Calculations in chemistry are associated with

quantities that measure a substances

properties.
A measured quantity is usually written with an
appropriate unit. To say that a chocolate bar
weighs 100 is meaningless. A unit is necessary
to make meaning to measurement. Thus, it
must be specified that the chocolate bar
weighs 100 grams. Prefixes are used to simplify
the expression of units. Thus, 100 grams can be
written as 100 g.

Systems of Units
- Collection of units for different
quantities which are used as basis for
other measurements
The most widely used system of units is the SI
System which was proposed in 1960 by the
General Conference of Weights and Measures

SI Base Units
Length- meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Electrical current (A)
Amount of substance mole (mol)
Temperature- Kelvin (K)

The SI system is derived from the metric system.
It uses measurements based on the power of
10 and with each power, a certain prefix is
used.

The other two commonly used unit systems are
the following
a) CGS system- uses centimeter, gram
and second as units of length, mass
and time, respectively
b) British System- uses in the United States-
uses pound for mass, and feet for
length.

It is important to know how to convert from
one unit to another. The method used for unit
conversion is known as dimensional analysis. It
is a simple technique, which requires the use of
conversion factors that defines the numerical
relationship between two units.


To use dimensional analysis, we apply the
relationship

G x C = D
G: given quantity; C: conversion factor; D:
desired quantity

Ex. Levi has a height of 160. cm. What is his
height in feet?
It is important to know that
1 feet = 30.48 cm
Solution:





Answer: In English units, Levi is 5.25 feet tall.








States of Matter
Solids- have their own shape and
volume
Liquids- have their own volume but no
shape of their own
Gases- have no definite shape and
volume
General Properties of Matter
Mass- amount of matter in an object
Volume- the amount of space an
object occupies
Impenetrability- the inability of two
objects to occupy the same space at
the same time
MATTER
MEASUREMENTS
Density- defined as the mass per unit
volume of an object
Melting/Freezing Point- the
temperature at which a solid starts
melting or a liquid starts freezing
Physical Properties- property of a substance
that is observable without a change in the
composition of a substance
Examples of Physical Properties
Hardness- resistance to scratch
Elasticity- ability to go back to original
shape when deformed
Brittleness- ability to break easily
Malleability- ability to be hammered
into sheets
Ductility- ability to be drawn into wires
Luster- ability to reflect light
Chemical properties- property of a substance
that is only observable once a chemical
change takes place.
Changes in physical properties of a material
are called physical changes. Changes in
chemical properties of a material are called
chemical changes. In both changes, the law
of conservation of mass withholds, that mass is
neither created nor destroyed.
Intrinsic properties are properties that do not
depend on the amount of substance present.
These include density, malleability, ductility
and hardness.
Extrinsic properties are properties dependent
on the amount of substance present. These
include size, mass and weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER


PURE SUBSTANCES- matter having fixed and
defined composition and properties
ELEMENT- simplest substance that
cannot be separated by chemical
means. Each element has a unique
fundamental particle called an ATOM
COMPOUND- pure substances made
of
two
or
more
atoms of different elements
MIXTURES- matter made up of two or more
substances combined physically
HOMOGENOUS MIXTURE- properties
and composition are uniform
throughout the sample. Ex. Saltwater
solution
HETEROGENOUS MIXTURE- properties
and composition not uniform all
throughout
Ex. Fruit salad


Atoms are the basics structural units of matter.
Each element is composed of atoms and the
atom of a given element is different from the
atoms of all other elements.
Atoms are made of 3 sub-atomic particles
namely: proton, electron and neutron. The
proton is positively-charged, the electron
negatively charged and the neutron is neutron
is uncharged
The proton and the neutron are in the region
called the nucleus. The nucleus makes up
almost all the mass of an atom. Electrons orbit
around the nucleus due to their forces of
attraction
The number of protons of an atom is referred
to as its atomic number Z. The number of
protons plus the number of neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom is referred to as its mass
number A. Atoms of the same element can
have different values of mass number.
Deuterium and tritium are isotopes of
hydrogen (Z=1). Deuterium has A=2 while
tritium has A= 3. The summation of the mass
number multiplied by the percentage
abundance of the isotopes of an element
gives an elements atomic mass

To represent an isotope, the
mass number is written as
superscript and the atomic
number as a subscript for the
atomic symbol.

ATOM







Compounds formed from the transferring of
electrons from one atom to another are called
ionic compounds. Ionic compounds are
formed from charged atoms called ions.
Positively-charged ions are called cations and
negatively-charged ions are called anions.

