Contents

1. Background.................................................................................................................................................. 2
2. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 4
3. Historical aspects ......................................................................................................................................... 5
4. Wind machine parameters ........................................................................................................................... 6
5. C
P
! characteristics "or #ind machines ..................................................................................................... $
6. %erod&namic theories "or #ind machines ................................................................................................. 1'
$. %ir"oil section ............................................................................................................................................ 11
(. Wind anal&sis ............................................................................................................................................ 14
). Wind machine mechanics .......................................................................................................................... 16
1'. Po#er output o" #ind machine ................................................................................................................ 2'
11. %nnual *nerg& +utput ,%*+- "or the site o" interest.............................................................................. 21
12. Wind machine design .............................................................................................................................. 23
13. Controls ................................................................................................................................................... 24
15. *conomics ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Bi.liograph& .................................................................................................................................................. 26
1 . B a ckgrou n d
Wind energ& is a large rene#a.le energ& source. /lo.al #ind po#er potential is o" the order o" 110'''
/W. It is a.out 5 times the glo.al installed po#er generation capacit&. 1his e2cludes o""shore potential as
it is &et to .e properl& estimated.
%.out 250''' 3W is the glo.al installed #ind po#er capacit&. It is a.out 14 o" glo.al installed po#er
generation capacit&. Wind produces a.out 5' .illion kWh per &ear glo.all& #ith the a5erage utili6ation
"actor o" 2''' hours per &ear. /lo.al #ind po#er gro#th trends "rom 1)(' to 1))5 are sho#n in 7igure 1
and the countr& #ise details o" installed #ind po#er capacit& "rom 1))( to 2''1 is gi5en in 1a.le 1.
7igure 1 8 /lo.al #ind po#er gro#th trends "rom 1)(' to 1))5
1a.le 1 8 Installed #ind po#er capacit& "rom 1))( to 2''1
Countr& Installed
capacit&0
9ec. 1))(
,3W-
Installed
capacit&0
9ec. 1)))
,3W-
Installed
capacit&0
9ec. 2'''
,3W-
Installed
capacit&0
9ec. 2''1
,3W-
/ro#th rate
2''12''2
,4-
3 &ear
a5erage
gro#th ,4-
1.
/erman& 2($4 4442 61'$ ($34 434 454
2. :;% 2141 2445 261' 4245 634 264
3.
;pain ((' 1(12 2(36 355' 254 5)4
4. 9enmark 142' 1$3( 2341 2456 54 2'4
5. India ))2 1'35 122' 1456 1)4 144
6.
Ital& 1)$ 2$$ 424 $'' 654 534
$. <etherlands 3$) 433 4$3 523 114 114
(. :.=. 33( 362 425 525 244 164
). China 2'' 262 352 4'6 154 2$4
1'.
/reece 55 15( 2$4 35( 314 ($4
11. >apan 25 ? 14' 35$ 1554 ?
Total Global 9476 12964 17062 24927 35% 34%
2
Wind energ& is economicall& 5ia.le rene#a.le energ& source toda&. It costs a.out 5 cents per kWh
glo.all&. It is the "astest gro#ing energ& market toda& #ith the gro#th rate o" 354 per &ear.
In India0 gross potential and technical potentials are estimated to .e 4501)5 3W and 120(3$5 3W
respecti5el&. 7igure 2 sho#s distri.ution o" #ind po#er potential in India. It indicates #ind po#er densit&
in W@m
2
.
7igure 2 8 Wind po#er densit& distri.ution in India ,in W@m
2
at 3' m hu. height-
3aAor e""orts to#ards installation o" #ind machines in India started in the late 1)('Bs and a.out 10$''
3W #ind po#er capacit& is installed .& ;eptem.er 2''2. Installed #ind po#er capacit& gro#th in India is
sho#n in 7igure 3.
7igure 3 8 Installed #ind po#er capacit& gro#th in India
3
India is ranking 5
th
in the #orld .ased on the installed #ind po#er capacit&. It is producing a.out 2 .illion
kWh per &ear "rom #ind #ith the a5erage utili6ation "actor o" 11$5 hours per &ear. Cost o" energ& "rom
#ind is a.out Cs.4 to 5 per kWh in India. India has also started e2porting 1 3W capacit& machines.
2 . Intr o d uct i on
Wind is an indirect solar energ& source. Its characteristics can .e summari6ed as "ollo#s.
D It is en5ironmentall& clean source o" energ&.
D It is a dilute source o" energ&.
D It is perenniall& a5aila.le.
D Its a5aila.ilit& is unpredicta.le.
