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MSE 156/256 - Solar Cells, Fuel Cells and

Batteries: Materials for the Energy Solution

Bruce Clemens
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Stanford University
Unit I: Solar Resource
Solar spectrum - how the sun delivers energy
Solar spectrum compared to black body radiation
How much energy does the sun deliver
Atmospheric effects
Distribution of Solar Resource
Photon Flux: How many photons at each
energy come from the sun
Electromagnetic Radiation
E
H
Electromagnetic radiation characterized by:
Speed of light 3 x 10
8
m/s
Wavelength
Frequency
Photon energy
Planck Constant
2
Solar Spectra
Solar irradiance
Amount of power delivered per area per unit wavelength range
Integrate solar irradiance
over wavelength
wavelength
2000
1500
1000
500
0
4 3 2 1 0
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
AM0
5960 K Spectra
AM0 = Air Mass 0 (no atmosphere)
Solar Constant
The total energy flux (energy per time per
area) incident on a unit area perpendicular to
a beam outside the Earths atmosphere
Earth
Sunlight beam
Unit area
Solar Spectra: Wavelength
2000
1500
1000
500
0
4 3 2 1 0
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
AM0
5960 K Spectra
AM0 = Air Mass 0 (no atmosphere)
Compare Solar Radiation to Blackbody Radiation
Plancks Constant
Boltzmanns Constant
Solid angle subtended
by sun from earth
Density of photon modes
Geometry, conversion
Occupation probability
earth
sun
3
Solar Energy Hitting the Earth
The total energy flux incident on a
unit area perpendicular to a beam
outside the Earths atmosphere
Solar Constant
The earth intercepts an area
Radius of earth
Total power intercepted by earth
This is distributed over the total surface area of earth
Average energy flux incident on a unit surface area:
This corresponds to an annual average of:
Recall that each person in US uses ~ 11.3 kW = 100,000 kW hr/year
Scattering
Diffuse component
Absorption
Albedo
Atmosphere Effects
Atmosphere
Air Mass = 1
Air Mass =
In this area, about 30% of light is diffuse
(averaged over the year)
Flat photovoltaic panels can use this
diffuse light
Concentrating systems, which rely on
focusing directional light, cannot
4
Air Absorption
Air Mass Factor
= angle of sun from horizon
AM0 no air
AM1.5
About Seattle WA at 12:00 noon at the equinox
2000
1500
1000
500
0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
AM0
5960 Kelvin Blackbody
AM1.5 (Including diffuse)
AM1.5 Spectra Includes:
Direct radiation
Diffuse radiation scattered from air
Diffuse radiation scattered from ground
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/spectra/am1.5/
H
2
O
CO
2

Earth
Atmosphere
Solar Resource with Air
Again integrate over
wavelength to find total
power density
Recall for AM0 we get 1367 W/m
2

For AM1.5 we get 1000 W/m
2
Reduction due to atmosphere for AM1.5
2000
1500
1000
500
0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
AM0
5960 Kelvin Blackbody
AM1.5 (Including diffuse)
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Solar Power Potential
Hitting 3% of the Earths
Land
Harvested with 15%
Efficiency
Coal
Oil
Natural
Gas
Nuclear Hydro
World Power Sources, Solar Power Potential
Worldwide Solar Resource
Estimate of Available Solar Power
Use 10% of unused land
1/2 of which is covered by 10% efficiency cells
128,000 TW
Striking earth surface
80 TW available
15 TW Solar array 780 km on a side
6
USA Solar Power Resource
To make our 11,300 Watts, each person
needs a PV array about 60 feet on a
side
The stuff had better be cheap!
- and abundant
Solar Spectra: Photon Energy
Solar spectra as a function of photon energy
Also sometimes useful to consider photon flux density
Can relate to our old buddy irradiance
Power per area in wavelength increment
Power per area in corresponding
photon energy increment
4
3
2
1
0
x
1
0
2
1

4 3 2 1 0
AM1.5
5960 K Spectra
Divide power
density by energy
per photon
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Solar Spectra: Photon Flux
Number of photons per
area per time per
energy increment
We can integrate this to find the photon flux in a
given energy range (for example the photons that
have a energy greater than the bandgap in a
photovoltaic device)
This will be important when we discuss PV efficiency.
4
3
2
1
0
x
1
0
2
1

4 3 2 1 0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
x
1
0
2
1

AM1.5
5960 K Spectra
MSE 156/256 - Solar Cells, Fuel Cells and
Batteries: Materials for the Energy Solution
Stanford University
Autumn 2012
Unit I: Solar Resource
Solar spectrum - how the sun delivers energy
Solar spectrum compared to black body
radiation
How much energy does the sun deliver
Atmospheric effects
Distribution of Solar Resource
Photon Flux: How many photons at each
energy come from the sun
Unit 2: Semiconductors a critical
component of a solar cell
Coming Up: