Chapter 2 - Transmission 1

EME2056
THEORY OF MACHINES
CHAPTER 2
Transmission
Learning Outcome
LO2
Analyze various types of transmission
(cognitive - analyzing, level 4)
EME2056 THEORY OF MACHINES 2
Transmission
2.1 Introduction to Gears
2.2 Basic Gear Nomenclature
2.3 Spur Gear Kinematics
2.4 Ordinary Gear Trains
2.5 Epicyclic Gears
2.6 Belt and Chain Drives
2.7 Screw Mechanism
EME2056 THEORY OF MACHINES
Gears
Gears are machine elements that:
transmit power or torque.
transmit motion.
change rotational speed.
change rotational direction.
Authoritative references for gears:
American Gear Manufacturers Association
(AGMA).
Pinion
(driver)
Gear
(driven)
4
Friction rollers are less costly than
gears, but they depend on friction to
transmit forces.
Smooth surfaces may not have
sufficient frictional forces, thus slips
may occur.
Gear teeth provide positive no-slip
transfer of energy.
From a kinematic viewpoint, the
effective diameters are identical.
5
Types of gears
Gears design can be classified according to the
relative position of the axes of revolution:
Parallel.
Intersecting.
Non-parallel, non-intersecting, other angles.
Special gears:
Non-circular / Specific function.
6
Gears for connecting parallel shafts
Spur gears:
Simplest, least expensive, most common.
Teeth parallel to rotational axis.
No axial thrust.
External contact (opposite direction).
Internal contact (same direction).
Low to medium speed applications.
Sudden impact of gear meshing causes
vibration, noise.
7
Helical gears:
Teeth at helix angle to rotational axis.
Create axial thrust or side loading (need
axial bearing) and bending couples (wear).
More gradual gear meshing.
Less noise and impact.
High speed applications.
Teeth have greater cross section, higher
load capacity.
8
Herringbone gears:
Double helical gears (opposite).
To avoid axial thrust by counter
balancing the forces.
High precision, expensive.
Large, high-powered applications
(steam turbine).
9
Rack and pinion:
Transmit rotary motion (from pinion)
to linear motion (of the rack), vice
versa.
Teeth track for the rack are laid flat,
resembling a spur gear with
infinitely large diameter.
Example: automatic gate, steering
wheel.
10
Gears for connecting intersecting shafts
Straight bevel gears:
Teeth formed on conical surface,
designed in pairs.
Arrangement:
11
Apices must
be coincident
3 special cases
Miter gears equal size gears
(diameter and number of teeth) with
a 90 shaft angle.
Angular bevel gears other than 90
shaft angle.
Crown wheel and pinion one gear
is flat.
12
Gears for connecting intersecting shafts
Zerol bevel gears:
Teeth are curved; tooth contact takes
place first at the tooth center.
Each tooth has one convex and concave
surface; higher load capacity, stability
Spiral bevel gears:
Helical version of straight bevel gear,
thus similar improved performance.
13
Gears for connecting non-parallel,
non-intersecting shafts, other angles
Crossed helical gears:
Helical gears that connect
skewed shafts.
Lower efficiency due to sliding
motion.
Point contact; light load
capacity.
14
Hypoid gears:
Motion based on hyperboloid revolution.
Similar to spiral bevel gears, but connect
non-parallel shafts that do not intersect.
Less noise, higher reduction ratios.
Example: car rear axle drives, differentials
(a device that splits the torque two ways;
each wheel to spin at a different speed).
15
Worm gears:
Worm gear is analogous to a screw
thread.
Can only be driven by the worm.
Large velocity ratio, high gear ratio
(commonly used as speed reducer).
Low efficiency due to sliding action.
16
Special gears
Non-circular gears/specific function gears:
Ratio variations, direction variation in a
cycle.
Variable Speed: uniform input speed into a
variable output speed.
Constant speed segments in a cycle.
Stop-and-dwell motion (cam like).
Example: textile machines, potentiometers.
17
Spur gear
18
Addendum: radial distance between the top land
and pitch circle.
Dedendum: radial distance between the bottom
land and pitch circle.
Whole depth: sum of addendum and dedendum.
Clearance: the amount of the dedendum of a gear
exceeds the addendum of the mating gear.