D 9ata are a5aila.le a.out its a5aila.ilit& pattern around the da& "or di""erent months o" the &ear.
Wind 3achine 8 1he machine that con5erts kinetic energ& in the #ind into usa.le "orm o" mechanical
energ& ,usuall& sha"t po#er-. Wind machines are t&picall& used "or mechanical applications like #ater
pumping0 grinding0 #oodcutting0 or "or %C or 9C po#er generation in grid connected or isolated mode.
9etails o" di""erent t&pes o" #ind machines are gi5en in 1a.le 2. 7igure 4 sho#s t&pical #ind machines.
1a.le 2 8 9i""erent t&pes o" Wind 3achines
Type of machine No. of
Blade
!"i of
#otation
$oto# poition
%#t to%e#
&ta#tin'
to#()e
$oto#
peed
*o%e#
Propeller machine 2 or 3 Hori6ontal :p#ind or
do#n#ind
3oderate 7ast *lectrical
3ulti.laded machine 6 to 24 Hori6ontal :p#ind High ;lo# 3echanical
;a5onius machine 2 or 3 Eertical Eer& high ;lo# 3echanical
9arrius machine 2 or 3 Eertical Eer& lo# 7ast *lectrical
;tud& o" #ind machines is called +olinolo'y. It cuts across 5arious "ields including 3eteorolog&0
%erod&namics0 3achine 9esign0 ;tructural 9esign0 3aterials 1echnolog&0 Po#er *ngineering0 Celia.ilit&
*ngineering0 Instrumentation and Controls *ngineering.
1hree .laded propeller deign has e5ol5ed as the commercial Wind *nerg& Con5ersion ;&stem toda&.
9esigns o" 225 kW0 45' kW0 65' kW or 1 3W are installed commerciall& in India. 9esign and
per"ormance details o" a t&pical 1 3W unit installed .& ;u6lon are gi5en in 1a.le 3.
1a.le 3 8 9etails o" a t&pical 1 3W Wind *nerg& Con5ersion ;&stem
1. Cotor diameter 61 m
2. Blade length 3' m
3. Cotor speeds 13 CP3 @ 22 CP3
4. 1o#er height 6' m
5. Wind speed range 3 m@s to 25 m@s
6. Po#er control %cti5e .lade pitching
$. 1&pe o" generator Induction generator
(. /enerator ;peed 1''' rpm @ 15'' rpm
). /enerator rating 1 3W
1'. %nnual *nerg& +utput 1.( to 2 /Wh
11. 3achine cost %.out Cs. 4.2 Crores
4
Work on 3+9 series in :; is no# leading to the de5elopment o" 3.2 3W 2.laded propeller machine. It
#ill ha5e diameter o" around )2 m and #ill ha5e to#er height o" a.out 6' to $' m.
7igure 4 8 1&pical #ind machine designs
3. H isto ri ca l a s p e c ts
;ome milestones in the histor& o" #ind machines are gi5en in 1a.le 4. Conceptual understanding o"
aerod&namic shape and position o" center o" "orces or 6ero moment reduced the structural pro.lem o"
supporting the .lade. 1his #as in the second decade o" t#entieth centur&. 1his is an important milestone
in the histor& o" #ind machines. 1herea"ter0 longer .lades o" aerod&namic shape could .e designed and
used.
5
1a.le 4 8 Historical de5elopment o" Wind *nerg& Con5ersion ;&stem
Period Machine Applic a tion
64' %9 Persian #ind mills /rinding0 etc
Be"ore 12'' %9 Chinese sail t&pe #ind mill /rinding0 #ater pumping0 etc
12
th
centur& %9 9utch #ind mills /rinding0 #ater pumping0 etc.
1$'' %9 9utch #@mill to %merica
1(5' to 1)3' %9 %merican 3ulti.laded Water pumping0 35 E9C po#er
1((( %9 Brush #ind tur.ineF 9ia.1$m0 1o#er 1(.3m 12 kW *lectric po#er
1)25 %9 >aco.Bs 3 .laded propeller
9ia.5m0 1'2'm@h0 125 to 225 rpm
'.( to 2.5 kW at 32 E9C
1)31 %9 Galta Propeller0 CussiaF 2 .laded0 dia.1'' "t 1'' kW
1)41 %9 ;mithPutnam Propeller
2 .laded0 dia.1$5"t0 3' m@h0 2( rpm
125' kW
1)25 %9 ;a5onius 3achine 3echanical or *lectrical po#er
1)31 %9 9arrius *lectrical po#er
1)('s %9 2 .laded propeller ,Commerciall& a5aila.le- 225 kW
2''' %9 H%W10 E%W1 4''625kW0 1.23.2 3W
4. Wind machine pa rame ters
Po#er de5eloped .& the #ind machine is mainl& a""ected .& #ind speed0 u0 area s#ept .& the rotor0 %
;
0
densit& o" air0 H0 rotational speed o" the machine0 I0 radius o" the rotor0 C0 num.er o" .lades0 B and total
.lade area. It is also a""ected .& li"t and drag characteristics o" the .lade pro"ile. Ji"t and drag "orces acting
on a .lade element is sho#n in 7igure 5. %pplication o" dimensional anal&sis e5ol5es "ollo#ing parameters
"or characteri6ing #ind machines.
