Anthropocentrism KNDI

KNDI 2011 Anthropocentrism K
Levy/Liebler/Acosta K Lab
1NC (1/3)
he environment is not solely the !arth" it encompasses o#ter space
$h#tia 10 (%AN&C'!N (I&)IN $'*IA +%est $en,al National *niversity o- .#ri/ical
0ciences1234rotection o- the 5#ter 0pace !nvironment6" 7arch 182 20109
http://;#risonline9in/2010/03/protection<o-<the<o#ter<space<environment/)
he -irst thin, that comes to a person =hen one tal> abo#t ?environment@ is the lan/ =e live on an/ the
=ater =e /rin> or the air =e breathe9 he val#e o- these reso#rces has only been consi/ere/ in the
conteAt o- h#man bein,s an/ their activity9 Therefore there have been many environmental
regulations focusing on the prevention of direct damage to the human interest and not on the
prevention of the damage to the environment so to speak. Therefore there are much legislation on
matters such as toxic wastes, clean air and water and so on. Protection of the sparsely populated
environments, for instance the Antarctica, has only been recently area of legislations. This recent trend is one
indication of the movement towards a broader long term view of human interests and a wider understanding
of the term environment. However, the environment is in reality surrounded by a much larger
environment of outer space the importance of which is growing due to the stupendous growth
in science and technology. The interrelationship of different aspect of the Earths environment
becomes much clearer by placing the earth in a broader context.
As we have seen, there has been a rapid development in the space technology especially after the historic day
when the oviet !nion launched putni"#$ into the orbit. This achievement mar"ed the opening of a new
territory, full of vast resources and exciting opportunities. A new era began in the life of man"ind "nown as
the space age which changed ideas, science, communication and the life itself.The technological advances,
such as weather satellites, are increasingly ma"ing outer space a part of our everyday lives and, therefore, our
environment.
%
1NC (2/3)
!ven i- yo# reco,niBe the problem2 yo#@re complicit
Kochi C (ari> is a lect#rer in the school o- La=2 D#een@s *niversity2 $el-ast2
Northern Irelan/2 3An Ar,#ment -or the &lobal 0#ici/e o- '#manity26 December
200C2 Eol9 8 No9 32 ===9bor/erlan/s9net2a#2
http://===9bor/erlan/s9net9a#/vol8no3F200C/>ochior/anFar,#ment9p/-)
The &uestion here is open. Co#l/ a mo/ern /isco#rse o- re-lection2 responsibility an/ action be stron,
eno#,h to -#n/amentally re<orientate the relationship bet=een h#mans an/ other species an/ the
nat#ral environmentG $f so, then maybe a tr#ly revol#tionary chan,e in ho= h#mans2 an/ speci-ically
h#mans in the %est2 conceive o- an/ interact =ith the nat#ral =orl/ mi,ht be eno#,h to co#nter
environmental /isaster an/ re/eem h#manity. 'onetheless, anything short of fundamental change ( for
instance, the transformation of borderlands modern, industrial society into something completely different (
would merely perpetuate in a less exaggerated fashion the long process of human violence against the non#
human world. %hat helps to ren/er a certain type o- action problematic is each in/ivi/#al@s
?complicity@ in the practice o- speciesist violence9 That is, even i- one is a=are o- the =ays in =hich
mo/ern li-e /estroys or a/versely a--ects the environment an/ in-licts s#--erin, #pon non< h#man
animals2 one cannot completely s#btract one@s sel- -rom a certain responsibility -or an/ complicity in
this9 !ven i- yo# are conscio#s o- the problem yo# cannot b#t ta>e part in /oin, ?evil@ by the mere
-act o- participatin, =ithin mo/ern li-e9 Ta"e for example the problematic position of environmental
activists who courageously sacrifice personal wealth and leisure time in their fight against environmental
destruction. %hile activists ass#me a sense o- historical responsibly for the violence of the human species
and act so as to stop the continuation of this violence, these actors are still some=hat complicit in a
mo/ern system o- violence /#e to -act that they live in mo/ern2 in/#strial societies. The activist
consumes, ac&uires and spends capital, uses electricity, pays taxes, and accepts the legitimacy of particular
governments within the state even if they campaign against government policies. The bottom line is that all
of these actions contribute in some way to the perpetuation of a larger process that moves humanity in a
particular direction even if the individual personally, or collectively with others, tries to act to counter this
direction. Despite people@s ,oo/ intentions2 /ama,e is encaps#late/ in nearly every h#man action in
in/#strial societies2 =hether =e are a=are o- it or not9
)
1NC (3/3)
he a--irmative@s lo,ic o- /omination res#lts in ob;ecti-ication o- nonh#mans an/ the
inability to impose moral constraints on the /ominant ,ro#p9
Ah>in (7Hlanie =or>s at 7onash *niversity2 3'#man Centrism2 Animist 7aterialism2 an/
the CritiI#e o- (ationalism in Eal9 4l#m=oo/@s Critical !colo,ical Jeminism26 !mer,ent
A#stralasian 4hilosophers2 20102 Iss#e 32 http://===9eap9philosophy<
a#stralia9com/iss#eF3/!A43FA'KINF'#manFCentrism9p/-)
*ichard ylvan and +al 4l#m=oo/Ks pioneering %,-, critiI#e o- h#man cha#vinism =ithin /ominant =estern
ethics /e-ines the concept in relation to class cha#vinism2 as the 3s#bstantially /i--erential2
/iscriminatory an/ in-erior treatment6 o- the class o- non<h#man entities by members o- the class o-
h#mans2 =here this treatment lac>s s#--icient ;#sti-ication9) They contend that insofar as /ominant =estern
ethical systems #n;#sti-iably treat h#mans as #niI#ely morally si,ni-icant" fail to provide an account of
humans. direct, non#instrumental moral obligations to non#humans/ an/ promote varyin, /e,rees o- h#man /ominion
over non<h#man nat#re2 these framewor"s sanction differential, discriminatory and inferior treatment of non#humans and are
by conse&uence human chauvinist.0 Plumwood.s development of this collaborative criti&ue of human chauvinism in her early %,,1.s
wor", and beyond, draws on feminist analyses of oppression and rationalism as well as insights from liberation theory in order to enrich
and expand the analysis of the human mastery of nature.2 Her criti&ue of the dominant western framewor" of rationalist reason allows
her to draw out the structural features and logical patterns common to various instantiations of oppression, namely the logic of centrism
and its foundational value dualisms, and also the role of related instrumental egoist models of selfhood. Thus she is able to
provi/e a more ,lobal critiI#e o- oppression than that offered by the earlier analysis of human chauvinism, involvin,
not ;#st the problems inherent in the h#man cha#vinist -rame=or>Ks -o#n/ational instr#mentalist
val#e theory2 b#t also hi,hli,htin, the broa/er concept#al an/ percept#al /istortions involve/ in
centric str#ct#res an/ /#alist lo,ic2 an/ the in;#stices an/ pr#/ential /ilemmas they ca#se in both
social an/ environmental realms9

3n Plumwood.s analysis, the rationalist conception o- the h#man sel- is /e-ine/ in polarise/ opposition to
concepts s#ch as materiality2 nat#re2 an/ necessity2 an/ in accor/ance =ith those o- reason2
conscio#sness2 c#lt#re2 -ree/om an/ transcen/ence o- nat#re9 Together =ith an emphasis on instr#mental
an/ colonisin, -orms o- reason2 this eAcl#sionary conception provi/es an important concept#al
-o#n/ation -or the h#man mastery o- nat#re9 $ndeed, the lo,ic o- the -o#n/ational h#man/nat#re an/
reason/nat#re /#alisms =hich #n/erlie this conception o- the h#man sel- provi/e m#ch o- the
;#sti-ication an/ nat#ralisation -or the instr#mentalisation o- nat#re, fostering the assignment of exclusive moral
significance to humans based largely on their allegedly uni&ue possession of the capacity for reason.4 This further emphasises their
conceptual hyperseparation from non#human nature and permits the instrumental valuation and treatment of the sphere of nature.
The rationalist tradition also holds feminine attributes to be similarly radically separate from human virtue 5li"ewise defined principally
in terms of reason6, th#s creatin, a 3master perspective6 =hich s#bor/inates an/ is alienate/ -rom both the
-eminine an/ nat#re2 marryin, the concept o- reason =ith po=er an/ /omination.7 8iven this connection
between the subordination of women and that of nature, Plumwood appeals to androcentrism as a more fully theorised parallel model
for the human mastery of nature and accordingly reconceptualises human chauvinism in terms of the logic of hegemonic centrism.
4l#m=oo/ /e-ines he,emonic centrism as 3a primary<secon/ary pattern o- attrib#tion that sets #p one
term (the 5ne) as primary or as centre an/ /e-ines mar,inal 5thers as secon/ary or /erivative in
relation to it69- his lo,ical str#ct#re is -o#n/e/ on that o- a val#e /#alism2 /e-ine/ as an eAa,,erate/
/ichotomy involvin, the eAtreme polarisation o- contrastin, concept#al pairs an/ their -ormation in
terms o- a val#e hierarchy. D#alise/ concepts are -orme/ by a relation o- po=er2 promotin, the
treatment o- in-eriorise/ concepts as mere means to the en/s o- the s#perior relata2 =hich see> to
/i--erentiate2 /ominate an/ control the in-erior relata99 $n Plumwood.s terms, :+/1#alisms are not #niversal
-eat#res o- h#man tho#,ht2 b#t concept#al responses to an/ -o#n/ations -or social /ominationL9M
he -ive >ey -eat#res o- /#alismKs 3lo,ic o- /omination6 are as follows; (a/ical eAcl#sion or hyperseparation
involves the /enial o- contin#ity bet=een /ominant an/ mar,inalise/ ,ro#ps, instead stressing extreme
difference and creatin, a polarise/ relation =hich /enies any possibility o- overlap. <ombined with
backgrounding- the dominant group.s denial of its dependency on the marginalised group and ren/erin, o- the latter as
inessential bac>,ro#n/< this wor"s to =ustify and naturalise the superior relata.s claim to uni&ue importance and dominance over
the radically discontinuous and seemingly inessential inferior relata. Incorporation or relational definition involves the definition and
recognition of the inferior relata solely in relation to 5as excluded from6 the superior group/ this assimilation to the s#perior
0
relataKs i/entity, needs and ends ne,ates the nee/s an/ en/s o- the in-erior relata an/ res#lts in the latterKs
inability to impose moral constraints or limitations on the /ominant ,ro#p. h#s2 it is s#b;ect to
instr#mentalisation an/ ob;ecti-ication: it is further stripped of intrinsic value, ends, and needs by means of the denial of its
sub=ectivity and intentionality, facilitating its treatment as mere means to the ends of the dominant group. The formation of the dualised
relata in terms of a moral hierarchy naturalises this instrumentalisation, ma>in, it seem a normal conseI#ence o- their
/i--erin, /e,rees o- moral si,ni-icance. The final feature of homogenisation or stereotyping occurs when /i--erences
=ithin the s#bor/inate/ ,ro#p are /enie/2 allo=in, it to be attrib#te/ a re/#ctive an/ stable i/entity2
th#s also promotin, the treatment o- its constit#ents as interchan,eable an/ replaceable reso#rces -or
the /ominant ,ro#p9
2
Lin>N3ecosystem health6
he a--irmative /ra=s the connection bet=een non<h#mans b#t not bet=een non<h#man
an/ h#man li-e9
Cro=ley 11 (homas is Director2 Division o- 0#bstance Depen/ence2 *niversity o-
Colora/o 0chool o- 7e/icine2 3Jrom Nat#ral to !cosocial Jlo#rishin,6 !val#atin,
!val#ative Jrame=or>s2 Eol9 1O No9 12 20112
http://===9;stor9or,/pss/1092M8M/!!9201091O919PM2 .05()
>!cosystem health?@unli"e >natural? and >sustainable?@is not a simple a/;ective2 b#t rather a broa/er
-rame=or> in =hich to eAplore ecolo,ical val#es an/ eval#ations9 he -rame=or> of >ecosystem health?
o=es its eAistence to the science o- ecolo,y2 =hich ta>es the ecosystem to be a 3-o#n/ational
or,aniBational #nit6 5*angan )111, 446. Acology emphasiBes the way that ecosystems shape and are shaped by the complex
interactions of their constituent parts, from predator#prey dynamics to nu# trient cycles. Any consi/eration o- ecosystem
health m#st -irst start =ith consi/erations o- ecosystems2 an/ th#s o- interconnection. Cor instance, i- =e
believe a healthy ecosystem is one that s#pports an/ s#stains a /iverse ran,e o- species over lon,
perio/s o- time2 =e =ill be le/ to ecolo,ical consi/erations o- ho= s#ch s#staine/ /iversity is ens#re/9
%e mi,ht loo> at the role o- >eystone species that2 because of their connections to the larger web of life in their
ecosystems, play a /isproportionally lar,e role in maintainin, ecosystem /iversity9)% !nli"e >strong?
sustainability, which undermines its own goals because of its atomistic framewor", >ecosystem health? points us towards a more
interconnected way of thin"ing. 3!cosystem health6 th#s loo>s promisin, as an eval#ative -rame=or>2 at
least =ith respect to hi,hli,htin, connections9 'o=ever2 #pon closer inspection2 =e see that 3ecosystem
health6 shares some tro#blin, simi< larities =ith 3s#stainability26 incl#/in, its ambi,#ity an/ its
penchant to separate h#mans -rom the rest o- nat#re9 Dhile the general conception of ecosystems is one that stresses
community and relationship, more specific conceptions@which are necessary to conduct ecological research@can be problematic. Cor
instance, a basic ecology textboo" tell us; >EaFn ecosys# tem is a biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing the
community? 5Golles )11), 2%06. he /i--ic#lty lies in /eterminin, the bo#n/aries bet=een one comm#nity
an/ the neAt9 he bo#n/aries =e /ra= /etermine the interactions an/ interconnections #pon =hich =e
-oc#s2 an/ =hich -actors =e /isre,ar/ as isolate/ /ist#rbances comin, -rom o#tsi/e the system.
However, given the >infinitely complex web of relationships connecting nearly all living things,? s#ch bo#n/aries =ill be
provisional at best2 an/ =ill li>ely reveal /eeper theoretical ass#mptions 5*angan )111, 446. This is an
inevitable problem given the very phenomenon we want to recogniBe; the great complexity and interconnectedness of all life. $ do not
suggest abandoning ecosystem thin"ing simply because it involves difficult conceptual problems/ still, we must be very mindful of the
ways we ad# dress the problem. o far, ecolo,ists have /ra=n bo#n/aries in part by eA< cl#/in, h#mans -rom
ecosystems9 In other =or/s2 the /ominant approach to ecosystems has reco,niBe/ the
interconnecte/ness o- non<h#man li-e2 b#t it has not reco,niBe/ the interconnecte/ness o- h#mans an/
non<h#mans9 $n short, >EbFiologists have focused on the impact measures of hu# mans, a strategy that puts our species outside the
ecosystems as, at most, a permanent perturbation? 5Gachlis et al. %,,-, ))6. his conception o- ecosystems (as h#man<
eAcl#sive) lea/s to a -la=e/ conception o- ecosystem health@namely, ecosystems are healthy when humans stay out.
This view has a long history among naturalists and en# vironmentalists, and it is lin>e/ to the notion o- stable ecosystems"
that is2 ecosystems eAist in a state o- eI#ilibri#m an/ stability (the 3balance o- nat#re6) #ntil an
o#tsi/e /ist#rbance (o-ten anthropo,enic) stri>es9 Dhen the disturbance ends, the ecosystem will return to its stable
state, provided that it has not been permanently damaged.)) This view is implicit in Aldo Heopolds land ethic, perhaps the most
famous formation of ecosystem health; >EaF thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic
community.? 5%,2,, ))2(246.)0 However, *angan, after reviewing the extensive literature on ecosystem change, concludes; There is
little evidence to support the assumptionIthat nature, when left alone, always returns to its primordial, stable state. There is no way of
confirming a general law of self#regulating ecosystems that holds true across all time and spatial scales. 5)111, 4-6 The assumption of
bounded, stable ecosystems has more to do with theoretical assumptions about nature and humans place in it 5or out of it6 than with
the results of ecological research. This is a great irony of ecology@a science devoted to exploring the interconnections of nature
removes from the web of interrelations the species that has the greatest ecological impact today; humans. 0#ch h#man<eAcl#sive
#n/erstan/in,s o- ecosystems an/ ecosystem health lea/ to I#estionable theories o- ecosystem
mana,ement9 Cirst and foremost, it implies that ecosystem health should be implemented by minimiBing human >disturbance? of
ecosystems. *olston 5%,,,a6, for instance, argues that we should manage ecosystems simply by leaving them alone.
4
Lin>Nsavin, environment
Jramin, environmental protection in terms o- 3ri,hts6 an/ 3;#stice6 ass#mes non<h#mans
ac as a h#man =o#l/ an/ ;#sti-ies savin, a species an/ not their habitat
4#rser et9 al MO ((onal/ !9 4#rser is an assistant pro-essor o- or,aniBation /evelopment at
the *niversity o- Chica,o2 Chan,>il 4ar> is a /octoral can/i/ate in the Dept9 o-
5r,aniBational $ehavio#r at Case %estern (eserve *niversity2 Al-onso 7ont#ori is an
a/;#nct pro-essor at 0aybroo> Instit#te an/ Colle,e o- Notre Dame9 3Limits to
Anthropocentrism: o=ar/ an !cocentric 5r,aniBation 4ara/i,mG6 he Aca/emy o-
7ana,ement (evie=2 5ctober 1MMO2 .05(2 p910O3<10CM2 Eol9 202 No9Q2
http://===9;stor9or,/stable/2OCMPO

Anvironmental management approaches rely upon a traditional ethical framewor" that is also rooted in
anthropocen# trism. Traditional ethical analysis is based on a progressive extension model of ethics, better
"nown as ethical extensionism 5*egan, %,90/ inger, %,-76. Jes Kardin 5%,,0; %2)6 identified three ma;or
shortcomin,s o- ethical eAtensionism: (a) it lea/s to a hierarchical or/erin, o- species (=ith h#mans
on top)" (b) it is inherently in/ivi/#alistic in -oc#s2 payin, consi/eration to in/ivi/#al biolo,ical
or,anisms b#t /isre,ar/s =hole ecolo,ical entities s#ch as habitats an/ ecosystem processes" an/ (c) it
lac>s comprehensiveness2 -oc#sin, instea/ on case<by<case problems that #s#ally /o not provi/e
,#i/ance on =hat sho#l/ be /one =hen con-ronte/ by more pervasive environmental problems, such
as global warming. !thical eAtensionism #ses comparable h#man attrib#tes as the sole moral criteria
-or /eterminin, the intrinsic val#e o- nonh#man species 5obviously, plant, biota, and inanimate ob=ects
are omitted from such analyses automatically6. Curther, ethical extensionism is atomistic as it focuses upon
individual biological organisms. According to *odman 5%,90; 9-6, this atomistic ten/ency is Lso /eeply
imbe//e/ in mo/ern c#l< t#re2 locatin, intrinsic val#e only or primarily in in/ivi/#al persons2 an<
imals2 plants2 etc92 rather than in comm#nities or ecosystems2 since indi# viduals are our paradigmatic
entities for thin"ing, being conscious, and feeling pain.: Thus, with ethical extensionism, ob=ects of
valuation are individual entities 5Page, %,,)6, =hereas h#man interests are the sole meas#re o- ri,ht
an/ =ron,9 he anthropocentric ethic in environmental mana,ement is mainly concerne/ =ith iss#es
o- L;#stice2L Lri,hts2L an/ other attempts o- eAten/< in, le,al ri,hts to the nonh#man =orl/9 *odman
5%,906 criticiBed this :rights#of#nature: approach as a wea" alternative because it ass#mes that other
species an/ biota can participate (as h#mans =o#l/) in an ethical system9 %hat is important here is
not =hether one a,rees that nat#re or animals have Lri,hts2L b#t that the ar,#ment is still base/ #pon
the centrality o- the h#man bein, as the reference for conferring value or disvalue upon 'ature. This is the
problematic of the ethical extensionism approach; extension of intrinsic value to the nonhuman world occurs
only if entities measure up to the criteria that are defined by humans, criteria that must mimic or resemble
humanli"e attributes. %ith this -rame=or>2 one co#l/ arrive at an ethical /ecision to save an
en/an,ere/ species =itho#t the necessity -or also havin, to save or preserve the en/an,ere/ speciesK
ecosystem habitat9 Athical extensionism sub=ects the nonhuman world to :inappropriate models, without
rethin"ing very thoroughly either the assumptions of conventional ethics or the ways in which we perceive
and interpret the natural world: 5*odman, %,--; 996.