19
Backlash: the amount the width of space exceeds
the thickness of the engaging tooth on pitch circle
Pitch circle: a theoretical circle which all
calculations are based; effective diameter of
friction roller.
Pitch diameter, d: diameter of the pitch circle.
Center distance, C: center-to-center distance
between the mating gears
20
Circular pitch, p: distance between two
corresponding points on successive teeth on the
pitch circle; sum of tooth thickness and width of
space; same value for mating gears.
Number of teeth, N: total number of teeth on a gear;
an integer.
Module, m: relative measure of a tooth size; ratio of
the pitch diameter to the number of teeth (SI unit);
same value for mating gears.
21
Diametral pitch, P
d
: pitch; ratio of the number of
teeth to the pitch diameter (British unit); same value
for mating gears.
22
d
N
P
d
=
p m t =
d
pP t =
d
m
N
=
25.4
d
m
P
=
Pressure angle, : the angle between the tangent
line of mating pitch circles and the perpendicular
line of the contact point; same value for mating
gears.
23
cos
b
d d | =
Circular
pitch
Example 1
A gear set consists of a 19-tooth pinion meshed
with a 37-tooth gear, having a module of 4 mm.
The gears are cut using a pressure angle of 20.
Find the:
(a) Gear ratio
(b) Circular pitch
(c) Base pitch
(d) Pitch diameters
(e) Center distance
Smaller value : more power transmission and
less pressure on bearing; but weaker teeth
Example 1 (Solution)
(a) Gear ratio,
(b) Circular pitch,
(c) Base pitch,
37
1.947
19
g
p
N
VR
N
= = =
4 12.566 p m mm t t = = =
cos 12.566cos 20 11.809
b
p p mm | = = =
(d) Pitch diameters,
(e) Center distance,
19(4) 76
p p
d N m mm = = =
37(4) 148
g g
d N m mm = = =
112
2
p g
d d
C mm
+
= =
Example 2
In an internal gear set, a 15-tooth pinion drives
a 60-tooth annulus gear, having a pitch of 5 in
-1
.
Determine the center distance.
Pitch diameters,
Center distance,
15
3.0 .
5
p
d
N
d in
P
= = =
4.5 .
2
g p
d d
C in
= =
60
12.0 .
5
g
d
N
d in
P
= = =
C
For two mating spur gears, the pitch line velocity
(linear velocity at pitch point, P, where the pitch
circles are in contact) is given by:
29
1 1 2 2
v r r e e = =
where is the angular velocity
is the radius
e
r
Consider the characteristics of
energy transfer between gears in
mesh, where force is transmitted at
the point of contact, P (pitch point).
The force, F, is supplied through the
applied torque, T, which is the
product of force and radius, r.
The torque ratio is the mechanical
advantage.
30
For forces in equilibrium, the tangential
force is given by:
31
1 2
1 2
t
T T
F
r r
= =
The velocity ratio, VR is defined as the
angular speed ratio of the driver gear
(input) over the driven gear (output):
1
2
driver
driven
VR
e e
e e
= =
Input
output
To satisfy the law of conservation of energy, the
transmitted power, which equals torque times
angular velocity, must be constant:
32
2 2 1 1
2 1
1 2
T T
T
T
e e
e
e
=
=
Combining all preceding relationships gives a
comprehensive expression for the velocity ratio:
33
1 2 2 2 1
2 1 1 1 2
r T N
VR
r T N
e u
e u
A
= = = = =
A
For external gearset, the gears rotate in opposite
directions, velocity ratio is denoted as negative ();
vice versa.
Example 3
A spur gear, having 32 teeth and a diametral
pitch of 4 in
-1
, is rotating at 400 rev/min.
Determine its circular pitch and its pitch line
velocity.
.
4
d
p in
P
t t
= =
Circular pitch,
d
pP t =
d
N
P
d
=
32
8
4
d
N
d in
P
= = =
8
4 .
2
r in = =
2
(400) 41.9 /
60
rad s
t
e = =
Angular velocity,
4(41.9) 167.6 / v r in s e = = = Pitch line velocity,
Example 4
Two spur gears have a velocity ratio of 4. The
driven gear has module of 6 mm, 96 teeth and
rotates at 500 rev/min. Determine:
(a) Speed of the driver
(b) Number of teeth of the driver
(c) Pitch line velocity.
Example (Solution)
(a) Speed of the driver
1
1
2
4 4(500) 2000 VR rpm
e
e
e
= = = =
(b) Number of teeth of the driver
2
1
1
96
4 24
4
N
VR N teeth
N
= = = =
Example (Solution)
(c) Pitch line velocity
2 2
2
2
2
(6)(96) 576
576 2
(500) 15079.64 /
2 60
v r
d
m d mm
N
v mm s
e
t
=
= = =
(
= =
(

Spur gear selection (design)
Gears must be selected for a specific task; often to
achieve a desired velocity ratio.
To use AGMA standard, key parameters need to
be determined:
Diametral pitch
Pressure angle 14, 20 (general), 25.
Number of teeth influenced by velocity ratio,
smaller gears are preferred (minimize weight,
size and cost); must be an integer.
39
Constraint on the center of distance:
Gears must be selected to change the velocity
ratio of existing machine.
Shafts must be spaced at a specific distance.
In these situation:
Number of teeth may not be the smallest
possible, but those needed to fill the distance.
Larger teeth may be necessary.
Some deviation from the target ratio may be
needed to specify standard gears.
40
List of AGMA specifications (Appendix):
Table 10.1 Standard diametral pitches.
Table 10.2 Standard metric modules.
Table 10.3 AGMA full-depth gear tooth specifications.
Table 10.4 Ger teeth combinations to ensure no
interference.
Table 10.5 Recommended AGMA gear quality.
Table 10.6 Suitable diametral pitches for 20 mild-
steel gears with standard face width.
Table 10.7 Number of teeth for commercially
available stock gears.
[Ref. 2]
41
Example 5
A gear reducer for a boat is used to transmit
5 hp from an electric motor at 900 rpm to the
propeller at 320 rpm. Select a set of gears to
accomplish this task. Calculate the center-to-
center distance.
Example (Solution)
Determine a suitable diametral pitch and pressure
angle:
The application involves general gearing, thus
a pressure angle of 20 is used.
From Table 10.6, an estimate of a suitable
diametral pitch is, P
d
= 10.
Example (Solution)
Determine the velocity ratio and use it to iterate
the suitable number of teeth:
900
2.8125
320
driver
driven
rpm
VR
rpm
e
e
= = =
900
320
driver
driven driver
driven
driven driver
N N
N N
e
e
=
=
Example (Solution)
Iterative procedure is used because number of
teeth is an integer:
900
13 13 36.56
320
900
14 14 39.38
320
900
15 15 42.14
320
900
16 16 45
320
driver driven
driver driven
driver driven
driver driven
When N N
When N N
When N N
When N N
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =
Example (Solution)
The smallest integer combination is 16 and 45
teeth, with diametral pitch of 10.
Table 10.7 confirms that these gears are
commercially available.
Example (Solution)
Calculate the pitch diameters and center distance:
1
1
2
2
1 2
16
1.6 .
10
45
4.5 .
10
( )
3.05 .
2
d
d
N
d in
P
N
d in
P
d d
C in
= = =
= = =
+
= =
Ordinary gear trains
Many applications requires large speed
reductions from power sources like engine,
turbine, motor (2000-10000 rpm) in low speed
operations (10-100 rpm).
In most cases, a single gear set cannot meet the
transmission ratio between two parallel shafts.
Example: For 10:1 ratio, the diameter of the gear
must be 10 times larger than the pinion; design
constraint (space, material, weight etc).
48
Thus, a series of gear set (pair) or a gear train is
usually used to cascade the velocities:
Simple or planar ordinary train.
Compound ordinary train.
Other type of gear trains:
Orbital gear train (epicyclic, planetary, harmonic).
Angular gear train.
49
Any gear in a gear train between the input and
output gears is a transfer gear or idler gear.
An idler gear does not affect input-output ratio, but
changes the rotational directions.
In a train with an even number of gears, the input
and output gears rotate in opposite direction; vice
versa.
The overall velocity ratio is termed as a train value:
50
in
out
TV
e
e
=
Simple ordinary train
Each shaft carries only one gear (one gear for
each axis).
The train ratio is just the input gear over the
output gear; Gears 2 and 3 are idler gears.
