UNIVERSITY OF SURREY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Level 2 Classical Laboratory Experiment
Coulombs Law (COULOMB)
1. Introduction
Charles Coulomb (17361806) was a trained as a military engineer, but his greatest
achievements were in Physics, particularly in pioneering the study of electrostatics. Our unit of
electric charge now bears his name. It was Coulomb who first introduced the torsion balance
for measuring the extremely small forces produced by electric charges. From 1781 to 1806, he
presented 25 papers to the Paris Acadmie des Sciences covering electricity, magnetism and
applications of his torsion balances. In his 1785 and 1787 papers, he proved the inverse square
law for electrostatics. It is this experiment which we re-create here. [1]
The electric force can potentially be very large : if we could take one gram of protons and place
them one meter away from one gram of electrons, the resulting force would equal a huge
1.51023 Newtons - roughly the weight on Earth of an object of mass 1/5 that of the Moon.
So, if such small amounts of charge can produce such enormous forces, why does it take a very
delicate torsion balance to measure the force between charged objects in the lab? In a way, the
very magnitude of the forces is part of the problem. The other part of the problem is that the
carriers of the electrical force - the tiny proton and the even tinier electron - are very small and
the electrons very mobile : once separated, how do you keep them apart? The negatively
charged electrons are not only drawn toward the positively charged protons, they also repel each
other. Moreover, if there are any free electrons or ions between the separated charges, these free
charges will move very quickly to reduce the field caused by the charge separation.
So, since electrons and protons stick together with such tenacity, only relatively small charge
differentials can be sustained in the laboratory. Hence, even though the electrostatic force
between two protons, say, is more than a billion-billion-billion-billion times as strong as the
gravitational force, it takes a very delicate torsion balance to measure the electrical force,
whereas we can measure the gravitational force by weighing an object with a spring balance.

2. Aims of the Practical

This experiment will introduce you to the basic concepts of electrostatics. You will perform
measurements to demonstrate the validity of the inverse square law of electrostatics and, in the
process, learn the following practical skills:
use of a torsion balance;
use of a high-voltage generator, anti-static devices, an electrometer & an ice pail;
minimisation of, and compensation for, sources of error;
fitting an appropriate theoretical model to data and finding the limitations of that model;
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Last updated August 2008 by TJCH

 calculation of the Coulomb constant and estimation of systematic errors in it.

3. Theory
Coulombs Law states that the force between two point-like charged objects is proportional to
the product of their charges and the inverse square of the distance between them.[2] i.e. :
F = k

Q1Q2
r2

(1)

Other electromagnetic theory tells us that the constant of proportionality k is 1/4o. [2]
Equation (1) is strictly applicable only to point charges. However, Coulomb showed that all the
charge on an extended spherical object will behave as if it lies at a point at the centre, provided
the distance of separation of two charged conducting spheres is much greater than their size. We
next verify this result theoretically.
Gausss Law tells us that for any charge distribution, we can pick an arbitrary surface (called a
Gaussian surface) and the electric field E at points on the surface will be such that [2]:

E dS

Surface

Volume
enclosed

d ,
0

(2)

where the integral over d represents integration over all the volume elements (of charge density
) inside the region enclosed by the Gaussian surface
Suppose we have two hollow conducting spheres which are charged. When the spheres are very
far apart, the presence of one will not greatly influence the distribution of charge on the other
(see Fig. 1(a)). Thus, the charge on each sphere will adopt a spherically symmetric configuration
on its surface. For this distribution, E will have no angular dependence and so, if we pick our
Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius r concentric with, and outside of, the first of our
hollow charged spheres, we have :

4r 2 E (r ) =

Volume
enclosed

d = Q1
0

(3)

where Q1 is the total charge on the first sphere. This means that the electric field at a point on
the Gaussian surface is :

E(r ) =

Q1
4 0 r 2

(4)

If the second charged sphere, Q2, lies somewhere on this Gaussian surface (i.e., at distance r
from Q1 ) then the force on Q2 is :

F = Q2 E =

Q1Q2
.
4 0 r 2

(5)

So we have proved Coulombs Law theoretically, and simultaneously shown that the constant
k = 1/4o. [2] The reason that Coulombs Law does not apply when the spheres are close
together is that the presence of Q2 modifies the distribution of charge on the surface of Q1 (see
Fig. 1 (b)) and so the step from Equ. (3) to Equ. (4) is no longer valid.

(a)
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(b)
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Figure 1:

+ +

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(a) When the two charged spheres are far apart neither significantly perturbs the charge distribution on the other.
(b) When they are close together, the charge distribution no longer has spherical symmetry and deviations from
Coulombs point-charge law result.

Figure 2 : The basic elements of Pasco ES-9070 Coulomb Torsion Balance kit.