7
Lin>Nenvironmental mana,ement
!nvironmental mana,ement para/i,m is the obsession =ith environmental e--iciency
The movement to=ar/ an e,ocentric conception o- or,aniBations an/ mana,ement =ill reI#ire a
revol#tionary shi-t in para/i,m. However, as Luhn 5%,-16 suggested, theory development and
revolutionary paradigm shifts do not occur all at once. $nstead, there is a long struggle involved in
=ustifying the plausibility of alternative theoriBing 5Luhn, %,-16. Accord# ingly, theory development
proceeds as the deconstruction of anomalies associated with the dominant paradigm highlights the
incommensurabil# ity, as well as the continuity, between competing approaches 5Luhn, %,-1/ Dillmott,
%,,06. <learly, the foundational concepts and underlying philosophies of the environmental management
and ecocentric responsibility paradigms are incommensurable. he environmental mana,ement para/i,m
is anthropocentric" its proponents contin#e to elevate h#man bein,s to a /om< inant position over
nat#re9 $ndeed, anthropocentrism is foundational to the dominant social paradigm 5Junlap M <atton, %,91/
Gilbrath, %,92, %,9,6. (ather than vie=in, the environmental crisis as a challen,e to2 and
conse&uential anomaly of, the /ominant social para/i,m, concepts an/ practices =ithin environmental
mana,ement are retro-itte/ to perpet#ate this rei,nin, para/i,m9 $n contrast, the bottom#line within
the ecocentric paradigm is that h#man bein,s have moral obli,ations to ecosystems9 However, ethical
consi/erations re,ar/in, the conservation o- ecosystems are m#te/ =hen s#b;ecte/ to the
instr#mental technical rationality o- anthropocentric /is< co#rse. urely, those =ho are more
concerne/ =ith calc#latin, the pro< /#ctivity o- ol/<,ro=th -orests2 bioengineering designer species, or
ma"# ing <hesapea"e Nay a more efficient sewer, are not li>ely to ,ive m#ch consi/eration to
conservin, ecosystem health an/ inte,rity 5agoff, %,,)6. This problem suggests that members o-
e,ocentric or,aniBations =ill nee/ to assi,n m#ch more importance to ethical consi/erations than typ<
ically has been the case2 beca#se environmental mana,ers have been primarily concerne/ =ith
technical e--iciency9
-
Lin>N asteroi/sNenvironmental inter-erence
0toppin, an asteroi/ attac> is #niI#ely anthropocentric< even i- it bene-its h#mans2 it is
still an environmental inter-erence

Coc>ell 8 (30pace on !arth" 0avin, o#r =orl/ by see>in, others6 Charles 09 Coc>ell2
+4ro-essor in ,eomicrobiolo,y2 Chair o- the !arth an/ 0pace Jo#n/ation1 20082 7acmillan9
4, 12C<M9 4rint)
he realiBation that !arth has been2 an/ =ill be2 str#c> by asteroi/s and comets, potentially /estroyin,
lar,e percenta,es o- li-e2 has le/ to s#,,estions that =e sho#l/ /ivert these incomin, ob;ects9 De would
do this by detecting them early and then exploding or deflecting them to stop them colliding. hese
propositions all have at their core hi,hly anthropocentric environmental ethic9 !nli"e anthropogenic
oBone depletion or deforestation, asteroid and comet impacts are natural and their prevention is
actually an environmental interference, regardless of whether it happens to be of benefit to
humans. $t mi,ht be ar,#e/ that s#ch schemes represent an #nacceptable environmental
manip#lation9 $f dinosaurs had implemented an asteroid and comet diversion plan, mammals might never
have risen to preeminence, and we would not exist. Thus, the /iversion o- asteroi/s an/ comets mi,ht be
sai/ to have a ne,ative environmental impact =hen the opport#nities -or li-e that arise a-ter s#ch
events are consi/ere/ to be th=arte/9 This same argument could be applied to any attempt to prevent any
other natural catastrophes li"e earth&ua"es or volcanic eruptions.
9
Lin>Nspace eAploration
!very li-e<-orm possesses intrinsic val#e" space eAploration re;ects this notion an/ in t#rn
has ab;ect e--ects on eAtra<terrestrial li-e
L#pisella M (7ar> is an/ en,ineer an/ scientist -or the NA0A &o//ar/ 0pace Jli,ht
Center2 3he search -or eAtraterrestrial li-e: epistemolo,y2 ethics2 an/ =orl/vie=s26
4#blishe/ in !Aplorin, the 5ri,in2 !Atent2 an/ J#t#re o- Li-e: 4hilosophical2 !thical an/
heolo,ical 4erspectives2 0eptember 2C2 200M2
http://===9scrib/9com//oc/31O18Q2M/!Aplorin,<the<5ri,in<!Atent<An/<J#t#re<o-<Li-e<
4hilosophical<!thical<An/<heolo,ical<4erspectives<Constance<7<$ert>a2 0crib/)
(obel1 )#brin, the founder of the Gars ociety, ac"nowledges the uni&ue value of extraterrestrial life.
especially scientific value, but nevertheless stresses that =e /onKt hesitate to >ill terrestrial microbes
#n/er many circ#mstances a//in, to the case -or s#bstantial /eval#ation o- 7artian microbes relative
to h#man interests +C1. Dhile this is an understandable sentiment, it is also reasonable to consi/er that
eAtraterrestrial li-e, especially of independent origin, co#l/ be #niI#e2 val#able2 an/ =orthy o- respect in
a =ay that terrestrial microbes are not9 The ecologist Cran" 8olley has argued that activities in space such
as the coloniBation and terraforming of Gars will be unavoidable since it is consistent with the dominant
myths and metaphors of Destern civiliBation E,F. !nfortunately these dominant myths an/ the eAploration
that results from them have o-ten ha/ serio#s a/verse e--ects on in/i,eno#s environments an/ li-e2
incl#/in, h#man bein,s. $ndeed the dominant myths of .:manifest destiny: have featured prominently in
public discussions of humanity.s relationship to Gars E%1, %%F,
Although the notion of rights is not explicitly articulated in <arl agan.s sentiment, his perspective can be
associated with a rights#based metaethics. Dhile the =ustification of intrinsic value has been philosophically
problematic, ri,hts base/ ethical vie=s nevertheless o-ten /epen/ on conceptions o- intrinsic val#e. K.
Naird <allicott E%0F writes; Lhe assertion o- Kspecies ri,htsK #pon analysis appears to be the mo/ern
=ay to eApress =hat philosophers call Kintrinsic val#eK on behal- o- non<h#man species9 h#s the
I#estion2 KDo nonh#mans species have a ri,ht to eAistGK transposes to the &uestion, KDo nonh#man
species have intrinsic val#eGK : <hris GcLay has appealed to an intrinsic value of life principle and hence
suggests that 7artian microbes2 particularly of independent origin, have a ri,ht to li-e <Lto contin#e their
eAistence even i- their eAtinction =o#l/ bene-it the biota o- !arthL E%2F.. Jeep Acology view, tend to
have as a central tenet, biological egalitarianism, according to which all organisms have an e&ual right to life
E%4F. $f one claims that other animals, and in particular, Gartian microbes, have rights, but that there are no
degress of rights, ho= are =e to assess sit#ations that involve con-lictin, interests bet=een h#mans an/
other li-e -ormsG $ndeed, -or those =ho thin> 7artian li-e has ri,hts2 a compromise mi,ht not be
satis-actory9 3nly a non#interference policy would be acceptable E%7F 5p. ))-6. However, degrees of rights or
degrees of value 5perhaps even degrees of intrinsic value6 may provide a more pragmatic framewor" for
considering these issues E%-F.
,
In o#ter space =e m#st consi/er the val#es o- the most primitive li-e -orms
Dhile the focus of this chapter is not extraterrestrial intelligence, astrobiolo,y nevertheless prompts #s to consi/er
val#es o- other potential rational bein,s2 especially as they mi,ht apply to non intelli,ent or primitive li-e
-orms9 Cor example, i- =e ta>e a vie= o- ethics in =hich rational bein,s are the only moral a,ents2 might the
possible eAistence o- rational eAtraterrestrial bein,s prompt the consi/eration o- broa/er ethical vie=s that
mi,ht be important to them# such as a conservation ethic that extends to non#rational living beings 5for example
extraterrestrial microbes6, perhaps as part o- a broa/er environmental/ cosmic ethicG his is similar to
consi/erin, val#es o- o#r -ello= h#man bein,s that mi,ht ,o beyon/ o#r o=n val#es9 I- others val#e
somethin, -or pla#sible reasons2 sho#l/nKt =e be prompte/ to consi/er respectin, those val#esG
Axtraterrestrial intelligent beings may consider life in the universe, perhaps independent origins of life in particular,
to be extremely valuable, perhaps intrinsically or :cosmically: valuable. 4erhaps s#ch val#es sho#l/ be
consi/ere/ as =e -orm#late o#r o=n vie=s re,ar/in, ho= =e sho#l/ move o#t into the solar system an/
beyon/9
%1
0pace eAploration harms both the terrestrial environment an/ beyon/
he eAploration o- the space environment is a nat#ral eAtension o- the /esire o- the man>in/ to eAplore the
planet to =hich he belon,s9 he iss#e o- poll#tion o- the o#ter space is more compleA than the environmental
poll#tion on !arth9 he la#nchin, o- vehicles into o#ter space an/ celestial bo/ies is >no=n to involve
inevitable contamination as the vehicles emit eAha#st ,ases thro#,ho#t their b#rn. The term pollution and
contamination denote the introduction into the environment of toxic substances or other elements in such a &uantity
that exceeds the natural ability to render them harmless or purify them and thereby causes harm to animate and
inanimate nature, and the health and welfare of man.

%%
Lin>Nla#nches
0pace la#nches >ill non<h#man species -or the bene-it o- h#mansNhy/rochloric aci/
/ecimates -ish an/ other =il/li-e2 an/ also r#ins the oBone layer
0meaton O ()oe2 (eporter Chemist an/ Dr#,,ist2 *$72 3Is the 0h#ttle &reenG6 A#,#st C2
200O2 $$C Ne=s2 http://ne=s9bbc9co9#>/2/hi/#>Fne=s/ma,aBine/Q130MC09stm)
Professor Craser said; :he classic eAample o- environmental impact is in LaBa"hstan at the $ai>on#r la#nch
site2 =here there are reports o- I#ite serio#s environmental /ama,e9L Cor most shuttles, the damage comes
from the solid roc"et boosters, or *Ns, re&uire at shuttle launch to provide -%.2O of the thrust at lift#off and
elevate the shuttle to an altitude of 24"m 5)9 miles6. As a shuttle launches, a Lclo#/L becomes visible =hich
contains 0($ eAha#st pro/#cts2 either dissolved or as particles in the water vapour released by the main engines.
Hydrochloric aci/ -orme/ in this la#nch clo#/ lea/s to aci/ic /eposits in the s#rro#n/in, area, a phenomenon
=hich may also be observed some distance away if exhausts are carrie/ on prevailin, =in/s9 The scenes of dead
fish in pain could be repeated next to launch sites Kohn Pi"e, president of 8lobal ecurity.org, and an expert on the
! space programme says; :The hydrochloric acid can pit the paint on your car if it is too close to the launch site.:
A %,,0 'asa technical manual considered environmental effects of space shuttle launches at Lennedy pace <entre,
and stated that some c#m#lative e--ects o- la#nches in the nearby area are Lre/#ction in the n#mber o- plant
species present an/ re/#ction in total coverL. The manual also pointed out that acid deposits from the launch
clo#/ can also impact nearby =ater la,oons an/ their =il/li-e9 $f hydrochloric acid is deposited, the p' val#e
near the s#r-ace o- the =ater may /rop an/ prove too aci/ic -or -ish, although these impacts on wildlife do
:appear minimal and manageable:. Professor Craser points out also that while shuttles may ca#se a small amo#nt
o- /ama,e to the oBone layer this will be :far less mar"ed than that from the large number of high altitude aircraft
in the Dorld all the time:.
%)
Lin>Nla#nches
&ro#n/ clo#/s create/ by spacecra-t la#nches release toAins that /ecimates the !arth@s
oBone
%hen a spacecra-t is la#nche/ into the space2 they pro/#ce somethin, calle/ 3,ro#n/ clo#/6 which basically
consisting of exhaust gases, cooling water, sand and dust. The use of certain rocket and stratospheric aircraft
fuels has been found to speed the depletion of the earths ozone layer. pecifically, the chlorine,
aluminum, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide that are present in these fuels have been detected in the ozone
layer by scientists. The ozone layer is very important as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays and acts as
a shield around the earth. The depletion of this shield or the oBone results in incoming ultraviolet radiation
which causes harmful effects on plants, and s"in cancer, eye damage on the animals. At least one study has
concluded that the presence o- nitro,en /ioAi/e an/ s#lph#r /ioAi/e in the earth@s atmosphere 3may re/#ce
the temperat#re o- the earth@s s#r-ace26 potentially impacting agricultural production. The eAha#st ,ases
release/ by the spacecra-ts =ill a--ect the ionosphere =hich is sit#ate/ C0 >ilometers above the earth@s
s#r-ace9 This may lead to the creation of a hole in the ionosphere which will have harmful effects on
the environment of the earth
%0
Lin>N technocentrism
he /rive to accelerate technolo,y is a p#rely h#man interest
&rey M3 (%illiam is pro-essor at the *niversity o- D#eenslan/2 A#stralian National
*niversity2 emple *niversity2 an/ the *niversity o- Ne= !n,lan/2 3Anthropocentrism
an/ Deep !colo,y26 A#straliasian .o#rnal o- 4hilosophy2 Eol 812 No Q (1MM3)2 pp9 QP3<Q8O2
http://===9#I9e/#9a#/Rp/=,rey/p#bs/anthropocentrism9html)
Goral philosophy aims to provide a rational criti&ue or =ustification of the principles which guide or govern
human conduct. $n this in&uiry it is of course assumed that these principles are accessible to reason. '#man
activity2 partic#larly =hen ampli-ie/ by sophisticate/ science<base/ technolo,ies2 no= eAten/s -ar
beyon/ the stone a,e bo#n/aries =hich constraine/ o#r actions -or most o- h#man history. he chain
sa= an/ the /ri-t net have trans-orme/ biolo,ical systems -ar more rapi/ly an/ violently than the
neolithic aAe an/ spear. he rapi/ an/ acceleratin, technolo,ically</riven mo/i-ication o- o#r nat#ral
s#rro#n/in,s has changed them beyond the wildest neolithic dreams. $t is these changes which have
prompte/ the I#estion =hether constraints on h#man con/#ct sho#l/ ta>e into consi/eration more
than p#rely h#man interests. Anvironmental philosophers have proposed a criti&ue of traditional Destern
moral thought, which, it is alleged, is deficient for providing a satis-actory ethic o- obli,ation an/ concern
-or the nonh#man =orl/9 This concern, it is claimed, nee/s to be eAten/e/, in particular, to=ar/
nonh#man in/ivi/#als, wilderness areas, and across time and species. The pro=ect of extending our concern
in the latter two cases@over time and over species@is a central concern of this paper.
%2
Lin>Ntechnolo,y
echnolo,y -osters the vie= that nat#re is merely instr#mental to h#man en/s an/
a/vancement
5rr 8M (3In the rac>s o- the Dinosa#r: 7o/erniBation S the !colo,ical 4erspective6
Davi/ %9 5rr+assistant pro-essor o- political science at the *niversity o- North Carolina2
Chapel 'ill1 4olity2 Eol9 112 No9 Q 1M8M)
odernization has destroyed the unity between man and nature. An# vironmentalists since 8eorge Per"ins
Garsh have argued that in/#s< trialiBation an/ mo/erniBation have ;eopar/iBe/ the relationship bet=een man
an/ nat#re9 he a=areness o- membership in a nat#ral comm#nity has been /imme/ by layers o- concrete2
steel2 asphalt2 ,lass2 an/ an ethic that stresses conI#est9 Nut the &uestion remains why man should regard nature
as anything but the exclusive sub=ect of his domination. 3ne answer is that nature must be protected and its laws
understood so that it can serve man more efficiently. Godern techni&ues of high yield forestry, seafarming, and
agribusiness, based on the concept o- LmaAim#m s#stainable yiel/2L re-lect this instr#mental vie=. Nut from the
environmental perspective, it remains less than obvious what the management 5con&uestP6 of nature means and
precisely who manages what and why. <. . Hewis provided one answer by suggesting; At the moment then, of
Gan.s victory over 'ature, we find the whole human race sub=ected to some individual man, and those individuals
sub=ected to that in themselves which is purely :natural: #to their irrational impulses . 'ature untrammelled by
values, rules the <onditioners and, through them, all humanity. Gan.s con&uest of 'ature turns out, in the moment
of its consumation, to be 'ature.s con&uest of Gan.41 $f Hewis is correct, the con!uest of nature becomes one
way for some men to control other men who use nature only as the medium. Nut in the end, the
:con&uest: proves to be illusory, with nature in fact subduing man. Aldo Heopold reached the similarly ironic
conclusion that nature can serve man instrumentally only if :people really believe that 'ature is something which
exists and has value for its own sa"e.: 4% The inevitable price of the material view of man, then, is the
devaluation of a range of important but nonmaterial goals.