51
Velocity ratio, VR:
Train value, TV:
52
3 3 1 2 2 4
2 1 3 2 4 3

N N N
N N N
e e e
e e e
= = =
2 3 4 1 4
4 1 2 3 1
=( 1)
N N N N
N N N N
e
e
=
Methods to determine the direction of the
rotation:
By labeling with directional arrows.
By multiplying m
th
power of -1 to the
general train value (m = number of pairs for
external contact gears )
53
3
2 3 4 1 4
4 1 2 3 1
( 1) =( 1)
N N N N
N N N N
e
e
=
Compound ordinary train
Two or more gears may rotate about a single axis
(attached to the same shaft).
54
Train value, TV:
55
) 1 (
3 1
4 2
2
4
1
N N
N N
=
e
e
Gear 2 and 3 have the same torque; otherwise
the shaft would twist:
Torque is conserved on a shaft.
If gears 2 and 3 have different radii, the force at
contact point 1-2 is different from the force at
contact point 3-4.
Force is conserved at the contact point.
56
Example 6
The gears of the gear train shown at the next
slide have the following properties:
Gear 2: N
2
= 12 teeth & Pitch = 12
Gear 3: d
3
= 2.5 in
Gear 4: N
4
= 15 teeth
Gear 5: d
5
= 3 in & Pitch = 10
Gear 6: d
6
= 1.5 in & Pitch = 8
Gear 7: N
7
= 32 teeth
Example 6
Determine the:
(a) Rotational velocity of gear 7 as gear 2 drives
at 1800 rpm CCW.
(b) Distance between the shafts that carry gears
2 and 7.
Example (Solution)
2
2
4
4
7
7
12
1 .
12
15
1.5 .
10
32
4 .
8
d
d
d
N
d in
P
N
d in
P
N
d in
P
= = =
= = =
= = =
Calculate the diameters of the gears:
Identical pitch for gears 4 and 5 (mating gears)
Identical pitch for gears 6 and 7 (mating gears)
Example (Solution)
2 3 4 5 6 7
3 5 7
2 4 6
2
7
( )( )( )
2.5 3 4
1 1.5 1.5
13.33
TV VR VR VR
d d d
d d d
e
e

=
| | | || |
| || || |
= =
| | |
| | |
\ .\ .\ .
\ .\ .\ .
=
=
Train value
Example (Solution)
2
7
1800
135 135 ,
13.33
rpm
rpm rpm CW
TV
e
e = = = =
2 3 4 5 6 7
1
(1 2.5 1.5 3 1.5 4)
2
6.75 .
C r r r r r r
in
= + + + + +
= + + + + +
=
(a) Rotational velocity of gear 7
(b) Center distance 2-7
Example 7
Design a gear train with a train value of +300:1.
No gear should have fewer than 15 teeth
(interference criteria) and more than 75 teeth
(size restriction).
Example (Solution)
Separate train value into individual velocity ratios.
Due to size constraint, the maximum VR is:
Factor the TV into values no greater than VR
max
:
2
max
1
75
5
15
N
VR
N
= = =
300 ( 5)( 60) TV = =
( 5)( 5)(12)
( 5)( 5)( 4)( 3)
=
=
Example (Solution)
Therefore, a gear train with gear pairs having ratios
of -5, -5, -4 and -3 nets a value of 300. A negative
value is used for each pair because it is more
desirable to use external gears.
Identity the number of teeth for each gear.
For VR
1-2
= -5, use gears with N
1
= 15, N
2
= 75
For VR
3-4
3
= 15, N
4
= 75
For VR
5-6
5
= 15, N
6
= 60
For VR
7-8
7
= 15, N
8
= 45
Example (Solution)
The solution has four gear pairs, thus the output
rotation is in the same direction as input.
Sketch the train.
Since this is a design problem, more than one
possible solution exists.
Transmission with axial shifting
Usually used in automotive transmission
Comprises several trains.
Allows rearranging of connections (meshings)
between gears by shifting them along the shaft
axis, and using clutch for engagement or
disengagement.
66
Example: a three speed transmission.
