1959 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON SPACE ELECTRONICS AND TELEMETRY 155

A Rocket for Manned Lunar Exploration*

M. W. ROSENt AND F. C. SCHWENKt
Summary-The exploration of the moon is within view today. ments can transmit their findings back to earth, why do
If it may be assumed that Project Mercury in the U. S. A. and we need a man in
space?
Since an
instrumeilt
can fail,
similar efforts by the U. S. S. R. will establish that man can exist
for limited periods of time in space, then a trip to the moon requires we make
it
redundant. If
it
needs
adjusting,
we make it
mainly the design, construction and proving of a large rocket ve- self-adjusting. Certainly it can be built to withstand a
hicle. In one concept of a manned lunar vehicle, the entire mission, greater range of temperature, pressure, acceleration, and
the trip to the moon and the return, is staged on the earth's surface. radiation than the sensitive body of man.
A highly competitive technique is to stage the lunar mission by But
we
have a tendency to look only at one side of this
rfueling in a low earth orbit. This would permit the use of a smaller
.
.
e b
launching vehicle but would require development of orbital ren-
picture.
Because our
knowledge
of
distant
celestial bodies
dezvous techniques. is so meager, we tend to magnify the importance of the
This paper presents a parametric study of vehicle size for the simple data that can be most readily obtained by instru-
direct-flight manned lunar mission. The main parameter is the ments. We overlook that, if an instrument can do one or
take-off thrust which is influenced by many factors, principally the several things, there are thousands, indeed millions, of
propellants in the several stages and the flight trajectory. A close . . . .
T
choice exists in the second stage where conventional and high-
things
itscannotido to thit blntly,tno sensior
energy propellants are compared. The size of the final stage and array of instruments exists that can duplicate the sensing
hence the entire vehicle is governed mainly by the method of capabilities of a man. When to this is added man's
approach to the earth's surface, whether the approach is made at capability to record, remember, interpret, and discrimi-
elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic velocities. The various design nate, we see how paltry are the powers of the most sophisti-
choices are applied to an illustrative vehicle configuration. c
cated mechanical substitute.
If this line of reasoning is accepted, there remains the
INTRODUCTION question of timing and the argument runs, "Instruments
V HEN one views the history of exploration he first-men later." Many scientists feel that years of
finds that the dominant role was played by man. instrumented exploration are necessary before a first
Men, many of them, explored the coasts and manned mission. The standard program is now quite
interior of America; fewer numbers endured Arctic cold famiiliar. First comes a close approach or hard impact in
and coped with other physical hazards to reach previously which measurements are made of the magnetic field and
inaccessible regions of the earth. Hence, it is not sur- the local radiation; perhaps a few photographs are taken.
prising that exploration is linked in history with the names Then come vehicles that orbit around the moon doing
of the men who accomplished it: Columbus, Balboa, extensive reconnaissance. Finally, instrumented packages
Peary, Amundsen, to nlame a few. are set down on the moon (so-called soft landing) to
Only in our time has it seemed important to support examine closely the lunar surface. At first the packages
or defend this point of view. We have sought reasons are stationary but later they are mobile. A decade or
to Justify sending men into space to explore the moon more of intensive engineering development is envisioned
and the planets. Because they are merely expressions Of to make possible this type of exploration, and even now
a desire, most of these sought-after reasons are un- we are designing rockets that can carry the freight:
convincing, such as the vapid reason, "because the moon Vega, Centaur and Saturn.
and the planets are there." It is argued here that we would learn much more at an
Indeed, for some ill-defined reason centered mainly earlier date by a bold and immediate approach to manned
around national prestige, there are many who maintain lunar exploration. Moreover, instruments should be used
that most of space exploration should be done with mainly for a certain type of reconnaissance; i.e., to
instruments, and that men should be sent only after provide the information necessary to attempt a manned
years of unmanned examination.
lunar landing. The early attempts will not be without
Moreover, a distinction is being drawn between manned risk of failure and probable loss of life. How could it be
exploration and scientific exploration. Not that sending otherwise? Exploration implies risk and manned explor-
a man into space is unscientific, but perhaps not scientific ation implies risk of life. The names of those who failed
enough. After all, a man cannot see ultraviolet light or are numerous though not always well remembered. sScott
sense magnetic fields, nor can he detect cosmic rays. reached the South Pole one month after Amundsen, but
These things are done by instruments, and if the instru- died with four of his men on the return trip. Nungesser
and Coli took off from Paris and were lost in the Atlantic
twelve days before Lindbergh left New York.