%4
Lin>Nmilitary
7ilitary rea/iness protects h#mans at the eApense o- non<h#man li-e2 contaminates
,ro#n/=ater2 bir/s2 an/ marine li-e9
&lenn P (.erome C9 /irector o- American Co#ncil -or the *nite/ Nations *niversity2
/irector o- the 7illenni#m 4ro;ect2 3Nanotechnolo,y: J#t#re military environment health
consi/erations26 echnolo,ical Jorecastin, an/ 0ocial Chan,e2 Eol9 83 Iss#e 22 Jebr#ary
200P2 4a,es 12C<1382
http://===9science/irect9com/science/article/pii/000Q01P2O0O000M0MT0!CU3)
The following is an unran"ed list of the panel.s suggestions 5edited and condensed for clarity6 that might occur
between )1%1 and )1)4; Q Arti-icial bloo/ cells 5respirocytes6 that dramatically enhance human performance co#l/
ca#se overheatin, o- the bo/y an/ bio<brea>/o=ns2 an/ their eAcretion co#l/ a// to the environmental loa/. Q
Harge &uantities of smart =eaponsNespecially miniat#riBe/2 robotic =eapons an/ intelli,ent2 tar,et<see>in,
amm#nition =itho#t reliable remote o--<s=itchesNco#l/ lea/ to unexpected in=ury to combatants and civilians,
destruction to infrastructure, and environmental poll#tion. Q mall receptor#enhancers that increase alertness and
reduce the reaction times of humans could cause addiction andRor subse&uent <hronic Catigue yndrome, leading to
wea"ness, neural damage, and death. Q $norganic, non#biodegradable nanoparticles 5and perhaps also non#
biocompatible6 nanoparticles for drug release or cancer treatment, or >permanent? nanosensors, might induce a
foreign body reaction. Q Proteomic targeting, genetically selective >designer &uasi#viral components,? engineered to
select specific human targets based on definable genetic mar"ers, might mutate, creating a biological pandemic. Q
Nanoparticles to 3clean #p6 contaminate/ areas mi,ht create ne= compo#n/s that co#l/ have #n>no=n
impacts on the environment2 incl#/in, lon,<term leachin, into ,ro#n/=ater reserves9 Q !bi&uitous surveillance
systems deployed without strong controls on the use of information could lead to psychological stress from the sense
of being watched by strangers. Q N#mero#s centimeter<scale b#oyant plat-orms /eploye/ in the atmosphere
mi,ht inter-ere =ith bir/s and aircraft, and damaged devices might fall as precipitation at uncontrolled locations
over Aarth.s surface. Q 'anoscale biomolecule#driven motors that enhance the efficiency of ATP 5adenosine
triphosphate6 usage, the fre&uency of generation of ATP, and the life of ATP molecules in endurance athletes andRor
long#haul soldiers could cause overheating of the body and biobrea"downs and could possibly lead to *apid#3nset
Guscle oreness after a stipulated duration/ if allowed to function beyond this duration, they may "ill the organism
thus modified. Q *biI#ito#s sensin, in the oceans via lar,e n#mbers o- small /ri-tin, /evices lin"ed by
acoustically based data#pac"et networ"s, and countermeasures to disable them, co#l/ a--ect sea li-e -rom these
materials, as well as from acoustic pollution. 3ther interesting suggestions for the period )1%1()4 that are not
conventionally thought of as health or environmental impacts included;
%7
Lin>Nscience
(e/#ctionist science moots the entire conteAt o- the !arth@s biota into mechanical ecolo,y"
this min/set -orces #s to /ismiss the intrinsic val#e in the =orl/9
'ar/in, (0tephen2 resi/ent ecolo,ist at 0ch#macher Colle,e2 an international centre -or
ecolo,ical st#/ies9 raine/ as a -iel/ ecolo,ist2 0tephan 'ar/in, collaborates =ith .ames
Loveloc> on &aian comp#ter mo/elin,2
3Jrom &aia heory to Deep !colo,y26 7ay P2 20112
http://===9a/isha>ti9or,/p/-F-iles/-romF,aiaFtheoryFtoF/eepFecolo,yF(,n9apc9or,)9p/-)
o #n/erstan/ &aia2 =e m#st let ,o o- the mechanistic2 compartmentalisin, con/itionin, impose/ on #s since
chil/hoo/ by o#r society. Crom an early age nearly all %esterners (an/ especially yo#n, scientists) are eApose/ to
the concept that li-e has come abo#t /#e to the operation o- blin/2 meanin,less la=s o- physics an/ chemistry2
an/ that sel-ishness #n/erpins the behavio#r an/ evol#tion o- all plants an/ animals9 A childs mind becomes totally
ensnared by this style of intellectuality, so that the intuitive, inspirational &ualities of the mind are totally ignored. The minds intuitive ability to
see each part of nature as a sub#whole within the greater wholes is destroyed by this sort of education. he res#lt is a totally /ry2
merely intellect#al ecolo,y2 not a ,en#ine perception o- the /ynamic po=er2 creativity an/ inte,ration o-
nat#re9 A 8aian approach opens new doors of perception and opens up our vision of the inter#dependence of all things within the natural
world. here is a symphonic I#ality to this interconnecte/ness2 a I#ality =hich comm#nicates an #nspea>able
ma,ni-icence9 %hen yo# stan/ on a sea<cli-- in =inter2 =atchin, masses o- ,rey clo#/ rollin, in -rom the
Atlantic2 a &aian vie= helps yo# #n/erstan/ the clo#/ in its ,lobal conteAt9 $t has formed due to massive climatic forces
and has manifested within a small part of the whole S the part you happen to be standing in. he =ater in the clo#/ is circlin,
thro#,h the =ater cycle2 -rom rain to river to sea to <occolithophore to clo#/ a,ain9 As yo# eAperience this
/ynamic2 ever<shi-tin, reality2 yo# may s#//enly -in/ yo#rsel- in a state o- me/itation2 a state in =hich yo#
lose yo#r sense o- separate i/entity2 an/ become totally en,rosse/ in the li-e process bein, contemplate/9 The
contemplated and the contemplator become one. Crom this oneness there arises a deep appreciation of the reality of inter#dependence, and from
this comes the urge to be involved in opposing all sorts of ecological abuses. Here arises the feeling that =hat is happenin, in
evol#tion has ,reat val#e an/ a meanin, impossible to artic#late or to /etect via re/#ctionist scienti-ic
metho/olo,y9 his hi,hly /evelope/ sensitivity2 this eAperience o- ra/ical interconnecte/ness2 is the hallmar>
o- s#pporters o- the Deep !colo,y movement2 an/ is the basis -or the elaboration o- any ecolo,ical
philosophy, such as the pioneering wor" of the 'orwegian philosopher, Arne 'aess, who first coined the term .deep ecology.. 'o student of
ecology is ever introduced to this new mode of mental discipline S in our schools and colleges. There is no culture of experiencing oneness with
the natural world. All one does on an ecology field trip is to collect and measure. Deep contemplation o- nat#re is consi/ere/ to
be at =orst a =aste o- time2 at best somethin, to /o /#rin, one@s spare time9 It can be ar,#e/ that tr#ly ,reat
scientists ha/ this connection2 this sense o- the ,reater =hole o- =hich they =ere a part9 Dithout educating this
sensitivity, we churn out scientists without philosophy, who are merely interested in their sub=ect, but not thoroughly awed by it. %e ch#rn
o#t clever careerists2 =hose only concern is to ma>e the ,ra/e2 be the -irst to p#blish2 be the -irst to be hea/
o- a /epartment2 or to split the atom9 It is this >in/ o- trainin, =hich lea/s to the mentality responsible -or
the massive social an/ environmental mista>es o- %estern<style /evelopment9 raine/ to sh#t /o=n o#r
perception o- the =orl/ so that =e see it as a mere machine2 =e are per-ectly -ree to improve the cloc>=or>
-or o#r o=n en/s9 %e are per-ectly -ree to b#il/ h#,e /ams =hich -loo/ vast areas2 per-ectly -ree to lo,
establishe/ -orests2 per-ectly -ree to sanction economic ,ro=th at all costs2 or to alter the ,enetic ma>e<#p o-
any or,anism -or o#r o=n en/s. 8aian perception helps to remedy this great mental and spiritual plague, a malaise which has arisen in
the Dest and which is now claiming millions of victims, human and non#human, throughout the world. 8aian perception connects us with the
seamless nature of existence, and opens up a new approach to scientific research based on scientific institutions arising from scientists personal,
deeply sub=ective ecological experience. Dhen the young scientist in training has sat on a mountain top, and has completed her first ma=or
assignment to thin" li"e a mountain, that is, to dwell and deeply identify with a mountain, mechanistic thin"ing will never ta"e root in her
mind. %hen she event#ally ,oes o#t to practise her science in the =orl/2 she =ill be -#lly a=are that every
interconnecte/ aspect o- it has its o=n intrinsic val#e2 irrespective o- its #se-#lness to the economic activities
o- h#man bein,s9
%-
%ipeo#t Alternative
'#manity as a =hole has in-licte/ eno#,h /ama,e on the environment an/ non<h#man
bein,s to ;#sti-y o#r removal as a species9 No ethical ,ro#n/s eAist -or ;#sti-ication -or the
contin#ation o- o#r empirically harm-#l eAistence9
This blurring and re#defining of the sub=ect of moral /isco#rse can be found in other ecocentric writings
5e.g. Hoveloc", %,-,/ Ac"ersley, %,,)6 and in other philosophical approaches. E4F $n part o#r approach
bears some similarity =ith these ?holistic@ approaches in that =e share /issatis-action =ith the
mo/ern2 %estern vie= o- the ?s#b;ect@ as p#rely h#man<centric. Curther, =e share some o- their
criticism o- bo#r,eois ,reen li-estyles. However, o#r approach is to stay partly =ithin the position o-
the mo/ern2 %estern h#man<centric vie= o- the s#b;ect an/ to I#estion =hat happens to it in the -iel/
o- moral action =hen environmental catastrophe /eman/s the ra/ical eAtension o- ethical obli,ations
to non<h#man bein,s9 That is, if we stic" with the modern humanist sub=ect of moral action, and follow
seriously the extension of ethical obligations to non#human beings, then we would suggest that =hat =e
-in/ is that the #topian /eman/ o- mo/ern h#manism t#rns over into a #topian anti<h#manism2 =ith
s#ici/e as its o#tcome. 5ne =ay o- attemptin, to re<thin> the mo/ern s#b;ect is th#s to thro= the
iss#e o- s#ici/e ri,ht in at the be,innin, an/ ac>no=le/,e its position in mo/ern ethical tho#,ht. This
would be to recognise that the &uestion of suicide resides at the center of moral thought, already.
There continues to be a /ebate over the eAtent to =hich h#mans have ca#se/ environmental problems
such as global warming 5as opposed to natural, cyclical theories of the earths temperature change6 and over
whether phenomena such as global warming can be halted or reversed. 3ur position is that re,ar/less o-
=here one stan/s =ithin these /ebates it is clear that h#mans have in-licte/ /e,rees o- harm #pon
non<h#man animals an/ the nat#ral environment9 And from this point we suggest that it is the
operation o- speciesism as colonialism =hich m#st be a//resse/. 5ne approach is of course to a/opt
the approach ta>en by 0in,er and many within the animal rights movement an/ remove o#r species2
homo sapiens2 -rom the centre o- all moral /isco#rse9 0#ch an approach =o#l/ thereby ta>e into
acco#nt not only h#man li-e2 b#t also the lives o- other species2 to the eAtent that the livin,
environment as a =hole can come to be consi/ere/ the proper s#b;ect o- morality. De would suggest,
however, that this philosophical approach can be ta"en a number of steps further. $f the standpoint that we
have a moral responsibility towards the environment in which all sentient creatures live is to be ta"en
seriously, then =e perhaps have reason to I#estion =hether there remains any stron, ethical ,ro#n/s to
;#sti-y the -#rther eAistence o- h#manity9 Cor example, i- one consi/ers the mo/ern scienti-ic practice
o- eAperimentin, on animals, both the notions o- pro,ress an/ speciesism are implicitly /ra=n #pon
=ithin the moral reasonin, o- scientists in their ;#sti-ication o- committin, violence a,ainst non<
h#man animals9 he typical line o- thin>in, here is that beca#se animals are val#e/ less than h#mans
they can be sacri-ice/ -or the p#rpose o- eApan/in, scienti-ic >no=le/,e -oc#sse/ #pon improvin,
h#man li-e. <ertainly some within the scientific community, such as physiologist <olin Nla"emore, contest
aspects of this claim and argue that experimentation on animals is beneficial to both human and non#
human animals 5e.g. 8rasson, )111, p.016. uch claims are disingenuous, however, in that they hi/e the
relative /istinctions o- val#e that #n/erlie a moral ;#sti-ication -or sacri-ice within the practice of
experimentation 5cf. HaCollette M han"s, %,,-, p.)446. $f there is a benefit to non#human animals this is
only incidental, what remains central is a practice o- sacri-icin, the lives o- other species -or the bene-it
o- h#mans9 *ather than re=ect this common reasoning of modern science =e ar,#e that it sho#l/ be
reconsi/ere/ #pon the basis o- species eI#ality. That is, mo/ern science nee/s to as> the I#estion o-:
?%ho@ is the best can/i/ate -or ?sacri-ice@ -or the ,oo/ o- the environment an/ all species concerne/G
he moral response to the violence, suffering and damage humans have inflicted upon this earth and its
inhabitants might then be to ar,#e -or the sacri-ice o- the h#man species. The moral act would be the
,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity9
%9
%ipeo#t AltN0olvencyNonly
%ith/ra=in, -rom mo/ernity is impossible -or h#mansNa =ipeo#t is the only option

Jor some, guided by the pressure of moral conscience or by a practice of harm minimisation, the
appropriate response to historical an/ contemporary environmental /estr#ction is that of action guided
by abstention. Cor example, one =ay o- reactin, to m#n/ane2 every/ay complicity is the attempt to
abstain or opt<o#t o- certain aspects o- mo/ern2 in/#strial society: to not eat non<h#man animals2 to
invest ethically2 to b#y or,anic pro/#ce2 to not #se cars an/ b#ses2 to live in an environmentally
conscio#s comm#ne9 *anging from small personal decisions to the establishment of parallel economies
5thin" of organic and fair trade products as an attempt to set up a &uasi#parallel economy6, a typical modern
form of action is that of a refusal to be complicit in human practices that are violent and destructive. Again,
however, at a practical level, to =hat eAtent are s#ch acts o- non< participation ren/ere/ banal by their
complicity in other actionsG $n a grand register of violence and harm the in/ivi/#al =ho abstains -rom
eatin, non<h#man animals b#t still #ses the b#s or an airplane or electricity has only opted out of some
harm causing practices and remains -#lly complicit =ith others. 3ne response, however, which bypasses
the problem of complicity and the banality of action is to ta>e the non<participation sol#tion to its most
eAtreme level9 $n this instance, the only =ay to tr#ly be non<complicit in the violence o- the h#man
herita,e =o#l/ be to opt<o#t alto,ether. Here, then, the modern discourse of reflection, responsibility and
action r#ns to its lo,ical concl#sion V the ,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity V as a -ree<=ille/ an/ ?-inal
sol#tion@9
%,
%ipeo#t Alt 0olvencyNtho#,ht eAperiment
he I#estion o- consi/er to =hat eAtent o#r eAistence is =orth the harm o- other speciesN
it@s a tho#,ht eAperiment
Dhile we are not interested in the discussion of the method of the global suicide of humanity per se, one
metho/ that =o#l/ be the least violent is that o- h#mans choosin, to no lon,er repro/#ce9 E%1F The
case at point here is that the ,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity =o#l/ be a moral act/ it would ta"e humanity out
of the e&uation of life on this earth and rema>e the calc#lation -or the bene-it o- everythin, non<
h#man9 Dhile s#ici/e in certain -orms o- reli,io#s thin>in, is normally con/emne/ as something which
is selfish and inflicts harm upon loved ones, the ,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity =o#l/ be the hi,hest act o-
altr#ism. That is, global suicide would involve the ta"ing of responsibility for the destructive actions of the
human species. $y era/icatin, o#rselves =e en/ the lon, process o- in-lictin, harm #pon other species
an/ o--er a h#man<-ree =orl/9 I- there is a -orm o- /ivine intelli,ence then s#rely the h#man act o-
,lobal s#ici/e =ill be seen -or =hat it is: a pro-o#n/ moral ,est#re aime/ at re/eemin, h#manity9
uch an act is an offer of sacrifice to pay for past wrongs that would usher in a new future. hro#,h the
/eath o- o#r species =e =ill ,ive the ,i-t o- li-e to others9
$t should be noted nonetheless that o#r proposal -or the ,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity is base/ #pon the
notion that s#ch a ra/ical action nee/s to be vol#ntary an/ not -orce/. $n this sense, and given the
li"elihood of such an action not being agreed upon, it operates as a tho#,ht eAperiment =hich may help
h#mans to ra/ically rethin> =hat it means to participate in mo/ern2 moral li-e within the natural world.
$n other words, =hether or not the act o- ,lobal s#ici/e ta>es place mi,ht =ell be irrelevant. Dhat is
more important is the -orm o- critical re-lection that an in/ivi/#al nee/s to ,o thro#,h be-ore comin,
to the concl#sion that the ,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity is an action that =o#l/ be =orth=hile. The point
then of a thought experiment that considers the ar,#ment -or the ,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity is the
attempt to o#tline an anti<h#manist2 or non<h#man<centric ethics. uch an ethics attempts to ta"e into
account both sides of the human heritage; the capacity to carry out violence and inflict harm and the
capacity to use moral reflection and creative social organisation to minimise violence and harm. Through
the idea of global suicide such an ethics reintro/#ces a central I#estion to the heart o- moral re-lection:
o =hat eAtent is the val#e o- the contin#ation o- h#man li-e =orth the total harm in-licte/ #pon the
li-e o- all othersG (e,ar/less o- =hether an in/ivi/#al -in/s the i/ea o- ,lobal s#ici/e abhorrent or
ri/ic#lo#s2 this I#estion remains vali/ an/ relevant an/ =ill not ,o a=ay2 no matter ho= har/ =e try
to -or,et2 s#ppress or repress it9

)1
%ipeo#t Alt 0olvencyNne= stan/point
he proposal o- a =ipeo#t helps #s i/entity the =ay in =e val#e /i--erent -orms o- li-e
Cinally, it is important to note that s#ch a stan/point nee/ not -all into a version o- ,reen or eco<-ascism
that consi/ers other -orms o- li-e more important than the lives o- h#mans. uch a position merely
replicates in reverse the speciesism of modern humanist thought. Any choice between the eco#fascist and the
humanist, colonial#speciesist is thus a forced choice and is, in reality, a non#choice that should be re=ected.
The point o- proposin, the i/ea o- the ,lobal s#ici/e o- h#manity is rather to help i/enti-y the =ay in
=hich =e /i--erentially val#e /i--erent -orms o- li-e an/ ,#i/e o#r moral actions by ri,i/ly a/here/ to
stan/ar/s o- li-e<val#e. Hence the idea of global suicide, through its radicalism, challenges an ideological
or culturally dominant idea of life#value. Curther, thro#,h con-rontin, h#manist ethics =ith its o=n
violence a,ainst the non<h#man2 the i/ea o- ,lobal s#ici/e opens #p a space -or /ialectical re-lection in
=hich the #topian i/eals o- both mo/ern h#manist an/ anti<h#manist ethics may be comprehen/e/ in
relation to each other. 3ne possibility of this conflict is the pro/#ction o- a /i--erin, stan/point -rom
=hich to #n/erstan/ the s#b;ect an/ the scope o- moral action9
)%
))
)0
Cosmocentric Alternative
Cosmocentric -ramin, is best< -#nctions to incl#/e the eAtraterrestrial environment" allo=s
#s to realiBe the interconnecte/ness o- nat#re on a lar,er an/ more acc#rate scale
In eAplorin, ethical iss#es re,ar/in, the eAtraterrestrial environment2 several =riters have s#,,este/
the nee/ -or a Lcosmocentric ethicL beca#se they concl#/e that eAistin, ethical theories eAcl#/e the
eAtraterrestrial environment since they are ,eocentric an/ cannot be applie/ to extraterrestrial environments
E%9, %,, )1, )%, ))F. Dhile many philosophers would disagree about the extent to which ethical theories are narrowly constrained to
geocentric application, the relatively ne= conteAt or LlensL o- space /oes nevertheless appear to raise
interestin, an/ novel ethical challen,es2 an/ provi/es #s =ith an a//itional perspective =ith =hich to
re<eAamine ethics an/ val#e theory in ,eneral. !Aplorin, a broa/er<base/ ethic s#ch as a cosmocentric
ethic may be help-#l in sortin, thro#,h iss#es re,ar/in, the moral consi/erability o- primitive
eAtraterrestrial li-e as =ell as other ethical iss#es that =ill con-ront h#manity as =e move o#t into the
solar system and beyond E)0, )2F. Nut as with environmental ethics, an important challenge for a cosmocentric ethic is =ustifying
intrinsic value E)4F. $ndeed, part of the usefulness of appealing to the universe as a basis for an ethical view is that a =ustification of
intrinsic value and perhaps degrees thereof might be possible since it could be based on what is for many a compelling ob=ective
absolute#the universe itself.ystemic nature is valuable as a productive system, with Aarth and its humans on one,
even if perhaps the highest in richness or complexity, of its "nown pro=ects. 'ature is of value its capacity to
throw forward all the storied natural history. 3n that scale, h#mans on !arth are latecomers2 an/ it seems
astronomically arro,ant -or s#ch late pro/#cts to say that the system is only o- instr#mental val#e2 or
that not #ntil h#mans appear to /o their val#in, /oes val#e appear in the #niverse9 5Holmes *olston $$$
E)7F6 Holmes *olston offers a view that appeals to the :formed integrity: of :pro=ective nature.: This view
suggests that the #niverse creates ob;ects o- -orme/ inte,rity (-or eAample ob;ects =orthy o- a proper
name) =hich have intrinsic val#e an/ =hich sho#l/ be respecte/9 *obert Haynes points out, how#ever,
that s#ch a vie= appears to con-lict =ith mo/i-yin, the !arth2 even to the bene-it o- h#mans E%9F. The
systemic interdependent connectedness of ecosystems is often cited as a foundation =ustifying the value of
parts of the larger whole, since a subset con#tributes to the maintenance of the larger whole. Consi/er
Leopol/Ks e,alitarian ecosystem ethic: :A thin, is ri,ht =hen it i- to preserve the inte,rity2 stability2
an/ bea#ty o- the biotic comm#nity9 It is =ron, i- it ten/s to /o other=iseL E)-F. Creya 7athe=s
s#,,ests that intrinsic val#e can be ,ro#n/e/ in sel-<realiBation2 =hich is a -#nction o-
interconnecte/ness. he #niverse I#ali-ies -or sel-hoo/ an/ hence sel-<realiBation 5again, -or =hich
interconnecte/ness plays a critical role6 and humans participate in this cosmic self#realiBation.