7igure 5 8 Ji"t and drag "orces acting on a .lade element
,oefficient of *e#fo#mance0 C
P
K P @ ,L H %
;
u
3
-
Where0
P K Po#er output at rotor sha"t ,W-
%
;
K %rea s#ept .& the machine ,m
2
-
H K %ir densit& ,kg@m
3
-
u K :ndistur.ed #ind speed ,m@s-
Tip peed #atio0 ! K C I @ u
C K Cotor radius ,m-0 I K rotational speed o" the rotor ,rad@s-
&olidity0 M K .lade area @ %
;
K ,a5erage chord 2 .lade length 2 num.er o" .lades- @ %
;
6
*nerg& content o" th e # in d

1he Nuantit& ,L H %
;
u
3
- in the denominator o" the de"inition o" C
P
ma& .e identi"ied as po#er in the #ind.
It is proportional to the cu.e o" #ind speed0 u as the 5olume o" .ottle is to its dimensions. I" u K 15 kmph0
po#er in the #ind is 42 W@m
2
. 7or u K 36 and )' kmph0 it is 5(3 and )1'2 W@m
2
.
5. C
P
- ch a racter i sti c s !or " i nd m a ch i n es
9 rag tr a nslator de5ice
Jet a drag translator de5ice sho#n in 7igure 6 .e su.Aected to #ind #ith speed :. 1his is a de5ice that
utili6es the drag "orce o" the #ind acting on it to de5elop po#er. Jet the de5ice .e mo5ing at speed 5 under
the #ind "orces acting on it in the direction same as that o" the #ind.
7igure 6 8 % drag translator de5ice
1hen0 the relati5e speed o" the #ind as seen .& the de5ice is ,: O 5- and the drag "orce o" the #ind acting
on a unit length o" the drag translator de5ice is gi5en .&0
9 K C
9
,L H c ,:5-
2
-
Where0 C
9
K drag coe""icient o" the drag translator de5ice
c K #idth or chord o" the drag translator de5ice
%nd the po#er de5eloped0 P .& the drag translator de5ice is gi5en .& ,9.5- or
P K C
9
,L H c ,:5-
2
- 5
Coe""icient o" Per"ormance0 C
P
can then .e #ritten as0
C
P
K C
9
,: 5-
2
5 @ :
3
3a2imi6ing this #ith respect to ,5@:- gi5es0 ,5@:- K P and C
P0ma2
K ,4@2$- C
9
.
With C
9
K 1.50 C
P0ma2
K '.22.
Ji"t translator de5ice
+n the similar lines0 let a drag translator de5ice sho#n in 7igure $ .e su.Aected to #ind at speed :. 1his is a
de5ice that primaril& utili6es the li"t "orce o" the #ind acting on it to de5elop po#er. Jet the de5ice .e
mo5ing at speed 5 under the #ind "orces acting on it in the direction perpendicular to that o" the #ind.
Wind Energy Conversion Systems Prof. S.B.Kedare $
r J 9
7igure $ 8 % li"t translator de5ice

Jet the chord o" the de5ice .e inclined at angle Q #ith respect to the direction o" the #ind. 1hen0 the
relati5e speed o" the #ind as seen .& the de5ice is E
r
K R,:
2
S 5
2
- and the dri5ing "orce o" the #ind acting
on a unit length o" the li"t translator de5ice is gi5en .&0
7 K J cos Q O 9 sin Q
K ,L H c E
r
2
- TC
J
cos Q O C
9
sin Q U
C
J
K li"t coe""icient o" the li"t translator de5ice
C
9
K drag coe""icient o" the li"t translator de5ice
c K #idth or chord o" the li"t translator de5ice
%nd the po#er de5eloped0 P .& the li"t translator de5ice is gi5en .& ,7.5- or
P K ,L H c E
2
- TC cos Q O C sin Q U 5
Coe""icient o" Per"ormance0 C
P
can then .e #ritten as0
C
P
K TC
J
cos Q O C
9
sin Q U E
r
2
5 @ :
3
K TC
J
cos Q O C
9
sin Q U T1 S ,5@:-
2
U ,5@:-
;impli"&ing a"ter su.stituting cos Q and sin Q in terms o" ,5@:- and ma2imi6ing C
P
#ith respect to ,5@:-
gi5es0 ,5@:- K V ,C
J
@C
9
- and C
P0ma2
K ,2@)- C
J
,C
J
@C
9
- W ,4@)- ,C
J
@C
9
-
2
S 1 X
L
With C
J
K 1 and ,C
J
@C
9
- K 1'0 C
P0ma2
K 15.