A. Naming Cations
1) For cations with only one oxidation
state: element name + ion
Ex. K
+
is potassium ion, Ca
2+
is calcium ion
2) For cations with two or more oxidation
states
-ous: for the cation with lower oxidation
state Ex. Cu
+
- cuprous ion; Fe
2+
- ferrous ion
-ic: for the cation with the higher oxidation
state Ex. Cu
2+
- cupric ion; Fe
3+
- ferric ion
The Stock system encloses the Roman
numeral equivalent of the oxidation state
of an element in a parenthesis. Ex. Ferric
ion is written as Iron(III) in Stock system.
B. Naming Anions
1) ide: For anions of a single element
and some anion groups containing
different elements
Ex. Br
-
is bromide, O
2-
is oxide, N
3-
is nitride,
OH
-
is hydroxide & CN
-
is cyanide
2) Oxoanions- derived from acids
containing oxygen, hydrogen and
another element (the central atom)
a) ate: central atom forms only one
oxoanion with oxygen
Ex. CO3
2-
- carbonate; CrO4
2
chromate
b) If central atom can form two
oxoanions with oxygen: -ite is used for
the one with a lesser number of
oxygen atoms and ate is used for the
one with the greater number of
attached oxygen atoms
Ex. Nitrate- NO3
-
; nitrite- NO2
-

Sulfate- SO4
2-
; sulfite- SO3
2-

c) Element that forms more than two
oxoanions make use of the ff. suffix-es:


hypo- -ite used by oxoanion w/
lowest number of oxygen atoms per- -ate
used by oxoanion w/
highest number of oxygen atoms

Ex. ClO
-
is hypochlorite
ClO2
-
is chlorite
ClO3
-
is chlorate
ClO4
-
is perchlorate

d) Hydrogen containing oxoanions:
hydrogen/bi + oxoanion name
Ex. HCO3
2
hydrogen carbonate/
bicarbonate

C. Naming Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are named by taking
the cation name + anion name
Ex. Na3PO4- sodium phosphate
Cu(NO3)2- cupric nitrate
KClO4- potassium perchlorate
D. Naming Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds are compounds
that form as a result of covalent bonding
or the sharing of electrons. Molecular
compounds usually composed of
nonmetallic elements.
We place the name of the first element in
the formula first and the second element is
named by adding ide in its root word.
Greek prefixes are used to denote the
number of atoms present for each
element. The prefix mono may be
omitted for the first element.
Ex. SO3- sulfur trioxide; SiC- silicon carbide;
N2O4- dinitrogen tetroxide
E. Naming Acids
Acids are substances that yield H
+
when
dissolved in water
1. Binary acids- hydro- + anion root name + -
ic acid Ex. HCl(aq) is hydrochloric acid;
HCN(aq) is hydrocyanic acid
Note: HCl in pure liquid or gaseous state is
named hydrogen chloride

2. Oxoacids- acids containing O, H and
another element. HNO3 is nitiric acid and
CHEMICAL
NOMENCLATURE
H2SO4 is sulfuric acid. Starting with
oxoacids with ic ending:
a) Addition of one O atom to the ic acid
gives per-ic acid. Ex. HClO4 is
perchloric acid
b) Removal of one O atom from ic acid
gives -ous acid. HNO2 is nitrous acid
c) Removal of two O atoms from the ic acid
gives hypo-ous acid. HBrO is
hypobromous acid.










Mole - amount of substance that contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in
12 g of carbon-12- denoted by n
Avogadros number NA- the actual number of
atoms in a mole of a substance
NA = 6.022 X 10
23

Molar mass- the mass of 1 mole of units of a
substance- denoted by M can be
determined by consulting the atomic masses
of the constituent elements of a substance
Ex. Iron(Fe) has M=55.85 g/mol; water (H2O)
has M=18.02 g/mol.
The following equations relate the mass, mole
and number of elementary constituents in a
substance
Mass of substance = nM
Number of elementary constituents = nNA

Chemical reactions are processes in which
substance(s) is/are changed into one or more
substances. Chemical reactions can be
represented using chemical equations.
Ex. Burning of H2 gas in air to form water
2H2 + O2 -> H2O
Chemical equations are balanced if the
number of each atom in the reactant side
equals the number of each atom in the
product side. Stoichiometric coefficients are
added to chemical equations to make them
balanced. A balanced chemical equation is
needed in agreement to the law of
conservation of mass.
Types of Chemical Reactions
1. Combination Reaction- two or more
substances combine to form a single
product: A + B C
Ex. S(s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
2. Decomposition Reaction- the breakdown of
a compound into two or more
components: C A + B
Ex. 2KClO3 (s) 2KCl (s) + 3O2 (g)
3. Displacement reaction- an ion or atom in a
compound is replaced by an ion or atom of
another element: A + BCAC + B
The activity series is used to predict whether
a displacement reaction will occur or not.
Any metal in the series will react with any
metal below it.
Activity series of metals: arranged based on
reducing strength
Li>K>Ba>Ca>Na>Mg>Ak>Zn>Cr>Fe>Cd>
Co>Ni>Sn>Pb>H2>Cu>Ag>Hg>Au
Activity series of halogens
F2>Cl2>Br2>I2
Thus, the following displacement reactions
are possible
Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
Cl2 (g) + 2KBr 2 KCl (aq) + Br2 (l)