)2
Cosmocentric Alt 0olvencyNne= ethic
!stablishin, a ne= all<encompassin, -rame=or> is critical to realiBin, that all bein,s have
intrinsic val#e2 not ;#st to be seen as instr#ments -or h#man #se
Jro/eman ((obert Jro/eman is a 4ro--essor an/ -ormer chair in the Dept9 o- 4hilosophy at
the *niversity o- North eAas2 30eparate/ at $irth2 0i,ns o- (approchement
!nvironmental !thics an/ 0pace !Aploration26 Eol9 13 No9 1 0prin, 200C2 4ro;ect 7#se2
Ethics and the Environment Journal
http://===9csi/9#nt9e/#/-iles/envFethicsFan/Fspace9p/-)
Hessons learned about o#r impact on the !arth@s s#r-ace an/ atmosphere have relevance as =e travel
beyon/ o#r home planet9 The unintended and often destructive effects of human"ind on the Aarth environment
hi,hli,ht the nee/ -or ca#tion an/ restraint as =e travel beyon/ o#r home planet. everal a#thors2
ac>no=le/,in, the probability that h#mans =ill one /ay be active an/ constant presences in
space2 have s#,,este/ the nee/ to i/enti-y an/ preserve =il/erness areas on celestial an/
planetary bo/ies. !sing the !nited tates 'ational Par"s ystem as an analogue, scientists <harles <oc"ell and 8erda
Hornec" 5)1126 suggest that an extraterrestrial par" system with strict regulations and enforcement measures would go a long
way to ensure that portions of Gars remain pristine for science, native biota 5if any exist6, and human appreciation. uch a policy
would ac"nowledge the competing interests and priorities of many parties; national space agencies, the international community,
the community of space scientists, private enterprises who have fixed their sights on space tourism, commercial, andRor industrial
enterprises in space, environmental ethicists, and the general public. The issues involved are complex. 'ational Par"s in the
!nited tates were established after centuries of thin>in, thro#,h the relationships bet=een h#man an/
nonh#man2 nat#re an/ c#lt#re2 bea#ty2 tr#th2 an/ the s#blime2 an/ h#mans@ obli,ations to=ar/
the !arth. cientists and political /ecision<ma>ers =ill have to con-ront these iss#es2 =hether
eAplicitly or implicitly2 as they consi/er the -#t#re o- the space pro,ram9 Nut this thin>in, =ill
no= ta>e place in a conteAt =here h#mans are aliens9 Aarthbound environmental philosophy occurs in a context
where we are a natural part of the environment. 3n other planets =e -ace a ne= -irst I#estion: =hat are the
ethical an/ philosophical /imensions o- visitin, or settlin, other planetsG $n short, should we go there at
allP To date,the discussion of natural places has turned on &uestions concerning intrinsic and instrumental values. $ntrinsic values
theorists claim that things have value for their own sa"e, in contrast to theories of instru# mental value where things are good
because they can be used to obtain something else of value 5economic or otherwise6. his /ebate ten/s to ,et ca#,ht
#p in attempts at eAten/in, the sphere o- intrinsically val#able entities9 !thical eAtensionism
/epen/s on h#man /e-initions o- moral consi/erability2 =hich typically stem -rom some /e,ree o-
i/enti-ication =ith thin,s o#tsi/e #s9 his anthropocentric an/ ,eocentric environmental
perspective sho=s crac>s =hen =e try to eAten/ it to the cosmic environment9 The few national or
international policies currently in place that mention the environment of outer space 5e.g. 'AAs planetary protection policy,
!nited 'ations <ommittee on the Peaceful !ses of 3uter pace6 consider the preservation of planetary bodies for science,
human exploration, and possible future habitation, but there is not yet any policy that consi/ers =hether these
anthropocentric priorities sho#l/ s#perse/e the preservation o- possible in/i,eno#s
eAtraterrestrial li-e2 or the environmental or ,eolo,ical inte,rity o- the eAtraterrestrial
environment9 Anticipating the need for policy decisions regarding space exploration, Gar" Hupisella and Kohn Lo,s/on
s#,,est the possibility o- a cosmocentricethic2 3one =hich (1) places the #niverse at the center2 or
establishes the #niverse as the priority in a val#e system2 (2) appeals to somethin, characteristic
o- the #niverse (physical an//or metaphysical) =hich mi,ht then (3) provi/e a ;#sti-ication o-
val#e, presumably intrin# sic value, an/ (Q) allo= -or reasonably ob;ective meas#rement o- val#e6
5Hupisella M Hogsdon %,,-,%6. he a#thors discuss the need to establish policies for pre#detection and post#detection of life
on Gars,and s#,,est that a cosmocentric ethic =o#l/ provi/e a ;#sti-ication -or a conservative
approach to space eAploration an/ science@conservative in the sense of considering possible impacts before we
act.4 A Copernican shi-t in con< scio#sness2 -rom re,ar/in, the !arth as the center o- the #niverse
to one o- it bein, the home o- participants in a cosmic story2is necessary in or/er to achieve the
proper environmental perspective as =e vent#re beyon/ o#r home planet9 3f course, given current and
prospective space technology, our range is &uite limited. The current Pluto 'ew HoriBons probe, launched by 'AA in Kanuary
)117, travels at 41,111 mph, the limit of chemical propulsion. At such speeds Pluto is nine years distant, Alpha <entauri 44,111.
3n the other hand, there are perhaps %111 near Aarth asteroids greater than %11 meters@not counting those in the Asteroid Nelt
beyond Gars@with a fre&uency of impact of perhaps one in a hundred years that would cause a regional scale disaster.

)4
ImpactN eAtinction o- nat#ral environment
his mo/e o- thin>in, strips nonh#man li-e o- all bea#ty an/ restricts ethical concern to
h#mans2 =hich lea/s to eAtinction o- the nat#ral environment
Ah>in (7Hlanie =or>s at 7onash *niversity2 3'#man Centrism2 Animist 7aterialism2 an/
the CritiI#e o- (ationalism in Eal9 4l#m=oo/@s Critical !colo,ical Jeminism26 !mer,ent
A#stralasian 4hilosophers2 20102 Iss#e 32 http://===9eap9philosophy<
a#stralia9com/iss#eF3/!A43FA'KINF'#manFCentrism9p/-)

uch an anthropocentric -rame=or> creates a variety o- serio#s in;#stices an/ pr#/ential ris>s, ma"ing
it highly ecologically irrational.%0 The hierarchical value prescriptions and epistemic distortions responsible
for its biased, re/#ctive concept#alisation o- nat#re strips the non<h#man nat#ral realm o- non<
instr#mental val#e2 an/ impe/es the -air an/ impartial treatment o- its members9 imilarly,
anthropocentrism creates /istrib#tive in;#stices by restrictin, ethical concern to h#mans, admitting
partisan distributive relationships with non#human nature in the forms of commodification and
instrumentalisation. The prudential ris"s and blindspots created by anthropocentrism are problematic for
nature and humans ali"e and are of especial concern within our current context of radical human dependence
on an irreplaceable and increasingly degraded natural environment. These prudential ris"s are in large part
conse&uences of the centric structure.s promotion of illusory human disembeddedness, self#enclosure and
insensitivity to the significance and survival needs of non#human nature; %ithin the conteAt o- h#man<
nat#re relationships2 s#ch a lo,ic m#st inevitably lea/ to -ail#re2 either thro#,h the catastrophic
eAtinction o- o#r nat#ral environment an/ the conseI#ent collapse o- o#r species2 or more hope-#lly
by the aban/onment and transformation o- the h#man centric -rame=or>9%4 Dhilst ac"nowledging the
importance of prudential concerns for the motivation of practical change, Plumwood emphasises the
weightier tas" of ac"nowledging in=ustices to non#humans in order to bring about ade&uate dispositional
change. he mo/el o- enli,htene/ sel-<interest implicit in pr#/entially motivate/ action is ina/eI#ate
to this tas> inso-ar as it remains =ithin the -rame=or> o- h#man centrism9 Although it ac"nowledges
the possibility of relational interests, it rests on a -#n/amental eI#ivocation bet=een instr#mental an/
relational -orms o- concern -or others. $ndeed it motivates action either by appeal to h#mansK #ltimate
sel-<interest2 th#s -ailin, to tr#ly ac>no=le/,e in;#stices ca#se/ to non<h#man others2 remainin,
ca#,ht =ithin the pr#/entially ris>y -rame=or> o- anthropocentrism2 or else it accepts that others.
interests count as reasons for action# enabling recognition of in=ustices# but it does so in a manner which
treats the intersection of others. needs with more fully#considered human interests as contingent and
transient. 8iven this analysis, it is clear that environmental concern m#st be base/ on a /eeper
reco,nition o- in;#stice, in addition to that of prudence, i- it is to overcome ill#sions o- h#man
/isembe//e/ness an/ sel-<enclos#re an/ have a ,en#ine an/ lastin, e--ect.

)7
ImpactNspeciesism
he ability to s#--er p#ts animals an/ h#mans on the same level" to /isre,ar/ this
connection an/ thin> =e possess s#perior moral stat#s is similar to the lo,ic o- seAists an/
racists
0in,er 3 +4ete2 4ro-essor o- $ioethics at 4rinceton *niversity" 4ro-essor at the Centre -or
Applie/ 4hilosophy at the *niversity o- 7elbo#rne17ay1O2 200323Animal Liberation at
306 he Ne= Wor> (evie= o- $oo>s2 Eol9 O02 No9 C
http://===9animal<ri,hts<library9com/teAts<m/sin,er0Q9htm
In the text that followed, I urged that /espite obvio#s /i--erences bet=een h#mans an/ nonh#man
animals2 =e share =ith them a capacity to s#--er2 and this means that they, like us, have interests. I- =e
i,nore or /isco#nt their interests2 simply on the ,ro#n/s that they are not members o- o#r species2 the
lo,ic o- o#r position is similar to that o- the most blatant racists or seAists =ho thin> that those =ho
belon, to their race or seA have s#perior moral stat#s2 simply in virtue of their race or sex, and
irrespective of other characteristics or qualities. Although most humans may be superior in reasoning or in
other intellectual capacities to nonhuman animals, that is not eno#,h to ;#sti-y the line =e /ra= bet=een
h#mans an/ animals9 0ome h#mansNin-ants an/ those =ith severe intellect#al /isabilitiesNhave
intellect#al capacities in-erior to some animals2 b#t =e =o#l/2 ri,htly2 be shoc>e/ by anyone =ho
propose/ that =e in-lict slo=2 pain-#l /eaths on these intellect#ally in-erior h#mans in or/er to test the
sa-ety o- ho#sehol/ pro/#cts. Nor, of course, would we tolerate confining them in small cages and then
slaughtering them in order to eat them. The -act that =e are prepare/ to /o these thin,s to nonh#man
animals is there-ore a si,n o- LspeciesismLNa pre;#/ice that s#rvives beca#se it is convenient -or the
/ominant ,ro#p in this case not whites or males, but all h#mans9
)-
A: 4erm
A combination in moral theories ;#sti-ies sel-<servin, actions s#ch as the a--
L#pisella an/ Lo,s/on M8 (3D5 %! N!!D A C5075C!N(IC !'ICG6 7A(K
L*4I0!LLAX*niversity o- 7arylan/Y an/ .5'N L5&0D5N XDirector2 0pace 4olicy
Instit#te2 he &eor,e %ashin,ton *niversityYNovember 1MM8)
teve 8illett has suggested a hybri/ vie= combinin, homocentrism as applied to terrestrial activity
combine/ =ith biocentrism to=ar/s =orl/s =ith in/i,eno#s li-e.0) $nvo"ing such a patchwor" of theories
to help deal with different domains and circumstances could be considered acceptable and perhaps even
desirable especially when dealing with something as varied and complex as ethics. $ndeed, it has a certain
common sense appeal. However, instead of digging deeply into what is certainly a legitimate
epistemological issue, let us consider the words of K. Naird <allicott; >Nut there is both a rational
philosophical /eman/ an/ a h#man psycholo,ical nee/ -or a sel-<consistent an/ all embracin, moral
theory9 De are neither good philosophers nor whole persons if for one purpose we adopt utilitarianism,
another deontology, a third animal liberation, a fourth the land ethic, and so on. uch ethical eclecticism is
not only rationally intolerable, it is morally suspect as it invites the suspicion of ad hoc
rationalizations for merely expedient or self"serving actions.?00
)9
A: 4ermNserial policy -ail#re
o allo= the a-- to still happen is the banality o- evil" this re<entrenches policies create/ in
anthropocentric para/i,ms an/ ca#ses serial policy -ail#re
$n one sense, the human in/ivi/#al@s mo/ern complicity in environmental violence represents
something of a biBarre symmetry to Hannah Arendts notion o- the ?banality o- evil@ 5Arendt, %,,26. Cor
Arendt, the NaBi re,ime =as an emblem o- mo/ernity, being a collection of official institutions
5scientific, educational, military etc.6 in which citiBens and soldiers ali"e served as cler"s in a bureaucratic
mechanism run by the state. hese in/ivi/#als committe/ evil2 b#t they /i/ so in a very banal manner:
-ittin, into the state mechanism2 -ollo=in, or/ers2 -illin, in paper=or>2 =or>in, in -actories2 /rivin,
tr#c>s an/ ,enerally respectin, the r#le o- la=. $n this way perhaps all in/ivi/#als =ithin the mo/ern
in/#strial =orl/ carry o#t a banal evil a,ainst the environment simply by ,oin, to =or>2 sittin, in
their o--ices an/ livin, in homes attache/ to a po=er ,ri/. <onversely, those individuals who are driven
by a moral intention to not do evil and act so as to save the environment, are drawn bac" into a banality of
the good. Ny their ability to effect change in only very small aspects of their daily life, or in political#social
life more generally, modern individuals are forced to participate in the active destruction of the
environment even if they are the voices of contrary intention. %hat is ?banal@ in this sense is not the lac>
o- a /e-inite moral intention b#t2 rather2 the =ay in =hich the in/ivi/#al@s or instit#tion@s
participation in every/ay mo/ern li-e, and the unintentional contribution to environmental destruction
therein, contradicts and counteracts the smaller acts of good intention. The banality o- action hits a,ainst
a central problem o- social<political action within late modernity. $n one sense, the ethical demand to
respond to historical and present environmental destruction opens onto a difficulty within the relationship
between moral intention and autonomy. Dhile an individual might be autonomous in respect of moral
conscience, their fundamental interconnection with and inter# dependence upon social, political and
economic orders strips them of the power to ma"e and act upon truly autonomous decisions. Crom this
perspective it is not only the modern humanist figures such as Haw"ing who perpetuate present violence and
present dreams of colonial speciesist violence in the future. $t is also those who might re=ect this violence
but whose lives and actions are caught up in a certain complicity for this violence. Crom a variety of
political standpoints, it would seem that the issue of modern, autonomous action runs into difficulties of
systematic and institutional complicity.

),
A: (eciprocal ethics
.#sti-yin, /eplorable treatment o- animals =ith ethics stemmin, -rom reciprocity is -la=e/
0in,er 3 +4ete2 4ro-essor o- $ioethics at 4rinceton *niversity" 4ro-essor at the Centre -or
Applie/ 4hilosophy at the *niversity o- 7elbo#rne17ay1O2 200323Animal Liberation at
306 he Ne= Wor> (evie= o- $oo>s2 Eol9 O02 No9 C
http://===9animal<ri,hts<library9com/teAts<m/sin,er0Q9htm
That takes us to the second question. If species is not morally important in itself, is there somethin, else that
happens to coinci/e =ith the h#man species2 on the basis o- =hich =e can ;#sti-y the in-erior
consi/eration =e ,ive to nonh#man animals!"eter #arruthers argues that it is the lac> o- a capacity to
reciprocate9 !thics2 he says2 arises o#t o- an a,reement that i- I /o not harm yo#2 yo# =ill not harm me9
0ince animals cannot ta>e part in this social contract =e have no /irect /#ties to them9 $%& The difficulty
with this approach to ethics is that it also means =e have no /irect /#ties to small chil/ren2 or to -#t#re
,enerations yet #nborn9 I- =e pro/#ce ra/ioactive =aste that =ill be /ea/ly -or tho#san/s o- years2 is it
#nethical to p#t it into a container that =ill last 1O0 years an/ /rop it into a convenient la>eG If it is,
ethics cannot be base/ on reciprocity9
01
A: 3Nonlivin,6 irrelevant
%hether or not somethin, is ?livin,@ by o#r stan/ar/s /oesn@t compromise the intrinsic
val#e o- it" there@s no clear /istinction in the environment
Nicholson M2 (0hirley .9 Nicholson2 -ormer chie- e/itor o- D#est $oo>s 2 Krotona Instit#te
o- heosophy in 5;ai2 CA2 L&aiaKs 'i//en Li-e: he *nseen Intelli,ence o- Nat#reL 1MM22
http://boo>s9,oo,le9com/boo>sG
i/Z/L.%CQnI0)WCS/IZ,aia[nicholsonSlrZSso#rceZ,bsFnavlin>sFs2 &oo,le $oo>s)
I- this vital -orce, li"e heldra"e.s :immaterial: and :subtle: something that ma>es a bo/y alive2 is the ener,y that is
eI#ivalent to all matter 5ATmc)6, then in/ee/ everythin, is alive2 incl#/in, those thin,s =e #s#ally
consi/er inanimate2 s#ch as roc>s2 =ater2 an/ molec#les9
Asoteric philosophy has long held that everything is alive. Helena Petrovna Nlavats"y, in her source boo" of ancient wisdom The ecret
Joctrine, confirms this view; :$t has been stated before now that 3ccultism does not accept anything inorganic in the Losmos. The
expression employed by cience, :Inor,anic s#bstance2K means simply that the latent li-e sl#mberin, in the
molec#les o- so calle/ Kinert matterK is inco,niBable9 ALL I0 LIJ!2 an/ every atom o- every mineral
/#st is a LIJ!2 though beyond our comprehension and perception, because it is outside the ranger of the laws "nown to those who
re=ect 3ccultism: $n this view even the remains o- a /ea/ animal contain potential li-e -orce that permeates
everythin, in the #niverse2 b#t it becomes obvio#s to #s only =hen the or,anism is imb#e/ =ith
p#rpose an/ sel- re,#lation2 as is a livin, plant or a h#man bein,9
There are certainly those who would vehemently disagree with this interpretation of what in our world 5and perhaps in the universe, too6
can be considered as life. Hoveloc" mentioned in his definition of life, similar to Nlavats"y.s, that this sort o- /e-inition =o#l/
also apply to -lo=in, streams2 to h#rricanes2 to -lames2 or possibly even to ob;ects ma/e by h#mans9
However, Loveloc> an/ 7ar,#lis2 after much soul#searching, have come to observe that the bo#n/ary bet=een
li-e an/ =hat =e consi/er inanimate (the -ire2 the -lo=in, steam2 roc>s)2 =hich most o- #s int#itively
believe not to be alive2 may not be so easily /ra=n a-ter all9 They studied the complex interactions on our 8aian earth,
the way plant becomes roc" becomes gas becomes a part of plant again. They considered that matter and energy appear to be completely
different yet completely interchangeable. They concluded that one can s#bstit#te livin, or,anisms an/ their inor,anic
environment -or each other9 This is tantamount to stating that at least all matter on earth is alive, and perhaps this incl#/es
all matter in the #niverse as =ell9 Accor/in, to Loveloc>2 Lthere is no clear /istinction any=here on the
!arthKs s#r-ace bet=een livin, an/ nonlivin, matter9 here is merely a hierarchy o- intensity ,oin,
-orm the KmaterialK environment o- the roc>s an/ the atmosphere to the livin, cells9:
0%
<<<<<AJJ AN0%!(0<<<<<
No Lin>N=e protect an ecosystem
%e /o prioritiBe the intrinsic val#e o- the environment" this is #niI#ely ecocentric
The ecocentric responsibility para/i,m is base/ on e--orts to maintain2 preserve2 or restore the health o-
ecosystems9 Hegislation pertaining to the loss of wetlands, old#growth forests, and the Dilderness Acts are =ust
some examples of where a responsibility for preserving the health of the land has been of ma=or concern 5Jes
Kardins, %,,0/ Heopold, %,-1/ *olston, %,,26. As Heopold 5%,-1; )-26 pointed out, :A science of land health
needs, first of all, a base#datum of normality, a pict#re o- ho= healthy lan/ maintains itsel- as an or,anism9L
This picture is #s#ally /erive/ -rom ecosystem st#/ies o- pristine nat#ral systems =ith their biolo,ical
inte,rity intact" that is2 ecosystems that have not been c#lt#rally mo/i-ie/9 The health and integrity of a
culturally modified eco# system can be gauged by comparing its functioning with that of a pristine counterpart,
usually located in wilderness areas. L%il/erness2: as Heopold 5%,-1; )-26 pointed out, Lass#mes #neApecte/
importance as a laboratory -or the st#/y o- lan/ health9: An ecosystem.s biological integrity is intact to the
extent that it has the ability to maintain :a balanced, integrated, adaptive community of organisms having a species
composition, diversity, and functional orga# niBation comparable to the natural habitat of the region: 5Larr M
Judley, %,9%/ cited in *olston, %,,2; -16. o meas#re the relative inte,rity o- an ecosystem, conservation
biolo,ists mi,ht compare the species constit#< tion o- an a--ecte/ area to that o- similar ecosystems that have
not been inva/e/ by h#mans9 imilarly, indicators of ecosystem health have to do with systemic capacities for
self#repair and resilience to stress. A well# functioning, healthy ecosystem is stable and sustainable as member or#
ganisms can flourish in their respective niches, free of :distress syn# drome: 5<onstanBa, 'orton, M Has"ell, %,,)6.
