6.

012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-1

Lecture 2 - Semiconductor Physics (I)
September13,2005
Contents:
1.Silicon bondmodel: electronsandholes
2.Generation andrecombination
3.Thermalequilibrium
4.Intrinsic semiconductor
5.Doping;extrinsicsemiconductor
Reading assignment:
HoweandSodini, Ch. 2,2.1-2.3
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-2
Key questions
Howdosemiconductorsconductelectricity?
Whatisahole?
Howmanyelectronsandholesarethereinasemicon-
ductor in thermal equilibrium at a certain tempera-
ture?
How can one engineer the conductivity of semicon-
ductors?
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-3
1. Silicon bond model: electrons and holes
SiisinColumn IVofperiodic table:
IIIA IVA VA VIA
5 6 7 8
B C N O
13 14 15 16
IIB
Al Si P S
30 31 32 33 34
Zn Ga
Ge
As Se
48 49
50 51 52
Cd In Sn Sb Te
Electronicstructure ofSiatom:
10coreelectrons(tightly bound)
4valenceelectrons(looselybound,responsibleformost
chemicalproperties)
Othersemiconductors:
Ge,C(diamond form), SiGe
GaAs,InP,InGaAs,InGaAsP,ZnSe,CdTe
(onaverage,4valenceelectronsperatom)
atomic densit
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-4
Silicon crystal structure:
A

3sptetrahedralbond
2.35

5.43A
Silicon isacrystalline material:
longrangeatomicarrangement
Diamondlattice:
atomstetrahedrallybondedbysharingvalenceelec-
trons (covalent bonding)
Eachatomshares8electrons:
lowenergyandstablesituation
Si y: 510
22
cm
3
10
22
cm
3
Si atomic density: 55
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-5
Simpleattened modelofSicrystal:
4valenceelectrons(4q),
contributedbyeachion
siliconion(+ 4q)
twoelectronsinbond
At0K:
allbondssatisedallvalenceelectronsengagedin
bonding
nofree electrons
6.012 - Microelectronic Devices and Circuits - Fall 2005 Lecture 2-6
At nite temperature:
+
incompletebond(mobilehole)

mobileelectron
nite thermal energy
some bonds are broken
free electrons (mobile negative charge, 1.610
19
C)
free holes (mobile positive charge, 1.6 10
19
C)
Free electrons and holes are called carriers:
mobile charged particles
Beware: picture is misleading!
electrons and holes in semiconductors are fuzzier:
they span many atomic sites.
carriers:
10
19
1.661
0
1
C) C
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-7
Afewdenitions:
in6.012,electron meansfreeelectron
dene:
notconcernedwithbondingelectronsorcoreelectrons
n (free)electronconcentration [cm
3
]
p holeconcentration [cm
3
]
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-8
2. Generation and Recombination
Generation=breakupofcovalentbondtoformelec-
tronandhole
requires energy from thermal or optical sources (or
otherexternal sources)
1
] generation rate: G=G
th
+G
opt
+...[cm
3
s
ingeneral, atomicdensityn, p
G=f(n,p)
supplyofbreakablebondsvirtually inexhaustible
Recombination= formation of bond by bringing to-
getherelectronandhole
releasesenergyinthermal oropticalform
1
] recombination rate: R[cm
3
s
arecombinationeventrequires1electron+1hole
Rnp
Generationandrecombinationmostlikelyatsurfaceswhere
periodiccrystalline structure isbroken.
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-9
3. Thermal equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium=
steadystate+absenceofexternalenergysources
h
<>
t
=0
Inthermal equilibrium:
G
o
=R
o

Important consequence:
G
o
=f(T)
R
o
n
o
p
o
n
o
p
o
=f(T)n
2
i
(T)
Generation rateinthermalequilibrium:
Recombinationrateinthermalequilibrium:
In thermal equilibrium and for a given semiconduc-
tor, np product is a constant that depends only on
temperature!
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-10
Electron-holeformationcanbeseenaschemicalreaction:
bond

+h
+
similar towaterdecomposition reaction:
H
2
O

H
+
+OH

Law-of-mass action relates concentration of reactants

andreaction products. Forwater:
[H
+
][OH

]
K =
[H
2
O]
Since:
[H
2
O][H
+
], [OH

]
Then:
[H
2
O]constant
Hence:
[H
+
][OH

]constant
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-11
4. Intrinsic semiconductor
Question: Inaperfectlypuresemiconductorinthermal
equilibrium at nite temperature, how many electrons
andholesarethere?
Since when a bond breaks, an electron and a hole are
produced:
n
o
=p
o
Also:
2
n
o
p
o
=n
i
Then:
n
o
=p
o
=n
i
n
i
intrinsiccarrier concentration [cm
3
]
InSiat300K(roomtemperature): n
i
110
10
cm
3
10
10
cm
3
n
i
111
n
i
verystrong functionoftemperature: T n
i

