimensional analysis only). When “reorganiz-
ing the obtained lengths according to their orientation and
putting them end to end, the cumulative length draw a curve
in the plane” [9]. This curve is a semicircle in the case of an
isotropic distribution of the segments and a semi-ellipse in
the case of most nonwovens.
Other studies have been made to evaluate random
surfaces. Pourdeyimi and Sobus [6, 8] have studied the
surface intensity and roughness of carpet in order to
quantify the appearance changes on carpet surfaces due
to mechanical wear. Assuming that there are three cate-
gories of carpet structures, namely strongly ordered
structures, weakly ordered structures and disordered
structures, the authors have proposed that carpet surfaces
can be characterized according to global and local pa-
rameters from image analysis. Global parameters are
one-dimensional statistical parameters which quantify
pile compression or overall fiber disorder and local pa-
rameters enable the pile direction to be quantified in
terms of overall pile disorder, tuft density and tuft shape.
These studies show that the characterization of ran-
dom surface state is a very complex problem. Even if
image analysis provides the opportunity to quantify fiber

Textile Res. J. 75(12), 826 – 832 (2005) DOI: 10.1177/0040517505057634 © 2005 SAGE Publications www.sagepublications.com
DECEMBER 2005
distribution on nonwoven structures or appearance loss
on carpets, these “non-contact” techniques cannot be
sufficient to quantify the touch of such products.
Moreover, for several years, textile products have be-
come more and more complex and more research has
been directed towards the study of the tactile properties
of these structures.
In order to simplify the problem, we propose to sep-
arate the characterization of textile handle in two differ-
ent ways: first, it is possible to consider the touch when
fingers are just moving on a simply laid surface. During
this motion the hand is sensitive to friction, surface
roughness, transversal compression and cool/warm feel-
ing. The second aspect of handle is by touching the
textile surfaces with full hand. During this action, fabric-
bending properties are interacting with the physical prop-
erties previously described. Textile products are made up
of different levels of structures issuing from various pro-
cesses and are composed of fibers made of different mate-
rials. The fabrication process induces the presence of hair-
iness on the studied surface. These hairs are surface fibers
which escape from the cohesion steps during the manufac-
turing processes. Hairiness and structure are strongly linked
since some structures are naturally more hairy than others.
In 1995, Bueno et al [1, 3] proposed a method to
measure the surface state of textiles. This method mea-
sures the friction and the roughness of a fabric. The
sample is fixed on a rotating plate and a 0.5-mm-diam-
eter cylindrical probe is rubbed on the fabric surface. An
accelerometer is fixed to this probe and measures the
vibrations due to its penetration into the fabric structure.
A FFT of the temporal signal provides a spectrum know-
ing that an average of several spectra gives an autospec-
trum. In the autospectrum, the energy of the peaks de-
pends on the magnitude of the structure relief.
This tribometer was multi-directional and able to mea-
sure fine modifications of surface states using the peri-
odicity properties of the tested structure. However, two
major disadvantages persisted: first, it was only possible
to measure variations of treatments on the same surface
and second, random structures could not be measured.
The present study therefore introduces a measurement
method which provides solutions to the two previous
problems and obtains “roughness–friction” [2] criteria of
the tested surface.
MEASUREMENT METHOD
Experimental
The authors have developed a patented measurement
method [2] to obtain “roughness–friction” criteria for a
tested surface (Figure 1). The sample is clamped on a
rotating carrier and a very thin metallic blade (50 ␮m
827
thick) rubs the tested surface. During the contact, the
blade vibrates according to eigenvalues of frequencies
(vibration modes). Strain gauges are fixed on this blade
and measure its vibrations (eigenvalues). A Fourier anal-
ysis of the temporal signal from the sensor entails the
computing of the power spectrum relative to frequency
with the help of a spectrum analyzer. The power spec-
trum is PS( f ):
FIGURE 1. Measurement method.
PS共 f 兲 ⫽ 兩X共 f 兲兩 2 (1)
where f is the frequency (Hz), X( f ) is the Fourier trans-
form of the temporal signal x(t), which corresponds to
the signal from the sensor (volts).
The power spectrum relative to frequency gives a
spectrum as well as an average of several spectra com-
puted during one or more rotations of the sample carrier
(Figure 2). This is an autospectrum in which the magni-
tude of the peaks of each mode depends on the surface
state of the tested samples. The frequencies of the vibra-
tion modes are experimentally determined owing to this
autospectrum (center of the peak). Moreover, to extract
the energy of these peaks (equation (2)), it is necessary to
integrate PS( f ) between two frequencies f1 and f2 (gray
zone in Figure 2).
In order to simplify the problem, only the modes 1 and
3 were studied. The reason why mode 2 has been elim-
inated will be explained later.
Energy关 f 1 ;f 2 兴 ⫽ 冕
f1
f2
兩X共 f 兲兩 2 (2)
When rubbing on the tested surface, the sensor is excited
by surface events such as friction and roughness where
friction is linked to (micro-) asperities and adhesion
which depend on thin contaminant films that pollute
828
FIGURE 2. Autospectrum analysis.
surfaces. Moreover, the roughness Ra of a profile can be
defined as:
冕
L
1 frequencies higher than 300 Hz.
Ra ⫽ 兩y共 x兲 ⫺ y៮ 兩 䡠 dx (3)
L
0 spectrum coming from a standard measurement and the
where L is the considered length for the integration, y៮ is
the average line of the profile and y(x) the altitude of a
point positioned at an abscissa x (Figure 3).
FIGURE 3. Definition of the roughness Ra.
It is then clear that for a given mode, the higher is the
excitation, the higher will be the energy of vibration in