This is ecosystem health as Heopold defined it; :the capacity of the land for self#renewal: 5%,-1; )496. Healthy
ecosystems then do not re&uire constant repair, up"eep, and management. In contrast2 #nhealthy ecosystems
reI#ire Lenvironmental mana,ement2L constant /octorin,2 an/ en,ineerin,9 he -oc#s on ecosys< tem
health in this para/i,m is not simply to preserve =il/erness by at# tempting to outlaw culture from the
perimeters of nature. 7o/ern c#lt#re is also a part o- nat#re. *ather, the iss#e is one o- conservin, nat#ral
val#es 5*olston, %,,26#that is2 val#es that /o not place the health o- ecosystems at ris><val#es that allo=
c#lt#ral systems to -lo#rish =ithin sa-e operatin, limits an/ that are -itte/ to s#pport the biolo,ical inte,rity
o- ecosystems9 *olston 5%,,2; -%6 maintained that healthy ecosystems :produce natural values, as well as support
cultural values, and such productivity and support is the bottom#line.: his shi-t in perspective places primary
emphasis #pon the val#in, o- ecosystem inte,rity. <ul# tural development is acceptable so long as ecological
integrity or ecosys# tem health are sustainable. $n this case, the focus is on ecological sus# tainability, rather than
sustainable development.
0)
No Lin>N=e protect bio/iversity
%e protect bio/iversity an/ are instillin, a para/i,m o- intrinsic val#e rather than
instr#mentality -or o#r involvement =ith nat#re
An ecocentric perspective also ,ives moral consi/eration to ecolo,i< cal L=holes2L s#ch as -orests2
=etlan/s2 la>es2 ,rasslan/s2 /eserts<that are both biotic an/ abiotic comm#nities9 uch ecological
communities are composed of many interdependent relationships. (ather than -oc#sin, #pon the st#/y o-
species isolate/ -rom their habitat2 an ecocentric per< spective is holistic; the -oc#s is #pon
#n/erstan/in, an/ eAplainin, ho= a species or biolo,ical or,anism -#nctions =ithin the overall
conteAt o- ecosystem processes and relationships. Avery species and biological organism is viewed as a
member of a larger biotic community. Athical holism is derived from this ecocentric perspective; Aach
species and bi# ological organism depends upon a web of relationships within its eco# system/ conversely,
the stability an/ inte,rity o- an ecosystem is /epen< /ent #pon the -#nction2 role2 an/ operation o-
vario#s species interactin, in m#t#ally bene-icial =ays9
00
No Lin>Nsome inter-erence o>ay
0ome instances o- ste=ar/ship are ;#sti-iable" it priorities not ;#st h#man li-e2 b#t the
preservation o- all li-e -orms9
0#ppose that astronomers /etect a mo/est asteroi/ or comet, say five or ten "ilometres diameter, on
collision co#rse =ith planet !arth E9F. The impending collision would be perfectly natural all right, and
cataclysmic enough to do to us what another one rather li"e it probably did to the dinosaurs. 0#ch perio/ic
/isr#ptive events are nat#ral all ri,ht2 tho#,h they probably /estroy most o- the then eAtant lar,e li-e
-orms9 hese times o- rene=al provi/e opport#nities -or smaller2 -leAible or,anisms to ra/iate
opport#nistically into vacate/ niches2 an/ li-e ,oes on. Crom a biocentric or ecocentric perspective there
is little /o#bt that o#r /emise =o#l/ provi/e comparable opport#nities -or /evelopment =hich =e
c#rrently prevent9 0ho#l/ =e2 in such circumstances, step asi/e so that evol#tion can contin#e on its
ma;estic co#rseG I thin> not2 an/ I thin> -#rther that inter-erence =ith the nat#ral co#rse o- events2 i-
it co#l/ be e--ecte/2 =o#l/ be no ba/ thin,Nat least -rom o#r point o- vie= an/ in terms o- o#r
interests2 =hich it is I#ite le,itimate to promote an/ -avo#r9
uppose again that we are entering one of the periodic epochs of reduced solar energy flux. An ice age is
imminent, with massive disruptions to the agriculturally productive temperate Bones. However suppose
further that by carefully controlled emissions of greenhouse gases it would be possible to maintain a stable
and productive agriculture. A the detriment of various arctic plant and animal species, but $ do not thin" that
such interference, though :unnatural: would be therefore deplorable. Nat#re in an/ o- itsel- is not2 I
s#,,est2 somethin, to be val#e/ in/epen/ently o- h#man interests. $t could be argued moreover that in
th#s mo/i-yin, o#r nat#ral environment2 =e =o#l/ be -ollo=in, the prece/ent o- three billion years o-
or,anic evol#tion, since according to the 8aia hypothesis of Hoveloc" 5%,-,6, the atmosphere an/ oceans
are not ;#st biolo,ical pro/#cts2 b#t biolo,ical constr#ctions9
02
No Lin>Nsatellites
0atellites are the least impactin, on the environment
he #se o- space -or vario#s p#rposes is increasin, /ay by /ay9 0atellites have been la#nche/ by the space<
capable nations incl#/in, the *nite/ 0tates , erstwhile oviet !nion, the Auropean pace Agency, Crance,
8ermany, Kapan, <hina and $ndia for number of applications. The most important application relates to the field of
communications. he satellite comm#nication has bro#,ht the =orl/ closer an/ promote/ the concept o-
,lobal villa,e9 elecomm#nications =as the -irst aspect o- o#ter space activity to be commercialiBe/9 It
remains the most l#crative sector o- space commerce9 elecomm#nications is also the sector =ith the least
potential -or environmental /ama,e -rom its primary activity . This has led to a number of benefits to man.
Antertainment worldwide is provided by satellite hoo" up. The weather satellites have helped in the weather
forecasting and monitoring has been a lot easier. The transportation sector of space commerce that is, services for
carrying payloads into outer space, experienced the greatest growth during the %,91s. $t has also been the most
competitive sector. pace transportation activities have the greatest present potential for adverse environmental
effects. These activities involve the highest ris" of accidents, and they create more waste and debris than do other
types of space commerce. Thus, they have the potential to affect the environment in many different ways, both on
the Aarth and in space. *emote ensing are used for resource mapping, monitoring forest cover and other uses. $t is
a small but a competitive and politically controversial are of the commercial activities in space.
04
No Lin>N=e remove space /ebris
0pace /ebris can harm the earth@s environment i- they come into o#r atmosphere
Jebris is derived from the Crench debrise which means to brea" down. There are no treaties which have given a definition of this word. $n
general use, the term /ebris consists o- spent space ob;ects2 #se/ roc>et sta,e2 separation /evices2 shro#/s
clamps2 an/ all lar,e an/ small -ra,ments incl#/in, the particles remainin, a-ter the /isinte,ration o- the
space ob;ects9 <arl U. <hristol suggests that the debris is something that possesses tangible, physical characteristics of the "ind that can be
seen, touched, weighed and processed in factories and analysed in the laboratories. He further said that debris may consists of a space ob=ect,
including its component parts, or it may be composed of fragments that are located in space or which endure the
test of atmosphere and ultimately comes to rest on the surface of the earth.
07
4!(7Ncombine theory an/ practice
A pra,matic approach is best to preserve the li-e o- all bein,s
Jro/eman ((obert Jro/eman is a 4ro--essor an/ -ormer chair in the Dept9 o- 4hilosophy at
the *niversity o- North eAas2 30eparate/ at $irth2 0i,ns o- (approchement
!nvironmental !thics an/ 0pace !Aploration26 Eol9 13 No9 1 0prin, 200C2 4ro;ect 7#se2
Ethics and the Environment Journal
http://===9csi/9#nt9e/#/-iles/envFethicsFan/Fspace9p/-)
*evolutions in philosophic understanding and cultural worldviews inevitably accompany revolutions in science. As =e eApan/ o#r
eAploration o- the heavens2 =e =ill also re-lect on the broa/er h#man implications o- a/vances in space9
Goreover, o#r appreciation o- h#man impact on !arth systems =ill eApan/ as =e come to see the !arth =ithin
the conteAt o- the solar system9 Gost fundamentally, =e nee/ to anticipate an/ =restle =ith the epistemolo,ical2
metaphysical2 an/ theolo,ical /imensions o- space eAploration2 incl#/in, the possibility o- eAtraterres< trial
li-e an/ the /evelopment o- the space environment2 as it pertains to o#r common #n/erstan/in, o- the
#niverse an/ o- o#rselves. 0#ch re-lection sho#l/ be per-orme/ by philosophers2 metaphysicians2 an/
theolo,ians in re,#lar conversation =ith the scientists =ho investi,ate space an/ the policy ma>ers that
/irect the space pro,ram. The exploration of the universe is no experimental science, contained and controlled in a laboratory, but ta"es
place in a vast and dynamic networ" of interconnected, interdependent realities. $f 5environmental6 philosophy is to be a significant source of
insight, philosophers will need to have a much broader range of effective strategies for interdisciplinary collaborations, -ramin, their
re-lections =ith the ,oal o- achievin, policy<relevant res#lts. $f it is necessary for science and policy#ma"ers to heed the advice
of philosophers, it is e&ually necessary for philosophers to spea" in concrete terms about real#world problems. A philosophic I#estionin,
abo#t the relate/ness o- h#mans an/ the #niverse2 in collaboration =ith a pra,matic2 inter/isciplinary
approach to environmental problems2 is the most responsible means o- /evelopin, both the science an/
policy -or the eAploration o- the -inal -rontier9
0-
Alt JailsNhopeless
Anti<anthropocentrism is circ#lar an/ can never tr#ly be achieve/" it reI#ires re;ectin, all
val#es an/ pre-erences so m#ch so that =e cannot -lo#rish
he attempt to provi/e a ,en#inely non<anthropocentric set o- val#es2 or pre-erences seems to be a
hopeless I#est9 5nce =e esche= all h#man val#es2 interests an/ pre-erences =e are con-ronte/ =ith
;#st too many alternatives2 as we can see when we consider biological history over a billion year time scale.
The problem with the various non#anthropocentric bases for value which have been proposed is that they
permit too many /i--erent possibilities2 not all o- =hich are at all con,enial to #s9 An/ that matters9 De
sho#l/ be concerne/ to promote a rich2 /iverse an/ vibrant biosphere9 '#man -lo#rishin, may
certainly be incl#/e/ as a le,itimate part o- s#ch a -lo#rishin,9
he preocc#pations o- /eep ecolo,y arise as a res#lt o- h#man activities =hich impoverish an/ /e,ra/e
the I#ality o- the planetKs livin, systems. $#t these ;#/,ements are possible only i- =e ass#me a set o-
val#es 5that is, preference ran"ings6, base/ on h#man pre-erences. %e nee/ to re;ect not
anthropocentrism2 b#t a partic#larly short term an/ narro= conception o- h#man interests an/
concerns. Dhat.s wrong with shallow views is not their concern about the well#being of humans, but that
they do not really consider enough in what that well#being consists. De need to develop an enriched, fortified
anthropocentric notion of human interest to replace the dominant short#term, sectional and self#regarding
conception.
3ur sort of world, with our sort of fellow occupants is an interesting and engaging place. here is every
reason -or #s to try to >eep it2 an/ o#rselves2 ,oin, -or a -e= more cosmic secon/s E%1F
09
Alt JailsNbacteria r#les
heir totaliBin, criticism o- anthropocentrism -ailsNbacteria is the /ominant li-e -orm
<onsider some extreme cases; sho#l/ =e be concerne/ abo#t the -ate o- the planet several billion years
hence2 or abo#t the =el-are o- bacteriaG I thin> not. 0#ch concern =o#l/ be pointless an/ mis/irecte/
for the simple reason that thereKs nothin, =e can /o to a--ect the -ate o- the planet in the very lon, term2
or to serio#sly /isr#pt the =el-are o- sin,le<celle/ creat#res. $acteria have been the /ominant li-e -orm
on the planet for more than three billion years@about five sixths of evolutionary history@an/ =ill almost
certainly contin#e lon, a-ter the /emise o- o#r species. $t is often said that =e live in the Age of
Gammals/ but, as 8ould has pointed out, it is now, as it has always been, the A,e o- $acteria. here are
more e9 coli in every h#man intestine than there have ever been homo sapiens9 Gulticellular life is a
comparatively recent arrival in the biosphere, having evolved only within the last half billion years or so.
0,
Alt JailsNp#rely ecocentric ba/
4#rely ecocentric or biocentric perspectives o--ers no stan/ar/s -or ma>in, /ecisions an/
movin, -or=ar/
3ther natural properties@such as bio/iversity2 bea#ty2 harmony2 stability2 an/ inte,rityNhave been
propose/ to provi/e a non<anthropocentric basis -or val#e. Nut #nless =e sm#,,le in some
anthropocentric bearin,s2 they -are no better than the property o- bein, the o#tcome o- a nat#ral
process in provi/in, an int#itively pla#sible or/erin, o- better an/ =orse states o- the =orl/9 Cor
example, i- bio/iversity is ta>en as a basic val#e<,ivin, characteristic2 then the state o- the planet ;#st
a-ter the Cambrian eAplosion (abo#t O80 million years a,o) =o#l/ be rate/ m#ch more hi,hly than the
=orl/ o- the present2 as it =as -ar richer in terms o- the ran,e an/ /iversity o- its constit#ent creat#res9
Gost biology textboo"s recogniBe between twenty and thirty extant animal phyla@the phylum being the
fundamental design plan of an organism 5and the second broadest classification, following ."ingdom., in
biological taxonomy6. Vet the Nurgess hale, one small &uarry in Nritish <olumbia dating bac" some 401
million years, contains the remains of fifteen to twenty organisms so unli"e one another, or anything now
living, as to each constitute a separate phylum 58ould %,9,6. $n terms of basic diversity, a far greater range
of radically different anatomical types existed at that epoch of evolutionary development.
These examples disclose a serious difficulty for a view such as 8oodin.s which see"s a non#anthropocentric
naturalistic basis for value E,F. he -#n/amental problem is that =e can ran> pre-erences only ,iven
some anthropocentric bearin,s9 An a#sterely ecocentric or biocentric perspective /elivers no
/eterminate ans=er as to =hich o- the ab#n/ant an/ =on/er-#lly vario#s #n-ol/in, planetary biotas
sho#l/ be pre-erre/.
21
<<<<<Deep !colo,y K<<<<<
1NC (1/)
he c#rrent =orl/ =i/e vie= is that man /ominates over nat#re as he /oes in his
technocratic society that he create/ -or himsel-9 Deep ecolo,y is nee/e/ in or/er to a=a>en
the /eep inner spirit =ithin that is nee/e/ to chan,e =orl/ i/eals
Devall ?CO(2$ill c#rrently is a cons#ltant to the Jo#n/ation -or Deep !colo,y in 0an
Jrancisco an/ 4ro-essor !merit#s in 0ociolo,y at '#mbol/t 0tate *niversity in Arcata2
Cali-ornia9 Devall is a =ell<>no=n lect#rer an/ a#thor2 most notably (=ith &eor,e
0essions) o- the in-l#ential boo>2 Deep !colo,y (1MCO)2 an/ 0imple in 7eans2 (ich in !n/s
(1MCC)2 Livin, (ichly in an A,e o- Limits (1MM2)2 an/ Clearc#t: he ra,e/y o- In/#strial
Lo,,in, (1MM3)9 'e is completin, a boo> on biore,ional politics an/ c#lt#re2 $iore,ion on
the !/,e" 3Deep !colo,y: Livin, as i- Nat#re 7attere/" p, PO<PP)
Gany of these &uestions are perennial philosophical and religious &uestions faced by humans in all cultures
over the ages. Dhat does it mean to be a uni&ue human individualP How can the individual self maintain and
increase its uni&ueness while also being an inseparable aspect of the whole system wherein there are no sharp
brea"s between self and the otherP An ecolo,ical perspective2 in this /eeper sense2 results in what
Theodore *osBa" calls :an a=a>enin, o- =holes ,reater than the s#m o- their parts9 In
spirit2 the /iscipline is contemplative an/ therape#tic.:.
!colo,ical conscio#sness an/ /eep ecolo,y are in sharp contrast =ith the /ominant
=orl/vie= o- technocratic<in/#strial societies =hich re,ar/s h#mans as isolate/ an/
-#n/amentally separate -rom the rest o- Nat#re2 as s#perior to2 an/ in char,e o-2 the
rest o- creation9 $#t the vie= o- h#mans as separate an/ s#perior to the rest2 o-
Nat#re is only part o- lar,er c#lt#ral patterns. Cor thousands of years, Destern culture has become
increasingly obsessed with the idea of dominance; with dominance of humans over nonhuman 'ature, masculine over the feminine,
wealthy and powerful over the poor, with the dominance of the Dest over non#Destern cultures. Deep ecolo,ical
conscio#sness allo=s #s to see thro#,h these erroneo#s an/ /an,ero#s ill#sions9
1NC (2/)
%e control #niI#eness the c#rrent vie= o- /eep ecolo,y is not in the =orl/ly vie= o-
h#manity9
Jevall 945,Nill currently is a consultant to the Coundation for Jeep Acology in an Crancisco and Professor
Emeritus in ociology at Humboldt tate !niversity in Arcata, <alifornia. Jevall is a well#"nown lecturer and
2%
author, most notably 5with 8eorge essions6 of the influential boo", Deep Ecology 5%,946, and Simple in Means,
Rich in Ends 5%,996, Living Richly in an Age of Limits 5%,,)6, and Clearcut: he ragedy of !ndustrial Logging
5%,,06. He is completing a boo" on bioregional politics and culture, "ioregion on the Edge/ >Jeep Acology; Hiving
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg 776
%ar=ic> JoA2 an A#stralian philosopher2 has s#ccinctly eApresse/ the central
int#ition o- /eep ecolo,y: LIt is the i/ea that =e can ma>e no -irm ontolo,ical /ivi/e in the
-iel/ o- eAistence: hat there is no bi-#rcation in reality bet=een the h#man an/ the non<
h#man realms 999 to the eAtent that =e perceive bo#n/aries2 =e -all short o- /eep ecolo,ical
conscio#sness9L
1NC (3/)
%e nee/ to become sel-<realiBe/ in or/er to live a better li-e =ith nat#re2 the metho/ to
achieve this is =itho#t the state since it ;#st corr#pts the entire process o- sel-<realiBation9
2)
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg 77#7-6
In >eepin, =ith the spirit#al tra/itions o- many o- the =orl/Ks reli,ions2 the /eep
ecolo,y norm o- sel-<realiBation ,oes beyon/ the mo/ern %estern sel- =hich is /e-ine/ as
an isolate/ e,o strivin, primarily -or he/onistic ,rati-ication or -or a narro= sense o-
in/ivi/#al salvation in this li-e or the neAt9 his socially pro,ramme/ sense of the narrow self or social
self /islocates #s2 an/ leaves #s prey to =hatever -a/ or -ashion is prevalent in o#r society or
social re-erence ,ro#p. %e are th#s robbe/ o- be,innin, the search -or o#r #niI#e
spirit#al/biolo,ical personhoo/9 0pirit#al ,ro=th2 or #n-ol/in,2 be,ins =hen =e cease to
#n/erstan/ or see o#rselves as isolate/ an/ narro= competin, e,os an/ be,in to i/enti-y
=ith other h#mans -rom o#r -amily an/ -rien/s to2 event#ally2 o#r species9 Nut the deep# ecology
sense of self re&uires a further maturity and growth, an identification which goes beyond humanity to include the nonhuman world. %e m#st
see beyon/ o#r narro= contemporary c#lt#ral ass#mptions an/ val#es2 an/ the
conventional =is/om o- o#r time an/ place2 an/ this is best achieve/ by the me/itative /eep
I#estionin, process9 3nly in this way can we hope to attain full mature personhood and uni&ueness.
A n#rt#rin, non/ominatin, society can help in the Lreal =or>L o- becomin, a
=hole person9 he Lreal =or>L can be s#mmariBe/ symbolically as the realiBation o- Lsel-<
in<0el-L =here L0el-L stan/s -or or,anic =holeness9 This process of the full unfolding of the self can also be
summariBed by the phrase, :'o one is saved until we are all saved,: where the phrase :one: includes not only me, an individual human, but all
humans, whales, griBBly bears, whole rain forest ecosystems, mountains and rivers, the tiniest microbes in the soil, and so on.