It is o.5ious "rom these results that the lift de-ice ha hi'he# peed #atio and ,
*.ma"
than thoe fo# the
d#a' de-ice.
Bet6 li m i t o n C
P
" or a c tuator d is c in the stre a m tu.e
7or ideal rotor disc or non/pa#ticipatin' act)ato# dic in the t#eam/t)be o" air "lo# as in 7igure (0
ma2imum limit "or po#er e2traction can .e deri5ed under the "ollo#ing assumptions.
D <o "rictional ,5iscosit&- losses
D %2is&mmetric "lo#0 that is0 a.sence o" an& 5orte2 or rotational "lo#
(
7igure ( 8 %ctuator disc in the streamtu.e

:sing continuit& principle and momentum eNuation e2pression can .e deri5ed "or thrust acting on the
actuator disc and the po#er de5eloped as #ind "lo# retards across the rotor disc. C
P
is ma2imum ,K 16 @ 2$
K '.5)3- "or an optimum 5alue o" "lo# retardation0 a i.e.0 "or an optimum 5alue o" !. 1his limit is called
YBet6 limitB.
C
P
! c h ar a c teri s ti c s "or pra c ti c al # i nd m a c h ines
C
P
! cur5es "or t&pical #ind machines are sho#n in 7igure ). Please note the positions o" the cur5es "or
;a5onious machines and multi.laded machines. Contrar& to .elie"0 the ;a5onious machines ha5e .een
sho#n to ha5e high C
P
o" the order o" '.3.
7igure ) 8 Cp! cur5es "or practical #ind machines
)
*""ect o" so l idit& ,range '.'3 to 1-
D 1orNue increases as solidit& increases
D Wake in the do#n#ind "lo# increases as solidit& increases
D 3a2imum po#er decreases as #ake increases
Hence0 ma2imum po#er decreases as solidit& increases
*""ect o" tip speed r atio
1ip speed ratio increases as solidit& decreases
3a2imum po#er increases as tip speed ratio increases
#. $ e ro d %n a m ic th e o ri es !o r " ind ma c hines
*Nuation "or C
P
as "unction o" ! "or a2i s & mm e tr ic disc rotor consi d ering #ake e"" e ct
C
P
K ,16@2$- e2p,'.353( !
1.2)46
-
*Nuation "or C
P
as "unction o" ! "or rotor cons id ering # a ke as # e ll as drag e""e c t # i th Z K C
9
@ C
J
,B la d e * le m ent 1 h eor & -
C
P
K ,16@2$- W e2p,'.353( !
1.2)46
- Z ! X
#here0 Z K C
9
@ C
J
K Catio o" drag coe""icient and li"t coe""icient "or the air"oil
*Nuation "or m a 2i m u m po# e r c oe""ic ient0 C
P 0 ma2
as "u n c tion o" ! # ith Z K C
9
@ C
J
and B K n u m .er o" .l a d e
C
P0 ma2
K ,16@2$- W ! B
'.6$
@ T1.4( S ,B
'.6$
O '.'4- ! S '.''25 !
2
U O Z T,1.)2 !
2
B-@ ,1 S 2 ! B-U X
#here0 B K num.er o" .lade
1his eNuation plotted "or di""erent com.inations o" num.er o" .lades0 B and ratio o" drag coe""icient and
li"t coe""icient "or the air"oil0 Z is sho#n in 7igure 1'.
7igure 1' 8 C
P0 ma2
as "unction o" ! "or di""erent com.inations o" B and Z
1'
& . $ i r!oil section
%ir"oil is pro"iled to ha5e 5er& small drag. % t&pical air"oil ha5ing 2'' mm chord and 154 thickness has
drag eNui5alent to a #ire o" 1mm diameter. It is characteri6ed .& coe""icient o" li"t0 C
J
and coe""icient o"
drag0 C
9
that are "unction o" angle o" attack. Ce"er 7igure 11. C
J
and C
9
are de"ined as0
C
J
K J @ ,L H % u
2
-F C
9
K 9 @ ,L H % u
2
-
7igure 11 8 9e"inition o" chord and angle o" attack "or an air"oil section
9i""erent t&pes o" air"oil sections are sho#n in 7igure 12a and t&pical li"t and drag characteristics are
sho#n in 7igure 12.. Ealue o" C
J
can go as high as 1.2 a"ter #hich an air"oil stalls0 t&picall& at the angle
o" attack 15
'
. 3inimum 5alue o" C
9
@ C
J
is t&picall& in the range o" '.'1 to '.1.