[1]

4. Experimental Procedure
4.1 Force versus Distance: Verification of the Inverse Square Law
The PASCO Model ES-9070 Coulomb Balance (Fig. 2) is a delicate torsion balance for
investigating the force between charged spheres. A conductive sphere is held on an insulated
rod, counterbalanced, and suspended from a thin torsion wire. An identical sphere is mounted
on a slide assembly so it can be positioned at various distances from the suspended sphere.
To perform the experiment, both spheres are charged from a kilo-Voltage supply, and the sphere
on the slide assembly is placed at fixed distances from the equilibrium position of the suspended
sphere. The electrostatic force between the spheres causes the torsion wire to twist. The
experimenter then twists the dial at the top of the torsion wire to bring the balance back to its
equilibrium position. The angle through which the torsion wire must be twisted to re-establish
equilibrium is directly proportional to the electrostatic force F between the spheres i.e. : F .
1.

The balance should already set up for you and placed on a grounded conducting mat.
Touching this mat regularly will ensure that you yourself carry no significant charge.
To discharge the spheres, touch them with a wire whose other end is connected to the mat.
The counterweight vane may be clamped ; if so, loosen the clamp and move it slightly back
from the vane before starting the experiment. Note that the index marks on vane and clamp
need to be close enough so that they can be accurately aligned with each other.
What is the function of the two magnets above and below the vane? Try removing them
and see what happens. How do you think this system works?

2.

Move the sliding sphere as far as possible from the suspended sphere. Set the torsion dial to
0. Zero the torsion balance by appropriately rotating the bottom torsion wire retainer until the
pendulum assembly is at its zero displacement position as indicated by the index marks.

Figure 3: Main components of the Coulomb torsion balance. [1]

3.

Connect the red charging probe to one terminal of the kilo-Volt supply (ensure it is first
switched off) and connect the other terminal to the mat, so that up to the maximum ~6kV
can be applied. Follow the separate instructions given on how to use the kV supply safely.
With the spheres still at maximum separation, switch on the kV supply and turn the dial to
6kV. Then, by touching them with the charging probe, charge both spheres to a potential of
Vsphere = 6kV, so that they have the same charge on them. Position the sliding sphere at a
position of 20 cm. Carefully turn the torsion knob anti-clockwise to balance the forces and
bring the pendulum back to the zero position (i.e. align the index markers) and note the
resulting angle setting. This is a delicate operation, so do not be hasty - turn the torsion knob
slowly, trying to avoid overshoot or oscillations.
A major part of the assessment of this experiment concerns the way in which you take your
readings of the torsion angle . Experiments with the Coulomb Balance are straightforward
and quite accurate, but can be frustrating : a charged shirt sleeve, an open window, an
excessively humid day - all these and more can affect your experiment. It will be left up to
you to devise a suitable method for taking your readings, but here are a few hints:

Perform the experiment under conditions which are as draft-free as possible.

Position the kit at least 50 cm away from walls or other potentially charged objects.
Stand directly behind the balance and at a maximum comfortable distance from it. This will
minimise the effects of static charges that may collect on clothing.
Synthetic fabric clothes can acquire large static charges. Short sleeve cotton clothes are best.
Connect yourself to the grounding mat using the wrist-band provided.
When charging the spheres, turn the power supply on, charge the spheres, then immediately
turn the supply off. The high voltage at the terminals of the supply can otherwise cause
leakage currents which will affect the torsion balance.
When charging the spheres, hold the charging probe near the end of the handle, so your hand
is as far from the spheres as possible. If your hand is too close to the sphere, it will have a
capacitive effect, increasing the spheres charge for a given voltage.
Surface contamination on the rods that support the spheres can cause charge leakage. To
prevent this, avoid handling these rods and occasionally clean them with alcohol.
There will always be some charge leakage. Perform measurements as quickly as possible
after charging, to minimise the leakage effects.
Re-charge the spheres before each measurement.
There are at least two alternate methods of taking the measurements; you should try each and
decide which is better theoretically or seems to give more consistent results.
Method 1: (i) Move the spheres to their maximum separation and charge them to the
voltage required. (ii) Move the sliding sphere to the desired separation. (iii) Use the torsion
knob to align the markers. Record . (iv) Repeat several times and take the average .
Method 2: (i) Move the spheres to the desired separation and charge them. (ii) Use the
torsion knob to align the markers. Record . (iii) Discharge the spheres and repeat from (i)
without moving the sliding sphere. Do you still get the same angle readings?
What happens if you take all the readings for the different values of r and then come back
and start again? Do you get results which are self-consistent?
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4.