* Manuscript received by the PGSET, September 3, 1959.
,T7he
argument that we cannot afford the risk of human
Presented at the Tenth International AstronaUtiCal FederatiOn COn- life to explore the moon is historically ui#sound; more-
gress, London, England, 1959.
t Nati. Aeronautics and Space Admin., Washington, D. C. over, it is economically unsound. The attempt to duplicate

156 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON SPACE ELECTRONICS AND TELEMETRY December
with instruments what could be accomplished by a few a long time to reach operational status. In fact, the time
men on the moon would be immeasurably more ex- required may be too long to satisfy those who wish to see
pensive. a man on the moon as soon as possible. We believe, how-
In this paper we examine the type of vehicle required ever, that space exploration of all types will require the
for manned lunar exploration by the simplest operational development of the larger vehicle that is capable of direct
method, a direct flight to the moon and a direct return to flight to the moon. For example, if a manned lunar landing
the earth. First, the direct flight method is compared with is achieved first by the rendezvous method, the supply of
orbital rendezvous. Then, various factors influencing the a lunar base will be accomplished more readily by a
size of the vehicle are examined. Finally, a typical vehicle direct-flight vehicle.
and its employment are described.
DIRECT-FLIGHT VEHICLE DESIGN FACTORS
DIRECTFLIGHT OR ORBITALRENDEZVOUS
Having
set our
sights
on a
direct-flight vehiele;
we
wish
There are two important approaches among many for to examine some of the factors that affect its design and,
achieving a manned lunar landing. One approach is the ultimately, to describe a vehicle suitable for a round trip
direct-flight method that presupposes the development to the moon.
of a very large vehicle which has complete capability for First, we must define the mission. A two and one-half
the mission. The other is orbital rendezvous which employs day flight from earth to moon is chosen. A shorter time
a smaller booster and involves accumulating in an earth minimizes effects of errors in burnout velocity, but
orbit the required mass of hardware and fuel for escaping demands more total impulse. The first three stages
from orbit, landing on the moon, and returning to earth. accelerate the payload and remaining stages to an inertial
Each method has many supporters among rocket engineers. velocity of 36,000 feet per second. After coasting to the
Although this paper describes a direct-flight vehicle, the vicinity of the moon, the fourth stage lowers the remainder
rendezvous method is a worthy contender for providing of the vehicle to a landing on the moon. At the time of
the earliest capability for a manned lunar landing. departure, the fifth stage propels the vehicle toward the
As far as booster availability is concerned, the orbital earth. After two and one-half days, the payload approaches
rendezvous method leads the direct-flight approach since the earth. Here there is a choice; a sixth stage of propulsion
the smaller vehicle will be available earlier. However, can be employed to slow the payload to orbital speed, or
booster availability is only a small part of the mission the vehicle can enter the earth's atmosphere at hyperbolic
picture. Techniques must be developed for orbital velocity. We shall delay discussion of this choice until
rendezvous, which is an operation that poses many later, but assume for the moment that hyperbolic re-entry
problems. If we consider launching from a nonequatorial can be tolerated as we discuss some other factors related
base, then accurate timing of the launching is required to to the direct flight vehicle.
establish coplanar orbits; otherwise, a plane change is Oine of the major concerns is the selection of propellants
required in the rendezvous maneuver. Plane changes are for the various stages. High-energy propellants, liquid
costly in payload and require added developments in oxygen, and liquid hydrogen, are most desirable to achieve
guidance. Possibly, the rendezvous method requires the the mission with the least vehicle gross weight. Naturally,
vast undertaking of an equatorial launch site to rid the this propellant combination can be used only if the
method of some of its complications and the strict re- necessary engines are available and if the techniques for
quirement on launch time. Consequently, these factors handling liquid hydrogen are developed. We believe that
may delay the orbital technique to a time long after that both these conditions can be met in the smaller stages.
required for booster availability. Consequently, high-energy propellants were chosejn for
Another important factor is the number of vehicles the third and fourth stages of the vehicle.