7igure 12a 8 1&pes o" air"oils
11
7igure 12. 8 1&pical cur5es o" Cl 5s [ and Cl 5s Cd
; *CI .l a de s e ctions
1he design reNuirements "or air"oil sections o" a #ind machine are di""erent "rom those o" airplanes.
In #ind machines "ouling is a maAor pro.lem .ecause once the machine goes on line it has to run round the
da& and round the &ear pre"era.l& #ithout an& .reak. %lso the .lades o" #ind machine are inaccessi.le once
installed and cannot .e easil& cleaned. 7urther0 dirt deposited on the .lades a""ect the per"ormance o" the
.lade and in turn that o" the machine signi"icantl& as sho#n in 7igure 13.
7igure 13 8 *""ect o" dirt on .lade on the per"ormance o" the machine
%nother consideration is the thickness o" the .lade at root. 1&pical <%C% sections0 common "or
airoplanes0 used "or #ind machine are sho#n in 7igure 14a. 1he& ha5e high C
J
and high ,C
J
@C
9
- ratio.
But0 the& are comparati5el& thinner. ;tructurall&0 a thick .lade at root #ill al#a&s .e easier to design to
take loads.
Based on these considerations0 .lades ha5e .een designed .& ;olar *nerg& Cesearch Institute ,no# called
<ational Cene#a.le Ja.orator& O <C*J- in the :;%. % set o" these .lades used "or tip0 middle span and
root is sho#n in 7igure 14..
12
7igure 14a 8 <%C% %ir"oils 7igure 14. 8 ;*CI %ir"oils
1he comparati5e per"ormance o" #ind machine #ith <%C% and ;*CI .lades #hen the& are clean and
"ouled ,dirt&- is sho#n in 7igures 15a and 15..
7igure 15a 8 Comparati5e per"ormance o" #ind machine #ith clean <%C% and ;*CI .lades
7igure 15. 8 Comparati5e per"ormance o" #ind machine #ith "ouled <%C% and ;*CI .lades
13
'. W ind a na l % s is
Wind data collection and anal&sis suita.le "or #ind energ& s&stem siting and designing started since 1)('
in India. 1he annual a5erage and monthl& a5erage "or >ul& o" mean hourl& #ind speeds "or India at 1'm
a.o5e ground are sho#n in 7igures 16 and 1$.
H ourl& mean # in d speed
Wind speed is t&picall& measured at 1' and 2' m height "or 2 second duration at 1 minute inter5al. 1hese
data are used "or calculating "reNuenc& distri.ution. 1he Hourl& 3ean Wind ;peed is calculated .&
a5eraging the 1 minute data "or the hour.
7 reNuen c & d is tr i. u tion
Po#er in the #ind cannot .e estimated unless its "reNuenc& distri.ution is kno#n. 1his is recorded as
hourl& mean 5alue and plotted "or the site o" interest. 1&pical "reNuenc& distri.ution0 ",u- as "unction o"
#ind speed u and cumulati5e "reNuenc&0 7,u- also as "unction o" #ind speed u are sho#n in 7igure 1(.
7igure 16 8 3ean annual #ind speed "or India
14
7igure 1$ 8 3ean monthl& #ind speed "or India "or >ul&
7igure 1( 8 7reNuenc& distri.ution cur5e and 7igure 1) 8 Wei.ull densit& "unction ",u- "or
cumulati5e "reNuenc& scale parameter c K 1
15
Wei.u ll d is tri.ution

1he #ind speed "reNuenc& distri.ution cur5e is closel& represented .& Wei.ull distri.ution as gi5en .elo#.
7reNuenc& "unction in s@m 8 ",u- K ,k @ c- ,u @ c-
,k1-
e2p T,u @ c-
k
U
;cale "actor in m@s0 c \ 1F ;hape "actor0 k \ 'F #ind speed in m@s0 u \'.