20
%e nee/ a close relationship =ith nat#re it is as basic as the nee/ -or -oo/2 =ater2 an/
shelter -or =itho#t =e cannot become -#lly /evelope/ mat#re h#mans
A fuller discussion of the biocentric norm as it #n-ol/s itsel- in practice be,ins =ith the realiBation
that =e2 as in/ivi/#al h#mans2 an/ as comm#nities o- h#mans2 have vital nee/s =hich ,o
beyon/ s#ch basics as -oo/2 =ater2 an/ shelter to incl#/e love2 play2 creative eApression2
intimate relationships =ith a partic#lar lan/scape (or Nat#re ta>en in its entirety) as =ell
as intimate relationships =ith other h#mans2 an/ the vital nee/ -or spirit#al ,ro=th2 -or
becomin, a mat#re h#man bein,.
22
Lin>Ntechnolo,y
he technocratic society is lea/in, to over cons#mption thro#,h the sprea/ o- propa,an/a
5#r vital material nee/s are probably more simple than many realiBe9 In
technocratic<in/#strial societies there is over=helmin, propa,an/a an/ a/vertisin, =hich
enco#ra,es -alse nee/s an/ /estr#ctive /esires /esi,ne/ to -oster increase/ pro/#ction an/
cons#mption o- ,oo/s9 7ost o- this act#ally /iverts #s -rom -acin, reality in an ob;ective
=ay an/ -rom be,innin, the Lreal =or>L o- spirit#al ,ro=th an/ mat#rity9
24
Lin>Nspace
the h#man vie= nee/s to chan,e alon, =ith the notion o- o#ter space as the escape i/ea that
is ba/ =e nee/ to -oc#s o#r e--orts onto -iAin, rather than escapin, the planet that ,ave
birth to the h#man race9
Jevall 94 5,Nill currently is a consultant to the Coundation for Jeep Acology in an Crancisco
and Professor Emeritus in ociology at Humboldt tate !niversity in Arcata, <alifornia. Jevall
is a well#"nown lecturer and author, most notably 5with 8eorge essions6 of the influential boo",
Deep Ecology 5%,946, and Simple in Means, Rich in Ends 5%,996, Living Richly in an Age of
Limits 5%,,)6, and Clearcut: he ragedy of !ndustrial Logging 5%,,06. He is completing a boo"
on bioregional politics and culture, "ioregion on the Edge/ >Jeep Acology; Hiving as if 'ature
Gattered/ pg %-76
he overall claim here has been that the eAplicit or implicit #topian visions o- the
technocratic social =orl/vie=<o- h#mans /ominatin, an/ mana,in, Nat#re as a reso#rce
in the pro/#ction
o- the Larti-icial environmentL or as an eApen/able la#nchin, pa/ in the ;o#rney to o#ter
space are in/e-ensible9 '#man attention m#st no= rapi/ly shi-t to an ecolo,ical =orl/vie=
an/ #topian vision to serve as a ,#i/e -or in/ivi/#al an/ social val#es an/ action9
Intellect#al /ebate m#st -oc#s on the re-inement o- these visions to,ether =ith appropriate
social strate,ies9 !/#cational ,oals an/ strate,ies m#st -ollo= s#it
27
Lin>N/evelopmentNoverpop#lation
5verpop#lation is ba/ the people o- richer nations pro/#ce the most =aste per in/ivi/#al
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg -)6
As many ecologists have pointed out, it is also absol#tely cr#cial to c#rb pop#lation ,ro=th in the so<
calle/ developed 5i.e., over/evelope/) in/#strial societies. &iven the tremen/o#s rate o-
cons#mption an/ =aste pro/#ction o- in/ivi/#als in these societies2 they represent a m#ch
,reater threat an/ impact on the biosphere per capita than in/ivi/#als in 0econ/ an/
hir/ %orl/ co#ntries9
2-
Lin>N,overnment
&overnment interaction -or the environment is ba/ especially =hen that is applie/ to thir/
=orl/ nations that have no interest in /eep ecolo,ical i/eals in the -irst place9
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg -06
&overnments in hir/ %orl/ co#ntries 5with the exception of <osta *ica and a few others6 are
#nintereste/ in /eep ecolo,ical iss#es9 %hen the ,overnments o- in/#strial societies try to
promote ecolo,ical meas#res thro#,h hir/ %orl/ ,overnments2 practically nothin, is
accomplishe/ 5e.g., with problems of desertification6. &iven this sit#ation2 s#pport -or ,lobal action
thro#,h non,overnmental international or,aniBations becomes increasin,ly important9 Gany
of these organiBations are able to act globally :from grassroots to grassroots,: thus avoiding negative governmental interference.
29
Lin>N-armin,
Jarmin, is ba/ an/ it is a /isease that is /estroyin, the planet it nee/s to era/icate/ an/
replace/ =ith h#ntin, an/ ,atherin, it is in o#r ,enetics9
Gattered/ pg %-)#%-06
Not only is -armin, itsel- an ecolo,ical /isease, according to hepard, but the tra/itional peasant has
le/ Lthe /#llest li-e man has ever live/9L %hile the pioneer s#bsistence -arm is in -airly
close ecolo,ical harmony2 -armers in a monoc#lt#ral settin, LreI#ire constant social
s#perchar,in, to remain sane an/ h#man9L (#ral li-e is hopeless in mo/ern in/#strial
irri,ation -armin,9 Domestic plants an/ animals are biolo,ical /isasters2 he claims" they
are L,enetic ,oo-ies.: hepard agrees with Nrownell that h#mans nee/ =il/ animals in their nat#ral
habitat to mo/el themselves a-ter an/ become -#lly h#man" /omesticate/ pets an/ -arm
animals provi/e pathetically ina/eI#ate s#bstit#tes9 Cor hepard, an ecolo,ically sane -#t#re
reI#ires that almost all -orms o- -armin, to,ether =ith ,enetically<altere/ plants an/
animals m#st ,o9 Another reI#irement -or the -#t#re is the -#ll reco,nition that h#mans
are ,enetically h#nters an/ ,atherers; Gost people seem to agree that we cannot and do not want to go bac" to the past/ but
the reason given is often wrong; that time has moved on and what was can never be again. The truth is that we can not go bac" to what we never
left. 3ur home is the earth, our time the Pleistocene $ce Ages. The past is the formula for our being. <ynegetic man is us.
2,
Lin>Nscience
%e can@t eApect -or science to be the savin, ,race -or all o- o#r problems in the stat#s I#o9
0cience ;#st sho=s the vie= -rom shallo= ecolo,y2 =ith /eep ecolo,y =e are able to i/enti-y
o#rselves =ith other bein,s li>e animals an/ lan/scapes an/ -eel as they -eel2 b#t only =ith
ecolo,ical mat#rity9
:All the sciences are -ra,mentary an/ incomplete in relation to basic r#les an/ norms2 so
itKs very shallo= to thin> that science can solve o#r problems9 %itho#t basic norms2 there is
no science96
:... People can then oppose nuclear power without having to read thic" boo"s and without "nowing the myriad facts that are used in
newspapers and periodicals. And they must also find others who feel the same and form circles of friends who give one another confidence and
support in living in a way that the ma=ority find ridiculous, naive, stupid and simplistic. Nut in order to do that, one must already have enough
self#confidence to follow one.s intuition a &uality very much lac"ing in broad sections of the populace. Gost people follow the trends and
advertisements and become philosophical and ethical cripples.?
:here is a basic int#ition in /eep ecolo,y that =e have no ri,ht to /estroy other livin,
bein,s =itho#t s#--icient reason9 Another norm is that2 =ith mat#rity2 h#man bein,s =ill
eAperience ;oy =hen other li-e -orms eAperience ;oy an/ sorro= =hen other li-e -orms
eAperience sorro=9 Not only =ill =e -eel sa/ =hen o#r brother or a /o, or a cat -eels sa/2
b#t =e =ill ,rieve =hen livin, bein,s2 incl#/in, lan/scapes2 are /estroye/9 In o#r
civiliBation2 =e have vast means o- /estr#ction at o#r /isposal b#t eAtremely little mat#rity
in o#r -eelin,s9 3nly a very narrow range of feelings have interested most human beings until now.?
41
Lin>Nspace -li,ht
0pace -li,ht is ;#st a metho/ /iscovere/ by man to avoi/ the pain that he is -eelin, /eep
=ithin his inner sel-2 an/ that it contin#es in the -orm o- the nee/ to ,et o-- the roc>
beca#se it is ,oin, to >ill #s
Jevall 94 5,Nill currently is a consultant to the Coundation for Jeep Acology in an Crancisco and Professor
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %746
5ne space en,ineer o- !iseleyKs acI#aintance claime/ that L%e have ,ot to spen/
everythin, =e have2 i- necessary2 to ,et o-- this planetL beca#se the Ice A,e is ret#rnin,9 A
space a,ency a/ministrator claime/ in print that L0ho#l/ man -all bac> -rom his /estiny 999
the con-ines o- this planet =ill /estroy him9L !iseley -in/s the eApression o- this >in/ o-
contin#in, psychic alienation -rom the planet shallo= an/ /an,ero#s:
It is not -air to say this planet =ill /estroy #s9 0pace -li,ht is a brave vent#re2 b#t
#pon the soarin, roc>ets are pro;ecte/ all the -ears an/ evasions o- man9 'e has -le/ across
t=o =orl/s2 -rom the =in/y corri/ors o- =il/ savannahs to the s#nlit =orl/ o- the min/2
an/ still he -lees9 !arth =ill not /estroy him9 It is he =ho threatens to /estroy the earth9
4%
Alt 0olvencyNsave planet
man nee/s to as> /eeper I#estions abo#t the society that =e live in an/ also as> those same
I#estions to himsel-9 Deep ecolo,y is the best option in the terms o- savin, the planet9
:he essence o- /eep ecolo,y is to as> /eeper I#estions9 he a/;ective \/eepK stresses that
=e as> =hy an/ ho=2 =here others /o not9 Jor instance2 ecolo,y as a science /oes not as>
=hat >in/ o- a society =o#l/ be the best -or maintainin, a partic#lar ecosystem<that is
consi/ere/ I#estion -or val#e theory2 -or politics2 -or ethics9 As lon, as ecolo,ists >eep
narro=ly to their science2 they /o not as> s#ch I#estions9 %hat =e nee/ to/ay is a
tremen/o#s eApansion o- ecolo,ical thin>in, in =hat I call ecosophy 9 Sophy comes from the 8ree" term
sophia, Wwisdom,. which relates to ethics, norms, rules, and practice. Acosophy, or /eep ecolo,y2 then2 involves a shi-t
-rom science to =is/om9
:Cor example, we need to as" &uestions li"e, Dhy do we thin" that economic growth and high levels of consumption are so importantP The
conventional answer would be to point to the economic conse&uences of not having economic growth. Nut in deep ecology, we as" whether the
present society fulfills basic human needs li"e love and security and access to nature, and, in so doing, we &uestion our society.s underlying
assumptions. %e as> =hich society2 =hich e/#cation 2 which form of religion, is bene-icial -or all li-e on
the planet as a =hole2 an/ then =e as> -#rther =hat =e nee/ to /o in or/er to ma>e the
necessary chan,es. %e are not limite/ to a scienti-ic approach" =e have an obli,ation to
verbaliBe a total vie=9
4)
Alt 0olvencyNno revol#tion
Deep ecolo,y helps to provi/e the best e--orts to help -iA the planet an/ stabiliBes the
pop#lation =itho#t revol#tion
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg -4#-76
LJor /eep ecolo,y2 there is a core /emocracy in the biosphere9 In /eep ecolo,y2 =e have the
,oal not only o- stabiliBin, h#man pop#lation b#t also o- re/#cin, it to a s#stainable
minim#m =itho#t revol#tion or /ictatorship I sho#l/ thin> =e m#st have no more than 100
million people i- =e are to have the variety o- c#lt#res =e ha/ one h#n/re/ years a,o9
$eca#se =e nee/ the conservation o- h#man c#lt#res2 ;#st as =e nee/ the conservation o-
animal species96
40
Alt 0olvencyNno blin/ness
he ecotopian vie= helps to remove the ban/a,es that are coverin, o#r eyes to sho= #s the
c#rrent iss#e that =e are -acin, =ithin o#r technocratic society
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %7)6
Creatin, ecotopian -#t#res has practical val#e9 It helps #s artic#late o#r ,oals an/
presents an i/eal =hich may never be completely realiBe/ b#t =hich >eeps #s -oc#se/ on
the i/eal9 De can also compare our personal actions and collective public decisions on specific issues with this goal. %e s#,,est
that ecotopian visions ,ive perspective on vain<,lorio#s ill#sions o- both revol#tionary
lea/ers an/ the propa,an/a o- /e-en/ers o- the stat#s I#o9 J#rthermore2 ecotopian visions
help #s see the /istance bet=een =hat o#,ht to be an/ =hat is no= reality in o#r
technocratic<in/#strial society9
42
Alt 0olvencyNinterconnecte/
Deep ecolo,y -oc#ses on one branch o- science an/ that is li-e sciences an/ teaches that the
=orl/ is all interconnecte/
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %-1#%-%6
Con-ronte/ by +eAamples o- ecolo,ical /ama,e12 itKs easy -or the chil/ to see the nee/
-or conservation an/ then to ,o on -rom conservation to morality easy -or him to ,o on
-rom the &ol/en (#le in relation to plants an/ animals an/ the earth that s#pports them to
the &ol/en (#le in relation to h#man bein,s9 he morality to =hich a chil/ ,oes on -rom
the -acts o- ecolo,y an/ the parables o- erosion is a #niversal ethic9 Conservation morality
,ives nobo/y an eAc#se -or -eelin, s#perior2 or claimin, special privile,es9 LDo as yo#
=o#l/ be /one byL applies to o#r /ealin,s =ith all >in/s o- li-e in every part o- the =orl/9
%e shall be permitte/ to live on this planet only -or as lon, as =e treat all nat#re =ith
compassion an/ intelli,ence
44
Alt 0olvencyN-abric o- li-e
7an is a part o- the -abric o- li-e an/ that there are too many people on this planet9
Gattered/ pg %-%6
7an is b#t a part o- the -abric o- li-e</epen/ent on the =hole -abric -or his very
eAistence9 As the most hi,hly /evelope/ tool<#sin, animal2 he m#st reco,niBe that the
#n>no=n evol#tionary /estinies o- other li-e -orms are to be respecte/9 here are no= too
many h#man bein,s2 an/ the problem is ,ro=in, rapi/ly =orse9 he ,oal =o#l/ be hal- o-
the present =orl/ pop#lation2 or less]999
47
Alt $estNno violence
Deep ecolo,y is the best inro#n/ option since the ethical response to this lea/s man to
acceptin, the =orl/ -or =hat it is an/ re;ectin, all other -orms o- violence that is pla,#in,
the =orl/ to/ay
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %7-#%796
7ysticism enables man to comprehen/ the #nity o- /irect eAperience =hich is
/enie/ to science2 an/ in so /oin, he is in to#ch =ith the in-l#ence o- environmental -orces
an/ relationships conteAt#ally rather than thro#,h the ina/eI#ate symbolic formulations of
scientific method. $n Nrownell.s mysticism,, man is more -#lly a=are o- the sanctions an/ limits o- the
nat#ral =orl/ beca#se he is sensitive to their /irect intervention in his /aily li-e2 an/ so is
better able to overcome his anthropocentrism an/ shape his social li-e in accor/ance =ith
ecolo,ical norms E$n an ecologically healthy manRnature environmentF s#b;ectivity is trans-orme/ an/
;#/,ment be,ins to be con/itione/ by respect -or the normativeness o- ecosystemic
relationships an/ sanctions
4-
Alt 0olvencyNsave all
7an nee/s to leave the cra/le o- the #rban =orl/ in or/er to save not only the
environment2 b#t also himsel-2 as =ell as /ecentraliBe society to have a healthly inte,rate/
h#man society
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %79#%7,6
Crom this ecological metaphysicalRepistemological base, Nrownell launches his attac" on the urbanRindustrial worldview. The
gargantuan siBe and complexity of modern industrial societies eliminates the possibility for direct concrete experience;
In/#strial man2 -ra,mente/ by the /ivisive specialiBation he is -orce/ to en,a,e in2 vainly
compensates -or his lac> o- /irect eAperience by vicario#s c#ltivation o- still other specialiBations2 either as
spectator or participant in eAtroverte/ p#rs#it o- pleas#re an/ material ,oo/s2 or as lone practitioner o-
hi,hly =ro#,ht technical an/ pro-essional s>ills9 #or "ro$nell, o#r c#lt#re is a c#lt#re o- escape an/
s#bstit#tive behavior9 0#bstit#tive behavior -orces #s to separate emotion -rom /irect action" an/ this
separation2 "ro$nell thought, is the essence o- /eca/ence9
Nrownell was especially critical of urban life;
he greater aggressiveness and violence of city life stemmed from an e%cessive concentration of the speciali&ed functions and
organi&ations' "ut because the activities of corporate organi&ations increasingly reached out to include the remotest of rural areas, they too
became affiliated $ith the e%tensive urban culture' All industrial life is lived in the urban conte%t( )*rban men+ have learned to value false
gods' hey have been seduced by bright, divisive cultures, speciali&ed perfections and privileges, glittering fragments, gadgets, ready,made arts,
and importations bought promiscuously $ithout relevance to the basic ma-ing,using rhythm that is central in any good life' hey live on the loot
of the $orld, on trin-ets and odds and ends, the only value of $hich is often the thrill of ac.uisition'
<olwell sums up Nrownell.s criti&ue of industrial society in his review of Nrownell.s writing
!n limiting concrete e%perience and reinforcing ac.uisitiveness, the goal of urban culture becomes the perpetual e%pansion of the
scope of ac.uisitive e%perience' An acI#isitive c#lt#re is a man<centere/ c#lt#re It is morally narro= in its o#tloo>
an/ s#ici/al in its co#rse it -ails to realiBe that the /estiny o- man2 his =ell<bein, an/ happiness2 m#st be
-rame/ in accor/ance =ith the =el-are o- the li-e o- the =hole o- Nat#re an/ not ;#st his o=n imme/iate
/esires9 to achieve a healthy2 ecolo,ically inte,rate/ h#man comm#nity2 $ro=nell calle/ -or the
/ecentraliBation o- society: Lhe tr#e h#man comm#nity is incompatible =ith corporate mass society9L he
reform of education, even in ecological $ays, is by itself insufficient' Education as a social institution is part and parcel of the larger social
conte%t'

49
Alt 0olvencyN-easible
he sol#tion is as plain as /ay the =orl/ o- the alt9 is -easible in the =orl/ =ith o#r
technolo,y in the c#rrent =orl/9
Gattered/ pg %-0#%-26
!nli"e some of the earlier #topian literat#re, hepard s&uarely comes to ,rips =ith the recent
anthropolo,ical /,enetic literat#re on 'omo sapiens9 $n any realistic #topian plannin, -or
the -#t#re2 it is necessary -or o#r physical an/ emotional health that =e incorporate into
o#r lives the central -eat#res o- a h#ntin,/,atherin, =ay o- li-e (rit#als2 eAercise2 etc9)9
0econ/ly2 mo/ern ecolo,ical -in/in,s s#pport the eAistence o- h#,e eApanses o- #nmana,e/
=il/erness to ens#re the inte,rity o- ecosystems an/ =il/li-e habitat9 hepard also addresses this issue in
his utopian proposal. As he points out;
$t is impossible to overestimate the ecological crime of species extinction, which is the only irreparable environmental damage by man.
Axtinction is caused by alteration of the habitat. The measures necessary to avoid it are the same that preserve the biosphere as a whole. The
prevention of extinction should be the criterion for a plan or policy of environmental activity of any "ind.
hepard.s proposal is somewhat desperate in that he plans for the world population to stabiliBe at about eight billion people by the year )1)1.
$n order to meet the re&uirements for huntingRgathering existence, he ar,#es that cities of the "ind designed by Joxiadis or Paolo
oleri mi,ht be str#n, in narro= ribbons alon, the e/,es o- the continents an/ islan/s =hile
the center o- the continents =o#l/ be allo=e/ to ret#rn to the =il/9
I- ei,ht billion people 999 =ere to live in some 1P02000 cities (o- O02000 inhabitants)2 an/
these cities =ere #ni-ormly /istrib#te/ over the earthKs -i-ty million sI#are miles o- lan/2
only some three h#n/re/ sI#are miles o- lan/ =o#l/ s#rro#n/ each city (allo=in, t=o
sI#are miles -or each
city itsel-)9 Cities =o#l/ then be only abo#t seventeen miles apart2 an/ no tr#e =il/erness
=o#l/ be possible9 I-2 instea/ o- bein, /isperse/ in the interiors o- continents2 they =ere
constr#cte/ in a bro>en line on the perimeters o- the continents2 the =hole o- the interior
co#l/ be -ree/
-or ecolo,ical an/ evol#tionary systems on a scale essential to their o=n reI#irements an/
to h#man cyne,etic c#lt#re.