Repeat step 3 for a number of different values of r, keeping the charging potential constant at
Vsphere = 6kV. Choose 8 points linearly spaced in 1/r2 between 20 and 160 m2 , then 6 more
points linearly spaced between 200 and 400 m2. Record the distance r, r2 and the torsion
angle in a table. Note that the scale on the apparatus is so arranged that the distance
indicated on the rule is that between the centres of the spheres.

5.

Plot an appropriate graph and analyse your results in terms of Equ. (1). Do your data
support the theoretical expectations?

4.2 Force versus Charge

1.

Now with the sphere separation held constant at r = 10 cm, measure the torsion angle as
before, but for different values of the charging voltage. Choose 1015 values of V such that
V2 is evenly spaced between 9 and 36 (kV)2.

2.

Plot an appropriate graph and again check if your results are consistent with the theoretical
expectations. Hint: If the Coulomb relationship is valid, then F Q1Q2, where the charge
on each of the spheres is given by Q = CsphereVsphere.

4.3 Measuring the Torsion Constant Ktor

Our experimental situation presents us with two equations - one for the two charges:
F = k

Q1Q2
r2

and one for the torsion balance:

F = K tor ,

(6)

where Ktor is the torsion constant. By equating these two expressions for F, we can find the
value of k, the Coulomb constant. The overall aim of the series of experiments is to measure k
and see how close it is to the theoretical value of 1/4o. To do this, we need to know the
torsion constant Ktor. The way to do this is described next.

Figure 4: Set-up to be used when measuring the torsion constant [1]

1. Ask a technician or demonstrator to help you detach the sliding sphere assembly from the
apparatus. Then, carefully turn the torsion balance on its side, supporting it with the lateral
support bar, as shown in Fig. 4, and placing the support tube under the sphere.
2. Balance the arm by clipping copper rings onto the vane, as shown in Fig. 4, and making fine
adjustments using the torsion dial, so as to align the index markers. Do not try to bring the
arm into balance just by rotating the dial, otherwise you will snap the torsion wire. This is a
delicate operation and it requires some finesse to try to get the sphere just floating above the
support tube so that the index markers are aligned. Record the angle of the degree plate.
3. Carefully place the 20 mg mass on the centre line of the conductive sphere and turn the degree
knob as required again to balance the sphere and bring the index markers back into alignment.
Record the new torsion angle.
4. Repeat step 4, using the two 20 mg masses and the 50 mg mass to apply each of the masses 20,
40, 50, 70, 90mg. Each time record the mass and the torsion angle. Take care to note if you
need to pass the 0o position on the dial when using the larger masses (and, when finished,
return the dial to its correct 0o position).
5. Plot a suitable graph to determine the torsion constant Ktor from these data. Note that a
torsion constant for a wire is usually described as the torque (in Newton-meters) required to
twist the wire a unit angle, and is normally expressed in N-m per degree. The units of the Ktor
that you will obtain will be in Newtons per degree. To convert to the usual torsion constant,
one should multiply this value by the length of the arm holding the ball. However, since the
length of the arm does not vary throughout the experiment and since the quantity we want is a
force not a torque, then we do not need to know the length of the arm.

4.4 Measuring the Capacitance of the Spheres Csphere

Before being able to calculate the value of the Coulomb constant from the results of the previous
experiments, one further quantity is required. Coulombs Law is stated in terms of the charge
on the sphere, whereas you have been measuring the voltage of the spheres. To relate these, we
need to find the capacitance of the sphere Csphere. This can be measured using a device called a
Faraday ice pail , made from two concentric cylindrical conductors.
This measurement is done in two stages. The set up for the first stage is shown in Figure 5. The
ice pail is effectively a capacitor in parallel with a device called an electrometer, which is
effectively an infinite impedance voltmeter. The electrometer voltage reading Ve can be used to
determine the charge Q on any system it is connected to, using the relationship Q = CeVe , where
Ce is the combined capacitance of the electrometer, the ice pail and the connecting leads.
Therefore, in order to determine the charge Q, we must know Ce.

deR
deR
kcalB

Fp052
Fp052
- +

V9

e bac
ellbac
llaiixa-oc
a xa-oc
kcihT

Figure 5: Circuit to use when measuring the capacitance of the Faraday ice pail

To measure Ce, we use the standard 250 pF capacitor provided. This capacitor, Ctest, is charged
to a known voltage, Vtest, of about 9V so that it acquires a known charge Q = CtestVtest. If Ctest is
then connected in parallel with the ice pail and electrometer (by connecting it across the pails
inner and outer cylinders), its charge Q will then be distributed across two parallel capacitors
with total capacitance (Ce + Ctest) giving a new voltage Ve = Q / (Ce + Ctest) . Since Q was the
charge on Ctest given by CtestVtest we then have Ve = CtestVtest / (Ce + Ctest). Re-arranging this we
finally obtain the required Ce :

Ce = C test test 1
V

(7)

1.