1his "unction has ma2imum at0 u @ c K T ,k1- @ k U
,1@k-
*""ect o" k on "reNuenc& densit& cur5e is sho#n in 7igure 1). 7actors c and k can .e related to mean #ind
speed0 u
mean
and standard de5iation0 M
n1
"or the site o" interest.
and0
c @ u
mean
K 1.12 "or 1.5 ] k ] 3
k K ,M
n1
@ u
mean
-
1.'(6
*la.orate cur5e "itting into the #ind data at the site can also .e done to "ind c and k. 7or this0 cumulati5e
"reNuenc& data is 5er& use"ul.
When integrated0 Wei.ull distri.ution leads to cumulati5e "reNuenc& o" occurrence o" #ind up to speed u
gi5en as0
7,u- K 1 O e2p T ,u @ c-
k
U
Po#er densit&0 Pd in the #ind in W@m
2
0 energ& pattern "actor0 *P7 and energ& content0 *C o" the #ind in
Wh@m
2
@&r0 de"ined .elo# ser5e as use"ul parameters "or assessing prospecti5e #ind energ& site and are
calculated "rom the data "or the site o" interest.
^
Pd K L H
_
'
",u- u
3
du F *P7 K Pd @ ,L H u
mean
3
- K ,u
3
-
mean
@ ,u
mean
-
3
F *C K ($6' 2 Pd
#here0 H is air densit& at the site in kg@m
3
.
C a& leigh d istr i. ution
Ca&leigh distri.ution has .een commonl& used "or anal&6ing #ind "reNuenc& distri.ution. It is a special
case o" Wei.ull distri.ution #ith k K 2 and c K ,2 u
mean
@ R ` -. It is gi5en .&0
7reNuenc& "unction in s@m 8 ",u- K ,` u @ 2 u
mean
2
- e2p T,`@4- ,u@u
mean
2
-U
P o#er Ja# Inde2
Eariation in the #ind speed0 u along the height0 6 a.o5e ground le5el is gi5en .& the Po#er Ja# Inde20 [
as .elo#. Ealue o" [ is t&picall& '.14 or 1@$. Hence0 it is called Y1@$
th
Po#er Ja#B.
u
1
@ u
2
K , 6
1
@ 6
2
-
[
(. Wind machine me chan ics
Po#er de5eloped .& #ind machine 5s its speed o" rotation "or di""erent #ind speed can .e calculated "or
the gi5en machine "rom its Cp! cur5e and is sho#n in 7igure 2'. Constant speed lines are marked on the
graph.
16
7igure 2' 8 ;ha"t po#er output as "unction o" speed o" rotation "or 1$ m ;andia 9arrius
; ta rting and opera ting p o int "or # in d m a c h ine
Ce"er 7igure 21 that sho#s torNue de5eloped .& a #ind machine as a "unction o" its rotational speed.
D ;tarting o" the machine ,propeller t&pe- 8 3achine starts and sta.ili6es at high ! under no load
D +perating condition 8 3achine sta.ili6es at appropriate ! matching #ith load conditions
1$
7igure 21 8 1orNue de5eloped .& a #ind machine as a "unction o" its rotational speed
7 i2 e d sp e e d a nd 5 a ria .l e s peed m a c h ines
D Earia.le speed machines run at di""erent CP3 at di""erent #ind speeds. Joad 5aries #ith machine
CP30 e.g.0 reciprocating pump attached as load.
D Constant speed machines are designed to run at constant CP3. Joad 5aries to match the po#er
generated or .lade angle is changed ,pitched- to change the po#er de5eloped.
D 1#o speed machines are designed to run at t#o di""erent constant CP3s. 1he& de5elop lo#er
po#er at lo# #ind speeds running at lo#er CP3. 1he& de5elop higher po#er at high #ind speeds
running at higher CP3.
;election o" operating speed is al#a&s an important design issue. 7igure 22 sho#s po#er de5eloped .& a
machine at di""erent speeds o" rotation. It can .e seen that the machine de5elopes more po#er at higher
spped o" rotation at higher #ind speeds. Ho#e5er0 at lo# #ind speeds #hich are more "reNuent0 a slo#er
machine can de5elop higher po#er. 1here"ore0 modern machines operate at t#o di""erent rotational speeds
#ith di""erent ratings.
Joad ma tching
%n ideal load #ould .e that "or #hich the machine al#a&s de5elops ma2imum po#er or al#a&s operates at
ma2imum Cp as sho#n in 7igure 23. %n& load that de5elops torNue proportional to the sNuare o" its
rotational speed can .e matched #ith the machine reNuirement .& appropriate gear selection.