required for the rendezvous method. To build up the For a return capsule weight of between 8000 and 9000
capability in orbit for just one lunar vehicle, eight suc- pounds, we can show that the vehicle at lift-off must
cessful flights of the Saturn type booster are required. weigh more than 4 million pounds. A sea-level thrust
Saturn is a vehicle that uses eight engines to produce over rating of over 6 million pounds is, therefore, a necessity.
one million pounds of thrust at launch. In addition, a NASA is presently developing a rocket engine which is
crew of men would be needed in orbit to perform the capable of producing 1 million pounds of thrust with
tasks of assembly, transferral of fuel, and vehicle check- liquid oxygen and kerosene propellants. A cluster of
out. Surely, the operation would be performed at least several of these engines is therefore the logical choice for
once to provide an unmanned test flight to the moon first-stage propulsion, a choice that also specifies liquid
before a man is sent. If we include the need for a spare oxygen and kerosene as first-stage propellants.
lunar vehicle, the result is that at least twenty-four Now we must decide on the propellants for the second
launchings of the Saturn booster mnust occur for the sole stage. Fig. 1 compares the payload variations with earth
purpose of the manned lunar landing. take-off thrust for two cases. In one case, high-energy
Admittedly, the development of a large vehicle with propellants are used in the second stage; in the other case,
direct-flight capability will be costly and will require liquid oxygen and kerosene are the second-stage propel-

1959 Rosen and Schwenk: A Rocket for Manned Lunar Exploration 157
20 -
20
11
I
SECOND
STAGEI
20
_
|
PROPELLANTS FIFTH STAGE
(LUNAR LAUNCH)
PROPELLANTS
16
016
o 16
0. 8IloLM
LAUNHIGH ENERGY
__ __ __
__UND
0lg. HciH ENERgY
0
'< 12 a._ 12
0
zo0/"
e fr.ae
8r _ __ CNENTIONAL
<
8
w M
~~~~~~~~~~~~~CNVENTIONAL
W
0
-.0
__ 0I~~~~~~~~~~~~_
w
2 4
_a0.4
D 4
w
0<
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
0 ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~6 8 10 12
6 8 10 12
LAUNCH THRUST-MILLIONS OF POUNDS
LAUNCH THRUST -MILLIONS OF POUNDS
Fig. 2-Effect of the choice of fifth stage propellants on the varia-
Fig. 1-Effect of the choice of second stage propellants on the
tion of payload with
launch
thrust.
variation of
payload
with launch thrust.
laiitsan analttue vrsoiiof
he1.5milio-pondextreme,
from
-
1500C to 1340C. There is a strong
lants and an altitude version of the 1.5-million-poulnd
possibilitv
that, with careful vehicle design and proper
thrust engine serves as second-stage propulsion. (High- shielding against thermal radiation, high-energy pro-
energy third and fourth stages were assumed and the
pellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) can be stored
first three stages were optimized by the method described as well as any in the lunar environment. However, this is
by Hall and Zambelli.') The performance advantage an area that has not yet been explored, and we chose, at
afforded by the high-energy propellants is
obvious;
a
this time, the more conservative propellant combination.
6-million pound thrust first stage with
high-energy As mentioned previously, we have assumed that the
propellant in the second stage can provide the same
pay- return vehicle, or manned capsule, enters the atmosphere
load capability as a vehicle having a take-off thrust of 9 at hyperbolic velocities. Of course, a powered sixth stage
million pounds and lox-kerosene in the second stage
could be employed first to slow the vehicle to orbital speed;
However, the calculations also show that a second-stage
thereupon, the landing would be similar to that of NASA's
thrust level of 2.4 million pounds is required in the vehicle
Project Mercury. Fig. 3 shows what a retro-to-earth orbit
that uses the high-energy propellants. Such a thrust level
costs. For a capsule payload weighing 6000 pounds, 24
in a high-energy engine may not be available for a
long million pounds of thrust at launch (16 engines) is required
time. Hence, our choice at this time is the conventional
if we must provide propulsion to place the capsule in
lox-kerosene second stage using one large enginie. orbit on the return trip. (Actually, a capsule weight of
Possibly, liquid hydrogen could be stored long enough 8000 pounds is desired.) Clearly, retro-to-orbit is a costly
on the surface of the mioon to allow its use for
launching maneuver and its use would require a vehicle so large as
from the lunar surface. Fig. 2 shows an impressive increase
to make the task of a manned lunar landing too ponderous,
in payload (or reduction in first-stage thrust for the same
unless we considered nuclear or electrical propulsion
payload) if high-energy propellants
are
employed
in the
schemes. The same conclusion applies to the orbital
lunar launch. In this situation, the term "conventional
rendezvous method. Whereas eight or nine Saturn launch-
propellants" refers to those that are liquids at normal
ings are required if hyperbolic re-entry is employed,
temperatures and pressures, such as
nitrogen-tetroxide approximately twenty-four firings are required to place
and hydrazine. A fundamental question confronts us as to
the necessary mass of material into orbit if the returning
which propellants can be stored in the vehicle tanks on vehicle must be decelerated to orbital speed.
the moon whose surface temperature2 varies, in the fig. 3, therefore, presents the reasons for assuming
re-entry at hyperbolic velocity. It also emphasizes the
' H. H. Hall and E. D. Zambelli, "On the optimization of multi- need for research and development to provide this
capa~-
stage rockets,"} Jet Propuwlsion, vol. 28, p. 463; July, 1958. bility, irrespective of direct or rendezvous approaches
2 R. B. Baldwin, "The Face of the Moon,"2 University of Chicago
toamne unrmsin
Press, Chicago, Ill.; 1949.
t andlnrmsln

158 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON SPACE ELECTRONICS AND TELEMETRY December
16 T 0
RE-ENTRY AT HYPERBOLIC 19
tcr(
SPED
wz
LA2CH_ SPEEDS ____ON__PO __ 011
40
aLa.
~~_
z ~~~RETRO TO
EARTH4
ORBIT
cn
7
4
0 117___II
4 8 12 16 20 24
LAUNCH THRUST- MILLIONS OF POUNDS
Fig. 3-Effect of re-entry method on the variation of payload
with launch thrust.
Chapman3"4 of NASA describes the hyperbolic re-entry
phenomena and corridors. He shows that the heating 44'-
rates and heat absorbed are several times as great as in
orbital decay of a non-lifting body, and that guidance
requirements are severe as far as path angle accuracy is
concerned. Chapman states that the tolerance on flight
path angle for proper entry into the atmosphere is approxi-
mately one minute of arc at distances of 10 to 100 earth
_
220
radii from the earth. These are formidable problems, but
considering how ballistic missile reentry was solved once Fig. 4-Outline drawing of direct-flight vehicle.
the problem could be stated, one expects that hyperbolic
re-entry will yield to a similar treatment.
TABLE I
WEIGHT BREAKDOWN FOR TYPICAL DIRECT-FLIGHT VEHICLE
TYPICAL DIRECT-FLIGHT VEHICLE- Stage 1 Weights Pounds
VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS Launch 6,700,000
Burn-out 2,0002000
In describing a typical direct-flight vehicle, our purpose Stage 5,000,000
is to summarize the previous discussions on the various
Stage 2
Weights
Gross 1,700,000
design factors. Fig. 4 shows an outline drawing of the Burn-Out 678,000
typical direct-flight vehicle and Table I presents vehicle
S
Stage 1,100,000
Sae3 Weights
weights. The vehicle stands about 220 feet high and the Gross 600,000
first stage is 48 feet in diameter. The conical portion at the
Burn-Out
146,000
Stage 498,000
top contains the landing or fourth stage, the take-off or Stage 4 Weights (Landing Rocket)
fifth stage, and the manned capsule or payload. Upon
Gross 102,000
Burn-Out (on Moon) 49,100
return to the earth, the payload will weigh 8000 pounds Propulsion, Tanks,
including men, equipment, capsule, guidance and control,
Landing
Gear
13,100
including
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Payload
on Moon 36,000
and parachute. Two or three men will constitute the crew. Stage 5 Weights (Return Rocket)
Six engines, each of 1.5 million pounds of thrust, power
Gross 36,7000
Burn-Out 13,700
the first stage. Liquid oxygen and kerosene are carried in Propulsion and Tanks 3,800
a cluster of seven tanks, each one 16 feet in diameter. Weight Returned to Earth 8,000
One altitude version of the 1.5-million pound thrust
engine propels the second stage. This stage uses a cluster
of four 16-foot diameter tanks. The high-energy third stage also consists of a cluster of four of these 16-foot
tanks, and a thrust level of 600,000 pounds is produced
3D. R. Chapman, "An Approximate Analytical MIethod for by four engines.