%hat =o#l/ provi/e the basic /iet -or h#mans livin, in these ,reat ribbons o- cities
stretchin, en/lessly aro#n/ the continents =ith a,ric#lt#re ,one2 only occasional ,ar/ens2
an/ meat bro#,ht bac> -rom h#ntin,/,atherin, -orays into the =il/ernessG urprisingly, hepard.s
answer is a -oo/ technolo,y base/ on microbial li-e: $iochemistry an/ microbial biolo,y ma>e
possible the recovery o- a livable planet complementin, ecolo,y rather than opposin, it ... the
transition to non#land#based subsistence might ta"e half a century ... but perhaps three#&uarters of the earth could be freed from its present
destructive use.
4,
Alt 0olvencyN/estroy the -irst =orl/
7an nee/s to -iA the -irst =orl/ that create/ him since his secon/ =orl/ that he create/ is
/estroyin, the -irst
$n his essay :The Hast Gagician,: which appeared in his collection of essays, The $nvisible Pyramid 5%,-16, Aiseley says that humanity now faces
a magician who will shape its final form; ... a magician in the shape of his own collective brain, that uni&ue and spreading force which in its
manipulations will precipitate the last miracle, or, li"e the sorcerer.s apprentice, wrea" the last disaster. he possible nat#re o- the
last /isaster the =orl/ o- to/ay has ma/e all too evi/ent9 7an has become a sprea/in,
bli,ht =hich threatens to e--ace the ,reen =orl/ that create/ him 999 the nat#re o- the
h#man pre/icament is ho= nat#re is to be reentere/< ho= man2 the relatively #nthin>in,
an/ pro#/ creator o- the secon/ =orl/< the =orl/ o- c#lt#re may revivi-y an/ restore the
-irst =orl/ =hich cherishe/ an/ bro#,ht him into bein,.
71
!/#cation no= -ails
!/#cation in the stat#s I#o /oesn@t have the ri,ht mentality to attain ethics o- the
environment
Gattered/ pg %-16
Speciali&ation ''' is necessary and inevitable' An/ i- one e/#cates the =hole min/<bo/y alon, =ith the
symbol<#sin, intellect2 that >in/ o- necessary specialiBation =onKt /o m#ch harm9 $#t yo#
people /onKt e/#cate the min/<bo/y9 Wo#r c#re -or too m#ch scienti-ic specialiBetion is a
-e= more co#rses in the h#manities $y themselves the h#manities /onKt h#maniBe9 heyKre
simply another -orm o- specialiBation on the symbolic level' Reading /lato or listening to a lecture on ' S'
Eliot doesn0t educate the $hole human being: li-e courses in physics or chemistry, it merely e/#cates the symbol
manip#lator an/ leaves the rest o- the livin, min/<bo/y in its pristine state o- i,norance
an/ ineptit#/e9
7%
7)
!/#cation Key
e/#cation re-orms are nee/e/ to help promote the i/ea o- sel-<realiBation9
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %7,6
he ,oal o- the school is to promote the sel-<realiBation o- each comm#nity member2
an/ this lea/s to an appreciation o- the broa/ =orl/ beyon/ the c#lt#re itsel-9 7an is a part
o- Nat#re2 his -#ll h#manity is realiBe/ =hen he has /e-ine/ his o=n partic#larity in
relation to Nat#reKs totality^he comm#nity is the s#preme e/#cational environment2 an/
ho=ever s#ch e/#cators may try to instit#te instr#ctional re-orm in the schools /esi,ne/ to
enhance sel-<realiBation an/ overcome alienation2 their e--orts =ill -ail as lon, as the
comm#nity is or,aniBe/ on the principles o- mass<society9 !/#cation m#st there-ore
become the a,ency o- social reconstr#ction to ma>e the small comm#nity the primary
environment -or e/#cational activity9 In so heavily emphasiBin, the /epen/ency o-
e/#cational re-orm on social reconstr#ction2 $ro=nell has ma/e the possibility o-
e/#cational re-orm hin,e on =hat amo#nts to #topian social innovation9
70
!/#cation >ey
!/#cation is >ey to help sprea/ an/ en-orce the /eep ecolo,ical philosophy into the =orl/
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %7)6
In a//ition to actin, as a provocative catalyst -or p#blic /ebate2 creatin, ecotopian
visions is also #se-#l -or the /evelopment o- ecolo,ical conscio#sness in people =ho str#,,le
=ith these visions9 his process enables one to sharpen both the ima,e o- the ecotopian
-#t#re2 an/ the rational s>ills nee/e/ in p#blic /ebate to ar,#e the points9
%e -eel this process is an essential part o- environmental e/#cation -or hi,h school<
an/ colle,e<a,e st#/ents9 his may help them see viable alternatives to the stat#s I#o =hich
they can incorporate into their o=n lives9 !ven ,rammar school chil/ren can ,ain -rom this
activity9 %ith some in,en#ity on the part o- teachers2 /eep ecolo,y principles can be
intro/#ce/ #sin, the /eep I#estionin, process9
72
74
4ermNt=o =orl/s
7an nee/s to blen/ his t=o =orl/s< the =orl/ that he came -rom =ith the =orl/ that he
create/ to ma>e the thir/ =orl/ that incorporates them both by /evelopin, an ethic that
eAten/s to the livin, =orl/ aro#n/ him as =ell
o/ay manKs mo#ntin, n#mbers an/ his technolo,ical po=er to poll#te his
environment reveal a sin,le /eman/in, necessity; the necessity -or him conscio#sly to reenter
an/ preserve2 -or his o=n sa-ety2 the ol/ -irst =orl/ -rom =hich he ori,inally emer,e/9 'is
secon/ =orl/2 /ra=n -rom his o=n brain2 has bro#,ht him -ar2 b#t it cannot ta>e him o#t
o- nat#re2 nor can he live by escapin, into his secon/ =orl/ alone9 'e m#st incorporate
-rom the =is/om o- the aAial thin>ers an ethic not alone /irecte/ to=ar/ his -ello=s2 b#t
eAten/e/ to the livin, =orl/ aro#n/ him9 He must ma"e, by way of his cultural world, an actual conscious reentry into
the sunflower forest he had thought merely to exploit or abandon. 'e m#st /o this in or/er to s#rvive. I- he s#ccee/s
he =ill2 perhaps2 have create/ a thir/ =orl/ =hich combines elements o- the ori,inal t=o
an/ =hich sho#l/ brin, closer the responsibilities an/ nobleness o- character envisione/ by
the aAial thin>ers
77
*topian Key
#topian i/eas are the only =ay that =e can maintain c#lt#ral an/ biolo,ical /iversity9
as if 'ature Gattered/ pg %-76
*topian proposals =hich are less speci-ic an/ less ,lobal in scope may increase the
li>elihoo/ that c#lt#ral as =ell as biolo,ical /iversity =ill be preserve/ as each area =or>s
o#t its o=n #niI#e version o- reinhabitation9
7-
<<<<<Deep !colo,y AJJ AN0%!(0<<<<<
Alt JailsNcentric ba/
A centric vie= o- the =orl/ is ba/
Gc<lellan ,0 5Kohn 5PhJ, !niversity of <olorado at Noulder6 studies the discursive &ualities of organiBing with
attention to issues of "nowledge, identity, collaboration, and change. Dith an interest in communicative approaches
for living and wor"ing together in an increasingly pluralistic society, his research explores collaborative practices
that might enable creative decision#ma"ing and mutually#beneficial, sustainable ways of organiBing. As a former
organiBational change strategy consultant, his research attends to organiBing discourses that simultaneously enable
and constrain opportunities to transform the ways we understand and engage organiBational life/ '3'J!AH
A<3H38V $n Praise of Dildness and $n earch of Harmony Dith Averything That Goves, %,,0
http;RRwww.colorado.eduRpeacestudiesRsustainable#economicsRnondual#ecologyRnondual#ecology.html6
The ambivalence of deep ecologists toward technology is clearly expressed in the recent boo", 8aia.s Hidden Hife, by 'icholson and
*osen. This contains some of the best recent thin"ing in deep ecology#wonderful arguments for the recognition of living being in the
natural world, even among the roc"s and stars, etc. Nut almost every one of the )- authors, from Kames Hoveloc" to
Thomas Nerry, une&uivocally re=ects technology as an invalid, unnatural, even wic"ed form of existence.
Geanwhile, they idealiBe the vanishing dream of free, wild biological systems. They seem to want to restore them to their
erstwhile splendor#as though evolution ever moved bac"wardsX This is wishful thin"ing, li"e when we
imagined the earth was the center of the universe, or that humans represented the culmination, and hence the
end, of evolution.
This point of view is called biocentrism, and is proudly opposed to anthropocentrism, which is supposed to
be outmoded and provincial, a naive and self#serving .humanist. outloo". Nut to me biocentrism is little
better. $t is based on the assumption that evolution reached its pinacle not with Gan, but with Niology. Nut
evolution isn.t li"e that. he never reaches a pinacle. he never rests, and she never ever turns bac".
A contemplative biologist would not want to be .centric. about any stage of the evolutionary process. Avolution unfolds
continually and mysteriously out of itself; he has no goal, claims no achievements, and is uninterested in
any past or future states. Kust this mysterious present moment unfolding, in which there is most definitely and
certainly nothing to cling to. ound familiar, dharma studentsP Dhere have we heard about this beforeP All we see in the world
around us, =ust as with what we find in our own minds is good, or at least authentic, valid, wor"able. There is nothing to re=ect,
nothing to protect, nothing to be centric about. Dhy can.t we be as wise in our understanding of the evolution
of this planet as we are gradually becoming about the evolution of our own states of mindP
79
Alt JailsNa#thors /on@t solve
he a#thors o- /eep ecolo,y /on@t -iA other problems o- society
Niology is a series of provisional s"etches for negentropic systems. These systems are built out of and on top
of and into each other in endless shells of interdependent co#arising fields, =ust as the microbial world is built
out of and on top of and into the material world of the four elements, =ust as the multi#celled 5i.e. multi#
microbe6 animals and plants and insects are built out of and into the microbes, and we humans ourselves are
built out of and onto the animals and plants. The world of technology, cultural behaviors and abstract M
concrete symbolic structures are li"ewise built out of, on top of, and into human brains, emotional drives and
bodies. This is planetary symbiosis at wor". Perfectly natural. All this creative activity is blowing in the
restless wind of change, of $mpermanence, li"e the thought forms that flow through our minds. Gany
humans, particularly in the contemplative traditions, have come to understand the wor"ing of our mind, the
theory and also to some degree the practice#but we still seem to hold primitive beliefs about the wor"ings of
planetary evolution and life systems.
The leading thin"ers $.ve met in deep ecology today all seem to have this biocentric attitude, 8ary nyder, Arne
'aess, Nill Juvall, Kohn eed, Joloress Hachapelle.... Gany or most of them have good dharma teachers too, but they
don.t listen to them carefully enough, in my opinion. They tal" about surrender to what is natural, following the
Tao, and so on, but are not willing to stretch their arms all the way wide open, and let Averything in. Averything That Goves.
They would li"e to exclude certain things, exploitive technology, warfare, social in=ustice, famine, urban
landscape, television, the extinction of non competitive species, the collapse of planetary life support systems
for higher species....
7,
No Lin>Ntech
echnolo,y is not ba/ they are a part o- the balance o- nat#re
Wo# have to ,o to %alt %hitman an/ %illiam $la>e to -in/ a real ,rasp o- these elementary s#b;ects2
biolo,y an/ evol#tion2 a vie= in =hich all o- Li-e is honore/ impartially2 /evils an/ an,els to,ether2 on
their o=n scary terms9 Yen teachers give clear expression to this, as do Tibetan teachers at times. American $ndians "now it,
*umi says it clearly again and again, all the contemplatives are clear on this understanding. $t.s time for deep ecologists to get up to
speed here. I thin> the limite/2 overly precio#s vie= o- /eep ecolo,y to/ay eAists beca#se /eep ecolo,ists
are not serio#s contemplative mystics9 hey specialiBe/ too early in a limite/ pro-essional eApertise on
the Knat#ral environmentK9 0erio#s ecolo,ists m#st learn to let ,o o- personal or social a,en/as2 an/
embrace everythin, that arises2 the ,oo/ the ba/ an/ the #,ly9 5nly a-ter this pain-#l s#rren/er can
one ,o /eep9
echnolo,y seems to play the role o- the /evil -or #s in this o#tloo>9 hereKs nothin, =ron, =ith havin,
a /evil or t=o or ten million aro#n/2 b#t /evils sho#l/ not be ins#lte/2 an/ no attempts to banish or
vanI#ish them have ever been s#ccess-#l to my >no=le/,e9 Hi"e wic"ed fairies, if you do not invite devils to the
feast, honor and feed them, they ma"e worse mischief. Those =ho =o#l/ =orship the an,els o- p#re K#nspoile/K
biolo,ies2 m#st allo= the /evils o- technolo,y their /#e9 his means reco,niBin, them as in/epen/ent
evol#tionary -orces2 in symbiosis2 li>e the microbes2 =ith biolo,ical systems9
-1
No Lin>Ntech
In the c#rrent =orl/ there is a ne= -orm o- evol#tion ta>in, over an/ that is the
technobiotic evol#tion that =e nee/ to accept
The first &uestion here must be, =hat are these ne= -orms o- li-e that seem to have ta>en over the planet
recently2 these machines2 the social an/ metabolic behavior systems o- civiliBation2 the ne= ener,y2
in-ormation S transportation net=or>s that hol/ o#r planet in s#ch a close an/ /ea/ly embraceG Are
they a#thentic biolo,ical entities2 le,itimate eApressions o- sentience2 the res#lt o- the nat#ral =or>in,
o- evol#tion on a pristine planetary =il/erness G $f so, they may be entitled to some respect, perhaps protection or even
saving under the <ode of *ights of entient Neings.
The Avolution of 'on#J'A based Hife#systems; :As soon as the primeval soup provided conditions in which molecules could ma"e
copies of themselves, the replicators themselves too" over. Cor more than three thousand million years, DNA has been the only
replicator =orth tal>in, abo#t in the =orl/9 $#t it /oes not necessarily hol/ these monopoly ri,hts -or
all time9 %henever con/itions arise in =hich a ne= >in/ o- replicator can ma>e copies o- itsel-2 the ne=
replicators =ill ten/ to ta>e over2 an/ start a ne= >in/ o- evol#tion o- their o=n9 5nce this ne=
evol#tion be,ins2 it =ill in no necessary sense be s#bservient to the ol/9 he ol/ ,ene<selecte/ evol#tion2
by ma>in, brains2 provi/e/ the Kso#pK in =hich the -irst memes arose9 5nce sel-<copyin, memes ha/
arisen2 their o=n2 m#ch -aster >in/ o- evol#tion too> o--9 De biologists have assimilated the idea of genetic evolution
so deeply that we tend to forget that is only one of many possible "inds of evolution.: *ichard Jaw"ins, The elfish 8ene
De humans are no different than we have been for the last &uarter million years or so#our brains and bodies, our emotions and instincts
are the same. Nut ever since we started using symbolic systems to good effect, some ten or fifteen thousand years ago, the world has
been transformed. These symbolic codes, and the "nowledge, tools and social behaviors that came with them, have given rise to
immensely vigorous evolutionary activity; from agriculture and animal herding to social systems and warfare, from city states M nations
to space exploration and global ecological crisis, all are expressions of the power of this new life activity.
In evol#tionary terms2 the =hole biolo,ical >in,/om2 all the animals2 plants2 microbes etc2 is a set o-
KmorphsK2 or bo/ies2 b#ilt accor/in, to the in-ormation co/es containe/ in the DNA molec#le9 *ntil
h#mans came alon, no in-ormation co/es s#--iciently compleA to b#il/ bo/ies or shape behaviors
eAiste/ on this planet o#tsi/e o- DNA9 Nothin, else hel/ compleA /ata abo#t ho= to b#il/ a ne,entropic
ob;ect that co#l/ /o somethin, to >eep itsel- ,oin,2 an/ to copy2 or replicate2 that precio#s li-e<,ivin,
in-ormation<not the clo#/s2 not the air2 not the s#nshine or the heat in the earth2 not =ater or m#/2 not
the roc>s2 not even the silicates an/ crystals<all o- the vast =orl/ o- the -o#r elements =as /ea/2 inert2
i9e9 s#b;ect to entropy9 3nly the J'A molecule could code information, and use it to create things, li"e bodies.
0o -o#r billion years o- DNA /riven evol#tion =ent peace-#lly by2 a,e a-ter a,e o- /reamy biolo,ies9
Then finally one of the morphs, or body types 5humans6 develops a brain capable itself of independently storing and manipulating
information structures complex enough to generate morphs or bodies of their own. At last, the -irst ne= copyin, system in the
history o- li-e] he =orl/ o- technolo,y an/ c#lt#re =as born9 Dith the tremendous symbolic activity which our
incomprehensibly large brains allowed, information codes had =umped out of their ancient amino acid cradle, and began to pursue .their.
own evolutionary destiny. Imme/iately a torrent o- ne= morpholo,ies an/ behaviors =ere loose/ on o#r
innocent an/ #ns#spectin, planet9 0#ch thin,s as lan,#a,e2 alphabets2 mathematics2 en,ineerin,2 arts
an/ cra-ts2 reli,ions2 belie- systems2 social c#stoms2 the st#-- o- technobiotic civiliBation2 ne= tools2 ne=
h#ntin,2 -armin, an/ her/in, behaviors2 ne= b#il/in,s2 ne= -orms o- social or,aniBation9 $n a blinding
flash, from an evolutionary time frame, the planet has been trans-orme/9 A new form of evolution is at last unfolding here.
In-ormation co/es are -ree2 -ree to replicate in any =ay they =ish or are able9 The rate of evolutionary change
undergoes a blinding, heart#stopping degree of acceleration, as compared with biological evolution.
No lon,er -orce/ to be ma/e o- either meat or cell#lose or chitin, 5the animals, plants M insects6, yo# co#l/ ma>e
a bo/y no= o#t o- anythin, yo# li>e/9 A =oo/ or roc> cl#b (arm)2 =ool S leather clothes2 a /irt or lo,
or steel S ,lass ho#se (s>in)2 metal shovels S s=or/s (cla=s)2 ceramics2 r#bber2 plastic2 silicon2 etc9
Gany vibrant morphs are nothing but pure behaviors, li"e social customs, languages, music, government, and so on. Gany more, among
the most evolutionarily potent in fact, are completely abstract in morphological character#most notably ideas, the pure and applied
sciences, music, dreams, etc. All of these are bodies, or life processes, in the scary new meaning of the word. All are active, hungry,
exciting, and dangerous. I- yo# bac> o-- ten tho#san/ miles into space an/ sI#int yo#r eyes2 as a biolo,ist
-%
-rom another planet mi,ht /o2 yo# =o#l/ see that this planet ha/ ,one thro#,h an evol#tionary phase
chan,e2 -rom a p#re KclimaAK biolo,y to early techno<biolo,y9
'ow then, if there is in fact a ne= >in/ o- evol#tion happening on this planet, and the stupendous changes in the last ten
tho#san/ years s#,,est clearly that there is, we cannot afford to ignore it, to dismiss it as dangerous, ahuman, or
unpleasant. Above all, =e m#st not thin> =e h#mans2 ;#st beca#se =e Lhoste/L it2 can control or even
#n/erstan/ this ne= -orm o- li-e very =ell2 any more than =e /o nat#re hersel-9 his is =here /eep
ecolo,y can be o- help: the attit#/e =e sho#l/ have to=ar/ this ne= li-e process co#l/ be one base/ on
respect2 on a=e an/ =on/er2 rather than on li>es an/ /isli>es9 De should, in fact, have the same attitude toward
techno#biotic evolution that we are finally learning to have toward good old biological nature herself. These are mysteries, divine 5that is
to say natural6 in origin. %e sho#l/ not see> to accept or re;ect2 nor even to control them2 b#t rather to learn
ho= to coeAist amon, them2 an/ accept their inherent =il/ness2 to appreciate this /an,ero#s I#ality2 to
honor an/ respect2 even revere it2 even =hen itKs /an,ero#s or li-e threatenin, to #s9
-)
No Lin>Ntech
$iolo,ical evol#tion has become a s#bset o- evol#tion -or this planet an/ been paire/ =ith
technolo,ical evol#tion
here may yet arise on this planet2 an evol#tionarily stable technolo,ical civiliBation2 b#t =ho =o#l/
=ish to assert that this one<in<a<million shot ;#st happens to be this one2 the -irst ever ma/e on this
yo#n, an/ still innocent planetG This marriage of biology and technology may have to arise again and again, and again, until
some incredibly luc"y combination of biological traits falls in symbiosis with a perfect, sweet and sensitive technology. o/ayKs
=orl/2 =ith o#r a,,ressive<-erocio#s technolo,y lin>e/ to the primitive emotional a,en/a o- a top<en/
pre/ator<carnivor2 /oes not so -ar seem to be that per-ect, stable union. Nut of course you never "now...