Turn on the electrometer, set the function switch to 10V and carefully zero the meter by
turning the Zero switch to the Zero Lock position, and turning the Zero Adjust knob until
the meter reads zero. Then turn the Zero switch to the Push to Zero setting.

2.

Connect the electrometer input socket to the ice pail using the special screened co-axial lead,
with the red lead going to the inner electrode of the pail and the black to the outer, as shown in
Fig. 5. Connect the outer pail to earth on the mat. As shown in Fig. 5, it is also useful to have
an extra loose earth lead attached to the outer pail so that it can be used to short the inner and
outer pails together and to earth, so as to remove any charge from the pails.
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3.

Using an accurate digital voltmeter, measure the battery voltage (this is Vtest). As in Fig. 5,
connect one terminal of the standard 250pF capacitor Ctest to the negative terminal of the
battery and also to the outer pail (which is also earth). Plug the specially insulated (thick) red
lead into the other terminal of this capacitor. (If you use an ordinary lead to transfer the
charge, it can leak charge to earth through your body, and your readings will be inconsistent.)

4.

Remove any charge from the pails by momentarily shorting the inner and outer pails together
using the extra loose earth lead shown in Fig. 5. Then press the electrometer Push to Zero
button. Charge the capacitor by holding its thick lead to the battery positive, as shown in Fig.
5, and then momentarily touch this lead to the inner ice pail electrode. Read the electrometer
voltage Ve. Repeat this procedure at least 10 to 20 times, remembering each time between
readings to discharge the ice pail (as described above) and also the 250pF capacitor (by
touching its thick lead to the earthed outer pail). Hence, obtain a mean value for Ve.

5.

Calculate Ce from Equ. (7) above.

6.

Now we can determine the capacitance of the sphere, Csphere. A conducting sphere (identical
to those used in the torsion experiments), is held by an insulating thread and charged to a
high voltage Vsphere. It is then touched against the inner ice pail, as shown in Fig. 6. Since
Ce, the capacitance of the ice pail and electrometer, is much greater than Csphere, virtually all
of the charge on the sphere Qsphere is transferred to the ice pail.

deR
deR
kca B
kcallB
elbac
llaiixa-oc
a xa-oc
kc hT
kciihT
Figure 6: Measurement of the charge on a conducting sphere on a thread [1]

Set the electrometer function switch to 100V. Discharge the pail (by shorting the inner and
outer pails together and to earth) and zero the electrometer. Holding the conducting sphere
by the thread, first ensure it is discharged by touching it to ground. Then, charge it to the
desired potential Vsphere (e.g. 6kV) in the usual fashion. Now, quickly transfer its charge to
the inner ice pail by momentarily touching it with the sphere. Remove the sphere and note
the electrometer reading Ve. Discharge the pail and the sphere, and repeat several times to
obtain an average Ve. Now calculate the charge that was on the sphere from Qsphere=CeVe and
hence the spheres capacitance from Csphere=Qsphere/Vsphere. Does your result for Csphere make
sense given that the theoretical capacitance of a sphere of diameter D is 2oD?

4.5 Calculation of the Coulomb Constant k

We now have all the required data to calculate the Coulomb constant. You can do this in two
separate ways : by using the results of 4.1 and 4.2 independently.
Notice that the equations for Coulombs Law (Equ. (1)) and the torsion constant (Equ. (6)) can
be combined (if we assume that both spheres are identical) to give:
2
2
CsphereVsphere

= k
2
K tor r

(8)

Method 1 - Using the results of Expt. 4.1 (Force versus Distance)

The graph which you plotted in Sec. 4.1 was vs 1/r2 for a fixed Vsphere = 6kV (or whatever
kilo-voltage you used). From Equ. (8), then, this should have a gradient given by :
2
2
CsphereVsphere

m=k

K tor

(9)

Using this equation you should be able to calculate k.

Method 2 - Using the results of Expt. 4.2 (Force versus Charge)

We can analyse the results from Sec. 4.2 in a similar way : there you plotted vs Vsphere2 , for a
fixed r =10cm (or whatever fixed sphere separation you used). From Equ. (8), then, the gradient
of this graph is :
2
Csphere

m=k
K r2
tor

(10)

from which you should be able to calculate a second value for k.

Finally, comment on the agreement of your experimental results with theory (i.e. that k =
1/4o where o = 8.85 10-12 F/m) and try to suggest reasons for any discrepancies.

References
[1] Manual for Model ES-9070 Coulomb Balance (1989, PASCO Scientific)
[2] IS Grant and WR Phillips, Electromagnetism, (Wiley)

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