Stoichiometry- the quantitative study of
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction
Mole method- the stoichiometric
coefficients in a chemical reaction can be
interpreted as the number of moles of each
substance
Ex. The Haber Synthesis of Ammonia
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
In stoichiometric calculations, we read that
1 mole of N2 is equivalent to 2 mol of NH3.
Similarly 3 mol H2 is equivalent to 2 mol NH3
and 1 mol of N2 is equivalent to 1 mol O2.
This relationship enables us to write the
following conversion factors

Using the molar masses of the substances
involved in the reaction, we can also solve
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
AND STOICHIOMETRY
SOLUTION

ACID, BASES AND
TITRATION
mass relationships of the reactants and
products from moles, and vice-versa.
Chemists usually dont carry out chemical
reactions in stoichiometric amounts, the
proportions indicated by the balanced
chemical equation.
In a chemical reaction, the limiting reagent is
the reactant that is consumed first in the
reaction. When no more limiting reagent is
present, no more products can be formed. The
reactant that is not consumed completely in a
chemical reaction is called an excess reagent.

The theoretical yield is the amount of product
that would result in a reaction if all limiting
reagents reacted and the actual yield is the
amount of product actually obtained from a
reaction. The percent yield of a chemical
reaction is given by












A solution is a homogenous mixture of
two or more substances. The solute is the
substance present in smaller amount and the
solvent is the substance present in a larger
amount.
Units to Express Concentration of a Solution
1. Percent by mass (w/w)- the ratio of the mass
of the solute to the mass of the solution
multiplied by 100 %
2. Percent by volume (v/v) the ratio of the
volume of the solute to the volume of the
solution multiplied by 100 %
3. Molarity (M) moles of solute divided by the
volume of the solution is liters
4. Molality (m) moles of solute divided by the
mass of the solvent in kilograms
5. Mole fraction (X)- the amount of a certain
components of solution in moles divided by
the sum of moles of all the components
present in the solution
Dilution is the procedure of preparing a less
concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one
M is the molar concentration of a solution
and V is the volume of the solution in liters.
MV is the amount in moles of the solute.

M1V1 = M2V2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
Acids:
Arrhenius definition- ionizes in water to form H
+
Bronsted-Lowry definition- proton donor
Lewis definition- electron pair acceptor

Acids are sour and corrosive. Acids change
the color of blue litmus paper to red.
Ex. HCl, CH3COOH, NH4
+


Bases
Arrhenius definition- ionizes in water to form
OH
-

Bronsted-Lowry acid- proton acceptor
Lewis definition-electron pair donor

Bases are bitter and slippery. Bases change
red litmus paper to blue.
Ex. NaOH, NH3

Strong acids and strong bases ionize
completely in water while weak acids and
weak bases ionize only to a limited extent in
water
Strong acids: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4
Strong bases: NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2

The acidity/basicity of a solution is measured
by its pH. The pH of a solution is the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
in molarity.
pH = -log[H
+
]

A neutralization reaction is a reaction between
an acid and a base to produce water and a
GASES

salt.
Ex. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O

Titration- a technique in which a solution of
accurately known concentration, called a
standard solution or the titrant is added
gradually to another solution of unknown
concentration called the analyte, until the
chemical reaction between the two solutions
Is complete. An indicator is used to detect the
completeness of the reaction. In acid-base
titration, phenolphthalein is usually used as an
indicator. It is colorless in acid media and turns
pink in basic media. A pale pink color signals
the endpoint of the titration.



All gases have the following
physical characteristics
Gases assume the volume and shape
of their containers
Gases are the most compressible of
the states of matter
Gases mix evenly and completely
when confined in the same container
Gases have much lower densities than
both solids and liquids.

Gas Laws
Boyles Law
At constant temperature, the pressure of a
fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to
the volume of the gas
P1V1 = P2V2

Charles Law
At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed
amount of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature (in Kelvins) of the gas

Gay-Lussacs Law
At a constant volume the pressure of a fixed
amount of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas

Avogadros Law
At a constant temperature and pressure, the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
number of moles of the gas present

Ideal gas law
Ideal gas- a hypothetical gas with no force of
attraction and repulsion with other gas
molecules and has negligible volume
compared to the volume of the container
- Ideally occurs at high temperature
and low pressure conditions

PV= NRT

R is the ideal gas constant and is equal to
0.0821 (L atm/ K mol)