Noundaries, to Hife#systemsP o who are weP Are we still pure humans anymoreP $s it even possible to conceive of technology,
machines and information systems etc, as a separate class of existence from humansP $ thin" not. %e have become
technobionts2 symbiotic members o- this ne= li-e-orm =hich has ta>en over the planet9 Any alien
biolo,ist =o#l/ reco,niBe this at a ,lance9 5#r Lh#manL nat#re has mer,e/ =ith the ne=
morpholo,ies to become technobiotic nat#re9 $t is a nature that cannot be clearly conceived. $ts boundaries cannot be
drawn, as they include everything in our culture, in a variety of groupings on endless levels of meaning and organiBation. Through all
this evolutionary transformation, is our primordial true nature, our original buddhanature still clearP $ thin" so. True nature is
enormously mysterious, but one of its most reliably established &ualities is its indestructibleness, its va=ra nature. Today.s buddhas report
that buddhanature is alive and well, in spite of the odd circumstances and curious surroundings it finds itself in.
'ew Hife9 A ne= -orm o- Li-e has arisen on this planet2 =hich co#l/ be calle/ the echnobia9 Its po=er
an/ spee/ o- evol#tion lea/ instantly o-- every scale on =hich =e are acc#stome/ to meas#re livin,
systems9 It is yo#n,2 b#t terri-yin,ly2 thrillin,ly2 over=helmin,ly vi,oro#s9 It is -ee/in, on #s h#mans2
;#st as =e -ee/ on the plant an/ animal >in,/oms2 an/ ;#st as they -ee/ on the microbial >in,/oms2
=ho rest in t#rn on the material #niverse9 %e are not in control o- this process2 =e are merely a part o-
it9 $t is happening to us, and in spite of us, as well as because of us. $n this case we are the host organism, the medium in which
technobiotic lifeforces are finding their fertile soil. De humans, with our obsolete bodies, easily exploitable emotional drives, and our
fabulous brains, are the primeval soup our symbiotic technology partners have come to live in.
%hat this means is that p#rely biolo,ical evol#tion is no lon,er the main -oc#s o- li-e on this planet9 ItKs
become a s#bplot2 rele,ate/ in its =il/ -orms to o#t o- the =ay corners2 to empty lots2 roa/si/es2 an/
crac>s in the si/e=al> o- civiliBation9 ItKs been b#ilt over on top o-2 s#bs#me/2 in the best evol#tionary
style2 by the techno<biotia9 o in any discussion of ecology, whenever one refers to roc"s, clouds, rivers and mountains,
microbes animals and plants, one should include "itchen tables, cars and computers, stuffed animals and nuclear reactors, as well as
abstract symbolic systems such as mathematics and music, and belief or behavioral morphologies, including social systems, religions,
culture. etc. hese are all vali/ -orms o- li-e2 i- =e or roc>s an/ clo#/s are9
-0
No Lin>Nall nat#ral
!verythin, that happens on this planet is nat#ral an/ pristine there is nothin, on this
planet that is #nnat#ral
he =ay I see it2 anythin, that arises on this planet is completely nat#ral2 pristine2 an/ p#re9 <reated by
8od.s spontaneous, self#arising nature, sacred. 8od itself. Deep ecolo,ists reserve this level o- honor -or =il/erness
areas2 as>in, that they be #nto#che/ by o#tsi/e -orces2 meanin, ,enerally man or machines9 $#t is this
entire planet not a pristine2 sacre/ =il/ernessG 'as it ever been to#che/ by Ko#tsi/e -orcesKG Is not all
this &aiaKs o=n /oin,G I =o#l/nKt even insist that it remain #nto#che/ -rom the o#tsi/e9 Dhen aliens do
ever arrive on this planet from other stars 5if they are not already observing us discreetly from a nearby .blind.6, that =ust shifts the
wilderness boundary out a bit. The galaxy as a whole remains a pristine wilderness. $f they come from outside the galaxy, the larger
universe will most li"ely still be a pure evolutionary preserve. %here co#l/ K#nnat#ralK processes ever -in/ a crac> in
the s>in o- this planet2 &aia2 nat#ral chil/ o- the nat#ral #niverse2 to po>e their =ay in an/ corr#pt
herG No2 everythin, =e enco#nter in this #niverse m#st be consi/ere/ nat#ral2 an/ intimately relate/
to #s in some =ay2 li>e the contents o- oneKs o=n min/9 his a=>=ar/ intimacy chan,es oneKs point o-
vie=9
he /eepest ecolo,y mi,ht not seem to be specially KenvironmentalK2 beca#se it /oesnKt clin, to any
version o- reality" it s#rren/ers contin#ally to =hatever sit#ations occ#r9 his vie=point /oesnKt
/irectly a/vance the =or> o- savin, the planet or preservin, local lan/scapes, but it could be helpful for
environmentalists nonetheless. Necause #nless =e enter into the heart o- that %il/ness =here li-e itsel- is
contin#ally born2 =e remain o#tsi/ers in o#r o=n =orl/2 an/ o#tsi/ers never really >no= =hatKs ,oin,
on. 3utsiders can.t help sentient beings#they don.t "now what to do.
%e have m#ch to lose by enterin, the =orl/ o- real =il/ness that s#rro#n/s #s to/ay9 %e are losin, a
nice local version o- reality =eKve been bas>in, in -or several million years, the lovely landscapes, the fauna and
flora of the late <enoBoic, the Age of Clowering Plants and of Gammals. hese have have been s=eet in/ee/2 an/ it is
sa/ to see them ,o9 Di--ic#lt ,oo/byes m#st be sai/9 $#t =e =onKt miss them -or lon,<thereKs plenty
more =here they came -rom9 The unbridled, fecund wildness that lies at the heart of co#arising emptiness#luminosity will not
disappoint us. A really deep ecologist has understanding of this, and faith in it. This fertile, dangerous, healthy and real wildness is
where we should be resting our hopes and our hearts and our minds. %e have nothin, to lose9
-2
No Lin>Nall nat#ral
Li-e incl#/es everythin,
!verythin, moves9 his alone sho#l/ be eno#,h to /emonstrate inherent aliveness9 Jrom min/less
hy/ro,en clo#/s s=irlin, p#rposelessly in interstellar space<time2 to clo#/s o- tho#,hts s=irlin,
aro#n/ in the brain2 all clo#/ -orms are the same9 They move#they have buddhanature. 'one of these patterns from
beginning to end have any greater or more distinct .separate self. than any other. All are meaningless, empty of personal intent. All are
falling into their own true nature, effortlessly, along with all other illusory phenomena. %e m#st not #n/erestimate them9
All are bea#ti-#l to behol/2 incl#/in, the #,ly ones2 all are precio#s2 incl#/in, the =orthless ones2 all
are -rien/s S relatives2 even the /an,ero#s ones2 even =hen they >ill yo#] Their value cannot be conceived in
ordinary ways. ome of these 5not all6 have a tendency to grow in complexity, energy, and information density, to blow off greater M
greater clouds of waste heat, to become increasingly improbable, ephemeral and fragile. 3thers prefer to stay simple. hey are all
,oo/2 beca#se complete9 !ven the roc>s S clo#/s are li>e this2 even the technobiotia9 his ,oo/ li-e
st#-- is the s=irlin, o- clo#/s<nothin, more<itKs =hat evol#tion /oes aro#n/ here9
-4
A: .#st earth
Li-e on this planet is not #niI#e there are other places that li-e can be ta>in, re-#,e
Nothin, special has been accomplishe/ in the last 711,111,111 years since the arising of multi#celled creatures on this
planet/ nor in the 0,-41,111,111 years since microbial li-e be,an<no one is loo>in,(])2 no one is intereste/9 %e
are all alone here in space2 an/ nobo/y cares =hat happens to #s. Cor all we "now, 8od might be ta"ing a nap.
5#r precio#s stream o- li-e-orms /#rin, the last -o#r billion years are nothin, more than clo#/s
blo=in, in the =in/9
'othing special will be lost if we .higher. lifeforms crash bac" down to the ran"s of microbes. hereKs plenty more =here =e
came -rom too2 in the bottomless =omb o- evol#tion9 !vol#tion is a chil/2 /oo/lin, li-e-orms in the
san/2 h#mmin, a little t#ne2 absentmin/e/ly lettin, ,rains o- li-e tric>le -rom her -in,ers into pretty
piles9 %in/ S =aves erase all by s#n/o=n9 here is nothin, here to save or re,ret9
Dhat.s wrong with a world of microbes anywayP 3L, worst case; =hat i- o#r #nr#ly technolo,ies2 in symbiosis =ith
o#r #nr#ly h#man appetites >ic> the =hole planet into a positive -ee/bac> heatin, loop2 ca#sin, it to
spiral #p into thermo/ynamic eI#ilibri#m 5shudder, the only thing negentropic entities really fear6, at uncomfortably high
temperatures, li"e %111X or so, causing biological meltdown and permanent sterility li"e +enus#or suppose things go the other way, and
we spiral /o=n to s#bBero thermo/ynamic eI#ilibri#m2 clouding over and freeBing solid forever li"e Gars#what.s
wrong with thatP hereKs plenty more planets =here =e came -rom2 plenty more ,alaAies to ,ive birth to
them2 plenty more #niverses to hatch ,alaAies....
As for the innumerable creatures on our planet who are undoubtedly suffering and in need of assistance, including very much and most
especially our own personal selves, what "ind of saving do we really needP I s#spect this savin, has more to /o =ith the
ability to see an/ share the tr#e nat#re o- these bein,s than it /oes =ith tryin, to increase their ,oo/
health an/ lar,e n#mbers9 4erhaps =e sho#l/ concentrate more on seein, them clearly2 on -eelin, =hat
they -eel2 >no=in, an/ carin, abo#t them2 than on settin, #p biopreserves an/ ho#sin, pro;ects to save
them in9 hin>in, in this =ay2 one comes to -eel that the savin, o- sentient bein,s has more to /o =ith
>no=in, an/ -eelin, an/ s#--erin, an/ carin, =ith them2 than =ith preventin, their eAtinction or raising
their minimum income level or wiping a bit of pollution off their brow. entient beings can ta"e care of themselves, =ust as we li"e to
thin" we can do. Consi/erin, them in this =ay is a mar> o- respect2 it honors them9
his /eep -rame o- re-erence may seem chillin, to some2 b#t it is not9 5n the contrary2 it =arms the
heart an/ li,htens the step2 an/ it sho#l/ help to save the earth an/ a/vance the a,en/a o-
conservation biolo,y too2 alon, =ith any other =orthy pro;ects9 The buddhas and patriarchs may seem to play
rough, but this roughness is good for us. $t is the roughness of real wildness, real wilderness. hereKs no reason in the =orl/
that environmentalists sho#l/nKt be able to hol/ a /eep vie= an/ still be ener,etic an/ e--ective2 ,oo/
people to have aro#n/ =hen thin,s are to#,h9 %e arenKt babies9 De can loo" at *eality along with the rest of
sentient beings. De do not need to tell ourselves children.s stories about how uni&ue and precious we are, to ma"e ourselves go out and
help the world. %e are precio#s an/ =orthless at the same time9 %e are neither precio#s nor =orthless9
ItKs not li>e that9
Collapse Inevitable
!Atinction an/ civiliBation collapse is inevitable an/ nat#ral no matter ho= it happens
-7
his civiliBation2 li>e all that have prece/e/ it2 is bo#n/ by the la=s o- biolo,y2 =hich have eApan/e/ to
incl#/e the /omain o- c#lt#re9 It is li>ely to /o =hat all others have /one: It =ill eApan/2 or rather
eAplo/e2 beyon/ the sa-e bo#n/aries o- its #ncontrollable technolo,ies2 an/ then crash bac> into the
biolo,ical/c#lt#ral bac>,ro#n/9 The umarians, the Agyptians, the Gayans and ABtecs, the endless <hinese dynasties, the
8ree"s, the *oman empire, the great African "ingdoms, the Gongolian hordes, the 3ttoman empire, and so on and on till the pages of
recorded history become too numerous and tattered to read. A corollary principle seems to be, the higher they rise the harder and more
abruptly they fall. his is o#r diastolic social#cultural rhythm9 CiviliBations seem to have an in/e-inite2 b#t
/istinctly limite/ li-espan2 ;#st li>e all other livin, or,anisms2 =hatever their level o- or,aniBation9
The only recent variation on this theme is that our <iviliBation is playing out the drama for the first time on a global scale. Joes the
global scale ma"e a differenceP 'ot at all#the /rama is al=ays playe/ o#t on the lar,est possible scale the society
is capable o- eApan/in, to an/ /estroyin, itsel- on9 Geasured on a psychometric scale, this means that the collapse
totally en,#l-s an/ obliterates all meanin,-#l eAistence -or that society. Dhatever remains after the crash,
whatever survives, is considered .not to count.9 o/ay =e -eel that to crash the biosystems o- the planet bac" to the
tone Age, or bac" to a level =here only the arthropo/s an/ plants2 the -ish an/ microbes2 an/ a -e=
mar,inal ro/ent<li>e mammals remain2 =o#l/ be tantamo#nt to Ktotal ,lobal /eathK9 5- co#rse this is
nonsense" it =o#l/ be a very nice earth in/ee/2 an/ =o#l/ rebo#n/ to a nice climaA biolo,y in the
t=in>lin, o- an evol#tionary eye9
his r#sh to apocalypse may nonetheless have a #se-#l role to play: It seems to -#nction as a -orm o-
pop#lation control o- civiliBations2 an/ is ,overne/ by biolo,ical/c#lt#ral la=s as implacable as those
=hich man/ate the /eath o- in/ivi/#als an/ the inevitable eAtinction o- all species9 Dhy should the death of
civiliBations be feared any more than the death of individuals or the extinction of speciesP No matter ho= pain-#lly it
happens or a=>=ar/ly itKs /one2 thro#,h ecosystemic collapse or apocalyptic =ar-are or /isease/
c#lt#re crisis or toAic poll#tion2 it is nat#ral2 an/ ,oo/2 ma,ni-icent li-e an/ /eath activity9
Any extraterrestrial observer would be &uic" to point out, having observed our stream of technobial civiliBations for a few thousand of
years, that $t ma"es little or no difference what the human beings do on the earth at this point. he torch o- evol#tionary
/evelopment has slippe/ o#t o- o#r brains an/ is loose in the =orl/9 he technobiotia are the /ominant
li-e-orm on this planet no=2 an/ =e/they are /e-inin, o#r o=n -#t#re2 as all /ominant li-e-orms /o9 'o
force whatever can control us, or even exercise any discernible influence over us. %e are alone =ith the la=s o-
physics an/ the r#les o- evol#tion9 Crom the point of view of freely evolving technobiotia, we are wild creatures.
There.s no safety for wild things. 'ever has been. This is the good life as it is lived in a real wilderness.
As for who.s right about this, and who.s wrong, there.s no waiting period. .De shall see., or .Time will tell. do not apply here. Aither
things have been this way for 01,111 years, or four thousand million years, or they are not this way.
--
Co#nter AltNleave
Co#nter<alternative: /eep ecolo,y -ails =e nee/ a better i/ea an/ that is to leave everythin,
as is an/ to contin#e =hat =e have been /oin, in the =orl/9
Deep ecolo,y is good, but not always #se-#l in every/ay li-e9 %e nee/ a =or>in, ecolo,y2 somethin, to#,h
an/ -leAible, that you can use to save the world with. A practical ecolo,y mi,ht come in t=o parts2 vie= an/
practice2 as follows; he Eie=9 (eality is as per-ect to/ay as it has ever been. The world in this moment, along with
one.s mind in this same moment, is the 8reat Perfection spo"en of in the teachings. It m#st be en;oye/ ;#st as it is2
poll#tion2 =ar-are2 -amine S poverty2 con-#sion an/ materialistic ,ree/ an/ all2 no matter ho=
#nli>ely2 #nhappy or sorry a specimen it may seem to be (=orl/ or min/)9 !cosystems li>e min/s are
al=ays in per-ect balance2 even =hen theyKre ne#rotic2 ill2 con-#se/ or ,oin, eAtinct2 miserably an/
#nnecessarily9
The Practice. A dynamic ecology has got to wor" in a world which is changing from one moment to the next. !colo,y cannot be
base/ on tryin, to preserve ecosystems at some partic#lar sta,e o- their evol#tion2 no matter ho=
bea#ti-#l that sta,e may have been9 his is li>e tryin, to prevent o#r chil/ren -rom ,ro=in, #p2 or o#r
ol/ people -rom /yin,. $t is a form of materialism to be overly attached to a special set of 8od.s Dor"s, an/ is /oome/ to
-ail#re in any case9
De will never :get: our dream of attractive, healthy ecosystems#they will always be collapsing around our ears. his is =hat
ecosystems /o] hey have a nat#ral li-espan2 =hich in a//ition to bein, short2 is -reI#ently terminate/
K#nnecessarilyK early by acci/ent or mis-ort#ne9 .#st li>e o#r o=n lives9 Danting to freeBe ecosystems at a certain
charming stage of their existence is li"e our other foolish dream of always being young, attractive and healthy ourselves. 8ood luc"X
The only ease lies with the process of evolution itself. ound ecology must be based on respect for 8od.s creativeRdestructive wor"ing
process, not on a childish clinging to pretty toys He may have made. Then we can live in this world, help it out a bit, and go with, lean
into its mysterious unfolding.
-9
Li-e/ /eath /ichotomy inevitable
he battle o- li-e an/ /eath is a sacre/ activity o- the cosmos =e nee/ to accept the =orl/
-or =hat it is
To combine this challenging view with the challenging practice, one simply re,ar/s everythin, that moves as a -orm o-
sacre/ activity9 The mad materialist technobic frenBy gripping the planet is nothing other than this. here is only 5ne hin,
happenin,, not some things that are good and others that are bad. his incl#/es -ra,rant ecosystems2 -resh an/
#ns#llie/ in =il/erness areas on sprin, mornin,s2 an/ it incl#/es #rban in/#strial me,a,ri/2 ,hettos S
-amine Bones2 materialist min/ ,ree/2 the eAtinction o- =il/ animal species an/ the slavery an/ tort#re
o- K/omesticate/K ones9 Li-e an/ /eath9 !ven television9
!verythin, =e love =ill /ie2 an/ everythin, =e hate =ill live2 an/ vice versa2 an/ =e =ill never be ri/ o-
s#ch problems9 'o contemplative would want the buddhas and patriarchs to catch him trying to escape death, much less get rid of
it. Jeath is sacre/ activity9 %hat is happenin, on this planet to/ay is the sacre/ activity o- li-e an/ /eath2
=hich =e sometimes call evol#tion2 Ad Abbey and his friends to the contrary notwithstanding. It is per-ect as it
stan/s2 -la=less2 =itho#t blemish . Nut as uBu"i *oshi said, there is always room for improvement too.
o it.s proper to fight and struggle with the situation, to ta"e care of each other, and try to save a few suffering sentient beings. De must
do thisX, and we do, =ust as we struggle to improve the .climate. , .landscape. and evolutionary process in our own minds and hearts. he
thin, to be care-#l abo#t is not to re;ect what is ugly and cruel, dangerous and poisonous, even the heartless
machines2 the comp#ters S EKs2 cars S hi,h=ays2 n#clear bombs2 animal an/ plant slavery an/
tort#re2 an/ money9
hese are o#r sacre/ enemies9 hey mi,ht even be o#r sacre/ -rien/s2 one never >no=s -or s#re9 De
should not try to "now for sure. $t.s none of our business. Criend and enemy are not distinguished on this level. $t.s disrespectful to try to
do so. o the enemy2 one o--ers a deep bow, as deep, and as filled with respect as one o--ers to oneKs -rien/s an/
teachers9 his bo= is o--ere/ to everythin, =itho#t reservation9 It is a -orm o- protection9 It saves #s
-rom attachment an/ ill#sion2 an/ in the en/2 -rom the =ron, sort o- /espair9
-,

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