Studying Entry into Planetary Atmospheres,"2 Nati. Aeronautics The fourth or landing stage utilizes high-energy pro-
and Space Admin., Washington, D. C., NACA TN4276- 1958.
4D. R. Chapman, "On the Corridor and Associated Trajecto,ry pellants, and four throttleable engines provide the re-
Accuracy for Entry of Manned Space Craft Into Planetary Atmos- qurd variationsoftrsfrthladnmnev.Te
pheres," presented at the International Astronautical Federation quroftusfrthladnmnev.Te
Congress, London, England; August 31-September 5, 1959. landing stage must have the capability for hovering to

1959 Rosen and Schwenk: A Rocket for Manned Lunar Exploration 159
allow final choice of a landing spot by the pilot. Approxi- Launching from the surface of the moon will be guided
mately one minute of maneuvering or hovering time is by an inertial system that is aligned and calibrated by the
provided. Retracted landing legs appear on the side of pilot on optical sightings of stars and earth. The proper
the fourth stage. When extended for landing, the legs re-entry corridor in the atmosphere is reached by a combi-
span a distance of 40 feet for purposes of stability. nation of optical sightings from the vehicle and earth-
The fifth stage is placed in a cylindrical tube that based radio signals. During re-entry, the lift of the capsule
pierces the tankage of the landing stage. At take-off from is utilized to modify the
trajectory
such that the vehicle
the moon, the fifth stage slides out of the landing vehicle follows a prescribed deceleration program and lands
on rollers. We chose this arrangement because it presents within the recovery area. The first phase of the re-entry
a vehicle with a low center of gravity which will reduce maneuver will utilize vehicle-contained guidance
moni-
any tendency for the vehicle to topple on the surface of tored from the earth. After the initial slow-down to
the moon. In addition, the propellant tanks of the spent orbital speeds, earth-based radar in the landing area will
landing stage which surround the fifth stage serve as control the vehicle.
meteor bumpers and shielding against thermal radiation.
Furthermore, no landing loads are transmitted through DESCRIPTION OF THE
FLIGHT
the return stage, thus minimizing the danger of a rough Let us dismiss, for a few moments, considerations of
landing. time and space and imagine that we are on a Pacific
The manned capsule is an enlarged version of the one Island some five to ten years in the future. The latest of a
used in Project Mercury. It is a truncated cone, with a series of Nova rockets stands erect in the launching area.
maximum diameter of 12 feet and a height of 14 feet. Only a few men can be seen working on the rocket in con-
Inside the capsule, two levels are provided. The lower trast to the hundreds that used to crowd the launch areas
level contains contoured couches for the crew, controls, of
the late fifties. For we have learned to make our rockets
communications, and a folding air-lock for use on the less complicated and more reliable as we have increased
moon. The upper level contains food, power supply, their size. No battery of speakers blares out the count.
exploration gear, and work space. The outer surface of Instead each worker has a small transceiver attached to
the capsule is covered with ablative material for insulation his helmet through which he receives the count and
against and removal of heat generated during atmospheric communicates with the blockhouse. Finally the 300-foot-
re-entry. high gantry rolls away and the rocket is left standing
alone, poised for its launching. The six giant motors ignite
GUIDANCE SYSTEMS in pairs while the rocket is held fast to the launch stand.
Guidance system requirements normally are divided Finally the umbilical cables drop away and the rocket
into three phases: initial, mid-course, and terminal. For rises with the roar of 9 million pounds of thrust (see Fig.
this mission, we must provide these three functions for 5). The light of the exhaust illuminates the entire island.
both the moon-bound and the earth-bound trips. In The rocket rises vertically for 10 seconds and then
tilts
addition, we should consider the pilot's capabilities to slightly to the east. It continues to burn for 135
seconds
perform major guidance tasks or monitor an automatic to an altitude of 35 miles. Then it cuts off and separates
system. At present, the latter is most reasonable, since to be recovered for later use. The second stage ignites
im-
we believe that an unmanned return vehicle, a spare, so mediately (Fig. 6) and burns for 177 seconds, accelerating
to speak, should be placed on the moon prior to the to a speed of 15,800 feet per second. Finally the
third
manned flights to provide an escape route should the stage fires (see Fig. 7) along a path almost parallel to the
manned vehicle be damaged upon landing. earth's surface, but at an altitude of about 150 miles.