1(
7igure 22 8 Po#er de5eloped .& a #ind machine at di""erent speeds o" rotation
7igure 23 8 1orNue 5s rotational speed "or a #ind machine #ith ideal load
1)
1). Po" e r o u tput o! "ind mac h ine
In practical machines0 generator has the rating and it cannot .e operated .e&ond this limit. Hence at higher
#ind speeds0 #ind machine .lades are regulated to shed e2tra po#er. 1hus the machine operates at reduced
Cp as sho#n in 7igure 24.
7igure 24 8 Cp 5s u sho#ing reduced Cp
3echanical and electrical po#er output as "unction o" #ind 5elocit& "or constant speed machine are sho#n
in 7igure 25. Ideali6ed #ind tur.ine output 5s #ind speed is sho#n in 7igure 26.
7igure 25 8 3echanical and electrical po#er 7igure 26 8 Ideali6ed #ind tur.ine output
output as "unction o" #ind speed "or 5s #ind speed
1$ m 9arrius tur.ine at 42 rpm
2'
c c C C c
7ollo#ing characteristic parameters "or #ind machine are clear "rom this 7igure.
D $ated po%e# of the machine0 P
eC
is the ma2imum po#er de5eloped .& the rotor and is also the
generator rating.
D ,)t/in peed0 u
c
is the minimum #ind speed at #hich the machine starts rotating.
D $ated peed0 u
C
is the minimum #ind speed at #hich the machine de5elops rated po#er. 1his is
the speed at #hich the .lade regulation .come acti5e.
D 0)#lin' peed0 u
7
is the ma2imum #ind speed at #hich the machine de5elops po#er. 1he machine
is stopped .e&ond this speed.
*lectrical po#er0 P
e
de5eloped .& #ind machine as "unction o" u ma& .e ideali6ed as0
P
e
K ' "or u ] u
c
P
e
K a S . u
k
"or u
c
] u ] u
C
P
e
K P
eC
"or u
C
] u ] u
7
P
e
K ' "or u \ u
7
#ith0 a K P
eC
u
k
@ ,u
k
u
k
-F and0 . K P
eC
@ ,u
k
u
k
-
11. $n n ual *ne r g% +utput ,$*+- ! o r the site o ! in terest
1he total energ& output o" the machine considering the po#er output at an& #ind speed and "reNuenc& o"
occurrence o" that #ind in a &ear at the site o" interest is %*+. Com.ining P
e
as "unction o" u and #ind
speed "reNuenc& distri.ution descri.ed .& Wei.ull parameters "or the site0 the annual a5erage po#er "or the
machine is gi5en .&0
P
e0 a5e
K P
eC
W Te2p ,ac- O e2p ,ar- U @ ,ar O ac- O e2p ,a"- X
#here0 ac K ,u
c
@ c-
k
0 ar K ,u
C
@ c-
k
0 a" K ,u
7
@ c-
k
1hen0 the Capacit& 7actor ,C7- "or the #ind machine is gi5en .&0 C7 K P
e0 a5e
@ P
eC
Wind machine speed range "or gi5en site is selected such that ,apacity 0acto# 1,02 o# !nn)al 3ne#'y
4)tp)t 1!342 is ma2imum.
1he e""ect o" rated #ind speed "or the machine on it C7 or %*+ can .e studied .& stud&ing the .eha5iour
o" normali6ed po#er "unction0 P
<
. <ormali6ed po#er0 P
<
is de"ined as0
P
<
K C7 ,u
C
@ c-
3
7igure 2$ sho#s P
<
plotted 5s ,u
C
@ c- "or di""erent 5alues o" Wei.ull shape parameter k. Plot ,a- is plotted
"or ,u
c
@ u
C
- K '.5 and ,u
7
@ u
C
- K 2. Plot ,.- is plotted "or ,u
c
@ u
C
- K '.4 and ,u
7
@ u
C
- K 2.
1hese plots can .e used "or selecting u
c
0 u
C
and u
7
"or ma2imum Capacit& 7actor ,C7- or %nnual *nerg&
+utput ,%*+- "or c and k o" the site. ;election o" the ratio ,u
c
@ u
C
- depends upon the starting
characteristics o" the #ind machine.
1his anal&sis can also .e applied to see ho# much po#er can .e generated "or a #ind machine o" gi5en
parameters.
21
7igure 2$a 8 P
<
5s ,u
C
@c- "or di""erent 5alues o" k "or ,u
c
@u
C
- K '.5 and ,u
7
@u
C
- K 2.
7igure 2$. 8 P
<
5s ,u
C
@c- "or di""erent 5alues o" k "or ,u
c
@u
C
- K '.4 and ,u
7
@u
C
- K 2.