67
Position, path and speed ratios of the three speed
transmission:
68
2.5 Epicyclic Gear Trains
Epicyclic gearing
Epicyclic gearing is a family of
enclosed gear arrangement
consist of the sun gear in the
center, meshing with one or
more planet gears.
69
The planet gears are mounted on a rigid frame
called planet carrier or crank arm that links the sun
and planet gears together.
The planet gears also mesh with an internal gear
called the ring gear or annulus.
The planets are equally spaced when there are
more than one.
Epicyclic gear trains are useful in transmitting high
velocity ratios in a comparatively lesser space
(compact design).
Applications: automatic transmission in automobile,
machine tools.
70
Classification
Epicyclic gear train has a number of modes of
operation; ability to alter train value.
There is a unique term for each arrangement
depending on which member is fixed, which is
input and which is output:
71
Arrangement Fixed member Input member Output member
Planetary Ring Sun Carrier
Star Carrier Sun Ring
Solar Sun Ring Carrier
Planetary epicyclic gear
72
Star epicyclic gear
73
Solar epicyclic gear
74
Epicyclic train analysis
The rotation of the carrier complicates the train
analysis.
There are two methods to determine the velocity of
each members:
Train value formulation method.
Superposition method (tabular analysis).
75
Superposition method
Step 1
Relax all constraints and fix the input member.
Rotate the originally fixed member by one
revolution (+1 rev).
Calculate the motion for all members.
Step 2
Rotate all members by one revolution in
opposite direction (1 rev).
76
Step 3
Superimpose the motions of step 1 and step 2.
This gives a net motion of zero for the fixed
member.
Step 4
Calculate the angular velocity for all members.
All steps are compulsory to be written down.
77
Example 8
In an epicyclic gear train, the
carrier (2) serves as an input
to the train. The sun gear (1)
is fixed and has 30 teeth.
The planet gear (3) has 35
teeth. The ring gear (4)
serves as the output from
the train and has 100 teeth.
Determine the rotational velocity of all members
when the input shaft rotates at 1200 rpm CW using
tabular method.
Example (Solution)
Step 1 - Relax all constraints. Fix the input member
(carrier). Rotate the originally fixed member (sun)
by +1 rev. Calculate the motion.
Example (Solution)
Step 2 Rotate all members by 1 rev.
Step 3 Superimpose both steps.
Example (Solution)
Step 4 Calculate the angular velocity for all
members.
Belt drives
Belt drives provide an inexpensive
means of transmitting energy and
motion; usually used when the
distance between shafts are large.
82
All belts rely on positive drive or friction drive
between the belt and pulley or sheave to
transmit force.
Application includes in Continuous Variable
Transmission (CVT)
Advantages:
Low maintenance, low cost, no lubrication.
Quiet and smooth operation.
Dampen (absorb) shock loadings that cause
vibrations
Disadvantages:
Tendency for belt to stretch.
Tendency for belt to jump from pulley under
shock loading.
Inefficiency related to slippage.
83
Types of belts
Flat belt:
Simplest type.
Advantageous on drives
with small size pulleys.
The pulleys are often
crowned or grooved to
increase friction.
Low torque applications.
84
V-belt:
Most widely used.
The V-shape causes the
belt to wedge tightly into
the pulley; increased
friction.
Higher torque applications.
Applications in automotive
and industrial machines.
85
Multi V-belt:
Integrated V-belts
placed side by side,
Thinner, larger
contact area.
Increased flexibility
and efficiency.
Application in high
performance engines.
86
Cog belt:
Similar V-belt design;
grooves form on the
inner surface.
Increased flexibility,
decreased energy loss
due to bending.
Application in diesel
powered engines.
87
Timing belt:
Has gear-like teeth;
engage with mating teeth
on the pulley (sprockets).
Flexible and positive
drive combination.
Also known as
synchronous belt.
88
Belt drives kinematics
The rotational direction depends type on drive.
Open belt drive (same direction)
89
Crossed belt drive (opposite direction)
90
The velocity ratio, VR is defined as the angular
speed ratio of the driver sheave over the driven
sheave:
91
1
2
driver
driven
VR
e e
e e
= =
Belt speed, v
b
is the linear velocity of the belt:
Therefore,
92
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
2
2
b
d
v r
d
r
e e
e e
| |
= =
|
\ .
| |
= =
|
\ .