The initial guidance phase from launch to earth escape After third stage burnout, the cone-shaped vehicle coasts
can be accomplished with sufficient accuracy by inertial silently through cislunar space for 60 hours. As it ap-
systems now under development. Mid-course guidance proaches the moon (see Fig. 8), the vehicle starts to
turn
by means of earth-based radio can direct the vehicle to under the influence of control jets to orient itself for
the
an accuracy of 50 miles for a lunar impact trajectory. descent to the lunar surface. The four braking
rockets
The terminal phase involves the final approach to the are now firing (see Fig. 9), maneuvering the vehicle toward
moon and the lunar-landing. These maneuvers require its selected landing area. The landing struts extending
vehicle-contained guidance; however, lunar-based radio from the side of the cone span 40 feet. The cone
settles
beacons will assist. A combination radar-optical system down slowly (see Fig. 10) and comes to rest on the
moon.
will sense altitude and velocity components relative to As the two occupants emerge (see Fig. 11), they
see,
the lunar surface. In all but the initial guidance phase 500 yards away, an exact duplicate of the vehicle that
(during launching), the pilot can effectively monitor and brought them to the moon. This spare return vehicle
override the automatic system if necessary. During the had been sent up one month earlier, had landed on the
mid-course phase, in particular, the pilot can make moon, checked itself out and radioed its state of readiness
optical observations of the lunar disk for distance and to earth. Farther away is the radio beacon sent to the
path angle measurements. The pilot will also be very moon a year earlier on a Centaur rocket to mark the
effective in the final phase of the landing on the moon. landing area.

160 IRE TRA NSA( 'TIONS ON SPACE ELECTR?ONI(CS AND TELEMER TI Y December
LUNARLNA
RETUR MISSON R:UR MISSIO
LAUNCHIN6 C _ RING
Fig. .5 -Nova liaunchiiig. (C'oss weighlt, 6.700,000 l)bs.; thrltst, Fig. 6 Second stage fiiing: jettisoned fir'st stage tat bottonirncenter.
",000,00 ( l)s.
UJNAR~~~~~~~~~~~~~UA
RETURN M~~~~~~~~~~~~~S ~R~-~PN ISX
ThIR0 STAGE FIRING T 1 STA
F'ig. 7 Thiird Stage figieig; jettiSOned second stage at bottom center. Fig. 8 -Approach to mooni; vehlicle rot:ating ungler j(t conitrol.
Fig. 9 I)escen t to luinar surface; b)raking rockets fi -imig.

Fig. 1 Lalndinig on the moohi. Rad(io beacon is at far iright.
Fig. I
I
xploiing
the
mooll
Spahire ret (lirn vehicle
is
il
baekgrouid.
WNAR
RETURN MISSION
TAUEOFF FRM MQON
WITH FIFTH STAGE
Fig. 12-Fifth stage taking off from moon. Fig. 1:3 lletiurin CaI)1isle orielitilig for lre-elitri . Spent fifth stalge is
at let.t
F'ig. 141 --Capsile reii-eniters earthIi at
iosphlere.
Fig. 15 1I et iirn to earlh andI recovery at sea.

162 IRE TRANSAC'TIONS ON SPACE ELECTRONICS AND TELEMETRY December
How the two men occupy themselves during their 12 parachute is deployed which slowly lowers the capsule
days on the moon can be better described by those who to the ocean (see Fig. 15).
have for years speculated about the lunar crust. If, at first glance, the preceding account appears
When they are ready to depart, the men re-enter the fanciful, it is because our thinking has not caught up with
capsule and fire the fifth stage (see Fig. 12), which uses the engineering advances of the last few years. What has
the fourth stage as a launching stand. The final stage been presented here is based on a preliminary design
burns for 220 seconds. Then starts the long 60-hour study of the type conducted by many agencies to assess
return trip during which a few precisely timed corrective the feasibility of a vehicle design. All of the engines are
blasts put the cone in the correct corridor for re-entry to either being developed or are programmed to be developed
the earth's atmosphere. Then the fifth-stage motor is in the next few years. No new or exotic fuels are required.