Note: an intrinsic semiconductor need not be perfectly

pure[seenext]
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-12
5. Doping: introduction of foreign atoms to engineer
semiconductor electrical properties
A. Donors: introduce electrons to the semiconductor
(butnotholes)
For Si, group-V atoms with 5 valence electrons (As,
P,Sb)
IIIA IVA VA VIA
5 6 7 8
B C N O
13 14 15 16
IIB
Al Si P S
30 31 32 33 34
Zn Ga
Ge
As Se
48 49
50 51 52
Cd In Sn Sb Te
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-13
4electrons ofdonor atom participate inbonding
5thelectron easytorelease
at room temperature, each donor releases 1 elec-
tron thatisavailableforconduction
donorsitebecomepositivelycharged(xedcharge)
As
+
immobileionizeddonor

mobileelectron
Dene:
N
d
donor concentration [cm
3
]
IfN
d
n
i
,dopingirrelevant
(intrinsic semiconductor) n
o
=p
o
=n
i
e semiconductor
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-14
IfN
d
n
i
,dopingcontrols carrier concentrations
(extrinsic semiconductor)
Note: n
o
p
o
Example:
n
o
=N
d
p
o
=
n
2
i
N
d
: n-typ -type semiconductor nn-
3
N
d
= 10
17
cm
3
n
o
= 10
17
cm
3
,p
o
= 10
3
cm .
3
Ingeneral: N
d
10
15
10
20
cm
logn
o
logp
o
p
o
majoritycarriers
holes=
minoritycarriers
majoritycarriers
minoritycarriers
electrons=
n
o
n
i
n
i
logN
d
intrinsic extrinsic
Chemicalreaction analogy:
dissolveabitofKOHintowater [OH

], [H
+
]
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-15
B. Acceptors: introduce holes to the semiconductor
(butnotelectrons)
ForSi,group-IIIatoms with3valenceelectrons(B)
IIIA IVA VA VIA
5 6 7 8
B C N O
13 14 15 16
IIB
Al Si P S
30 31 32 33 34
Zn Ga
Ge
As Se
48 49
50 51 52
Cd In Sn Sb Te
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-16
3electrons usedinbondingtoneighboring Siatoms
1bonding siteunsatised:
easy to accept neighboring bonding electron to
completeall bonds
atroomtemperature,eachacceptorreleases1hole
that isavailable toconduction
acceptorsitebecomenegativelycharged(xedcharge)
B

+
immobilenegativelyionizedacceptor
mobileholeandlatertrajectory
Dene:
N
a
acceptor concentration [cm
3
]
IfN
a
n
i
,dopingirrelevant
(intrinsic semiconductor) n
o
=p
o
=n
i
e semiconductor
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-17
IfN
a
n
i
,dopingcontrols carrierconcentrations
(extrinsic semiconductor)
Note: p
o
n
o
Example:
p
o
=N
a
n
o
=
n
2
i
N
a
: p-typ p-type semiconductor
3
N
a
= 10
16
cm
3
p
o
= 10
16
cm
3
,n
o
= 10
4
cm .
3
Ingeneral: N
a
10
15
10
20
cm
logn
o
logp
o
n
i
n
o
p
o
electrons=
minoritycarriers
holes=
majoritycarriers majoritycarriers
minorityc arriers tycarr
n
i
logN
a
intrinsic extrinsic
Chemicalreaction analogy:
dissolveabitofH
2
SO
4
intowater [H
+
], [OH

]
6.012- MicroelectronicDevices and Circuits- Fall2005 Lecture 2-18
Summary
Inasemiconductor, therearetwotypesofcarriers:
electronsandholes
Inthermalequilibriumandforagivensemiconductor
n
o
p
o
isaconstantthatonlydependsontemperature:
2
i
n
o
p
o
=n
ForSiatroom temperature:
3
n
i
10
10
cm
Intrinsic semiconductor: puresemiconductor.
n
o
=p
o
=n
i
Carrier concentrations canbeengineeredbyaddition
ofdopants (selected foreignatoms):
n-typesemiconductor:
2
i
n
n
o
=N
d
, p
o
=
N
d
p-typesemiconductor:
n
p
o
=N
a
, n
o
=
2
i
N
a