this mode. The prototype allows us to modify precisely
the measuring conditions. All the tests were provided
under a sliding speed of 89 mm s⫺1 and the autospectrum
were computed with 200 spectra.
The challenge was then to link data coming from the
different vibration modes to the characteristics of the
tested surface. First, the pertinent modes have been cho-
sen for our measurement from more than 10 visible
peaks. Second, a representation of the results is proposed
in order to classify clearly the different tested surfaces.
TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL
PERTINENT MODES
The sensor was studied by means of modal analysis
using the finite element method. The code used was
CASTEM 2004. This code has been developed by the
Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique – CEA – DEN/
DM2S/SEMT (http://www-cast3m.cea.fr/cast3m/index.
jsp). This code has been chosen because of its great
flexibility and because of its international recognition.
This code is presented as a standard one with a pre-
processor, where a program in Gibiane Language must
be written. This program includes geometry, limit con-
ditions, materials definitions and the analysis type that is
required (thermic, dynamic and static mechanics. . .).
The model was the simulation of a clamped-supported
pre-loaded blade with the size of our sensor. The aim of
this study was to compute the eigenvalues of frequencies
of the sensor and the mode shapes for each studied
frequency. Only the modes 1, 2 and 3 were studied
because of the limited signal/noise ratio for modes of
Table I shows the measured frequencies on the auto-
computed frequencies coming from the previous calcu-
lated model.
TABLE I. Measured and simulated frequencies.
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3
Measured frequencies (Hz) 35 127 258
Calculated frequencies (Hz) 36 128 260
Moreover, Figure 4 presents the mode shapes for the
first three modes. We observe that the first mode (36 Hz)
moves according to an interesting horizontal oscillation
on the surface of the tested fabric. This phenomenon is
largely attenuated for the modes 2 (128 Hz) and (260
Hz). This means that mode 1 is probably more sensitive
to friction than the other two.
FIGURE 4. Mode shapes.
DECEMBER 2005
Mode 2 (128 Hz) was eliminated because of the low
signal/noise ratio in the autospectrum (Figure 2).
SURFACE STATE REPRESENTATION
When several surfaces need to be compared, the results
can become difficult to analyze. To solve this problem, a
two-dimensional representation of the results was proposed
in which the energy of mode 3 (260 Hz) was plotted as a
function of the energy of mode 1 (36 Hz). Values are
standardized with relation to the maximum value.
This representation is a type of map and is described in
Figure 5. This map allows us to obtain a very clear analysis
of the observed difference between the tested samples.
TESTED SURFACES
The tested surfaces were nonwovens meant for baby
hygiene. These nonwovens were dry tested (without lo-
tion). The technical characteristics of these nonwovens
are shown in Table II. Samples Spun and Sofspan are
spunbonded nonwovens (Figure 6) and samples J1 to J4
are Spunlace products (Figure 7). These last samples are
designed to be impregnated with different kinds of lo-
tions. As they are of the same structure, the samples were
all produced using the same manufacturing line.
Due to their large structure heterogeneity, the compar-
ison of these different nonwovens using scanning elec-
FIGURE 5. Cross representation map.
TABLE II. Nonwoven characteristics.
Name of the sample Structure
SPUN 18 GSM Spunbonded Process 1
SOFSPAN 20GSM Spunbonded Process 2
SPUN 20 GSM Spunbonded Process 1
J1 Spunlace
J2 Spunlace
J3 Spunlace
J4 Spunlace
829
tron microscopy (SEM) photographs was not possible.
First, Spunbonded and Spunlace products were sepa-
rately investigated in the present study and then, for the
Spun and Sofspan products, the effects of grammage
(areal density g m⫺2) variation and process modification
on the surface state were observed. The Spunlace prod-
ucts (J1 to J4) were compared two by two, noticing the
effect on the surface state, of a variation of grammage for
the nonwovens J1 and J2 and of the composition of
nonwovens J3 and J4 with similar grammages.
Results and Discussion
To have a better understanding of the measurement
data, a “time–frequency analysis” of the signal was used.
This treatment was carried out by the spectral analyzer.
This three-dimensional analysis allows us to observe the
evolution of the spectra relative to the rubbing time.
Figure 8 shows an example of the evolution of the signal
for the sample J4. It can be observed that the mode 1
vibrates the whole time, whereas mode 3 vibrates only
twice per cycle on the carrier (white surrounded events).
When observing the blade rubbing on the surface, these
events occur when the sensor is parallel to the fiber bundles
on the structure. These bundles arise from the manufactur-
ing process and are oriented along the production line. This
phenomenon is visible on all the nonwovens J1 to J4.
On the surface of these nonwovens the bundles are
assumed to constitute a macro factor of roughness. Their
presence induces periodic shocks that excite the sensor at
each frequency of the spectrum.
Moreover, as shown previously, mode 1 vibrates with
a horizontal oscillation on the “blade–nonwoven” con-
tact area; it is then natural to observe a continuous
vibration for the whole time. However, as shocks excite
the sensor at each frequency of the spectrum, macro
roughness will also excite mode 1. It is thus possible to
conclude from these results that the energy of mode 1 is
dependent on a combination of friction and roughness,
whereas the energy of mode 3 seems to be preferentially
excited by the roughness of the tested nonwovens.
The results (Figures 9 and 10) illustrate clearly these con-
clusions. In fact, when the grammage decreased for the same
Components Grammage
100% Polypropylene 18gm⫺2
100% Polypropylene 20gm⫺2
100% Polypropylene 20gm⫺2
100% Polyester 75gm⫺2
100% Polyester 38gm⫺2
65% Rayon, 35% Polyester 50gm⫺2
100% Rayon 45gm⫺2
830 TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL

FIGURE 6. SEM photographs of Spun 18 GSM, Sofspan 20 GSM

and Spun 20GSM.

nonwoven raw material (Spun 18 GSM and 20 GSM or
Spunlace J1 and J2), only the energy of mode 3 de-
creased. This result is related to a decrease in surface
roughness.
However, when the composition of the nonwoven
changes (i.e. case of the Spunlace J3 and J4), the energies
of both modes 1 and 3 are modified. For example, the
addition of rayon to polyester drastically increases the
energies of modes 1 and 3. Such a modification of
composition induces a modification of friction behavior
and also a modification of roughness [which is a combi-
nation of the hairiness properties and density and com-
pressibility of detected macro asperities (bundles)].
In the case of the Sofspan 20 GSM products, a mod-
ification of the manufacturing process has an effect on
the surface state of the tested products. This surface state
depends on the calendering intensity of the process, the
fiber fineness and the type of polymer used. All these
factors determine roughness, friction and hairiness prop-
erties on the surface of the tested specimens.
DECEMBER 2005
FIGURE 7. SEM photographs of Spunlace J4.
FIGURE 8. Time–frequency analysis.
Moreover, it is important to notice the high sensitivity of
the sensor since it can detect a surface modification due to
a grammage variation of 2 g m⫺2 only, in the case of Spun
18 GSM and 20 GSM products. When standardizing all the
data, it is interesting to enlarge the presentation scale of our
results in order to compare the Spun products with the
Spunlace products (Figure 11). This representation be-
831
FIGURE 9. Measurement results: Spun and Sofspan nonwovens.
comes very useful in order to obtain a “quality map” of
different products. [Note: the values of Spunbonded prod-
uct move to a new quadrant in Figure 11 because they have
been standardized in relation to the maximum value J4].
This enlarged representation makes it possible to dif-
ferentiate the two types of nonwovens and confirms firsty
that the differences between Spun products and Sofspan
832 TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL

face. The frequency analysis of this vibration allows us

to compute the energies of each mode. Only the energies
of mode 1 and 3 were studied herein. It has been shown
that the energy of the first mode is sensitive to both
friction and roughness whereas the energy of mode 3 is
sensitive to roughness only. Several nonwovens, des-
tined for use for hygiene products, were tested. These
fibrous structures are characterized by complex surfaces.
The results have clearly shown that the present test
method is able to detect the effect of a small grammage
variation, the effect of manufacturing processes and the
effect of component modification. These modifications have
been discussed in terms of “friction roughness” criteria.
A modal analysis of the sensor provides a better un-
derstanding of the mechanical behavior of the plate in
each frequency mode. As other work has shown that this
test method is reproducible, we therefore, wish to focus
on the industrial application of the present study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
FIGURE 10. Measurement results on Spunlace products.
Thanks to the Fiberweb and Jacob-Holm companies
for the nonwovens, and to the Agence Française de
l’Innovation (OSEO-ANVAR) for the financial support.

FIGURE 11. Comparison between Spunbonded and Spunlace products
on an enlarged scale.
are largely lower than those observed between the Spun-
lace products. Second, the results show that the rough-
ness of Spunlace products is generally higher than those
of Spun and Sofspan products. Moreover, the friction of
the Spunlace products is more important in comparison
with the Spunbonded nonwovens.
Conclusion
This study has presented a patented method capable of
evaluating all kind of surface states. The developed sen-
sor is a preloaded thin blade that vibrates according to
the eigenvalues of frequencies, when rubbing on a sur-
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