discarded (see Fig. 13), and the cone begins its descent Indeed, our calculations reflect the sober degree of con-
with careful control of its angle of attack. The cone servatism that should characterize a preliminary study.
approaches the earth (Fig. 14), its ablative surface glow- We believe that feasibility has been shown. There remains
ing from the heat of re-entry. At 30,000 feet a large now the intriguing task of doing the job.
Contemporary Plasma Physics*
LOUIS GOLDt
Summary-The manifold aspects of plasma physics are briefly structure of the ionosphere has been undermined owing
described. The basic science and advanced technology embodied to rocket and satellite
measurements
of electron density
in this interdisciplinary field are delineated following an identifi- . 4
cation of what constitutes a plasma. With regard to the former, in the upper atmosphere, for example.4 And so it goes.
such highlights as the evolution of the method of adiabatic i Numerous conferences have already been held and many
variants to deal with highly nonlinear properties of plasmas are more are currently being organized to record the rapid
offered. Hypersonics, high impulse fuel systems, the Sherwood progress. A spate of monographs has originated in con-
program, nuclear explosives, and microwave tubes represent key nection with some of these
conventions.
areas in modem technology demanding more basic knowledge of
plsm itrcon.'-
At the moment, a marked output of publications
in
plasma interactions.
plasma physics has become apparent, this no doubt aided
INTRODUCTION
immeasurably by
the declassification of Sherwood. The
Russians, in fact, presented at the 1958 Geneva Con-
P LASMA physics is inherently as ancient as the sun ference four volumes of collected works on plasmas.6
and the stars.' Yet only in recent times has it Thus, clearly the quest for controlled fusion has pro-
begun to emerge as a significant area of natural vided a compelling impetus toward the growth of this
science.2 The knowledge from many of the basic sciences field.7 Of course, the forerunner was the H-bomb itself,
and from even more numerous borderline disciplines is and this, along the general province of nuclear weaponry,
being brought to bear on most complex problems associated imparts much stimulation; you no doubt have become
with phenomena in ionized media. Here is a domain of cognizant of the Argus experiments and the high energy
scientific challenge remarkable in its interdisciplinary radiation belts encircling the earth.8 The latter scientific
flavor. discovery has been a direct consequence of the emergence
Such natural phenomena as aurora, whistlers, sun of the space age. Our scientific and technological stature
spots, solar noise, cosmic rays, etc. have long resisted is being strained to the utmost as the national effort in
sensible explanation and now are hopefully in the process space-flight and missile technology proliferates.
of being better understood.3 Our faith in the layered
J. C. Seddon A. D. Pickar, and J. E. Jackson, "Continuous
electron density measurements up to 200 KM," J. Geophys. Res.,
* Manuscript received by the PGSET, September 3, 1959. vol. 59, pp. 513-524; December, 1954.
Based on an address for colloquium by the Physics Dept. at North 5 R. K. M. Landshoff, Ed., "'Plasma in a MIagnetic Field,"
Carolina State College, Raleigh, N. C., May 4, 1959. Stanford University Press, Stanford, C:alif., 1958.
t Project Matterhorn, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.* 6 J. Turkevich, Trans. Ed., "Plasma Physics and the Problem
formerly at Res. Div., Radiation, Inc., Orlando, Fla. of Controlled Thermonuclear Reacetions," Pergamon Press, to be
1 H. Alfven, "Cosmical Electrodynamics," Oxford University published.
Press, New York, N. Y., 1950. 7 See papers from Convention on Thermonuclear Processes,
2 L. Spitzer, "Physics of Fully Ionized Gases," Interscience London, Eng., April 29-30, 1959, Special Supplement to Proc.
Publishers, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1956. lEE, vol. 106, to be published.
3S. K. Mitra, "The Upper Atmosphere," 2nd edition, Calcutta, 8J. A. Van Allen, "Radiation belts around the earth," Sci. Amer.,
India, 1952. vol. 200, pp. 39-47; March, 1959.