22
12. Wind machine design

Blade design is carried out .ased on aerod&namic anal&sis "or optimum C
P
at design #ind speed. %ir"oil
#ith ';*CI sections are used and chord and .lade angles are calculated .ased on aerod&namic anal&sis. %
photograph o" a propeller machine .lade .eing "a.ricated is sho#n in 7igure 2( and nacelle o" 3.laded
propeller machine is sho#n in 7igure 2).
7igure 2( 8 Propeller machine .lade under preparations
7igure 2) 8 <acelle o" 3.laded propeller machine
3echanical designing o" gears0 sha"ts and .rakes is carried out. 1he& ha5e e""ect on minimum po#er
reNuired to start the machine0 cutinspeed0 capacit& to a.sor. 5ariation in rotor torNue .& storing in the
"orm o" strain energ&0 sha"t rigidit& "or nonuse"ul loads and "le2i.ilit& "or use"ul loads.
;tructural design is carried out "or .lades0 root0 hu.0 support structure0 to#er and "oundation .ased on
static0 d&namic and "atigue loading. Blade root is su.Aected to loads as #ell as moments in all three
direction. 7urther the& 5ar& throughout the li"e o" the machine e5en i" it is in a shutdo#n condition. ;o"t
designing techniNues like coning and teetering o" rotor ma& .e used in rotor design.
;election o" to#er is also important in #ind machine design as it slo#s do#n the #ind and also imparts
e2citation loads on the machine. <atural "reNuencies o" di""erent #ind machine components need to .e
care"ull& designed considering the "reNuenc& o" these e2citation loads.
23
1he #ind machine should also .e designed considering the reNuirements o" transport and installation.
;tronger and comparati5el& straight roads are reNuired to transport long .lades and hea5& eNuipment to the
site usuall& in remote areas. ;imilarl&0 hea5&0 sophisticated and costlier material handling eNuipment is
reNuired to handle hea5& and un#ield& machine components at site. 7igure 3' sho#s machine installed at
site.
7igure 3' 8 Wind machine .eing installed at site.
9esign dri5ers "or #ind machine components are listed in 1a.le 5. 9esigning o" #ind machine is highl&
demanding Ao. and .eats e5en the design di""iculties o" aircra"t or helicopters as is e5ident "rom 7igure 31.
1a.le 5 8 9esign dri5ers "or #ind machine components
24
7igure 31 8 Comparati5e design challenge .& di""erent
machines
13. Contr o ls
1he rotor po#er is limited .& generator rating. %t high #ind speeds the
po#er is regulated .& an& o" the "ollo#ing approaches.
D Pitch control 8 .lade is pitched so as to keep angle o" attack lo#.
D ;tall regulation 8 .lade is designed so that angle o" attack is high in
stall range at high #ind speeds
D %cti5e stall control 8
.lade is pitched so as to
keep angle o" attack high
in stall range
Ga# control and
"urling is done .& &a#
gear at the top o" the
to#er. 7urling can also
.e done .& .lade
pitching.
1&pical modern #ind "arm is sho#n in 7igure 32 and o""shore #ind machine installation is sho#n in
7igure 33. Wind machine "arm in the hills o" 9istrict ;atara0 3aharashtra0 India is sho#n in 7igure 34.
7igure 34 8 1&pical modern #ind "arm 7igure 35 8 +""shore #ind machine installation
15. *co n o mics
1he latest designs o" propeller t&pe #ind machines are a5aila.le in Indian market in 25'0 45'0 6'' or 1'''
kW si6e and cost Cs.4 to 4.2 Crore@3W. 1he& are economic i" the& run "or 12'' to 15'' hours annuall&.
25
7igure 36 8 Wind machine "arm in the hills o" 9istrict ;atara0 3aharashtra0 India
B i. l io g ra p h%
>ohnson /.J.0 Wind Energy Systems, Prentice Hall0 1)(5.
3inistr& o" <oncon5entional *nerg& ;ources ,3<*;-0 Wind Power Development in India Towards
lo!al "eadership, 3<*;0 /o5ernment o" India0 +cto.er 2''2.
CangaraAan ;.0 Wind Energy #eso$rce S$rvey in India, Eol.50 Indian Institute o" 1ropical 3eteorolog&0
Bangalore0 1))(
;pera 9.%. ,*d.-0 Wind T$r!ine Technology % &$ndamental Concepts o' Wind T$r!ine Engineering,
%;3* Press0 <e# Gork01))4.
;ukhatme ;.P.0 Solar Energy, 2
nd
*d.0 1ata 3c/ra#Hill Pu.lishing Co.Jtd.0 <.9elhi0 1))6.
htt p 8@@ # ##.#indpo#er.or g0 9anish Wind Industr& %ssociation0 Copenhagen E0 9enmark
26