1 2 2
2 1 1
r D
VR
r D
e
e
= = =
Example 9
A belt drive is used to transmit power from an
electric motor to a compressor for a refrigerated
truck. The compressor must still operate when the
truck is parked and the engine is not running. The
electric motor is rated at 3550 rpm, and the motor
sheave diameter is 5 in. The compressor sheave
has 7.5 in. diameter.
Determine the operating speed of the compressor,
and the belt speed.
Example (Solution)
Compressor speed:
Belt speed:
(5 )(3550 )
2367
(7.5 )
m m
c
c
D in rpm
rpm
D in
e
e = = =
5 2
3350 / 877 /
2 2 60
m
b m
D in
v rad s in s
t
e
| |
= = =
|
\ .
Chain drives
Chains use a series of precision metal links that
accurately mesh with teeth on the rim of the
sprockets (positive drive).
Chain drives are not as flexible as belt drives but
are stronger and more efficient.
The chain length is changed by adding or removing
a link.
95
Advantages includes no slippage, longer service
life, more effective at low speeds.
Tends to be noisy due to impact of the links with
the sprocket teeth.
Suitable for applications with large distances
between shafts, slow speed and high torque.
96
Lubrication
Low speed (v
c
< 650 fpm): manual lubrication;
periodically applied to the chain links.
Moderate speed (650 fpm < v
c
< 1500 fpm): bath
lubrication; lowest section of the chain dips into a
bath of oil.
High speed (v
c
> 1500 fpm): oil stream lubrication;
continuous stream delivered by pump.
97
Types of chains
Roller chain:
Most common type.
Quiet and efficient.
Need lubrication.
Multiple strand roller chain:
Multi roller chain integrated in
parallel.
Higher power capacity.
98
Offside bar roller chain:
Less expansive than roller
chain.
Slightly less power capacity.
Silent chain (inverted tooth):
Most expensive.
High speed applications;
quiet and smooth.
99
Chain drives kinematics
Velocity ratio is given as:
Velocity of the chain is given by:
where D is the pitch diameter of
the sprocket:
100
1 2 2 2
2 1 1 1
r D N
VR
r D N
e
e
= = = =
2
c
D
v e =
D
2.7 Screw Mechanism
Screw mechanism
Designed to convert rotary motion to linear
motion.
Comprises the screw, frame, and the nut
slider, a component sliding on the screw.
Used in application that requires a precise
transmission for converting motion between a
rotation and a translation; example: lathe
machine, precision position control.
101
2.7 Screw Mechanism
Thread features
For a screw to function, there must be two mating
parts; with internal thread and external thread.
Two most common features: pitch and pitch
diameter.
102
2.7 Screw Mechanism
Thread forms
Defines the shape of the thread.
Unified thread: most common,
used for positioning mechanism.
Metric thread: with a flat root.
Square thread: strong; used to
transfer power, have been
generally replaced with ACME
thread (difficult to machine).
103
2.7 Screw Mechanism
ACME thread: similar to square
threads, but with slope sides;
used when rapid movement is
required, example in industrial
machines.
104
2.7 Screw Mechanism
Ball screws
The sliding contact
between the screw and
the nut is replaced with
rolling contacts of balls in
grooves along the screw.
Reduced friction, less
power requirement.
105
END OF CHAPTER
REFERENCES
C. E. Wilson and J. P. Sadler, "Kinematics and Dynamics of
Machinery", 3
rd
ed., Pearson Prentice-Hall, 2006.
D. H. Myszka, Machines and Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic
Analysis, 3
rd
ed., Prentice-Hall, 2005.
R. L. Norton, Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery,
McGraw-Hill, 1
st
ed., 2009.
J. E. Shigley and C. R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering
Design, 6
th
ed., McGraw-Hill, 2004.
REFERENCES
D. W. South and J. R. Mancuso, Mechanical Power
Transmission Components, Marcel Dekker, 1994.
T. E. Scott, Power Transmission: Mechanical, Hydraulic,
Pneumatic, and Electrical, Prentice-Hall, 2000.
O. Vinogradov, Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics
of Machines and Mechanisms, CRC Press, 2000.
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

Chapter 2 - Transmission 1

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter 2 - Transmission 1

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

EME2056

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen